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Ring of Fire

May 18, 2023

For other uses, see Ring of Fire (disambiguation).

The Ring of Fire (also known as the Pacific Ring of Fire, the Rim of Fire, the Girdle of Fire or the Circum-Pacific belt)[note 1] is a region around much of the rim of the Pacific Ocean where many volcanic eruptions and earthquakes occur. The Ring of Fire is a horseshoe-shaped belt about 40,000 km (25,000 mi) long[1] and up to about 500 km (310 mi) wide.[2]

The Pacific Ring of Fire, with trenches marked with blue lines
Global earthquakes (1900–2013)
: Earthquakes of magnitude ≥ 7.0 (depth 0–69km)
: Active volcanoes
Global map of subduction zones, with subducted slabs contoured by depth
Subduction zone

The Ring of Fire includes the Pacific coasts of South America, North America, Russia's Kamchatka Peninsula, and some islands in the western Pacific Ocean. Although there is consensus among geologists about most areas included in the Ring of Fire, they disagree about the inclusion of a few areas, for example, the Antarctic Peninsula and western Indonesia.[note 2]

The Ring of Fire is a direct result of plate tectonics: specifically the movement, collision and destruction of lithospheric plates (e.g. the Pacific Plate) under and around the Pacific Ocean.[3] The collisions have created a nearly continuous series of subduction zones, where volcanoes are created and earthquakes occur.[4] Consumption of oceanic lithosphere at these convergent plate boundaries has formed oceanic trenches, volcanic arcs, back-arc basins and volcanic belts.

The Ring of Fire is not a single geological structure. Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes in each part of the Ring of Fire occur independently of eruptions and earthquakes in the other parts of the Ring.[5]

The Ring of Fire contains approximately 750–915 volcanoes (about two-thirds of the world's total) that have been active during the Holocene.[6][7][note 3] The four largest volcanic eruptions on Earth in the Holocene epoch all occurred at volcanoes in the Ring of Fire.[8] More than 350 of the Ring of Fire's volcanoes have been active in historical times.[9][note 4]

Beside and among the currently active and dormant volcanoes of the Ring of Fire are belts of older extinct volcanoes, which were formed long ago by subduction in the same way as the currently active and dormant volcanoes; the extinct volcanoes last erupted many thousands or millions of years ago.[6] The Ring of Fire has existed for more than 35 million years[11] but subduction has existed for much longer in some parts of the Ring of Fire.[12]

Most of Earth's active volcanoes with summits above sea level are located in the Ring of Fire.[13] Many of these subaerial volcanoes are stratovolcanoes (e.g. Mount St Helens), which are formed by explosive eruptions of tephra, alternating with effusive eruptions of lava flows. Lavas at the Ring of Fire's stratovolcanoes are mainly andesite and basaltic andesite but dacite, rhyolite, basalt and some other rarer types also occur.[6] Other types of volcano are also found in the Ring of Fire, such as subaerial shield volcanoes (e.g. Plosky Tolbachik), and submarine seamounts (e.g. Monowai).

The world's highest active volcano is Ojos del Salado (6,893 m or 22,615 ft), which is in the Andes Mountains section of the Ring of Fire. It forms part of the border between Argentina and Chile and it last erupted in AD 750.[14] Another Ring of Fire Andean volcano on the Argentina-Chile border is Llullaillaco (6,739 m or 22,110 ft), which is the world's highest historically active volcano, last erupting in 1877.[15]

About 76% of the Earth's seismic energy is released as earthquakes in the Ring of Fire.[note 5][16] About 90%[17] of the Earth's earthquakes and about 81%[18] of the world's largest earthquakes occur along the Ring of Fire.[note 6][19][20]

History

From Ancient Greek and Roman times until the late 18th century, volcanoes were associated with fire, based on the ancient belief that volcanoes were caused by fires burning within the Earth.[21] This historical link between volcanoes and fire is preserved in the name of the Ring of Fire, despite the fact that volcanoes do not burn the Earth with fire.

The existence of a belt of volcanic activity around the Pacific Ocean was known in the early 19th century; for example, in 1825 the pioneering volcanologist G.P. Scrope described the chains of volcanoes around the Pacific Ocean's rim in his book "Considerations on Volcanos".[22] Three decades later, a book about the Perry Expedition to Japan commented on the Ring of Fire volcanoes as follows: "They [the Japanese Islands] are in the line of that immense circle of volcanic development which surrounds the shores of the Pacific from Tierra del Fuego around to the Moluccas." (Narrative of the Expedition of an American Squadron to the China Seas and Japan, 1852–54).[23] An article appeared in Scientific American in 1878 with the title "The Ring of Fire, and the Volcanic Peaks of the West Coast of the United States", which outlined the phenomenon of volcanic activity around the boundaries of the Pacific.[24]

Early explicit references to volcanoes forming a "ring of fire" around the Pacific Ocean include Alexander P. Livingstone's book "Complete Story of San Francisco's Terrible Calamity of Earthquake and Fire", published in 1906, in which he describes "... the great ring of fire which circles round the whole surface of the Pacific Ocean.".[25]

In 1912, geologist Patrick Marshall introduced the term "Andesite Line" to mark a boundary between islands in the southwest Pacific, which differ in volcano structure and lava types. The concept was later extended to other parts of the Pacific Ocean.[26] The Andesite Line and the Ring of Fire closely match in terms of location.[27]

The development of the theory of plate tectonics since the early 1960s has provided the current understanding and explanation of the global distribution of volcanoes and earthquakes, including those in the Ring of Fire.[28][29]

Geographic boundaries

There is consensus among geologists about most of the regions which are included in the Ring of Fire. There are, however, a few regions on which there is no universal agreement. (See: § Distribution of volcanoes). Indonesia lies at the intersection of the Ring of Fire and the Alpide belt (which is the Earth's other very long subduction-related volcanic and earthquake zone, also known as the Mediterranean–Indonesian volcanic belt, running east–west through southern Asia and southern Europe).[30][4][18] Some geologists include all of Indonesia in the Ring of Fire;[31] many geologists exclude Indonesia's western islands (which they include in the Alpide belt).[32][4][33][34][35]

Some geologists include the Antarctic Peninsula and the South Shetland Islands in the Ring of Fire,[33][34] other geologists exclude these areas.[31] The rest of Antarctica is excluded because the volcanism there is not related to subduction.[36][35]

The Ring of Fire does not extend across the southern Pacific Ocean from New Zealand to the Antarctic Peninsula or from New Zealand to the southern tip of South America[37] because the submarine plate boundaries in this part of the Pacific Ocean (the Pacific–Antarctic Ridge, the East Pacific Rise and the Chile Ridge) are divergent instead of convergent. Although some volcanism occurs in this region, it is not related to subduction.

Some geologists include the Izu Islands, the Bonin Islands, and the Mariana Islands,[31][38][39] other geologists exclude them.[37]

Land areas

Volcanoes in the central parts of the Pacific Basin, for example the Hawaiian Islands, are very far from subduction zones[40] and they are not part of the Ring of Fire.[41]

Tectonic plate configurations

The Ring of Fire has existed for more than 35 million years.[11] In some parts of the Ring of Fire, subduction has been occurring for much longer.[42]

The current configuration of the Pacific Ring of Fire has been created by the development of the present-day subduction zones, initially (by about 115 million years ago) in South America, North America and Asia. As plate configurations gradually changed, the current subduction zones of Indonesia and New Guinea were created (about 70 million years ago), followed finally by the New Zealand subduction zone (about 35 million years ago).[43][11]

Past plate configurations

 
The tectonic plates of the Pacific Ocean in the Early Jurassic (180 Ma)

Along the coast of east Asia, during the Late Triassic about 210 million years ago, subduction of the Izanagi Plate (the Paleo-Pacific Plate) was occurring,[43] and this continued in the Jurassic, producing volcanic belts, for example, in what is now eastern China.[44]

The Pacific Plate came into existence in the Early Jurassic about 190 million years ago,[45] far from the margins of the then Paleo-Pacific Ocean. Until the Pacific Plate grew large enough to reach the margins of the ocean basin, other older plates were subducted ahead of it at the ocean basin margins. For example, subduction has been occurring at the coast of South America since the Jurassic Period more than 145 million years ago, and remnants of Jurassic and Cretaceous volcanic arcs are preserved there.[46]

At about 120 to 115 million years ago, the Farallon Plate was subducting under South America, North America and north-east Asia while the Izanagi Plate was subducting under east Asia. By 85 to 70 million years ago, the Izanagi Plate had moved north-eastwards and was subducting under east Asia and North America, while the Farallon Plate was subducting under South America and the Pacific Plate was subducting under east Asia. About 70 to 65 million years ago, the Farallon plate was subducting under South America, the Kula Plate was subducting under North America and north-east Asia, and the Pacific Plate was subducting under east Asia and Papua New Guinea. About 35 million years ago, the Kula and Farallon plates had been subducted and the Pacific Plate was subducting around its rim in a configuration closely resembling the outline of the present-day Ring of Fire.[43][47][48]

Present-day plate configuration

 
Present-day principal tectonic plates of the Earth

The eastern parts of the Ring of Fire result from the collision of a few relatively large plates. The western parts of the Ring are more complex, with a number of large and small tectonic plates in collision.[49]

In South America, the Ring of Fire is the result of the Antarctic Plate, the Nazca Plate and the Cocos Plate being subducted beneath the South American Plate. In Central America, the Cocos Plate is being subducted beneath the Caribbean Plate. A portion of the Pacific Plate and the small Juan de Fuca Plate are being subducted beneath the North American Plate. Along the northern portion, the northwestward-moving Pacific Plate is being subducted beneath the Aleutian Islands arc. Farther west, the Pacific Plate is being subducted at the Kamchatka Peninsula and Kuril arcs. Farther south, at Japan, Taiwan and the Philippines, the Philippine Plate is being subducted beneath the Eurasian Plate. The southwest section of the Ring of Fire is more complex, with a number of smaller tectonic plates in collision with the Pacific Plate at the Mariana Islands, the Philippines, eastern Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Tonga, and New Zealand; this part of the Ring excludes Australia, because it lies in the center of its tectonic plate far from subduction zones.[49]

Subduction zones and oceanic trenches

 
Chilean-type and Mariana-type subduction zones

If a tectonic plate's oceanic lithosphere is subducted beneath oceanic lithosphere of another plate, a volcanic island arc is created at the subduction zone. An example in the Ring of Fire is the Mariana Arc in the western Pacific Ocean. If, however, oceanic lithosphere is subducted under continental lithosphere, then a volcanic continental arc forms; a Ring of Fire example is the coast of Chile.[2]

The steepness of the descending plate at a subduction zone depends on the age of the oceanic lithosphere that is being subducted. The older the oceanic lithosphere being subducted, the steeper the angle of descent of the subducted slab. As the Pacific's mid-ocean ridges, which are the source of its the oceanic lithosphere, are not actually in the middle of the ocean but located much closer to South America than to Asia, the oceanic lithosphere consumed at the South American subduction zones is younger and therefore subduction occurs at the South American coast at a relatively shallow angle. Older oceanic lithosphere is subducted in the western Pacific, with steeper angles of slab descent. This variation affects, for example, the location of volcanoes relative to the ocean trench, lava composition, type and severity of earthquakes, sediment accretion, and the amount of compression or tension. A spectrum of subduction zones exists between the Chilean and Mariana end members.[50][2]

Oceanic trenches

 
Map of earthquake epicenters at the Kuril–Kamchatka trench and subduction zone

Oceanic trenches are the topographic expression of subduction zones on the floor of the oceans. Oceanic trenches associated with the Ring of Fire's subduction zones are:

Gaps

Subduction zones around the Pacific Ocean do not form a complete ring. Where subduction zones are absent, there are corresponding gaps in subduction-related volcanic belts in the Ring of Fire. In some gaps there is no volcanic activity; in other gaps, volcanic activity does occur but it is caused by processes not related to subduction.

There are gaps in the Ring of Fire at some parts of the Pacific coast of the Americas. In some places, the gaps are thought to be caused by flat slab subduction; examples are the three gaps between the four sections of the Andean Volcanic Belt in South America.[51] In North America, there is a gap in subduction-related volcanic activity in northern Mexico and southern California, due partly to a divergent boundary in the Gulf of California and due partly to the San Andreas Fault (a non-volcanic transform boundary). Another North American gap in subduction-related volcanic activity occurs in northern British Columbia, Yukon and south-east Alaska, where volcanism is caused by intraplate continental rifting.[28]

Distribution of volcanoes

Distribution of Ring of Fire volcanoes active in the Holocene Epoch (last 11,700 years)[6][52]
Continent Country Region Volcanoes (subduction zone) Volcanoes (other) Comments Consensus for inclusion
Antarctica Antarctic Peninsula (Graham Land) 0 3 intraplate No
Antarctica South Shetland Islands 0 4 intraplate intraplate rift volcanoes associated with back-arc rifting linked to subduction No
South America Chile 71 0 excluding Easter Island (oceanic rift) Yes
South America Chile-Argentina 18 0 border shared by two countries Yes
South America Argentina 15 4 intraplate no coast on the Pacific Ocean No
South America Chile-Bolivia 6 0 border shared by two countries Yes
South America Bolivia 5 0 no coast on the Pacific Ocean No
South America Chile-Peru 1 0 border shared by two countries Yes
South America Peru 16 0 Yes
South America Ecuador 21 0 excluding the Galápagos Islands (hotspot) Yes
South America Ecuador-Colombia 1 0 border shared by two countries Yes
South America Colombia 13 0 Yes
North America Panama 2 0 Yes
North America Costa Rica 10 0 Yes
North America Nicaragua 17 0 Yes
North America Honduras 4 0 Yes
North America El Salvador 18 0 Yes
North America El Salvador-Guatemala 2 0 border shared by two countries Yes
North America Guatemala 21 0 Yes
North America Guatemala-Mexico 1 0 border shared by two countries Yes
North America Mexico 26 8 rift excluding 3 oceanic rift volcanoes; 8 continental rift volcanoes in Baja California Yes
North America United States California, Oregon, Washington 22 9 rift 9 continental rift volcanoes (6 in southern California and 3 in Oregon) Yes
North America Canada 6 16 intraplate excluding 2 oceanic rift volcanoes Yes
North America United States Alaska 80 4 intraplate in southeast Alaska including 39 volcanoes in the Aleutian Islands; excluding 4 intraplate volcanoes in western Alaska far from subduction zone Yes
Asia Russia Kamchatka 67 0 including 1 submarine volcano (Piip) in the Aleutian arc Yes
Asia Russia Kuril Islands 44 0 including 3 submarine volcanoes; 15 volcanoes claimed by Japan Yes
Asia Japan 81 0 excluding the Izu Islands and the Bonin Islands Yes
Asia Taiwan 4 0 including 2 submarine volcanoes Yes
Japan Izu Islands and Bonin Islands 26 0 including 13 submarine volcanoes No
United States Northern Mariana Islands and Guam 25 0 including 16 submarine volcanoes No
Asia Philippines 41 0 including 1 submarine volcano Yes
Asia Indonesia western islands 70 Sumatra (27 volcanoes), Krakatoa, Java (36 volcanoes), Bali (3 volcanoes), Lombok, Sumbawa and Sangeang (i.e. the Sunda Arc,[53] north of the Sunda subduction zone between the Australian Plate and the Sunda Plate) No
Asia Indonesia eastern islands 54 Sulawesi, Lesser Sunda Islands (excluding Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa and Sangeang), Halmahera, Banda Islands, Sangihe Islands Yes
Papua New Guinea 47 1 rift including 2 submarine volcanoes Yes
Solomon Islands 8 0 including 4 submarine volcanoes Yes
Vanuatu 14 0 Yes
claimed by Vanuatu and France (New Caledonia) 2 1 rift Hunter Island and Matthew Island; East Gemini Seamount is a seamount at an oceanic rift Yes
Fiji 3 0 Yes
France Wallis and Futuna 1 0 mantle plume and subduction[54] No
Samoa 2 0 mantle plume and subduction[54] No
United States American Samoa 4 0 mantle plume and subduction;[54][55] including 1 submarine seamount No
Tonga 17 3 rift including 13 submarine volcanoes, 3 of which are subduction-related back-arc rift volcanoes[56] Yes
between Tonga and Kermadec Islands 1 0 Monowai submarine seamount (between the exclusive economic zones of Tonga and New Zealand[57]) Yes
New Zealand Kermadec Islands 6 0 including 4 submarine volcanoes Yes
New Zealand 20 0 excluding the Kermadec Islands; including 8 submarine volcanoes Yes
Total 913 59

Very large events

Volcanic eruptions

The four largest volcanic eruptions on Earth in the Holocene Epoch (the last 11,700 years) occurred at volcanoes in the Ring of Fire. They are the eruptions at Fisher Caldera (Alaska, 8700 BC), Kuril Lake (Kamchatka, 6450 BC), Kikai Caldera (Japan, 5480 BC) and Mount Mazama (Oregon, 5677 BC).[8] More broadly, twenty[note 7] of the twenty-five largest volcanic eruptions on Earth in this time interval occurred at Ring of Fire volcanoes.[8]

Earthquakes

About 90%[17] of the world's earthquakes and 81%[18] of the world's largest earthquakes occur along the Ring of Fire.[note 8] The next most seismically active region (5–6% of earthquakes and 17% of the world's largest earthquakes) is the Alpide belt, which extends from central Indonesia to the northern Atlantic Ocean via the Himalayas and southern Europe.[19][20]

From 1900 to the end of 2020, most earthquakes of magnitude Mw ≥ 8.0 occurred in the Ring of Fire.[58][note 9] They are presumed to have been megathrust earthquakes at subduction zones,[58] including four of the most powerful earthquakes on Earth since modern seismological measuring equipment and magnitude measurement scales were introduced in the 1930s:

Antarctica

See also: List of volcanoes in Antarctica
 
Layers of phreatomagmatic tephra on Deception Island

Some geologists include the volcanoes of the South Shetland Islands, off the northern tip of the Antarctic Peninsula, as part of the Ring of Fire. These volcanoes, e.g. Deception Island, are due to rifting in the Bransfield back-arc basin close to the South Shetland subduction zone.[60] The Antarctic Peninsula (Graham Land) is also sometimes included in the Ring.[61] Volcanoes south of the Antarctic Circle (e.g. the volcanoes of Victoria Land including Mount Erebus, and the volcanoes of Mary Byrd Land) are not related to subduction; therefore, they are not part of the Ring of Fire.[35]

The Balleny Islands, located between Antarctica and New Zealand, are volcanic but their volcanism is not related to subduction;[62] therefore, they are not part of the Ring of Fire.

South America

See also: Andean Volcanic Belt

Chile

 
Llaima's 2008 eruption
See also: List of volcanoes in Chile, Volcanism of Chile, and List of earthquakes in Chile

Chile has experienced numerous volcanic eruptions from about 90 volcanoes during the Holocene Epoch.[6]

Villarrica is one of Chile's most active volcanoes, rising above the lake and town of the same name. It is the westernmost of three large stratovolcanoes that trend perpendicular to the Andes along the Gastre Fault. Villarrica, along with Quetrupillán and the Chilean part of Lanín, are protected within Villarrica National Park.

Villarrica, with its lava of basaltic-andesitic composition, is one of only five volcanoes worldwide known to have an active lava lake within its crater. The volcano usually generates strombolian eruptions, with ejection of incandescent pyroclasts and lava flows. Melting of snow and glacier ice, as well as rainfall, often causes lahars, such as during the eruptions of 1964 and 1971.[63]

A two-kilometre-wide (1+1⁄4 mi) postglacial caldera is located at the base of the presently active dominantly basaltic-to-andesitic cone at the northwest margin of the Pleistocene caldera. About 25 scoria cones dot Villarica's flanks. Plinian eruptions and pyroclastic flows have been produced during the Holocene from this dominantly basaltic volcano, but historical eruptions have consisted of largely mild-to-moderate explosive activity with occasional lava effusion. Lahars from the glacier-covered volcanoes have damaged towns on its flanks.

The Llaima Volcano is one of the largest and most active volcanoes in Chile. It is situated 82 km (51 mi) northeast of Temuco and 663 km (412 mi) southeast of Santiago, within the borders of Conguillío National Park. Llaima's activity has been documented since the 17th century, and consists of several separate episodes of moderate explosive eruptions with occasional lava flows.

 
Lascar erupting in 2006

Lascar is a stratovolcano and the most active volcano of the northern Chilean Andes. The largest eruption of Lascar took place about 26,500 years ago, and following the eruption of the Tumbres scoria flow about 9,000 years ago, activity shifted back to the eastern edifice, where three overlapping craters were formed. Frequent small-to-moderate explosive eruptions have been recorded from Lascar in historical time since the mid-19th century, along with periodic larger eruptions that produced ash and tephra fall up to hundreds of kilometers away from the volcano. The largest eruption of Lascar in recent history took place in 1993, producing pyroclastic flows as far as 8.5 km (5 mi) northwest of the summit and ash fall in Buenos Aires, Argentina, more than 1,600 km (1,000 mi) to the southeast. The latest series of eruptions began on April 18, 2006 and was continuing as of 2011.

Chiliques is a stratovolcano located in the Antofagasta Region of Chile, immediately north of Cerro Miscanti. Laguna Lejía lies to the north of the volcano and has been dormant for at least 10,000 years, but is now showing signs of life. A January 6, 2002, nighttime thermal infrared image from ASTER revealed a hot spot in the summit crater, as well as several others along the upper flanks of the volcano's edifice, indicating new volcanic activity. Examination of an earlier nighttime thermal infrared image from May 24, 2000, showed no such hot spots.[64]

Calbuco is a stratovolcano in southern Chile, located southeast of Llanquihue Lake and northwest of Chapo Lake, in Los Lagos Region. The volcano and the surrounding area are protected within Llanquihue National Reserve. It is a very explosive andesite volcano that underwent edifice collapse in the late Pleistocene, producing a volcanic debris avalanche that reached the lake. At least nine eruptions occurred since 1837, with the latest one in 1972. One of the largest historical eruptions in southern Chile took place there in 1893–1894. Violent eruptions ejected 30 cm (12 in) bombs to distances of 8 km (5.0 mi) from the crater, accompanied by voluminous hot lahars. Strong explosions occurred in April 1917, and a lava dome formed in the crater accompanied by hot lahars. Another short explosive eruption in January 1929 also included an apparent pyroclastic flow and a lava flow. The last major eruption of Calbuco, in 1961, sent ash columns 12–15 km (7.5–9.3 mi) high and produced plumes that dispersed mainly to the southeast and two lava flows were also emitted. A minor, four-hour eruption happened on August 26, 1972. Strong fumarolic emission from the main crater was observed on August 12, 1996.

Lonquimay is a stratovolocano of late-Pleistocene to dominantly Holocene age, with the shape of a truncated cone. The cone is largely andesitic, though basaltic and dacitic rocks are present. It is located in La Araucanía Region of Chile, immediately southeast of Tolhuaca volcano. Sierra Nevada and Llaima are their neighbors to the south. The snow-capped volcano lies within the protected area Malalcahuello-Nalcas. The volcano last erupted in 1988, ending in 1990. The VEI was 3. The eruption was from a flank vent and involved lava flows and explosive eruptions. Some fatalities occurred.[65]

The volcanoes in Chile are monitored by the National Geology and Mining Service (SERNAGEOMIN)[66][67]

Earthquake activity in Chile is related to subduction of the Nazca Plate to the east. Chile notably holds the record for the largest earthquake ever recorded, the 1960 Valdivia earthquake. More recently, a magnitude-8.8 earthquake struck central Chile on February 27, 2010, the Puyehue-Cordón Caulle volcano erupted in 2011, and a M8.2 earthquake struck northern Chile on April 1, 2014. The main shock was preceded by a number of moderate to large shocks and was followed by a large number of moderate to very large aftershocks, including a magnitude-7.6 event on April 2.[68]

Argentina

See also: List of volcanoes in Argentina and List of earthquakes in Argentina

Bolivia

See also: List of volcanoes in Bolivia

Bolivia hosts active and extinct volcanoes across its territory. The active volcanoes are located in western Bolivia where they make up the Cordillera Occidental, the western limit of the Altiplano plateau. Some of the active volcanoes are international mountains shared with Chile. All Cenozoic volcanoes of Bolivia are part of the Central Volcanic Zone (CVZ) of the Andean Volcanic Belt that results due to processes involved in the subduction of the Nazca Plate under the South American Plate. The Central Volcanic Zone is a major late Cenozoic volcanic province.[69]

Peru

See also: List of volcanoes in Peru and List of earthquakes in Peru

Sabancaya is an active 5,976-metre (19,606 ft) stratovolcano in the Andes of southern Peru, about 100 km (60 mi) northwest of Arequipa. It is the most active volcano in Peru, with an ongoing eruption that started in 2016.

Ubinas is another active volcano of 5,672-metre (18,609 ft) in southern Peru; its most recent eruption occurred in 2019.[70]

Volcanoes in Peru are monitored by the Peruvian Geophysical Institute.[71]

Ecuador

See also: List of volcanoes in Ecuador and List of earthquakes in Ecuador
 
Tungurahua erupting molten lava at night (1999)

Cotopaxi is a stratovolcano in the Andes, located about 50 km (30 mi) south of Quito, Ecuador, South America.[72] It is the second-highest summit in the country, reaching a height of 5,897 m (19,347 ft). Since 1738, Cotopaxi has erupted more than 50 times, resulting in the creation of numerous valleys formed by mudflows around the volcano.

In October 1999, Pichincha Volcano erupted in Quito and covered the city with several inches of ash. Prior to that, the last major eruptions were in 1553[73] and in 1660, when about 30 cm of ash fell on the city.[74]

At 5,286 m (17,343 ft), Sangay Volcano is an active stratovolcano in central Ecuador, one of the highest active volcanoes in the world and is one of Ecuador's most active volcanoes. It exhibits mostly strombolian activity; An eruption, which started in 1934, ended in 2011.[75] More recent eruptions have occurred. Geologically, Sangay marks the southern bound of the Northern Volcanic Zone, and its position straddling two major pieces of crust accounts for its high level of activity. Sangay's roughly 500,000-year history is one of instability; two previous versions of the mountain were destroyed in massive flank collapses, evidence of which still litters its surroundings today. Sangay is one of two active volcanoes located within the namesake Sangay National Park, the other being Tungurahua to the north. As such, it has been listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1983.

Reventador is an active stratovolcano that lies in the eastern Andes of Ecuador. Since 1541, it has erupted over 25 times, with its most recent eruption starting in 2008 and, as of 2020, still ongoing,[76] but the largest historical eruption occurred in 2002. During that eruption, the plume from the volcano reached a height of 17 km (10+1⁄2 mi), and pyroclastic flows reached 7 km (4.3 mi) from the cone. On March 30, 2007, the volcano erupted ash again, which reached a height of about 3 km (2 mi).

In Ecuador, EPN monitors volcanic activity.

Colombia

See also: List of volcanoes in Colombia and List of earthquakes in Colombia

North America

Central America

 
Crater of Poás volcano in Costa Rica, 2004
 
Santiaguito Volcano, 2003 eruption in Guatemala

Panama

See also: List of volcanoes in Panama and List of earthquakes in Panama

Costa Rica

See also: List of volcanoes in Costa Rica and List of earthquakes in Costa Rica

Poás Volcano is an active 2,708-metre (8,885 ft) stratovolcano located in central Costa Rica; it has erupted 39 times since 1828.

The Volcanological and Seismological Observatory of Costa Rica (OVSICORI, Observatorio Vulcanológico y Sismológico de Costa Rica) at the National University of Costa Rica[77] has a dedicated team in charge of researching and monitoring the volcanoes, earthquakes, and other tectonic processes in the Central America Volcanic Arc.

Nicaragua

See also: List of volcanoes in Nicaragua and List of earthquakes in Nicaragua

Honduras

See also: List of volcanoes in Honduras

El Salvador

See also: List of volcanoes in El Salvador and List of earthquakes in El Salvador

Guatemala

See also: List of volcanoes in Guatemala and List of earthquakes in Guatemala

In 1902, the Santa Maria Volcano erupted violently in Guatemala, with the largest explosions occurring over two days, ejecting an estimated 5.5 km3 (1+3⁄8 cu mi) of magma. The eruption was one of the largest of the 20th century, only slightly less in magnitude to that of Mount Pinatubo in 1991. The eruption had a volcanic explosivity index of 6. Today, Santiaguito is one of the world's most active volcanoes.[citation needed]

North American Cordillera

Mexico

See also: List of volcanoes in Mexico and List of earthquakes in Mexico

Volcanoes of Mexico related to subduction of the Cocos and Rivera plates occur in the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, which extends 900 km (560 mi) from west to east across central-southern Mexico. Popocatépetl, lying in the eastern half of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, is the second-highest peak in Mexico after the Pico de Orizaba. It is one of the most active volcanoes in Mexico, having had more than 20 major eruptions since the arrival of the Spanish in 1519. The 1982 eruption of El Chichón, which killed about 2,000 people who lived near the volcano, created a 1-km-wide caldera that filled with an acidic crater lake. Before 1982, this relatively unknown volcano was heavily forested and of no greater height than adjacent nonvolcanic peaks.[78]

United States

See also: List of volcanoes in the United States and List of earthquakes in the United States
 
Area of the Cascadia subduction zone, including the Cascade Volcanic Arc (red triangles)

The Cascade Volcanic Arc lies in the western United States. This arc includes nearly 20 major volcanoes, among a total of over 4,000 separate volcanic vents including numerous stratovolcanoes, shield volcanoes, lava domes, and cinder cones, along with a few isolated examples of rarer volcanic forms such as tuyas. Volcanism in the arc began about 37 million years ago, but most of the present-day Cascade volcanoes are less than 2 million years old, and the highest peaks are less than 100,000 years old. The arc is formed by the subduction of the Gorda and Juan de Fuca plates at the Cascadia subduction zone. This is a 1,090-kilometre-long (680 mi) fault, running 80 km (50 mi) off the coast of the Pacific Northwest from northern California to Vancouver Island, British Columbia. The plates move at a relative rate of over 10 mm (0.4 in) per year at an oblique angle to the subduction zone.

Because of the very large fault area, the Cascadia subduction zone can produce very large earthquakes, magnitude 9.0 or greater, if rupture occurred over its whole area. When the "locked" zone stores energy for an earthquake, the "transition" zone, although somewhat plastic, can rupture. Thermal and deformation studies indicate that the locked zone is fully locked for 60 km (37 mi) down-dip from the deformation front. Further down-dip, a transition from fully locked to aseismic sliding occurs.

 
American Cascade Range volcano eruptions in the last 4000 years

Unlike most subduction zones worldwide, no oceanic trench is present along the continental margin in Cascadia. Instead, terranes and the accretionary wedge have been lifted up to form a series of coast ranges and exotic mountains. A high rate of sedimentation from the outflow of the three major rivers (Fraser River, Columbia River, and Klamath River) which cross the Cascade Range contributes to further obscuring the presence of a trench. However, in common with most other subduction zones, the outer margin is slowly being compressed, similar to a giant spring. When the stored energy is suddenly released by slippage across the fault at irregular intervals, the Cascadia subduction zone can create very large earthquakes such as the magnitude-9 Cascadia earthquake of 1700. Geological evidence indicates that great earthquakes may have occurred at least seven times in the last 3,500 years, suggesting a return time of 400 to 600 years. Also, evidence of accompanying tsunamis with every earthquake is seen, as the prime reason these earthquakes are known is through "scars" the tsunamis left on the coast, and through Japanese records (tsunami waves can travel across the Pacific).

The 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens was the most significant to occur in the contiguous 48 U.S. states in recorded history (VEI = 5, 1.3 km3 (0.3 cu mi) of material erupted), exceeding the destructive power and volume of material released by the 1915 eruption of California's Lassen Peak. The eruption was preceded by a two-month series of earthquakes and steam-venting episodes caused by an injection of magma at shallow depth below the mountain that created a huge bulge and a fracture system on Mount St. Helens' north slope. An earthquake at 8:32 am on May 18, 1980, caused the entire weakened north face to slide away, suddenly exposing the partly molten, gas-rich rock in the volcano to lower pressure. The rock responded by exploding into a very hot mix of pulverized lava and older rock that sped toward Spirit Lake so fast that it quickly passed the avalanching north face.

Alaska is known for its seismic and volcanic activity, holding the record for the second-largest earthquake in the world, the Good Friday earthquake, and having more than 50 volcanoes which have erupted since about 1760.[79] Volcanoes are found not only in the mainland, but also in the Aleutian Islands.

The United States Geological Survey and the National Earthquake Information Center monitor volcanoes and earthquakes in the United States.

Canada

 
Map of young volcanoes in Western Canada
See also: Volcanism in Canada, List of volcanoes in Canada, and List of earthquakes in Canada

British Columbia and Yukon are home to a region of volcanoes and volcanic activity in the Pacific Ring of Fire. More than 20 volcanoes have erupted in the western Canada during the Holocene Epoch but only 6 are directly related to subduction: Bridge River Cones, Mount Cayley, Mount Garibaldi, Garibaldi Lake, Silverthrone Caldera, and Mount Meager massif.[6] Several mountains in populated areas of British Columbia are dormant volcanoes. Most of these were active during the Pleistocene and Holocene epochs. Although none of Canada's volcanoes are currently erupting, several volcanoes, volcanic fields, and volcanic centers are considered potentially active.[80] There are hot springs at some volcanoes. Since 1975, seismic activity appears to have been associated with some volcanoes in British Columbia including the six subduction-related volcanoes as well as intraplate volcanoes such as Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field.[80] The volcanoes are grouped into five volcanic belts with different tectonic settings.

The Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province is an area of numerous volcanoes, which are caused by continental rifting not subduction; therefore geologists often regard it as a gap in the Pacific Ring of Fire between the Cascade Volcanic Arc further south and Alaska's Aleutian Arc further north.[81]

The Garibaldi Volcanic Belt in southwestern British Columbia is the northern extension of the Cascade Volcanic Arc in the United States (which includes Mount Baker and Mount St. Helens) and contains the most explosive young volcanoes in Canada.[82] It formed as a result of subduction of the Juan de Fuca Plate (a remnant of the much larger Farallon Plate) under the North American Plate along the Cascadia subduction zone.[82] The Garibaldi Volcanic Belt includes the Bridge River Cones, Mount Cayley, Mount Fee, Mount Garibaldi, Mount Price, Mount Meager massif, the Squamish Volcanic Field, and more smaller volcanoes. The eruption styles in the belt range from effusive to explosive, with compositions from basalt to rhyolite. Morphologically, centers include calderas, cinder cones, stratovolcanoes and small isolated lava masses. Due to repeated continental and alpine glaciations, many of the volcanic deposits in the belt reflect complex interactions between magma composition, topography, and changing ice configurations. The most recent major catastrophic eruption in the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt was an explosive eruption of the Mount Meager massif about 2,350 years ago. It was similar to the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens,[82] sending an ash column about 20 km into the stratosphere.[83]

 
The Mount Meager massif as seen from the east near Pemberton, British Columbia: Summits left to right are Capricorn Mountain, Mount Meager, and Plinth Peak.

The Chilcotin Group is a north–south range of volcanoes in southern British Columbia running parallel to the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt. The majority of the eruptions in this belt happened either 6–10 million years ago (Miocene) or 2–3 million years ago (Pliocene), although with some slightly more recent eruptions (in the Pleistocene).[84] It is thought to have formed as a result of back-arc extension behind the Cascadia subduction zone.[84] Volcanoes in this belt include Mount Noel, the Clisbako Caldera Complex, Lightning Peak, Black Dome Mountain, and many lava flows.

Eruptions of basaltic to rhyolitic volcanoes and hypabyssal rocks of the Alert Bay Volcanic Belt in northern Vancouver Island are probably linked with the subducted margin flanked by the Explorer and Juan de Fuca Plates at the Cascadia subduction zone. It appears to have been active during the Pliocene and Pleistocene. However, no Holocene eruptions are known, and volcanic activity in the belt has likely ceased.

The active Queen Charlotte Fault on the west coast of the Haida Gwaii, British Columbia, has generated three large earthquakes during the 20th century: a magnitude 7 event in 1929; a magnitude 8.1 in 1949 (Canada's largest recorded earthquake); and a magnitude 7.4 in 1970.[85]

The Public Safety Geo-science Program at the Natural Resources Canada undertakes research to support risk reduction from the effects of space weather, earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanoes, and landslides.[86]

Asia

Russia

See also: Volcanoes of Kamchatka, Kamchatka earthquakes, List of volcanoes in Russia, and List of earthquakes in Russia
 
Kambalny, an active volcano in the Kamchatka Peninsula

The Kamchatka Peninsula in the Russian Far East is one of the most active volcanic areas in the world, with 20 historically active volcanoes.[87] It lies between the Pacific Ocean to the east and the Okhotsk Sea to the west. Immediately offshore along the Pacific coast of the peninsula runs the 10,500-metre-deep (34,400 ft) Kuril–Kamchatka Trench, where subduction of the Pacific Plate fuels the volcanism. Several types of volcanic activity are present, including stratovolcanoes, shield volcanoes, Hawaiian-style fissure eruptions and geysers.

Active, dormant and extinct volcanoes of Kamchatka are in two major volcanic belts. The most recent activity takes place in the eastern belt, starting in the north at the Shiveluch volcanic complex, which lies at the junction of the Aleutian and Kamchatka volcanic arcs. Just to the south is the Klyuchi volcanic group, comprising the twin volcanic cones of Kliuchevskoi and Kamen, the volcanic complexes of Tolbachik and Ushkovsky, and a number of other large stratovolcanoes. Ichinsky, the only active volcano in the central belt, is located farther to the west. Farther south, the eastern belt of stratovolcanoes continues to the southern tip of Kamchatka, continuing onto the Kuril Islands, with their 32 historically active volcanoes.[87]

Japan

See also: List of volcanoes in Japan and List of earthquakes in Japan

About 10% of the world's active volcanoes are found in Japan, which lies in a zone of extreme crustal instability. They are formed by subduction of the Pacific Plate and the Philippine Sea Plate. As many as 1,500 earthquakes are recorded yearly, and magnitudes of 4 to 6 are not uncommon. Minor tremors occur almost daily in one part of the country or another, causing some slight shaking of buildings. Major earthquakes occur infrequently; the most famous in the 20th century were: the Great Kantō earthquake of 1923, in which 130,000 people died; and the Great Hanshin earthquake of January 17, 1995, in which 6,434 people died. On March 11, 2011 a magnitude 9.0 earthquake hit Japan, the country's biggest ever and the fifth largest on record, according to US Geological Survey data.[88] Undersea earthquakes also expose the Japanese coastline to danger from tsunamis.

 
Mount Fuji at sunrise from Lake Kawaguchi

Mount Bandai, one of Japan's most noted volcanoes, rises above the north shore of Lake Inawashiro. Mount Bandai is formed of several overlapping stratovolcanoes, the largest of which is O-Bandai, constructed within a horseshoe-shaped caldera that formed about 40,000 years ago when an earlier volcano collapsed, forming the Okinajima debris avalanche, which traveled to the southwest and was accompanied by a plinian eruption. Four major phreatic eruptions have occurred during the past 5,000 years, two of them in historical time, in 806 and 1888. Seen from the south, Bandai presents a conical profile, but much of the north side of the volcano is missing as a result of the collapse of Ko-Bandai volcano during the 1888 eruption, in which a debris avalanche buried several villages and formed several large lakes. In July 1888, the north flank of Mount Bandai collapsed during an eruption quite similar to the May 18, 1980, eruption of Mount St. Helens. After a week of seismic activity, a large earthquake on July 15, 1888, was followed by a tremendous noise and a large explosion. Eyewitnesses heard about 15 to 20 additional explosions and observed that the last one was projected almost horizontally to the north.

Mount Fuji is Japan's highest and most noted volcano, featuring heavily in Japanese culture and serving as one of the country's most popular landmarks. The modern postglacial stratovolcano is constructed above a group of overlapping volcanoes, remnants of which form irregularities on Fuji's profile. Growth of the younger Mount Fuji began with a period of voluminous lava flows from 11,000 to 8,000 years ago, accounting for four-fifths of the volume of the younger Mount Fuji. Minor explosive eruptions dominated activity from 8,000 to 4,500 years ago, with another period of major lava flows occurring from 4,500 to 3,000 years ago. Subsequently, intermittent major explosive eruptions occurred, with subordinate lava flows and small pyroclastic flows. Summit eruptions dominated from 3,000 to 2,000 years ago, after which flank vents were active. The extensive basaltic lava flows from the summit and some of the more than 100 flank cones and vents blocked drainage against the Tertiary Misaka Mountains on the north side of the volcano, forming the Fuji Five Lakes. The last eruption of this dominantly basaltic volcano in 1707 ejected andesitic pumice and formed a large new crater on the east flank. Some minor volcanic activity may occur in the next few years.

Taiwan

See also: List of volcanoes in Taiwan and List of earthquakes in Taiwan

Philippines

See also: List of volcanoes in the Philippines and List of earthquakes in the Philippines
 
Map showing major volcanoes of the Philippines

The 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo is the world's second-largest eruption of the 20th century. Successful predictions of the onset of the climactic eruption led to the evacuation of tens of thousands of people from the surrounding areas, saving many lives, but as the surrounding areas were severely damaged by pyroclastic flows, ash deposits, and later, lahars caused by rainwater remobilising earlier volcanic deposits, thousands of houses were destroyed.

 
Mayon Volcano overlooks a pastoral scene about five months before the volcano's violent eruption in September 1984.

Mayon Volcano is the Philippines' most active volcano. It has steep upper slopes that average 35–40° and is capped by a small summit crater. The historical eruptions of this basaltic-andesitic volcano date back to 1616 and range from Strombolian to basaltic Plinian eruptions. Eruptions occur predominately from the central conduit and have also produced lava flows that travel far down the flanks. Pyroclastic flows and mudflows have commonly swept down many of the roughly 40 ravines that radiate from the summit and have often devastated populated lowland areas.

Taal Volcano has had 33 recorded eruptions since 1572. A devastating eruption occurred in 1911, which claimed more than a thousand lives. The deposits of that eruption consist of a yellowish, fairly decomposed (nonjuvenile) tephra with a high sulfur content. The most recent period of activity lasted from 1965 to 1977, and was characterized by the interaction of magma with the lake water, which produced violent phreatic and phreatomagmatic eruptions. The volcano was dormant from 1977 then showed signs of unrest since 1991 with strong seismic activity and ground-fracturing events, as well as the formation of small mud geysers on parts of the island. An eruption occurred in January 2020.

Kanlaon Volcano, the most active volcano in the central Philippines, has erupted 25 times since 1866. Eruptions are typically phreatic explosions of small-to-moderate size that produce minor ash falls near the volcano. On August 10, 1996, Kanlaon erupted without warning, killing 3 persons who were among 24 mountain climbers trapped near the summit.

Indonesia

See also: List of volcanoes in Indonesia and List of earthquakes in Indonesia
 
Major volcanoes in Indonesia

Indonesia is located where the Ring of Fire around the Pacific Ocean meets the Alpide belt (which runs from Southeast Asia to Southwest Europe).

The eastern islands of Indonesia (Sulawesi, the Lesser Sunda Islands (excluding Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa and Sangeang), Halmahera, the Banda Islands and the Sangihe Islands) are geologically associated with subduction of the Pacific Plate or its related minor plates and, therefore, the eastern islands are often regarded as part of the Ring of Fire.

The western islands of Indonesia (the Sunda Arc of Sumatra, Krakatoa, Java, Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa and Sangeang) are located north of a subduction zone in the Indian Ocean. Although news media, popular science publications and some geologists include the western islands (and their notable volcanoes such as Krakatoa, Merapi, Tambora and Toba) in the Ring of Fire, geologists often exclude the western islands from the Ring; instead the western islands are often included in the Alpide belt.[89]

Islands in the southwest Pacific Ocean

Papua New Guinea

See also: List of volcanoes in Papua New Guinea and List of earthquakes in Papua New Guinea

Solomon Islands

See also: List of volcanoes in the Solomon Islands

Vanuatu

See also: List of volcanoes in Vanuatu and List of earthquakes in Vanuatu

Fiji

See also: List of volcanoes in Fiji and List of earthquakes in Fiji
 
Volcanic eruption at West Mata submarine volcano between Samoa and Tonga, 2010

Samoa

See also: List of volcanoes in Samoa and List of earthquakes in Samoa

Tonga

See also: List of volcanoes in Tonga and List of earthquakes in Tonga

New Zealand

See also: Volcanism in New Zealand, List of volcanoes in New Zealand, and List of earthquakes in New Zealand
 
Major volcanoes of New Zealand
 
View of Mount Taranaki from Stratford

New Zealand contains the world's strongest concentration of youthful rhyolitic volcanoes, and voluminous sheets of tuff blanket much of the North Island. The earliest historically-dated eruption was at Whakaari/White Island in 1826,[90] followed in 1886 by the country's largest historical eruption at Mount Tarawera. Much of the region north of New Zealand's North Island is made up of seamounts and small islands, including 16 submarine volcanoes. In the last 1.6 million years, most of New Zealand's volcanism is from the Taupō Volcanic Zone.[91]

Mount Ruapehu, at the southern end of the Taupō Volcanic Zone, is one of the most active volcanoes in New Zealand.[92] It began erupting at least 250,000 years ago. In recorded history, major eruptions have been about 50 years apart,[92] in 1895, 1945, and 1995–1996. Minor eruptions are frequent, with at least 60 since 1945. Some of the minor eruptions in the 1970s generated small ash falls and lahars that damaged ski fields.[93] Between major eruptions, a warm acidic crater lake forms, fed by melting snow. Major eruptions may completely expel the lake water. Where a major eruption has deposited a tephra dam across the lake's outlet, the dam may collapse after the lake has refilled and risen above the level of its normal outlet, the outrush of water causing a large lahar. The most notable lahar caused the Tangiwai disaster on December 24, 1953, when 151 people aboard a Wellington to Auckland express train were killed after the lahar destroyed the Tangiwai rail bridge just moments before the train was due. In 2000, the ERLAWS system was installed on the mountain to detect such a collapse and alert the relevant authorities.

The Auckland volcanic field on the North Island of New Zealand has produced a diverse array of explosive craters, scoria cones, and lava flows. Currently dormant, the field is likely to erupt again within the next "hundreds to thousands of years", a very short timeframe in geologic terms.[94] The field contains at least 40 volcanoes, most recently active about 600 years ago at Rangitoto Island, erupting 2.3 km3 (0.55 cu mi) of lava.

Soil

The soils of the Pacific Ring of Fire include andosols, also known as andisols, created by the weathering of volcanic ash. Andosols contain large proportions of volcanic glass.[95] The Ring of Fire is the world's main location for this soil type, which typically has good levels of fertility.[96]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Spanish: cinturón de fuego del Pacífico, anillo de fuego del Pacífico; Malay: Lingkaran api Pasifik; Indonesian: Cincin Api Pasifik; Filipino: Singsing ng Apoy ng Pasipiko; Chinese: 环太平洋火山带 Huán Taìpíngyáng Huǒshān Daì; Russian: Тихоокеанское вулканическое огненное кольцо, romanized: Tikhookeanskoye vulkanicheskoye ognennoye kol'tso; Japanese: 環太平洋火山帯, romanized: Kantaiheiyō kazan-tai or 環太平洋造山帯 Kantaiheiyō zōzantai.
  2. ^ Disagreement about the Ring of Fire's exact geographic boundaries affects statistics such as how many volcanoes are in the Ring of Fire and how many earthquakes occur in the Ring of Fire.
  3. ^ The exact number of volcanoes depends on the geographic boundaries used by the source.
  4. ^ Macdonald (1972) listed 361 historically active volcanoes in the Ring of Fire (or 398 historically active volcanoes if the western islands of Indonesia are included).[10]
  5. ^ if Antarctica and the western islands of Indonesia are excluded and the Izu, Bonin, and Mariana Islands are included.
  6. ^ excluding the Antarctic Peninsula and the western islands of Indonesia
  7. ^ Twenty-two if the western islands of Indonesia are included.
  8. ^ if Antarctica and the western islands of Indonesia are excluded[18]
  9. ^ 79 of 95 earthquakes (if the western islands of Indonesia are excluded).[59]

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External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Maps of the Pacific Ring of Fire.
  • at the United States Geological Survey
  • at the USGS Cascades Volcano Observatory, Vancouver, Washington Web site.
  • Map of the Ring of Fire
  • Ring of Fire, tectonic activity
  • Physical World Map 2004-04-01 CIA World Factbook; Robinson Projection; standard parallels 38°N and 38°S

May 18, 2023
ring, fire, other, uses, disambiguation, also, known, pacific, fire, girdle, fire, circum, pacific, belt, note, region, around, much, pacific, ocean, where, many, volcanic, eruptions, earthquakes, occur, horseshoe, shaped, belt, about, long, about, wide, pacif. For other uses see Ring of Fire disambiguation The Ring of Fire also known as the Pacific Ring of Fire the Rim of Fire the Girdle of Fire or the Circum Pacific belt note 1 is a region around much of the rim of the Pacific Ocean where many volcanic eruptions and earthquakes occur The Ring of Fire is a horseshoe shaped belt about 40 000 km 25 000 mi long 1 and up to about 500 km 310 mi wide 2 The Pacific Ring of Fire with trenches marked with blue lines Global earthquakes 1900 2013 Earthquakes of magnitude 7 0 depth 0 69km Active volcanoes Global map of subduction zones with subducted slabs contoured by depth Subduction zone The Ring of Fire includes the Pacific coasts of South America North America Russia s Kamchatka Peninsula and some islands in the western Pacific Ocean Although there is consensus among geologists about most areas included in the Ring of Fire they disagree about the inclusion of a few areas for example the Antarctic Peninsula and western Indonesia note 2 The Ring of Fire is a direct result of plate tectonics specifically the movement collision and destruction of lithospheric plates e g the Pacific Plate under and around the Pacific Ocean 3 The collisions have created a nearly continuous series of subduction zones where volcanoes are created and earthquakes occur 4 Consumption of oceanic lithosphere at these convergent plate boundaries has formed oceanic trenches volcanic arcs back arc basins and volcanic belts The Ring of Fire is not a single geological structure Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes in each part of the Ring of Fire occur independently of eruptions and earthquakes in the other parts of the Ring 5 The Ring of Fire contains approximately 750 915 volcanoes about two thirds of the world s total that have been active during the Holocene 6 7 note 3 The four largest volcanic eruptions on Earth in the Holocene epoch all occurred at volcanoes in the Ring of Fire 8 More than 350 of the Ring of Fire s volcanoes have been active in historical times 9 note 4 Beside and among the currently active and dormant volcanoes of the Ring of Fire are belts of older extinct volcanoes which were formed long ago by subduction in the same way as the currently active and dormant volcanoes the extinct volcanoes last erupted many thousands or millions of years ago 6 The Ring of Fire has existed for more than 35 million years 11 but subduction has existed for much longer in some parts of the Ring of Fire 12 Most of Earth s active volcanoes with summits above sea level are located in the Ring of Fire 13 Many of these subaerial volcanoes are stratovolcanoes e g Mount St Helens which are formed by explosive eruptions of tephra alternating with effusive eruptions of lava flows Lavas at the Ring of Fire s stratovolcanoes are mainly andesite and basaltic andesite but dacite rhyolite basalt and some other rarer types also occur 6 Other types of volcano are also found in the Ring of Fire such as subaerial shield volcanoes e g Plosky Tolbachik and submarine seamounts e g Monowai The world s highest active volcano is Ojos del Salado 6 893 m or 22 615 ft which is in the Andes Mountains section of the Ring of Fire It forms part of the border between Argentina and Chile and it last erupted in AD 750 14 Another Ring of Fire Andean volcano on the Argentina Chile border is Llullaillaco 6 739 m or 22 110 ft which is the world s highest historically active volcano last erupting in 1877 15 About 76 of the Earth s seismic energy is released as earthquakes in the Ring of Fire note 5 16 About 90 17 of the Earth s earthquakes and about 81 18 of the world s largest earthquakes occur along the Ring of Fire note 6 19 20 Contents 1 History 2 Geographic boundaries 2 1 Land areas 3 Tectonic plate configurations 3 1 Past plate configurations 3 2 Present day plate configuration 4 Subduction zones and oceanic trenches 4 1 Oceanic trenches 4 2 Gaps 5 Distribution of volcanoes 6 Very large events 6 1 Volcanic eruptions 6 2 Earthquakes 7 Antarctica 8 South America 8 1 Chile 8 2 Argentina 8 3 Bolivia 8 4 Peru 8 5 Ecuador 8 6 Colombia 9 North America 9 1 Central America 9 1 1 Panama 9 1 2 Costa Rica 9 1 3 Nicaragua 9 1 4 Honduras 9 1 5 El Salvador 9 1 6 Guatemala 9 2 North American Cordillera 9 2 1 Mexico 9 2 2 United States 9 2 3 Canada 10 Asia 10 1 Russia 10 2 Japan 10 3 Taiwan 10 4 Philippines 10 5 Indonesia 11 Islands in the southwest Pacific Ocean 11 1 Papua New Guinea 11 2 Solomon Islands 11 3 Vanuatu 11 4 Fiji 11 5 Samoa 11 6 Tonga 11 7 New Zealand 12 Soil 13 See also 14 Notes 15 References 16 External linksHistoryFrom Ancient Greek and Roman times until the late 18th century volcanoes were associated with fire based on the ancient belief that volcanoes were caused by fires burning within the Earth 21 This historical link between volcanoes and fire is preserved in the name of the Ring of Fire despite the fact that volcanoes do not burn the Earth with fire The existence of a belt of volcanic activity around the Pacific Ocean was known in the early 19th century for example in 1825 the pioneering volcanologist G P Scrope described the chains of volcanoes around the Pacific Ocean s rim in his book Considerations on Volcanos 22 Three decades later a book about the Perry Expedition to Japan commented on the Ring of Fire volcanoes as follows They the Japanese Islands are in the line of that immense circle of volcanic development which surrounds the shores of the Pacific from Tierra del Fuego around to the Moluccas Narrative of the Expedition of an American Squadron to the China Seas and Japan 1852 54 23 An article appeared in Scientific American in 1878 with the title The Ring of Fire and the Volcanic Peaks of the West Coast of the United States which outlined the phenomenon of volcanic activity around the boundaries of the Pacific 24 Early explicit references to volcanoes forming a ring of fire around the Pacific Ocean include Alexander P Livingstone s book Complete Story of San Francisco s Terrible Calamity of Earthquake and Fire published in 1906 in which he describes the great ring of fire which circles round the whole surface of the Pacific Ocean 25 In 1912 geologist Patrick Marshall introduced the term Andesite Line to mark a boundary between islands in the southwest Pacific which differ in volcano structure and lava types The concept was later extended to other parts of the Pacific Ocean 26 The Andesite Line and the Ring of Fire closely match in terms of location 27 The development of the theory of plate tectonics since the early 1960s has provided the current understanding and explanation of the global distribution of volcanoes and earthquakes including those in the Ring of Fire 28 29 Geographic boundariesThere is consensus among geologists about most of the regions which are included in the Ring of Fire There are however a few regions on which there is no universal agreement See Distribution of volcanoes Indonesia lies at the intersection of the Ring of Fire and the Alpide belt which is the Earth s other very long subduction related volcanic and earthquake zone also known as the Mediterranean Indonesian volcanic belt running east west through southern Asia and southern Europe 30 4 18 Some geologists include all of Indonesia in the Ring of Fire 31 many geologists exclude Indonesia s western islands which they include in the Alpide belt 32 4 33 34 35 Some geologists include the Antarctic Peninsula and the South Shetland Islands in the Ring of Fire 33 34 other geologists exclude these areas 31 The rest of Antarctica is excluded because the volcanism there is not related to subduction 36 35 The Ring of Fire does not extend across the southern Pacific Ocean from New Zealand to the Antarctic Peninsula or from New Zealand to the southern tip of South America 37 because the submarine plate boundaries in this part of the Pacific Ocean the Pacific Antarctic Ridge the East Pacific Rise and the Chile Ridge are divergent instead of convergent Although some volcanism occurs in this region it is not related to subduction Some geologists include the Izu Islands the Bonin Islands and the Mariana Islands 31 38 39 other geologists exclude them 37 Land areas Antarctica Antarctic Peninsula South Sandwich Islands Andes Austral Volcanic Zone South Volcanic Zone Central Volcanic Zone North Volcanic Zone Central America Volcanic Arc Trans Mexican Volcanic Belt North American Cordillera Cascade Volcanic Arc Aleutian Range Aleutian Islands Aleutian Arc Kamchatka Peninsula Kuril Islands Japan Ryukyu Islands Taiwan Philippine Mobile Belt Izu Bonin Mariana Arc Izu Islands Bonin Islands Mariana Islands Sunda Arc Lesser Sunda Islands Tanimbar and Kai Islands Bismarck Archipelago Vanuatu Bougainville Island Solomon Islands Fiji Tonga Islands Kermadec Islands Taupō Volcanic Zone Volcanoes in the central parts of the Pacific Basin for example the Hawaiian Islands are very far from subduction zones 40 and they are not part of the Ring of Fire 41 Tectonic plate configurationsThe Ring of Fire has existed for more than 35 million years 11 In some parts of the Ring of Fire subduction has been occurring for much longer 42 The current configuration of the Pacific Ring of Fire has been created by the development of the present day subduction zones initially by about 115 million years ago in South America North America and Asia As plate configurations gradually changed the current subduction zones of Indonesia and New Guinea were created about 70 million years ago followed finally by the New Zealand subduction zone about 35 million years ago 43 11 Past plate configurations The tectonic plates of the Pacific Ocean in the Early Jurassic 180 Ma Along the coast of east Asia during the Late Triassic about 210 million years ago subduction of the Izanagi Plate the Paleo Pacific Plate was occurring 43 and this continued in the Jurassic producing volcanic belts for example in what is now eastern China 44 The Pacific Plate came into existence in the Early Jurassic about 190 million years ago 45 far from the margins of the then Paleo Pacific Ocean Until the Pacific Plate grew large enough to reach the margins of the ocean basin other older plates were subducted ahead of it at the ocean basin margins For example subduction has been occurring at the coast of South America since the Jurassic Period more than 145 million years ago and remnants of Jurassic and Cretaceous volcanic arcs are preserved there 46 At about 120 to 115 million years ago the Farallon Plate was subducting under South America North America and north east Asia while the Izanagi Plate was subducting under east Asia By 85 to 70 million years ago the Izanagi Plate had moved north eastwards and was subducting under east Asia and North America while the Farallon Plate was subducting under South America and the Pacific Plate was subducting under east Asia About 70 to 65 million years ago the Farallon plate was subducting under South America the Kula Plate was subducting under North America and north east Asia and the Pacific Plate was subducting under east Asia and Papua New Guinea About 35 million years ago the Kula and Farallon plates had been subducted and the Pacific Plate was subducting around its rim in a configuration closely resembling the outline of the present day Ring of Fire 43 47 48 Present day plate configuration Present day principal tectonic plates of the Earth The eastern parts of the Ring of Fire result from the collision of a few relatively large plates The western parts of the Ring are more complex with a number of large and small tectonic plates in collision 49 In South America the Ring of Fire is the result of the Antarctic Plate the Nazca Plate and the Cocos Plate being subducted beneath the South American Plate In Central America the Cocos Plate is being subducted beneath the Caribbean Plate A portion of the Pacific Plate and the small Juan de Fuca Plate are being subducted beneath the North American Plate Along the northern portion the northwestward moving Pacific Plate is being subducted beneath the Aleutian Islands arc Farther west the Pacific Plate is being subducted at the Kamchatka Peninsula and Kuril arcs Farther south at Japan Taiwan and the Philippines the Philippine Plate is being subducted beneath the Eurasian Plate The southwest section of the Ring of Fire is more complex with a number of smaller tectonic plates in collision with the Pacific Plate at the Mariana Islands the Philippines eastern Indonesia Papua New Guinea Tonga and New Zealand this part of the Ring excludes Australia because it lies in the center of its tectonic plate far from subduction zones 49 Subduction zones and oceanic trenches Chilean type and Mariana type subduction zones If a tectonic plate s oceanic lithosphere is subducted beneath oceanic lithosphere of another plate a volcanic island arc is created at the subduction zone An example in the Ring of Fire is the Mariana Arc in the western Pacific Ocean If however oceanic lithosphere is subducted under continental lithosphere then a volcanic continental arc forms a Ring of Fire example is the coast of Chile 2 The steepness of the descending plate at a subduction zone depends on the age of the oceanic lithosphere that is being subducted The older the oceanic lithosphere being subducted the steeper the angle of descent of the subducted slab As the Pacific s mid ocean ridges which are the source of its the oceanic lithosphere are not actually in the middle of the ocean but located much closer to South America than to Asia the oceanic lithosphere consumed at the South American subduction zones is younger and therefore subduction occurs at the South American coast at a relatively shallow angle Older oceanic lithosphere is subducted in the western Pacific with steeper angles of slab descent This variation affects for example the location of volcanoes relative to the ocean trench lava composition type and severity of earthquakes sediment accretion and the amount of compression or tension A spectrum of subduction zones exists between the Chilean and Mariana end members 50 2 Oceanic trenches Map of earthquake epicenters at the Kuril Kamchatka trench and subduction zone Oceanic trenches are the topographic expression of subduction zones on the floor of the oceans Oceanic trenches associated with the Ring of Fire s subduction zones are Peru Chile Trench Middle America Trench Aleutian Trench Kuril Kamchatka Trench Japan Trench Ryukyu Trench Izu Bonin Trench Mariana Trench Yap Trench Philippine Trench Tonga Trench Kermadec Trench Hikurangi TrenchGaps Subduction zones around the Pacific Ocean do not form a complete ring Where subduction zones are absent there are corresponding gaps in subduction related volcanic belts in the Ring of Fire In some gaps there is no volcanic activity in other gaps volcanic activity does occur but it is caused by processes not related to subduction There are gaps in the Ring of Fire at some parts of the Pacific coast of the Americas In some places the gaps are thought to be caused by flat slab subduction examples are the three gaps between the four sections of the Andean Volcanic Belt in South America 51 In North America there is a gap in subduction related volcanic activity in northern Mexico and southern California due partly to a divergent boundary in the Gulf of California and due partly to the San Andreas Fault a non volcanic transform boundary Another North American gap in subduction related volcanic activity occurs in northern British Columbia Yukon and south east Alaska where volcanism is caused by intraplate continental rifting 28 Distribution of volcanoesDistribution of Ring of Fire volcanoes active in the Holocene Epoch last 11 700 years 6 52 Continent Country Region Volcanoes subduction zone Volcanoes other Comments Consensus for inclusionAntarctica Antarctic Peninsula Graham Land 0 3 intraplate NoAntarctica South Shetland Islands 0 4 intraplate intraplate rift volcanoes associated with back arc rifting linked to subduction NoSouth America Chile 71 0 excluding Easter Island oceanic rift YesSouth America Chile Argentina 18 0 border shared by two countries YesSouth America Argentina 15 4 intraplate no coast on the Pacific Ocean NoSouth America Chile Bolivia 6 0 border shared by two countries YesSouth America Bolivia 5 0 no coast on the Pacific Ocean NoSouth America Chile Peru 1 0 border shared by two countries YesSouth America Peru 16 0 YesSouth America Ecuador 21 0 excluding the Galapagos Islands hotspot YesSouth America Ecuador Colombia 1 0 border shared by two countries YesSouth America Colombia 13 0 YesNorth America Panama 2 0 YesNorth America Costa Rica 10 0 YesNorth America Nicaragua 17 0 YesNorth America Honduras 4 0 YesNorth America El Salvador 18 0 YesNorth America El Salvador Guatemala 2 0 border shared by two countries YesNorth America Guatemala 21 0 YesNorth America Guatemala Mexico 1 0 border shared by two countries YesNorth America Mexico 26 8 rift excluding 3 oceanic rift volcanoes 8 continental rift volcanoes in Baja California YesNorth America United States California Oregon Washington 22 9 rift 9 continental rift volcanoes 6 in southern California and 3 in Oregon YesNorth America Canada 6 16 intraplate excluding 2 oceanic rift volcanoes YesNorth America United States Alaska 80 4 intraplate in southeast Alaska including 39 volcanoes in the Aleutian Islands excluding 4 intraplate volcanoes in western Alaska far from subduction zone YesAsia Russia Kamchatka 67 0 including 1 submarine volcano Piip in the Aleutian arc YesAsia Russia Kuril Islands 44 0 including 3 submarine volcanoes 15 volcanoes claimed by Japan YesAsia Japan 81 0 excluding the Izu Islands and the Bonin Islands YesAsia Taiwan 4 0 including 2 submarine volcanoes YesJapan Izu Islands and Bonin Islands 26 0 including 13 submarine volcanoes NoUnited States Northern Mariana Islands and Guam 25 0 including 16 submarine volcanoes NoAsia Philippines 41 0 including 1 submarine volcano YesAsia Indonesia western islands 70 Sumatra 27 volcanoes Krakatoa Java 36 volcanoes Bali 3 volcanoes Lombok Sumbawa and Sangeang i e the Sunda Arc 53 north of the Sunda subduction zone between the Australian Plate and the Sunda Plate NoAsia Indonesia eastern islands 54 Sulawesi Lesser Sunda Islands excluding Bali Lombok Sumbawa and Sangeang Halmahera Banda Islands Sangihe Islands YesPapua New Guinea 47 1 rift including 2 submarine volcanoes YesSolomon Islands 8 0 including 4 submarine volcanoes YesVanuatu 14 0 Yesclaimed by Vanuatu and France New Caledonia 2 1 rift Hunter Island and Matthew Island East Gemini Seamount is a seamount at an oceanic rift YesFiji 3 0 YesFrance Wallis and Futuna 1 0 mantle plume and subduction 54 NoSamoa 2 0 mantle plume and subduction 54 NoUnited States American Samoa 4 0 mantle plume and subduction 54 55 including 1 submarine seamount NoTonga 17 3 rift including 13 submarine volcanoes 3 of which are subduction related back arc rift volcanoes 56 Yesbetween Tonga and Kermadec Islands 1 0 Monowai submarine seamount between the exclusive economic zones of Tonga and New Zealand 57 YesNew Zealand Kermadec Islands 6 0 including 4 submarine volcanoes YesNew Zealand 20 0 excluding the Kermadec Islands including 8 submarine volcanoes YesTotal 913 59Very large eventsVolcanic eruptions The four largest volcanic eruptions on Earth in the Holocene Epoch the last 11 700 years occurred at volcanoes in the Ring of Fire They are the eruptions at Fisher Caldera Alaska 8700 BC Kuril Lake Kamchatka 6450 BC Kikai Caldera Japan 5480 BC and Mount Mazama Oregon 5677 BC 8 More broadly twenty note 7 of the twenty five largest volcanic eruptions on Earth in this time interval occurred at Ring of Fire volcanoes 8 Earthquakes About 90 17 of the world s earthquakes and 81 18 of the world s largest earthquakes occur along the Ring of Fire note 8 The next most seismically active region 5 6 of earthquakes and 17 of the world s largest earthquakes is the Alpide belt which extends from central Indonesia to the northern Atlantic Ocean via the Himalayas and southern Europe 19 20 From 1900 to the end of 2020 most earthquakes of magnitude Mw 8 0 occurred in the Ring of Fire 58 note 9 They are presumed to have been megathrust earthquakes at subduction zones 58 including four of the most powerful earthquakes on Earth since modern seismological measuring equipment and magnitude measurement scales were introduced in the 1930s 1960 Valdivia earthquake Chile magnitude Mw 9 4 9 6 1964 Alaska earthquake Alaska United States magnitude Mw 9 2 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami Japan magnitude Mw 9 0 9 1 1952 Severo Kurilsk earthquake Kamchatka Russia magnitude Mw 9 0 AntarcticaSee also List of volcanoes in Antarctica Layers of phreatomagmatic tephra on Deception Island Some geologists include the volcanoes of the South Shetland Islands off the northern tip of the Antarctic Peninsula as part of the Ring of Fire These volcanoes e g Deception Island are due to rifting in the Bransfield back arc basin close to the South Shetland subduction zone 60 The Antarctic Peninsula Graham Land is also sometimes included in the Ring 61 Volcanoes south of the Antarctic Circle e g the volcanoes of Victoria Land including Mount Erebus and the volcanoes of Mary Byrd Land are not related to subduction therefore they are not part of the Ring of Fire 35 The Balleny Islands located between Antarctica and New Zealand are volcanic but their volcanism is not related to subduction 62 therefore they are not part of the Ring of Fire South AmericaSee also Andean Volcanic Belt Chile Llaima s 2008 eruption See also List of volcanoes in Chile Volcanism of Chile and List of earthquakes in Chile Chile has experienced numerous volcanic eruptions from about 90 volcanoes during the Holocene Epoch 6 Villarrica is one of Chile s most active volcanoes rising above the lake and town of the same name It is the westernmost of three large stratovolcanoes that trend perpendicular to the Andes along the Gastre Fault Villarrica along with Quetrupillan and the Chilean part of Lanin are protected within Villarrica National Park Villarrica with its lava of basaltic andesitic composition is one of only five volcanoes worldwide known to have an active lava lake within its crater The volcano usually generates strombolian eruptions with ejection of incandescent pyroclasts and lava flows Melting of snow and glacier ice as well as rainfall often causes lahars such as during the eruptions of 1964 and 1971 63 A two kilometre wide 1 1 4 mi postglacial caldera is located at the base of the presently active dominantly basaltic to andesitic cone at the northwest margin of the Pleistocene caldera About 25 scoria cones dot Villarica s flanks Plinian eruptions and pyroclastic flows have been produced during the Holocene from this dominantly basaltic volcano but historical eruptions have consisted of largely mild to moderate explosive activity with occasional lava effusion Lahars from the glacier covered volcanoes have damaged towns on its flanks The Llaima Volcano is one of the largest and most active volcanoes in Chile It is situated 82 km 51 mi northeast of Temuco and 663 km 412 mi southeast of Santiago within the borders of Conguillio National Park Llaima s activity has been documented since the 17th century and consists of several separate episodes of moderate explosive eruptions with occasional lava flows Lascar erupting in 2006 Lascar is a stratovolcano and the most active volcano of the northern Chilean Andes The largest eruption of Lascar took place about 26 500 years ago and following the eruption of the Tumbres scoria flow about 9 000 years ago activity shifted back to the eastern edifice where three overlapping craters were formed Frequent small to moderate explosive eruptions have been recorded from Lascar in historical time since the mid 19th century along with periodic larger eruptions that produced ash and tephra fall up to hundreds of kilometers away from the volcano The largest eruption of Lascar in recent history took place in 1993 producing pyroclastic flows as far as 8 5 km 5 mi northwest of the summit and ash fall in Buenos Aires Argentina more than 1 600 km 1 000 mi to the southeast The latest series of eruptions began on April 18 2006 and was continuing as of 2011 Chiliques is a stratovolcano located in the Antofagasta Region of Chile immediately north of Cerro Miscanti Laguna Lejia lies to the north of the volcano and has been dormant for at least 10 000 years but is now showing signs of life A January 6 2002 nighttime thermal infrared image from ASTER revealed a hot spot in the summit crater as well as several others along the upper flanks of the volcano s edifice indicating new volcanic activity Examination of an earlier nighttime thermal infrared image from May 24 2000 showed no such hot spots 64 Calbuco is a stratovolcano in southern Chile located southeast of Llanquihue Lake and northwest of Chapo Lake in Los Lagos Region The volcano and the surrounding area are protected within Llanquihue National Reserve It is a very explosive andesite volcano that underwent edifice collapse in the late Pleistocene producing a volcanic debris avalanche that reached the lake At least nine eruptions occurred since 1837 with the latest one in 1972 One of the largest historical eruptions in southern Chile took place there in 1893 1894 Violent eruptions ejected 30 cm 12 in bombs to distances of 8 km 5 0 mi from the crater accompanied by voluminous hot lahars Strong explosions occurred in April 1917 and a lava dome formed in the crater accompanied by hot lahars Another short explosive eruption in January 1929 also included an apparent pyroclastic flow and a lava flow The last major eruption of Calbuco in 1961 sent ash columns 12 15 km 7 5 9 3 mi high and produced plumes that dispersed mainly to the southeast and two lava flows were also emitted A minor four hour eruption happened on August 26 1972 Strong fumarolic emission from the main crater was observed on August 12 1996 Lonquimay is a stratovolocano of late Pleistocene to dominantly Holocene age with the shape of a truncated cone The cone is largely andesitic though basaltic and dacitic rocks are present It is located in La Araucania Region of Chile immediately southeast of Tolhuaca volcano Sierra Nevada and Llaima are their neighbors to the south The snow capped volcano lies within the protected area Malalcahuello Nalcas The volcano last erupted in 1988 ending in 1990 The VEI was 3 The eruption was from a flank vent and involved lava flows and explosive eruptions Some fatalities occurred 65 The volcanoes in Chile are monitored by the National Geology and Mining Service SERNAGEOMIN 66 67 Earthquake activity in Chile is related to subduction of the Nazca Plate to the east Chile notably holds the record for the largest earthquake ever recorded the 1960 Valdivia earthquake More recently a magnitude 8 8 earthquake struck central Chile on February 27 2010 the Puyehue Cordon Caulle volcano erupted in 2011 and a M8 2 earthquake struck northern Chile on April 1 2014 The main shock was preceded by a number of moderate to large shocks and was followed by a large number of moderate to very large aftershocks including a magnitude 7 6 event on April 2 68 Argentina See also List of volcanoes in Argentina and List of earthquakes in Argentina Bolivia See also List of volcanoes in Bolivia Bolivia hosts active and extinct volcanoes across its territory The active volcanoes are located in western Bolivia where they make up the Cordillera Occidental the western limit of the Altiplano plateau Some of the active volcanoes are international mountains shared with Chile All Cenozoic volcanoes of Bolivia are part of the Central Volcanic Zone CVZ of the Andean Volcanic Belt that results due to processes involved in the subduction of the Nazca Plate under the South American Plate The Central Volcanic Zone is a major late Cenozoic volcanic province 69 Peru See also List of volcanoes in Peru and List of earthquakes in Peru Sabancaya is an active 5 976 metre 19 606 ft stratovolcano in the Andes of southern Peru about 100 km 60 mi northwest of Arequipa It is the most active volcano in Peru with an ongoing eruption that started in 2016 Ubinas is another active volcano of 5 672 metre 18 609 ft in southern Peru its most recent eruption occurred in 2019 70 Volcanoes in Peru are monitored by the Peruvian Geophysical Institute 71 Ecuador See also List of volcanoes in Ecuador and List of earthquakes in Ecuador Tungurahua erupting molten lava at night 1999 Cotopaxi is a stratovolcano in the Andes located about 50 km 30 mi south of Quito Ecuador South America 72 It is the second highest summit in the country reaching a height of 5 897 m 19 347 ft Since 1738 Cotopaxi has erupted more than 50 times resulting in the creation of numerous valleys formed by mudflows around the volcano In October 1999 Pichincha Volcano erupted in Quito and covered the city with several inches of ash Prior to that the last major eruptions were in 1553 73 and in 1660 when about 30 cm of ash fell on the city 74 At 5 286 m 17 343 ft Sangay Volcano is an active stratovolcano in central Ecuador one of the highest active volcanoes in the world and is one of Ecuador s most active volcanoes It exhibits mostly strombolian activity An eruption which started in 1934 ended in 2011 75 More recent eruptions have occurred Geologically Sangay marks the southern bound of the Northern Volcanic Zone and its position straddling two major pieces of crust accounts for its high level of activity Sangay s roughly 500 000 year history is one of instability two previous versions of the mountain were destroyed in massive flank collapses evidence of which still litters its surroundings today Sangay is one of two active volcanoes located within the namesake Sangay National Park the other being Tungurahua to the north As such it has been listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1983 Reventador is an active stratovolcano that lies in the eastern Andes of Ecuador Since 1541 it has erupted over 25 times with its most recent eruption starting in 2008 and as of 2020 update still ongoing 76 but the largest historical eruption occurred in 2002 During that eruption the plume from the volcano reached a height of 17 km 10 1 2 mi and pyroclastic flows reached 7 km 4 3 mi from the cone On March 30 2007 the volcano erupted ash again which reached a height of about 3 km 2 mi In Ecuador EPN monitors volcanic activity Colombia See also List of volcanoes in Colombia and List of earthquakes in ColombiaNorth AmericaCentral America Crater of Poas volcano in Costa Rica 2004 Santiaguito Volcano 2003 eruption in Guatemala Panama See also List of volcanoes in Panama and List of earthquakes in Panama Costa Rica See also List of volcanoes in Costa Rica and List of earthquakes in Costa Rica Poas Volcano is an active 2 708 metre 8 885 ft stratovolcano located in central Costa Rica it has erupted 39 times since 1828 The Volcanological and Seismological Observatory of Costa Rica OVSICORI Observatorio Vulcanologico y Sismologico de Costa Rica at the National University of Costa Rica 77 has a dedicated team in charge of researching and monitoring the volcanoes earthquakes and other tectonic processes in the Central America Volcanic Arc Nicaragua See also List of volcanoes in Nicaragua and List of earthquakes in Nicaragua Honduras See also List of volcanoes in Honduras El Salvador See also List of volcanoes in El Salvador and List of earthquakes in El Salvador Guatemala See also List of volcanoes in Guatemala and List of earthquakes in Guatemala In 1902 the Santa Maria Volcano erupted violently in Guatemala with the largest explosions occurring over two days ejecting an estimated 5 5 km3 1 3 8 cu mi of magma The eruption was one of the largest of the 20th century only slightly less in magnitude to that of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 The eruption had a volcanic explosivity index of 6 Today Santiaguito is one of the world s most active volcanoes citation needed North American Cordillera Mexico See also List of volcanoes in Mexico and List of earthquakes in Mexico The Trans Mexican Volcanic Belt Volcanoes of Mexico related to subduction of the Cocos and Rivera plates occur in the Trans Mexican Volcanic Belt which extends 900 km 560 mi from west to east across central southern Mexico Popocatepetl lying in the eastern half of the Trans Mexican Volcanic Belt is the second highest peak in Mexico after the Pico de Orizaba It is one of the most active volcanoes in Mexico having had more than 20 major eruptions since the arrival of the Spanish in 1519 The 1982 eruption of El Chichon which killed about 2 000 people who lived near the volcano created a 1 km wide caldera that filled with an acidic crater lake Before 1982 this relatively unknown volcano was heavily forested and of no greater height than adjacent nonvolcanic peaks 78 United States See also List of volcanoes in the United States and List of earthquakes in the United States Area of the Cascadia subduction zone including the Cascade Volcanic Arc red triangles The Cascade Volcanic Arc lies in the western United States This arc includes nearly 20 major volcanoes among a total of over 4 000 separate volcanic vents including numerous stratovolcanoes shield volcanoes lava domes and cinder cones along with a few isolated examples of rarer volcanic forms such as tuyas Volcanism in the arc began about 37 million years ago but most of the present day Cascade volcanoes are less than 2 million years old and the highest peaks are less than 100 000 years old The arc is formed by the subduction of the Gorda and Juan de Fuca plates at the Cascadia subduction zone This is a 1 090 kilometre long 680 mi fault running 80 km 50 mi off the coast of the Pacific Northwest from northern California to Vancouver Island British Columbia The plates move at a relative rate of over 10 mm 0 4 in per year at an oblique angle to the subduction zone Because of the very large fault area the Cascadia subduction zone can produce very large earthquakes magnitude 9 0 or greater if rupture occurred over its whole area When the locked zone stores energy for an earthquake the transition zone although somewhat plastic can rupture Thermal and deformation studies indicate that the locked zone is fully locked for 60 km 37 mi down dip from the deformation front Further down dip a transition from fully locked to aseismic sliding occurs American Cascade Range volcano eruptions in the last 4000 years Unlike most subduction zones worldwide no oceanic trench is present along the continental margin in Cascadia Instead terranes and the accretionary wedge have been lifted up to form a series of coast ranges and exotic mountains A high rate of sedimentation from the outflow of the three major rivers Fraser River Columbia River and Klamath River which cross the Cascade Range contributes to further obscuring the presence of a trench However in common with most other subduction zones the outer margin is slowly being compressed similar to a giant spring When the stored energy is suddenly released by slippage across the fault at irregular intervals the Cascadia subduction zone can create very large earthquakes such as the magnitude 9 Cascadia earthquake of 1700 Geological evidence indicates that great earthquakes may have occurred at least seven times in the last 3 500 years suggesting a return time of 400 to 600 years Also evidence of accompanying tsunamis with every earthquake is seen as the prime reason these earthquakes are known is through scars the tsunamis left on the coast and through Japanese records tsunami waves can travel across the Pacific The 1980 eruption of Mount St Helens was the most significant to occur in the contiguous 48 U S states in recorded history VEI 5 1 3 km3 0 3 cu mi of material erupted exceeding the destructive power and volume of material released by the 1915 eruption of California s Lassen Peak The eruption was preceded by a two month series of earthquakes and steam venting episodes caused by an injection of magma at shallow depth below the mountain that created a huge bulge and a fracture system on Mount St Helens north slope An earthquake at 8 32 am on May 18 1980 caused the entire weakened north face to slide away suddenly exposing the partly molten gas rich rock in the volcano to lower pressure The rock responded by exploding into a very hot mix of pulverized lava and older rock that sped toward Spirit Lake so fast that it quickly passed the avalanching north face Alaska is known for its seismic and volcanic activity holding the record for the second largest earthquake in the world the Good Friday earthquake and having more than 50 volcanoes which have erupted since about 1760 79 Volcanoes are found not only in the mainland but also in the Aleutian Islands The United States Geological Survey and the National Earthquake Information Center monitor volcanoes and earthquakes in the United States Canada Map of young volcanoes in Western Canada See also Volcanism in Canada List of volcanoes in Canada and List of earthquakes in Canada British Columbia and Yukon are home to a region of volcanoes and volcanic activity in the Pacific Ring of Fire More than 20 volcanoes have erupted in the western Canada during the Holocene Epoch but only 6 are directly related to subduction Bridge River Cones Mount Cayley Mount Garibaldi Garibaldi Lake Silverthrone Caldera and Mount Meager massif 6 Several mountains in populated areas of British Columbia are dormant volcanoes Most of these were active during the Pleistocene and Holocene epochs Although none of Canada s volcanoes are currently erupting several volcanoes volcanic fields and volcanic centers are considered potentially active 80 There are hot springs at some volcanoes Since 1975 seismic activity appears to have been associated with some volcanoes in British Columbia including the six subduction related volcanoes as well as intraplate volcanoes such as Wells Gray Clearwater volcanic field 80 The volcanoes are grouped into five volcanic belts with different tectonic settings The Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province is an area of numerous volcanoes which are caused by continental rifting not subduction therefore geologists often regard it as a gap in the Pacific Ring of Fire between the Cascade Volcanic Arc further south and Alaska s Aleutian Arc further north 81 The Garibaldi Volcanic Belt in southwestern British Columbia is the northern extension of the Cascade Volcanic Arc in the United States which includes Mount Baker and Mount St Helens and contains the most explosive young volcanoes in Canada 82 It formed as a result of subduction of the Juan de Fuca Plate a remnant of the much larger Farallon Plate under the North American Plate along the Cascadia subduction zone 82 The Garibaldi Volcanic Belt includes the Bridge River Cones Mount Cayley Mount Fee Mount Garibaldi Mount Price Mount Meager massif the Squamish Volcanic Field and more smaller volcanoes The eruption styles in the belt range from effusive to explosive with compositions from basalt to rhyolite Morphologically centers include calderas cinder cones stratovolcanoes and small isolated lava masses Due to repeated continental and alpine glaciations many of the volcanic deposits in the belt reflect complex interactions between magma composition topography and changing ice configurations The most recent major catastrophic eruption in the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt was an explosive eruption of the Mount Meager massif about 2 350 years ago It was similar to the 1980 eruption of Mount St Helens 82 sending an ash column about 20 km into the stratosphere 83 The Mount Meager massif as seen from the east near Pemberton British Columbia Summits left to right are Capricorn Mountain Mount Meager and Plinth Peak The Chilcotin Group is a north south range of volcanoes in southern British Columbia running parallel to the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt The majority of the eruptions in this belt happened either 6 10 million years ago Miocene or 2 3 million years ago Pliocene although with some slightly more recent eruptions in the Pleistocene 84 It is thought to have formed as a result of back arc extension behind the Cascadia subduction zone 84 Volcanoes in this belt include Mount Noel the Clisbako Caldera Complex Lightning Peak Black Dome Mountain and many lava flows Eruptions of basaltic to rhyolitic volcanoes and hypabyssal rocks of the Alert Bay Volcanic Belt in northern Vancouver Island are probably linked with the subducted margin flanked by the Explorer and Juan de Fuca Plates at the Cascadia subduction zone It appears to have been active during the Pliocene and Pleistocene However no Holocene eruptions are known and volcanic activity in the belt has likely ceased The active Queen Charlotte Fault on the west coast of the Haida Gwaii British Columbia has generated three large earthquakes during the 20th century a magnitude 7 event in 1929 a magnitude 8 1 in 1949 Canada s largest recorded earthquake and a magnitude 7 4 in 1970 85 The Public Safety Geo science Program at the Natural Resources Canada undertakes research to support risk reduction from the effects of space weather earthquakes tsunamis volcanoes and landslides 86 AsiaRussia See also Volcanoes of Kamchatka Kamchatka earthquakes List of volcanoes in Russia and List of earthquakes in Russia Kambalny an active volcano in the Kamchatka Peninsula The Kamchatka Peninsula in the Russian Far East is one of the most active volcanic areas in the world with 20 historically active volcanoes 87 It lies between the Pacific Ocean to the east and the Okhotsk Sea to the west Immediately offshore along the Pacific coast of the peninsula runs the 10 500 metre deep 34 400 ft Kuril Kamchatka Trench where subduction of the Pacific Plate fuels the volcanism Several types of volcanic activity are present including stratovolcanoes shield volcanoes Hawaiian style fissure eruptions and geysers Active dormant and extinct volcanoes of Kamchatka are in two major volcanic belts The most recent activity takes place in the eastern belt starting in the north at the Shiveluch volcanic complex which lies at the junction of the Aleutian and Kamchatka volcanic arcs Just to the south is the Klyuchi volcanic group comprising the twin volcanic cones of Kliuchevskoi and Kamen the volcanic complexes of Tolbachik and Ushkovsky and a number of other large stratovolcanoes Ichinsky the only active volcano in the central belt is located farther to the west Farther south the eastern belt of stratovolcanoes continues to the southern tip of Kamchatka continuing onto the Kuril Islands with their 32 historically active volcanoes 87 Japan See also List of volcanoes in Japan and List of earthquakes in Japan About 10 of the world s active volcanoes are found in Japan which lies in a zone of extreme crustal instability They are formed by subduction of the Pacific Plate and the Philippine Sea Plate As many as 1 500 earthquakes are recorded yearly and magnitudes of 4 to 6 are not uncommon Minor tremors occur almost daily in one part of the country or another causing some slight shaking of buildings Major earthquakes occur infrequently the most famous in the 20th century were the Great Kantō earthquake of 1923 in which 130 000 people died and the Great Hanshin earthquake of January 17 1995 in which 6 434 people died On March 11 2011 a magnitude 9 0 earthquake hit Japan the country s biggest ever and the fifth largest on record according to US Geological Survey data 88 Undersea earthquakes also expose the Japanese coastline to danger from tsunamis Mount Fuji at sunrise from Lake Kawaguchi Mount Bandai one of Japan s most noted volcanoes rises above the north shore of Lake Inawashiro Mount Bandai is formed of several overlapping stratovolcanoes the largest of which is O Bandai constructed within a horseshoe shaped caldera that formed about 40 000 years ago when an earlier volcano collapsed forming the Okinajima debris avalanche which traveled to the southwest and was accompanied by a plinian eruption Four major phreatic eruptions have occurred during the past 5 000 years two of them in historical time in 806 and 1888 Seen from the south Bandai presents a conical profile but much of the north side of the volcano is missing as a result of the collapse of Ko Bandai volcano during the 1888 eruption in which a debris avalanche buried several villages and formed several large lakes In July 1888 the north flank of Mount Bandai collapsed during an eruption quite similar to the May 18 1980 eruption of Mount St Helens After a week of seismic activity a large earthquake on July 15 1888 was followed by a tremendous noise and a large explosion Eyewitnesses heard about 15 to 20 additional explosions and observed that the last one was projected almost horizontally to the north Mount Fuji is Japan s highest and most noted volcano featuring heavily in Japanese culture and serving as one of the country s most popular landmarks The modern postglacial stratovolcano is constructed above a group of overlapping volcanoes remnants of which form irregularities on Fuji s profile Growth of the younger Mount Fuji began with a period of voluminous lava flows from 11 000 to 8 000 years ago accounting for four fifths of the volume of the younger Mount Fuji Minor explosive eruptions dominated activity from 8 000 to 4 500 years ago with another period of major lava flows occurring from 4 500 to 3 000 years ago Subsequently intermittent major explosive eruptions occurred with subordinate lava flows and small pyroclastic flows Summit eruptions dominated from 3 000 to 2 000 years ago after which flank vents were active The extensive basaltic lava flows from the summit and some of the more than 100 flank cones and vents blocked drainage against the Tertiary Misaka Mountains on the north side of the volcano forming the Fuji Five Lakes The last eruption of this dominantly basaltic volcano in 1707 ejected andesitic pumice and formed a large new crater on the east flank Some minor volcanic activity may occur in the next few years Taiwan See also List of volcanoes in Taiwan and List of earthquakes in Taiwan Philippines See also List of volcanoes in the Philippines and List of earthquakes in the Philippines Map showing major volcanoes of the Philippines The 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo is the world s second largest eruption of the 20th century Successful predictions of the onset of the climactic eruption led to the evacuation of tens of thousands of people from the surrounding areas saving many lives but as the surrounding areas were severely damaged by pyroclastic flows ash deposits and later lahars caused by rainwater remobilising earlier volcanic deposits thousands of houses were destroyed Mayon Volcano overlooks a pastoral scene about five months before the volcano s violent eruption in September 1984 Mayon Volcano is the Philippines most active volcano It has steep upper slopes that average 35 40 and is capped by a small summit crater The historical eruptions of this basaltic andesitic volcano date back to 1616 and range from Strombolian to basaltic Plinian eruptions Eruptions occur predominately from the central conduit and have also produced lava flows that travel far down the flanks Pyroclastic flows and mudflows have commonly swept down many of the roughly 40 ravines that radiate from the summit and have often devastated populated lowland areas Taal Volcano has had 33 recorded eruptions since 1572 A devastating eruption occurred in 1911 which claimed more than a thousand lives The deposits of that eruption consist of a yellowish fairly decomposed nonjuvenile tephra with a high sulfur content The most recent period of activity lasted from 1965 to 1977 and was characterized by the interaction of magma with the lake water which produced violent phreatic and phreatomagmatic eruptions The volcano was dormant from 1977 then showed signs of unrest since 1991 with strong seismic activity and ground fracturing events as well as the formation of small mud geysers on parts of the island An eruption occurred in January 2020 Kanlaon Volcano the most active volcano in the central Philippines has erupted 25 times since 1866 Eruptions are typically phreatic explosions of small to moderate size that produce minor ash falls near the volcano On August 10 1996 Kanlaon erupted without warning killing 3 persons who were among 24 mountain climbers trapped near the summit Indonesia See also List of volcanoes in Indonesia and List of earthquakes in Indonesia Major volcanoes in Indonesia Indonesia is located where the Ring of Fire around the Pacific Ocean meets the Alpide belt which runs from Southeast Asia to Southwest Europe The eastern islands of Indonesia Sulawesi the Lesser Sunda Islands excluding Bali Lombok Sumbawa and Sangeang Halmahera the Banda Islands and the Sangihe Islands are geologically associated with subduction of the Pacific Plate or its related minor plates and therefore the eastern islands are often regarded as part of the Ring of Fire The western islands of Indonesia the Sunda Arc of Sumatra Krakatoa Java Bali Lombok Sumbawa and Sangeang are located north of a subduction zone in the Indian Ocean Although news media popular science publications and some geologists include the western islands and their notable volcanoes such as Krakatoa Merapi Tambora and Toba in the Ring of Fire geologists often exclude the western islands from the Ring instead the western islands are often included in the Alpide belt 89 Islands in the southwest Pacific Ocean Papua New Guinea and tectonic plates Pacific Plate Australian Plate Caroline Plate Banda Sea Plate as Mer de Banda Woodlark Plate Bird s Head Plate Maoke Plate Solomon Sea Plate North Bismarck Plate South Bismarck Plate and Manus Plate in French Papua New Guinea See also List of volcanoes in Papua New Guinea and List of earthquakes in Papua New Guinea Solomon Islands See also List of volcanoes in the Solomon Islands Vanuatu See also List of volcanoes in Vanuatu and List of earthquakes in Vanuatu Fiji See also List of volcanoes in Fiji and List of earthquakes in Fiji Volcanic eruption at West Mata submarine volcano between Samoa and Tonga 2010 Samoa See also List of volcanoes in Samoa and List of earthquakes in Samoa Tonga See also List of volcanoes in Tonga and List of earthquakes in Tonga New Zealand See also Volcanism in New Zealand List of volcanoes in New Zealand and List of earthquakes in New Zealand Major volcanoes of New Zealand View of Mount Taranaki from Stratford New Zealand contains the world s strongest concentration of youthful rhyolitic volcanoes and voluminous sheets of tuff blanket much of the North Island The earliest historically dated eruption was at Whakaari White Island in 1826 90 followed in 1886 by the country s largest historical eruption at Mount Tarawera Much of the region north of New Zealand s North Island is made up of seamounts and small islands including 16 submarine volcanoes In the last 1 6 million years most of New Zealand s volcanism is from the Taupō Volcanic Zone 91 Mount Ruapehu at the southern end of the Taupō Volcanic Zone is one of the most active volcanoes in New Zealand 92 It began erupting at least 250 000 years ago In recorded history major eruptions have been about 50 years apart 92 in 1895 1945 and 1995 1996 Minor eruptions are frequent with at least 60 since 1945 Some of the minor eruptions in the 1970s generated small ash falls and lahars that damaged ski fields 93 Between major eruptions a warm acidic crater lake forms fed by melting snow Major eruptions may completely expel the lake water Where a major eruption has deposited a tephra dam across the lake s outlet the dam may collapse after the lake has refilled and risen above the level of its normal outlet the outrush of water causing a large lahar The most notable lahar caused the Tangiwai disaster on December 24 1953 when 151 people aboard a Wellington to Auckland express train were killed after the lahar destroyed the Tangiwai rail bridge just moments before the train was due In 2000 the ERLAWS system was installed on the mountain to detect such a collapse and alert the relevant authorities The Auckland volcanic field on the North Island of New Zealand has produced a diverse array of explosive craters scoria cones and lava flows Currently dormant the field is likely to erupt again within the next hundreds to thousands of years a very short timeframe in geologic terms 94 The field contains at least 40 volcanoes most recently active about 600 years ago at Rangitoto Island erupting 2 3 km3 0 55 cu mi of lava SoilThe soils of the Pacific Ring of Fire include andosols also known as andisols created by the weathering of volcanic ash Andosols contain large proportions of volcanic glass 95 The Ring of Fire is the world s main location for this soil type which typically has good levels of fertility 96 See also Earth sciences portal Oceans portal Volcanoes portalDecade Volcanoes Set of sixteen volcanoes noted for their eruptive history and proximity to densely populated areas Deep Earth Carbon Degassing Project Scientific project studying carbon transfer from Earth s interior Geology of the Pacific Northwest Geology of Oregon and Washington United States and British Columbia Canada Pacific Rim Land area comprising the rim of the Pacific OceanNotes Spanish cinturon de fuego del Pacifico anillo de fuego del Pacifico Malay Lingkaran api Pasifik Indonesian Cincin Api Pasifik Filipino Singsing ng Apoy ng Pasipiko Chinese 环太平洋火山带 Huan Taipingyang Huǒshan Dai Russian Tihookeanskoe vulkanicheskoe ognennoe kolco romanized Tikhookeanskoye vulkanicheskoye ognennoye kol tso Japanese 環太平洋火山帯 romanized Kantaiheiyō kazan tai or 環太平洋造山帯 Kantaiheiyō zōzantai Disagreement about the Ring of Fire s exact geographic boundaries affects statistics such as how many volcanoes are in the Ring of Fire and how many earthquakes occur in the Ring of Fire The exact number of volcanoes depends on the geographic boundaries used by the source Macdonald 1972 listed 361 historically active volcanoes in the Ring of Fire or 398 historically active volcanoes if the western islands of Indonesia are included 10 if Antarctica and the western islands of Indonesia are excluded and the Izu Bonin and Mariana Islands are included excluding the Antarctic Peninsula and the western islands of Indonesia Twenty two if the western islands of Indonesia are included if Antarctica and the western islands of Indonesia are excluded 18 79 of 95 earthquakes if the western islands of Indonesia are excluded 59 References What is the Ring of Fire NOAA Retrieved 5 December 2020 a b c Stern Robert J Bloomer S H 2020 Subduction zone Access Science doi 10 1036 1097 8542 757381 Moving slabs This Dynamic Earth USGS a b c 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