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Endemism

Endemism is the state of a species being found in a single defined geographic location, such as an island, state, nation, country or other defined zone; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also found elsewhere.[1] For example, the Cape sugarbird is found exclusively in southwestern South Africa and is therefore said to be endemic to that particular part of the world.[2]

Both the orange-breasted sunbird (Anthobaphes violacea) and the Kniphofia uvaria plant it feeds on are both found exclusively in South Africa.
Bicolored frog (Clinotarsus curtipes) is endemic to the Western Ghats of India.
Montezuma Well in the Verde Valley of Arizona contains at least five endemic species found exclusively in the sinkhole.

An endemic species can be also be referred to as an endemism or in scientific literature as an endemite. For example Cytisus aeolicus is an endemite of the Italian flora.[3] Adzharia renschi was once believed to be an endemite of the Caucasus, but it was later discovered to be a non-indigenous species from South America belonging to a different genus.[4]

The extreme opposite of an endemic species is one with a cosmopolitan distribution, having a global or widespread range.[1]

A rare alternative term for a species that is endemic is "precinctive", which applies to species (and other taxonomic levels) that are restricted to a defined geographical area.[5] Other terms that sometimes are used interchangeably, but less often, include autochthonal, autochthonic, and indigenous, however these terms do not reflect the status of a species that specifically belongs only to a determined place.

Etymology

History of the concept

The word endemic is from New Latin endēmicus, from Greek ἔνδημος, éndēmos, "native". Endēmos is formed of en meaning "in", and dēmos meaning "the people".[6] The word entered the English language as a loan word from French endémique, and originally seems to have been used in the sense of diseases which occur at a constant amount in a country, as opposed to epidemic diseases, which are exploding in cases. The word was used in biology in 1872 to mean a species restricted to a specific location by Charles Darwin.[7]

The more uncommon term 'precinctive' has been used by some entomologists as the equivalent of 'endemic'.[5][7][8] Precinctive was coined in 1900 by David Sharp when describing the Hawaiian insects, as he was uncomfortable with the fact that the word 'endemic' is often associated with diseases.[9] 'Precinctive' was first used in botany by Vaughan MacCaughey in Hawaii in 1917.[10]

Overview

 
Chorus cicada (Amphipsalta zelandica), a species endemic to New Zealand

Endemism in general excludes examples kept by humans in botanical gardens or zoological parks, as well as populations introduced outside of their native ranges.[citation needed] Juan J. Morrone states that a species may be endemic to any particular geographic region, regardless of size, thus the cougar is endemic to the Americas,[1] however, endemism is normally used only where there is a considerable restriction in the area of distribution. All species are not endemics, some species may be cosmopolitan. All endemics are not necessarily rare; some might be common where they occur. All rare species are not necessarily endemics, some may have a large range but be rare throughout this range.[11]

Endemism is caused by historical and ecological factors. Vicariant events caused by drifting continents, dispersal and extinction are some possible historical factors. Ecological factors can explain the present limits on a distribution.[1] Endemic species are especially likely to develop on geographically and biologically isolated areas such as islands and remote island groups, including Hawaii, the Galápagos Islands and Socotra,[12] because of the potential for isolation and therefore evolution through allopatric speciation. Darwin's finches in the Galápagos archipelago are examples of species endemic to islands.[citation needed] Similarly, isolated mountainous regions like the Ethiopian Highlands,[13] or large bodies of water far from other lakes, like Lake Baikal, can also have high rates of endemism.[14]

The stability of a region's climate and habitat through time may also contribute to high rates of endemism (especially paleoendemism), acting as refuges for species during times of climate change like Ice Ages. These changes may have caused species to repeatedly restrict their ranges into these refuges, leading to regions with many small-ranged species.[15] In many cases biological factors, such as low rates of dispersal or returning to the spawning area (philopatry), can cause a particular group of organisms to have high speciation rates and thus many endemic species. for example, cichlids in the East African Rift Lakes have diversified into many more endemic species than the other fish families in the same lakes, possibly due to such factors.[14] Plants which become endemic on isolated islands are often those which have a high rate of dispersal, and are able to reach such islands by being dispersed by birds.[16] While birds are less likely to be endemic to a region based on their ability to disperse via flight, there are over 2,500 species which are considered endemic, meaning that the species is restricted to an area less than 5 million hectares.[17]

Microorganisms were traditionally not believed to form endemics. The hypothesis 'everything is everywhere', first stated in Dutch by Lourens G.M. Baas Becking in 1934, describes the theory that the distribution of organisms smaller than 2mm is cosmopolitan where habitats occur that support their growth.[18]

Subtypes

The first subcategories were first introduced by Claude P. E. Favager and Juliette Contandriopoulis in 1961: schizoendemics, apoendemics and patroendemics.[11][19] Using this work, Ledyard Stebbins and Jack Major then introduced the concepts of neoendemics and paleoendemics in 1965 to describe the endemics of California.[20] Endemic taxa can also be classified into autochthonous, allochtonous, taxonomic relicts and biogeographic relicts.[1]

Paleoendemism refers to species that were formerly widespread but are now restricted to a smaller area. Neoendemism refers to species that have recently arisen, such as through divergence and reproductive isolation[14] or through hybridization[citation needed] and polyploidy in plants,[21] and have not dispersed beyond a limited range.[14]

Paleoendemism is more or less synonymous with the concept of a 'relict species': a population or taxon of organisms that was more widespread or more diverse in the past. A 'relictual population' is a population that currently occurs in a restricted area, but whose original range was far wider during a previous geologic epoch. Similarly, a 'relictual taxon' is a taxon (e.g. species or other lineage) that is the sole surviving representative of a formerly diverse group.[22]

Schizoendemics, apoendemics and patroendemics can all be classified as types of neoendemics. Schizoendemics arise from a wider distributed taxon which has become reproductively isolated without becoming (potentially) genetically isolated – a schizoendemic has the same chromosome count as the parent taxon it evolved from. An apoendemic is a polyploid of the parent taxon (or taxa in the case of allopolyploids), whereas a patroendemic has a lower, diploid chromosome count than the related, more widely distributed polyploid taxon.[16][21] Mikio Ono coined the term 'aneuendemics' in 1991 for species which have more or less chromosomes than their relatives due to aneuploidy.[16]

Pseudoendemics are taxa which have possibly recently evolved from a mutation. Holoendemics is a concept introduced by Richardson 1978 to describe taxa which have remained endemic to a restricted distribution for a very long time.[11]

In a 2000 paper, Myers and de Grave further attempted to redefine the concept. In their view, everything is endemic, even cosmopolitan species are endemic to Earth, and earlier definitions restricting endemics to specific locations are wrong. Thus the subdivisions neoendemics and paleoendemics are without merit regarding the study of distributions, because these concepts consider that an endemic has a distribution limited to one place. Instead, they propose four different categories: holoendemics, euryendemics, stenoendemics and rhoendemics. In their scheme cryptoendemics and euendemics are further subdivisions of rhoendemics. In their view, a holoendemic is a cosmopolitan species. Stenoendemics, also known as local endemics,[11] have a reduced distribution and are synonymous with the word 'endemics' in the traditional sense, whereas euryendemics have a larger distribution -both these have distributions which are more or less continuous. A rhoendemic has a disjunct distribution. Where this disjunct distribution is caused by vicariance, in a euendemic the vicariance was geologic in nature, such as the movement of tectonic plates, but in a cryptoendemic the disjunct distribution was due to extinction of the intervening populations. There is yet another possible situation which can cause a disjunct distribution, where a species is able to colonize new territories by crossing over areas of unsuitable habitat, such as plants colonizing an island – this situation they dismiss as extremely rare and do not devise a name for. Traditionally, none of Myers and de Grave's categories would be considered endemics except stenoendemics.[18][23]

Soil

 
Red Hills near Tuolumne County, California: a serpentine grassland

Serpentine soils act as 'edaphic islands' of low fertility and these soils lead to high rates of endemism.[24][25] These soils are found in the Balkan Peninsula, Turkey, Alps, Cuba, New Caledonia, the North American Appalachians, and a scattered distribution in California, Oregon, and Washington and elsewhere.[26] For example, Mayer and Soltis considered the widespread subspecies Streptanthus glandulosus subsp. glandulosus which grows on normal soils, to be a paleoendemic, whereas closely related endemic forms of S. glandulosus occurring on serpentine soil patches are neoendemics which recently evolved from subsp. glandulosus.[25]

Islands

Isolated islands commonly develop a number of endemics.[16][27] Many species and other higher taxonomic groups exist in very small terrestrial or aquatic islands, which restrict their distribution. The Devil's Hole pupfish, Cyprinodon diabolis, has its whole native population restricted to a spring that is 20 x 3 meters, in Nevada's Mojave Desert.[28] This 'aquatic island' is connected to an underground basin; however, the population present in the pool remains isolated.

Other areas very similar to the Galapagos Islands of the Pacific Ocean exist and foster high rates of endemism. The Socotra Archipelago of Yemen, located in the Indian Ocean, has seen a new endemic species of parasitic leech, Myxobdella socotrensis, appear.[29] This species is restricted to freshwater springs, where it may attach to and feed upon native crabs.

Mountains

 
Cinder cones and vegetation of Kula Volcano in Turkey

Mountains can be seen as 'sky islands': refugia of endemics because species that live in the cool climates of mountain peaks are geographically isolated. For example, in the Alpes-Maritimes department of France, Saxifraga florulenta is an endemic plant that may have evolved in the Late Miocene and could have once been widespread across the Mediterranean Basin.[30]

Volcanoes also tend to harbor a number of endemic species. Plants on volcanoes tend to fill a specialized ecological niche, with a very restrictive range, due to the unique environmental characteristics. The Kula Volcano, one of the fourteen volcanoes in Turkey, is home to 13 endemic species of plants.[31]

Conservation

 
Aplastodiscus arildae, a species of frog that is endemic to Brazil
 
The nene (Branta sandvicensis) is endemic to the Hawaiian islands, but was introduced to WWT Slimbridge in the UK to increase its numbers for reintroduction to its native range.

Endemics might more easily become endangered or extinct because they are already restricted in distribution.[32] This puts endemic plants and animals at greater risk than widespread species during the rapid climate change of this century.[33][34] Some scientists claim that the presence of endemic species in an area is a good method to find geographical regions that can be considered priorities for conservation.[1][35] Endemism can thus be studied as a proxy for measuring biodiversity of a region.[36]

The concept of finding endemic species that occur in the same region to designate 'endemism hotspots' was first proposed by Paul Müller in a 1973 book. According to him, this is only possible where 1.) the taxonomy of the species in question is not in dispute; 2.) the species distribution is accurately known; and 3.) the species have relatively small distributional ranges.[37][38]

In a 2000 article, Myers et al. used the standard of having more than 0.5% of the world's plant species being endemics of the region to designate 25 geographical areas of the world as 'biodiversity hotspots'.[35]

In response to the above, the World Wildlife Fund has split the world into a few hundred geographical 'ecoregions'. These have been designed to include as many species as possible that only occur in a single ecoregion, and these species are thus 'endemics' to these ecoregions.[14] Since plenty of these ecoregions have a high prevalence of endemics existing within them, many National Parks have been formed around or within them to further promote conservation. The Caparaó National Park was formed in the Atlantic Forest, a biodiversity hotspot located in Brazil, in order to help protect valuable and vulnerable species.[39]

Other scientists have argued that endemism is not an appropriate measure of biodiversity, because the levels of threat or biodiversity are not actually correlated to areas of high endemism. When using bird species as an example, it was found that only 2.5% of biodiversity hotspots correlate with endemism and the threatened nature of a geographic region.[1][40] A similar pattern had been found previously regarding mammals, Lasioglossum bees, Plusiinae moths, and swallowtail butterflies in North America: these different groups of taxa did not correlate geographically with each other regarding endemism and species richness. Especially using mammals as flagship species proved to be a poor system of identifying and protecting areas of high invertebrate biodiversity.[41] In response to this, other scientists again defended the concept by using WWF ecoregions and reptiles, finding that most reptile endemics occur in WWF ecoregions with high biodiversity.[36]

Other conservation efforts for endemics include keeping captive and semi-captive populations in zoological parks and botanical gardens. These methods are ex situ ("off site") conservation methods. The use of such methods may not only offer refuge and protection for individuals of declining or vulnerable populations, but it may also allow biologists valuable opportunities to research them as well.

References

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External links

  •   The dictionary definition of endemic at Wiktionary

endemism, endemic, redirects, here, epidemiological, context, endemic, epidemiology, state, species, being, found, single, defined, geographic, location, such, island, state, nation, country, other, defined, zone, organisms, that, indigenous, place, endemic, t. Endemic redirects here For the epidemiological context see Endemic epidemiology Endemism is the state of a species being found in a single defined geographic location such as an island state nation country or other defined zone organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also found elsewhere 1 For example the Cape sugarbird is found exclusively in southwestern South Africa and is therefore said to be endemic to that particular part of the world 2 Both the orange breasted sunbird Anthobaphes violacea and the Kniphofia uvaria plant it feeds on are both found exclusively in South Africa Bicolored frog Clinotarsus curtipes is endemic to the Western Ghats of India Montezuma Well in the Verde Valley of Arizona contains at least five endemic species found exclusively in the sinkhole An endemic species can be also be referred to as an endemism or in scientific literature as an endemite For example Cytisus aeolicus is an endemite of the Italian flora 3 Adzharia renschi was once believed to be an endemite of the Caucasus but it was later discovered to be a non indigenous species from South America belonging to a different genus 4 The extreme opposite of an endemic species is one with a cosmopolitan distribution having a global or widespread range 1 A rare alternative term for a species that is endemic is precinctive which applies to species and other taxonomic levels that are restricted to a defined geographical area 5 Other terms that sometimes are used interchangeably but less often include autochthonal autochthonic and indigenous however these terms do not reflect the status of a species that specifically belongs only to a determined place Contents 1 Etymology 1 1 History of the concept 2 Overview 2 1 Subtypes 2 2 Soil 2 3 Islands 2 4 Mountains 3 Conservation 4 References 5 External linksEtymology EditHistory of the concept Edit The word endemic is from New Latin endemicus from Greek ἔndhmos endemos native Endemos is formed of en meaning in and demos meaning the people 6 The word entered the English language as a loan word from French endemique and originally seems to have been used in the sense of diseases which occur at a constant amount in a country as opposed to epidemic diseases which are exploding in cases The word was used in biology in 1872 to mean a species restricted to a specific location by Charles Darwin 7 The more uncommon term precinctive has been used by some entomologists as the equivalent of endemic 5 7 8 Precinctive was coined in 1900 by David Sharp when describing the Hawaiian insects as he was uncomfortable with the fact that the word endemic is often associated with diseases 9 Precinctive was first used in botany by Vaughan MacCaughey in Hawaii in 1917 10 Overview Edit Chorus cicada Amphipsalta zelandica a species endemic to New Zealand Endemism in general excludes examples kept by humans in botanical gardens or zoological parks as well as populations introduced outside of their native ranges citation needed Juan J Morrone states that a species may be endemic to any particular geographic region regardless of size thus the cougar is endemic to the Americas 1 however endemism is normally used only where there is a considerable restriction in the area of distribution All species are not endemics some species may be cosmopolitan All endemics are not necessarily rare some might be common where they occur All rare species are not necessarily endemics some may have a large range but be rare throughout this range 11 Endemism is caused by historical and ecological factors Vicariant events caused by drifting continents dispersal and extinction are some possible historical factors Ecological factors can explain the present limits on a distribution 1 Endemic species are especially likely to develop on geographically and biologically isolated areas such as islands and remote island groups including Hawaii the Galapagos Islands and Socotra 12 because of the potential for isolation and therefore evolution through allopatric speciation Darwin s finches in the Galapagos archipelago are examples of species endemic to islands citation needed Similarly isolated mountainous regions like the Ethiopian Highlands 13 or large bodies of water far from other lakes like Lake Baikal can also have high rates of endemism 14 The stability of a region s climate and habitat through time may also contribute to high rates of endemism especially paleoendemism acting as refuges for species during times of climate change like Ice Ages These changes may have caused species to repeatedly restrict their ranges into these refuges leading to regions with many small ranged species 15 In many cases biological factors such as low rates of dispersal or returning to the spawning area philopatry can cause a particular group of organisms to have high speciation rates and thus many endemic species for example cichlids in the East African Rift Lakes have diversified into many more endemic species than the other fish families in the same lakes possibly due to such factors 14 Plants which become endemic on isolated islands are often those which have a high rate of dispersal and are able to reach such islands by being dispersed by birds 16 While birds are less likely to be endemic to a region based on their ability to disperse via flight there are over 2 500 species which are considered endemic meaning that the species is restricted to an area less than 5 million hectares 17 Microorganisms were traditionally not believed to form endemics The hypothesis everything is everywhere first stated in Dutch by Lourens G M Baas Becking in 1934 describes the theory that the distribution of organisms smaller than 2mm is cosmopolitan where habitats occur that support their growth 18 Subtypes Edit The first subcategories were first introduced by Claude P E Favager and Juliette Contandriopoulis in 1961 schizoendemics apoendemics and patroendemics 11 19 Using this work Ledyard Stebbins and Jack Major then introduced the concepts of neoendemics and paleoendemics in 1965 to describe the endemics of California 20 Endemic taxa can also be classified into autochthonous allochtonous taxonomic relicts and biogeographic relicts 1 Paleoendemism refers to species that were formerly widespread but are now restricted to a smaller area Neoendemism refers to species that have recently arisen such as through divergence and reproductive isolation 14 or through hybridization citation needed and polyploidy in plants 21 and have not dispersed beyond a limited range 14 Paleoendemism is more or less synonymous with the concept of a relict species a population or taxon of organisms that was more widespread or more diverse in the past A relictual population is a population that currently occurs in a restricted area but whose original range was far wider during a previous geologic epoch Similarly a relictual taxon is a taxon e g species or other lineage that is the sole surviving representative of a formerly diverse group 22 Schizoendemics apoendemics and patroendemics can all be classified as types of neoendemics Schizoendemics arise from a wider distributed taxon which has become reproductively isolated without becoming potentially genetically isolated a schizoendemic has the same chromosome count as the parent taxon it evolved from An apoendemic is a polyploid of the parent taxon or taxa in the case of allopolyploids whereas a patroendemic has a lower diploid chromosome count than the related more widely distributed polyploid taxon 16 21 Mikio Ono coined the term aneuendemics in 1991 for species which have more or less chromosomes than their relatives due to aneuploidy 16 Pseudoendemics are taxa which have possibly recently evolved from a mutation Holoendemics is a concept introduced by Richardson 1978 to describe taxa which have remained endemic to a restricted distribution for a very long time 11 In a 2000 paper Myers and de Grave further attempted to redefine the concept In their view everything is endemic even cosmopolitan species are endemic to Earth and earlier definitions restricting endemics to specific locations are wrong Thus the subdivisions neoendemics and paleoendemics are without merit regarding the study of distributions because these concepts consider that an endemic has a distribution limited to one place Instead they propose four different categories holoendemics euryendemics stenoendemics and rhoendemics In their scheme cryptoendemics and euendemics are further subdivisions of rhoendemics In their view a holoendemic is a cosmopolitan species Stenoendemics also known as local endemics 11 have a reduced distribution and are synonymous with the word endemics in the traditional sense whereas euryendemics have a larger distribution both these have distributions which are more or less continuous A rhoendemic has a disjunct distribution Where this disjunct distribution is caused by vicariance in a euendemic the vicariance was geologic in nature such as the movement of tectonic plates but in a cryptoendemic the disjunct distribution was due to extinction of the intervening populations There is yet another possible situation which can cause a disjunct distribution where a species is able to colonize new territories by crossing over areas of unsuitable habitat such as plants colonizing an island this situation they dismiss as extremely rare and do not devise a name for Traditionally none of Myers and de Grave s categories would be considered endemics except stenoendemics 18 23 Soil Edit Red Hills near Tuolumne County California a serpentine grassland Serpentine soils act as edaphic islands of low fertility and these soils lead to high rates of endemism 24 25 These soils are found in the Balkan Peninsula Turkey Alps Cuba New Caledonia the North American Appalachians and a scattered distribution in California Oregon and Washington and elsewhere 26 For example Mayer and Soltis considered the widespread subspecies Streptanthus glandulosus subsp glandulosus which grows on normal soils to be a paleoendemic whereas closely related endemic forms of S glandulosus occurring on serpentine soil patches are neoendemics which recently evolved from subsp glandulosus 25 Islands Edit Isolated islands commonly develop a number of endemics 16 27 Many species and other higher taxonomic groups exist in very small terrestrial or aquatic islands which restrict their distribution The Devil s Hole pupfish Cyprinodon diabolis has its whole native population restricted to a spring that is 20 x 3 meters in Nevada s Mojave Desert 28 This aquatic island is connected to an underground basin however the population present in the pool remains isolated Other areas very similar to the Galapagos Islands of the Pacific Ocean exist and foster high rates of endemism The Socotra Archipelago of Yemen located in the Indian Ocean has seen a new endemic species of parasitic leech Myxobdella socotrensis appear 29 This species is restricted to freshwater springs where it may attach to and feed upon native crabs Mountains Edit Cinder cones and vegetation of Kula Volcano in Turkey Mountains can be seen as sky islands refugia of endemics because species that live in the cool climates of mountain peaks are geographically isolated For example in the Alpes Maritimes department of France Saxifraga florulenta is an endemic plant that may have evolved in the Late Miocene and could have once been widespread across the Mediterranean Basin 30 Volcanoes also tend to harbor a number of endemic species Plants on volcanoes tend to fill a specialized ecological niche with a very restrictive range due to the unique environmental characteristics The Kula Volcano one of the fourteen volcanoes in Turkey is home to 13 endemic species of plants 31 Conservation Edit Aplastodiscus arildae a species of frog that is endemic to Brazil The nene Branta sandvicensis is endemic to the Hawaiian islands but was introduced to WWT Slimbridge in the UK to increase its numbers for reintroduction to its native range Endemics might more easily become endangered or extinct because they are already restricted in distribution 32 This puts endemic plants and animals at greater risk than widespread species during the rapid climate change of this century 33 34 Some scientists claim that the presence of endemic species in an area is a good method to find geographical regions that can be considered priorities for conservation 1 35 Endemism can thus be studied as a proxy for measuring biodiversity of a region 36 The concept of finding endemic species that occur in the same region to designate endemism hotspots was first proposed by Paul Muller in a 1973 book According to him this is only possible where 1 the taxonomy of the species in question is not in dispute 2 the species distribution is accurately known and 3 the species have relatively small distributional ranges 37 38 In a 2000 article Myers et al used the standard of having more than 0 5 of the world s plant species being endemics of the region to designate 25 geographical areas of the world as biodiversity hotspots 35 In response to the above the World Wildlife Fund has split the world into a few hundred geographical ecoregions These have been designed to include as many species as possible that only occur in a single ecoregion and these species are thus endemics to these ecoregions 14 Since plenty of these ecoregions have a high prevalence of endemics existing within them many National Parks have been formed around or within them to further promote conservation The Caparao National Park was formed in the Atlantic Forest a biodiversity hotspot located in Brazil in order to help protect valuable and vulnerable species 39 Other scientists have argued that endemism is not an appropriate measure of biodiversity because the levels of threat or biodiversity are not actually correlated to areas of high endemism When using bird species as an example it was found that only 2 5 of biodiversity hotspots correlate with endemism and the threatened nature of a geographic region 1 40 A similar pattern had been found previously regarding mammals Lasioglossum bees Plusiinae moths and swallowtail butterflies in North America these different groups of taxa did not correlate geographically with each other regarding endemism and species richness Especially using mammals as flagship species proved to be a poor system of identifying and protecting areas of high invertebrate biodiversity 41 In response to this other scientists again defended the concept by using WWF ecoregions and reptiles finding that most reptile endemics occur in WWF ecoregions with high biodiversity 36 Other conservation efforts for endemics include keeping captive and semi captive populations in zoological parks and botanical gardens These methods are ex situ off site conservation methods The use of such methods may not only offer refuge and protection for individuals of declining or vulnerable populations but it may also allow biologists valuable opportunities to research them as well References Edit a b c d e f g Morrone Juan J 2008 Encyclopedia of Ecology Vol 3 2 ed Elsevier pp 81 86 doi 10 1016 B978 0 444 63768 0 00786 1 Riley Adam 13 December 2011 South Africa s endemic birds 10 000 Birds Adam Riley Retrieved 9 December 2020 Genetic diversity in Cytisus aeolicus Guss Leguminosae a rare endemite of the Italian flora Hausdorf Bernhard 2015 The Supposed Transcaucasian Endemite Adzharia renschi Hesse 1933 is a South AmericanBulimulus Species Gastropoda Bulimulidae Malacologia 58 1 2 363 364 doi 10 4002 040 058 0214 S2CID 87572201 a b Encyclopedia of Entomology Dordrecht Springer 2004 doi 10 1007 0 306 48380 7 3391 ISBN 978 0 306 48380 6 Endemic Reference com Retrieved 6 December 2014 a b Frank J H McCoy E D March 1990 Endemics and epidemics of shibboleths and other things causing chaos Florida Entomologist 73 1 1 9 JSTOR 3495327 Frank J H McCoy E D March 1995 Precinctive insect species in Florida Florida Entomologist 78 1 21 35 doi 10 2307 3495663 JSTOR 3495663 Sharp David 1900 Coleoptera I Coleoptera Phytophaga Fauna Hawaiiensis Being the Land Fauna of the Hawaiian Islands Vol 2 part 3 Cambridge Cambridge University Press pp 91 116 I use the word precinctive in the sense of confined to the area under discussion precinctive forms means those forms that are confined to the area specified MacCaughey Vaughan August 1917 A survey of the Hawaiian land flora Botanical Gazette LXIV 2 92 doi 10 1086 332097 S2CID 83629816 a b c d Bhan Preksha 12 July 2016 Endemics Types Characters and Theories Retrieved 9 December 2020 Kier G Kreft H Lee TM Jetz W Ibisch PL Nowicki C Mutke J Barthlott W June 2009 A global assessment of endemism and species richness across island and mainland regions Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 106 23 9322 7 Bibcode 2009PNAS 106 9322K doi 10 1073 pnas 0810306106 PMC 2685248 PMID 19470638 Steinbauer MJ Field R Grytnes JA Trigas P Ah Peng C Attorre F et al 2016 Topography driven isolation speciation and a global increase of endemism with elevation PDF Global Ecology and Biogeography 25 9 1097 1107 doi 10 1111 geb 12469 hdl 1893 23221 a b c d e Martens K Segers H 2009 Endemism in Aquatic Ecosystems Encyclopedia of Inland Waters Academic Press pp 423 430 doi 10 1016 B978 012370626 3 00211 8 ISBN 9780123706263 Harrison S Noss R January 2017 Endemism hotspots are linked to stable climatic refugia Annals of Botany 119 2 207 214 doi 10 1093 aob mcw248 PMC 5321063 PMID 28064195 a b c d Ono Mikio 1991 The Flora of the Bonin Ogasawara Islands Endemism and Dispersal Modes Aliso 13 1 95 105 doi 10 5642 aliso 19911301 04 Retrieved 10 December 2020 BirdLife Data Zone datazone birdlife org Retrieved 2021 04 12 a b Williams David January 2011 Historical biogeography microbial endemism and the role of classification Everything is endemic In Fontaneto Diego ed Biogeography of microorganisms Is everything small everywhere Cambridge University Press pp 11 32 doi 10 1017 CBO9780511974878 003 ISBN 9780511974878 Contandriopoulos J Cardona i Florit Mileniac A 1984 Caractere original de la flore endemique des Baleares Botanica Helvetica in French 94 1 101 132 ISSN 0253 1453 Retrieved 27 November 2020 Stebbins G Ledyard Major Jack 1965 Endemism and Speciation in the California Flora Ecological Monographs 35 1 2 35 doi 10 2307 1942216 JSTOR 1942216 a b Endemism Alpecole University of Zurich Department of Geography 29 August 2011 Retrieved 9 December 2020 Habel Jan C Assmann Thorsten Schmitt Thomas Avise John C 2010 Relict Species From Past to Future In Habel Jan Christian Assmann Thorsten eds Relict species Phylogeography and Conservation Biology Berlin Springer Verlag pp 1 5 ISBN 9783540921608 Myers Alan A de Grave Sammy December 2000 Endemism Origins and implications Vie et Milieu 50 4 195 204 Retrieved 10 December 2020 Anacker Brian L February 2014 The nature of serpentine endemism American Journal of Botany 101 2 219 224 doi 10 3732 ajb 1300349 PMID 24509800 a b Mayer Michael S Soltis Pamela S October 1994 The Evolution of Serpentine Endemics A Chloroplast DNA Phylogeny of the Streptanthus glandulosus Complex Cruciferae Systematic Botany 19 4 557 74 doi 10 2307 2419777 JSTOR 2419777 Kruckeberg Arthur R 2002 Geology and plant life the effects of landforms and rock types on plants Seattle University of Washington Press ISBN 978 0 295 98203 8 OCLC 475373672 page needed Carlquist Sherwin 1974 Island Biology New York Columbia University pp 19 34 35 ISBN 9780231035620 Retrieved 10 December 2020 Lomolino Mark V 2016 Biogeography Biological Diversity across Space and Time Sunderland Massachusetts U S A Sinauer Associates Inc p 316 ISBN 9781605354729 Schenkova J June 2021 Myxobdella socotrensis sp nov a new parasitic leech from Socotra Island with comments on the phylogeny of Praobdellidae Hirudinida Arhynchobdellida Parasitology International 82 102310 doi 10 1016 j parint 2021 102310 PMID 33617989 S2CID 232018118 via SCOPUS Comes Hans Peter 1 September 2004 The Mediterranean region a hotspot for plant biogeographic research New Phytologist 164 1 11 14 doi 10 1111 j 1469 8137 2004 01194 x PMID 33873489 Isik Gursoy Deniz January 2015 Plant communities diversity and endemism of the Kula Volcano Manisa Turkey Plant Biosystems 1 6 via ResearchGate Fritz S A Bininda Emonds O R P Purvis A 15 May 2009 Geographical variation in predictors of mammalian extinction risk big is bad but only in the tropics Ecology Letters 12 6 538 549 doi 10 1111 j 1461 0248 2009 01307 x PMID 19392714 Manes Stella et al 2021 Endemism increases species climate change risk in areas of global biodiversity importance Biological Conservation 257 1 11 doi 10 1016 j biocon 2021 109070 Sandel B Arge L Dalsgaard B Davies R G Gaston K J Sutherland W J Svenning J C 6 October 2011 The Influence of Late Quaternary Climate Change Velocity on Species Endemism Science 334 6056 660 4 Bibcode 2011Sci 334 660S doi 10 1126 science 1210173 PMID 21979937 a b Myers Norman Mittermeier Russell A Mittermeier Cristina G da Fonseca Gustavo A B Kent Jennifer February 2000 Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities Nature 403 6772 853 858 Bibcode 2000Natur 403 853M doi 10 1038 35002501 PMID 10706275 S2CID 4414279 a b Meadows Robin 29 July 2008 Endemism as a Surrogate for Biodiversity Conservation University of Washington Retrieved 21 March 2019 Muller Paul 11 October 1973 The dispersal centres of terrestrial vertebrates in the Neotropical realm a study in the evolution of the Neotropical biota and its native landscapes The Hague W Junk ISBN 9789061932031 Morrone Juan J 1994 On the Identification of Areas of Endemism PDF Systematic Biology 43 3 438 441 doi 10 1093 sysbio 43 3 438 Archived from the original PDF on 2012 04 03 Retrieved 2010 08 30 Silva Rosane Gomes da Santos Alexandre Rosa dos Peluzio Joao Batista Esteves Fiedler Nilton Cesar Juvanhol Ronie Silva Souza Kaise Barbosa de Branco Elvis Ricardo Figueira 2021 04 01 Vegetation trends in a protected area of the Brazilian Atlantic forest Ecological Engineering 162 106180 doi 10 1016 j ecoleng 2021 106180 ISSN 0925 8574 S2CID 233567444 Orme C David L Richard G Davies Burgess Malcolm Eigenbrod Felix Pickup Nicola Olson Valerie A et al August 2005 Global hotspots of species richness are not congruent with endemism or threat Nature 436 7053 1016 1019 Bibcode 2005Natur 436 1016O doi 10 1038 nature03850 PMID 16107848 S2CID 4414787 Kerr Jeremy T October 1997 Species Richness Endemism and the Choice of Areas for Conservation PDF Conservation Biology 11 55 1094 1100 doi 10 1046 j 1523 1739 1997 96089 x JSTOR 2387391 S2CID 55794847 Archived from the original PDF on 2017 08 09 Retrieved 2010 08 30 External links Edit The dictionary definition of endemic at Wiktionary Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Endemism amp oldid 1133327311, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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