fbpx
Wikipedia

Bushmeat

January 08, 2023

Not to be confused with Bushfood.

Bushmeat is meat from wildlife species that are hunted for human consumption, most often referring to the meat of game in Africa. Bushmeat represents a primary source of animal protein and a cash-earning commodity for inhabitants of humid tropical forest regions in Africa, Latin America and Asia.[1] Bushmeat is an important food resource for poor people, particularly in rural areas.[2]

Bushmeat
Bushmeat is often smoked to preserve it
Alternative namesWild meat, wild game
Main ingredientsWildlife
  •   Media: Bushmeat

The numbers of animals killed and traded as bushmeat in the 1990s in West and Central Africa were thought to be unsustainable.[3] By 2005, commercial harvesting and trading of bushmeat was considered a threat to biodiversity.[4] As of 2016, 301 terrestrial mammals were threatened with extinction due to hunting for bushmeat including primates, even-toed ungulates, bats, diprotodont marsupials, rodents and carnivores occurring in developing countries.[5]

Bushmeat provides increased opportunity for transmission of several zoonotic viruses from animal hosts to humans, such as Ebolavirus and HIV.[6][7][8]

Nomenclature

The term 'bushmeat' is originally an African term for wildlife species that are hunted for human consumption,[2] and usually refers specifically to the meat of African wildlife.[9] In October 2000, the IUCN World Conservation Congress passed a resolution on the unsustainable commercial trade in wild meat. Affected countries were urged to recognize the increasing impact of the bushmeat trade, to strengthen and enforce legislation, and to develop action programmes to mitigate the impact of the trade. Donor organisations were requested to provide funding for the implementation of such programmes.[10]

Wildlife hunting for food is important for the livelihood security of and supply of dietary protein for poor people. It can be sustainable when carried out by traditional hunter-gatherers in large landscapes for their own consumption. Due to the extent of bushmeat hunting for trade in markets, the survival of those species that are large-bodied and reproduce slowly is threatened. The term bushmeat crisis was coined in 2007 and refers to this dual threat of depleting food resources and wildlife extinctions, both entailed by the bushmeat trade.[2]

Affected wildlife species

Globally, more than 1,000 animal species are estimated to be affected by hunting for bushmeat.[1] Bushmeat hunters use mostly leg-hold snare traps to catch any wildlife, but prefer to kill large species, as these provide a greater amount of meat than small species.[11]

 
Pangolin in Cameroon
 
Gambian pouched rat in Cameroon
 
Bushmeat in Gabon

The volume of the bushmeat trade in West and Central Africa was estimated at 1–5 million metric tons (980,000–4,920,000 long tons; 1,100,000–5,500,000 short tons) per year at the turn of the 21st century.[12] In 2002, it was estimated that species weighing more than 10 kg (22 lb) contribute 177.7 ± 358.4 kg/km2 (1,015 ± 2,046 lb/sq mi) of meat per year to the bushmeat extracted in the Congo Basin, based on 24 individuals. Species weighing less than 10 kg (22 lb) were estimated to contribute 35.4 ± 72.2 kg/km2 (202 ± 412 lb/sq mi), also based on 24 individuals. Bushmeat extraction in the Amazon rainforest was estimated to be much lower, at 3.69 ± 3.9 kg/km2 (21.1 ± 22.3 lb/sq mi) in the case of species weighing more than 10 kg and 0.6 ± 0.9 kg/km2 (3.4 ± 5.1 lb/sq mi) in the case of species weighing less than 10 kg, based on 3 individuals.[13][better source needed] Based on these estimates, a total of 2,200,000 t (2,200,000 long tons; 2,400,000 short tons) bushmeat is extracted in the Congo Basin per year, ranging from 12,938 t (12,734 long tons; 14,262 short tons) in Equatorial Guinea to 1,665,972 t (1,639,661 long tons; 1,836,420 short tons) in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.[14]

The 301 mammal species threatened by hunting for bushmeat comprise 126 primates, 65 even-toed ungulates, 27 bats, 26 diprotodont marsupials, 21 rodents, 12 carnivores and all pangolin species.[5]

Primate species offered fresh and smoked in 2009 at a wildlife market by Liberia's Cavally River included chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), Diana monkey (Cercopithecus diana), putty-nosed monkey (C. nictitans), lesser spot-nosed monkey (C. petaurista), Campbell's mona monkey (C. campbelli), sooty mangabey (Cercocebus atys), king colobus (Colobus polykomos), olive colobus (Procolobus verus), western red colobus (P. badius). Duiker species constituted more than half of the total 723 animals offered.[15] In 2012, the bushmeat trade was surveyed in three villages in the Sassandra Department, Ivory Coast. During six months, nine restaurants received 376 mammals and eight reptiles, including dwarf crocodile (Osteolaemus tetraspis), harnessed bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus), Maxwell's duiker (Philantomba maxwellii), bay duiker (Cephalophus dorsalis), Campbell's mona monkey, lesser spot-nosed monkey, potto (Perodicticus potto), tree pangolin (Phataginus tricuspis), long-tailed pangolin (P. tetradactyla), African brush-tailed porcupine (Atherurus africanus), giant pouched rat (Cricetomys gambianus), greater cane rat (Thryonomys swinderianus), striped ground squirrel (Xerus erythropus) and western tree hyrax (Dendrohyrax dorsalis).[16] About 128,400 straw-coloured fruit bats (Eidolon helvum) were estimated in 2011 to be traded as bushmeat every year in four cities in southern Ghana.[17]

In 2006, it was estimated that about 1,437,458 animals are killed every year in the Nigerian and Cameroon parts of the Cross-Sanaga-Bioko coastal forests, including about 43,880 Emin's pouched rats (Cricetomys emini), 41,800 tree pangolins, 39,700 putty-nosed monkeys, 22,500 Mona monkeys (Cercopithecus mona), 3,500 red-eared guenons (C. erythrotis), 20,300 drills (Mandrillus leucophaeus), 15,300 African civets (Civettictis civetta), 11,900 common kusimanses (Crossarchus obscurus), more than 7,600 African palm civets (Nandinia binotata), 26,760 Nile monitors (Varanus niloticus) and 410 African forest elephants (Loxodonta cyclotis).[18]

 
A gorilla in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 2008

Between 1983 and 2002, the Gabon populations of western gorilla (Gorilla gorilla) and common chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) were estimated to have declined by 56%. This decline was primarily caused by the commercial hunting, which was facilitated by the extended infrastructure for logging purposes.[19]Marsh mongoose (Atilax paludinosus) and long-nosed mongoose (Herpestes naso) are the most numerous small carnivores offered in rural bushmeat markets in the country.[20]

In the late 1990s, fresh and smoked bonobo (Pan paniscus) carcasses were observed in Basankusu in the Province of Équateur in the Congo Basin.[21] The main species killed by bushmeat hunters in Tanzania's Katavi-Rukwa Region include impala (Aepyceros melampus), common duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia), warthog (Phacocherus africanus), Cape buffalo (Syncerus caffer), harnessed bushbuck, red river hog (Potamochoerus porcus) and plains zebra (Equus quagga).[22]

 
Lemurs killed in Madagascar for bushmeat

A survey in a rural area in southwestern Madagascar revealed that bushmeat hunters target bushpig (Potamochoerus larvatus), ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta), Verreaux's sifaka (Propithecus verreauxi), Hubbard's sportive lemur (Lepilemur hubbardorum), fat-tailed dwarf lemur (Cheirogaleus medius), common tenrec (Tenrec ecaudatus), grey mouse lemur (Microcebus murinus), reddish-gray mouse lemur (M. griseorufus), Madagascan fruit bat (Eidolon dupreanum) and Madagascan flying fox (Pteropus rufus).[23]

Dynamics

 
Two Malagasy bushmeat hunters with their quarry

Logging

Logging concessions operated by companies in African forests have been closely linked to the bushmeat trade. Because they provide roads, trucks and other access to remote forests, they are the primary means for the transportation of hunters and meat between forests and urban centres. Some, including the Congolaise Industrielle du Bois (CIB) in the Republic of Congo, partnered with governments and international conservation organizations to regulate the bushmeat trade within the concessions where they operate. Numerous solutions are needed; because each country has different circumstances, traditions and laws, no one solution will work in every location.[24]

Nutrition

Bushmeat can be an important source of micronutrients and macronutrients. A study of South Americans in the Tres Fronteras region found that those who consumed bushmeat were at a lower risk of anemia and chronic health conditions, as their diets included more iron, zinc, and vitamin C than those who did not eat bushmeat.[25]

Overfishing

In Ghana, international illegal over-exploitation of African fishing grounds has increased demand for bushmeat. Both European Union-subsidized fleets and local commercial fleets have depleted fish stocks, leaving local people to supplement their diets with animals hunted from nature reserves. Over 30 years of data link sharp declines in both mammal populations and the biomass of 41 wildlife species with a decreased supply of fish.[26] Consumption of fish and of bushmeat is correlated: the decline of one resource drives up the demand and price for the other.[1]

Pastoralism

Transhumant pastoralists from the border area between Sudan and the Central African Republic are accompanied by armed merchants who also engage in poaching large herbivores. The decline of giant eland, Cape buffalo, hartebeest and waterbuck in the Chinko area between 2012 and 2017 is attributed to their poaching activities. They use livestock to transport bushmeat to markets.[27]

Role in spread of diseases

Further information: zoonotic disease
 
Armillifer grandis specimens in a Rhinoceros viper sold for human consumption

Animal sources may have been the cause for infectious diseases such as tuberculosis, leprosy, cholera, smallpox, measles, influenza, and syphilis acquired by early agrarians. The emergence of HIV-1, AIDS, Ebola virus disease, and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease are attributed to animal sources today.[7]Thomas's rope squirrel (Funisciurus anerythrus) and red-legged sun squirrel (Heliosciurus rufobrachium) were identified as reservoirs of the monkeypox virus in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in the 1980s.[28]

Outbreaks of the Ebola virus in the Congo Basin and in Gabon in the 1990s have been associated with the butchering and consumption of chimpanzees and bonobos.[6] Bushmeat hunters in Central Africa infected with the human T-lymphotropic virus were closely exposed to wild primates.[29]Anthrax can be transmitted when butchering and eating ungulates. The risk of bloodborne diseases to be transmitted is higher when butchering a carcass than when transporting, cooking and eating it.[30]

Many hunters and traders are not aware of zoonosis and the risks of disease transmissions.[31] An interview survey in rural communities in Nigeria revealed that 55% of the respondents knew of zoonoses, but their education and cultural traditions are important drivers for hunting and eating bushmeat despite the risks involved.[32]

HIV

Results of research on wild chimpanzees in Cameroon indicate that they are naturally infected with the simian foamy virus and constitute a reservoir of HIV-1, a precursor of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) in humans.[33] There are several distinct strains of HIV, indicating that this cross-species transfer has occurred several times.[34] Simian immunodeficiency virus present in chimpanzees is reportedly derived from older strains of the virus present in the collared mangabey (Cercocebus torquatus) and the putty-nosed monkey. It is likely that HIV was initially transferred to humans after having come into contact with infected bushmeat.[35]

Ebola

The natural reservoirs of ebolaviruses are unknown.[36][37][38] Possible reservoirs include non-human primates,[36] megabats, rodents, shrews, carnivores, and ungulates.[39] Between October 2001 and December 2003, five Ebola virus outbreaks occurred in the border area between Gabon and Republic of Congo. Autopsies of wildlife carcasses showed that chimpanzees, gorillas and bay duikers were infected with the virus.[40] The Ebola virus has been linked to bushmeat, with some researchers hypothesizing that megabats are a primary host of at least some variants of Ebola virus. Between the first recorded outbreak in 1976 and the largest in 2014, the virus has transferred from animals to humans only 30 times, despite large numbers of bats being killed and sold each year. Bats drop partially eaten fruits and pulp, then terrestrial mammals such as gorillas and duikers feed on these fruits. This chain of events forms a possible indirect means of transmission from the natural host to animal populations.[41] The suspected index case for the Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa in 2014 was a two-year-old boy in Meliandou in south-eastern Guinea, who played in a hollow tree harbouring a colony of Angolan free-tailed bats (Mops condylurus).[42]

Results of a study conducted during the Ebola crisis in Liberia showed that socio-economic conditions impacted bushmeat consumption. During the crisis, there was a decrease in bushmeat consumption and daily meal frequency. In addition, preferences for bushmeat species stayed the same.[43]

Parasites

In Cameroon, 15 primate species were examined for gastrointestinal parasites. Bushmeat primates were infected with Trichuris, Entamoeba, Ascaris, Capillaria, pinworms, Bertiella and Endolimax nana.[44] A large proportion of Bitis vipers sold at rural bushmeat markets in the Democratic Republic of the Congo are infected by Armillifer grandis, which represent a threat to public health.[45]

Management

Suggestions for reducing or halting bushmeat harvest and trade include:[46]

  • increase access of consumers to affordable and reliable alternative sources of animal protein such as chicken, small livestock and farmed fish raised at family level;
  • devolve rights and authority over wildlife to local communities;
  • strengthen the management of protected areas and enforce wildlife conservation laws.

As an alternative to bushmeat, captive breeding of species traditionally harvested from the wild is sometimes feasible. Captive breeding efforts must be closely monitored, as there is risk they can be used to launder and legitimize individuals captured from the wild, similar to the laundering of wild green tree pythons in Indonesia for the pet trade.[25]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c Nasi, R.; Brown, D.; Wilkie, D.; Bennett, E.; Tutin, C.; Van Tol, G. & Christophersen, T. (2008). Conservation and use of wildlife-based resources: the bushmeat crisis (PDF). CBD Technical Series no. 33. Montreal and Bogor: Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity and Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR). pp. 1–50.
  2. ^ a b c Bennett, E. L.; Blencowe, E.; Brandon, K.; Brown, D.; Burn, R. W.; Cowlishaw, G.; Davies, G.; Dublin, H.; Fa, J. E.; Milner‐Gulland, E. J.; Robinson, J. G.; Rowcliffe, J. M.; Underwood, F. M. & Wilkie, D. S. (2007). "Hunting for consensus: reconciling bushmeat harvest, conservation, and development policy in West and Central Africa". Conservation Biology. 21 (3): 884–887. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00595.x. PMID 17531066. S2CID 38428707.
  3. ^ Bowen-Jones, E. & Pendry, S. (1999). "The threats to primates and other mammals from the bushmeat trade in Africa and how this could be diminished". Oryx. 33 (3): 233–247. doi:10.1046/j.1365-3008.1999.00066.x.
  4. ^ Cowlishaw, G.; Mendelson, S. & Rowcliffe, J. (2005). "Evidence for post‐depletion sustainability in a mature bushmeat market". Journal of Applied Ecology. 42 (3): 460–468. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2664.2005.01046.x.
  5. ^ a b Ripple, W. J.; Abernethy, K.; Betts, M. G.; Chapron, G.; Dirzo, R.; Galetti, M.; Levi, T.; Lindsey, P. A.; Macdonald, D. W.; Machovina, B.; Newsome, T. M.; Peres, C. A.; Wallach, A. D.; Wolf, C. & Young, H. (2016). "Bushmeat hunting and extinction risk to the world's mammals". Royal Society Open Science. 3 (10): 160498. Bibcode:2016RSOS....360498R. doi:10.1098/rsos.160498. PMC 5098989. PMID 27853564.
  6. ^ a b Georges-Courbot, M. C.; Sanchez, A.; Lu, C. Y.; Baize, S.; Leroy, E.; Lansout-Soukate, J.; Tévi-Bénissan, C.; Georges, A. J.; Trappier, S. G.; Zaki, S. R.; Swanepoel, R.; Leman, P. A.; Rollin, P. E.; Peters, C. J.; Nichol, S. T. & Ksiazek, T. G. (1997). "Isolation and phylogenetic characterization of Ebola viruses causing different outbreaks in Gabon". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 3 (1): 59–62. doi:10.3201/eid0301.970107. PMC 2627600. PMID 9126445.
  7. ^ a b McMichael, A. J. (2002). "Population, environment, disease, and survival: past patterns, uncertain futures" (PDF). The Lancet. 359 (9312): 1145–1148. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(02)08164-3. PMID 11943282. S2CID 9159650.
  8. ^ Karesh, W. B. & Noble, E. (2009). "The bushmeat trade: Increased opportunities for transmission of zoonotic disease". Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine: A Journal of Translational and Personalized Medicine. 76 (5): 429–444. doi:10.1002/msj.20139. PMID 19787649.
  9. ^ Hall, Jani (2019-06-19). "Bushmeat, explained". National Geographic. Retrieved 2022-05-18.
  10. ^ Mainka, S.; Trivedi, M., eds. (2002). "IUCN Resolution 2.64: The unsustainable commercial trade in wild meat". Links Between Biodiversity Conservation, Livelihoods and Food Security: The Sustainable Use of Wild Species for Meat. Occasional papers of the IUCN Species Survival Commission. Gland, Switzerland: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. pp. 5–6. ISBN 9782831706382.
  11. ^ Wilkie, D.S.; Wieland, M.; Boulet, H.; Le Bel, S.; van Vliet, N.; Cornelis, D.; BriacWarnon, V.; Nasi, R. & Fa, J.E. (2016). "Eating and conserving bushmeat in Africa". African Journal of Ecology. 54 (4): 402–414. doi:10.1111/aje.12392.
  12. ^ Davies, G. (2002). "Bushmeat and international development". Conservation Biology. 16 (3): 587–589. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.2002.01636.x. S2CID 83996789.
  13. ^ Fa, J. E.; Peres, C. A. & Meeuwig, J. (2002). "Bushmeat exploitation in tropical forests: an intercontinental comparison". Conservation Biology. 16 (1): 232–237. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.2002.00275.x. PMID 35701970. S2CID 55246983.
  14. ^ Fa, J. E.; Currie, D. & Meeuwig, J. (2003). "Bushmeat and food security in the Congo Basin: linkages between wildlife and people's future". Environmental Conservation. 30 (1): 71–78. doi:10.1017/S0376892903000067. S2CID 84561619.
  15. ^ Covey, R. & McGraw, W. S. (2014). "Monkeys in a West African bushmeat market: implications for cercopithecid conservation in eastern Liberia". Tropical Conservation Science. 7 (1): 115–125. doi:10.1177/194008291400700103.
  16. ^ Bi, S. G.; Koné, I.; Béné, J. C. K.; Bitty, E. A.; Yao, K. A.; Kouassi, B. A. & Gaubert, P. (2017). "Bushmeat hunting around a remnant coastal rainforest in Côte d'Ivoire". Oryx. 51 (3): 418–427. doi:10.1017/S0030605315001453.
  17. ^ Kamins, A. O.; Restif, O.; Ntiamoa-Baidu, Y.; Suu-Ire, R.; Hayman, D. T.; Cunningham, A. A.; Wood, J. L. & Rowcliffe, J. M. (2011). "Uncovering the fruit bat bushmeat commodity chain and the true extent of fruit bat hunting in Ghana, West Africa". Biological Conservation. 144 (12): 3000–3008. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2011.09.003. PMC 3323830. PMID 22514356.
  18. ^ Fa, J. E.; Seymour, S.; Dupain, J. E. F.; Amin, R.; Albrechtsen, L. & Macdonald, D. (2006). "Getting to grips with the magnitude of exploitation: bushmeat in the Cross–Sanaga rivers region, Nigeria and Cameroon". Biological Conservation. 129 (4): 497–510. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2005.11.031.
  19. ^ Walsh, P. D.; Abernethy, K. A.; Bermejo, M.; Beyers, R.; De Wachter, P.; Akou, M. E.; Huijbregts, B.; Mambounga, D. I.; Toham, A. K.; Kilbourn, A. M.;, Lahm, S.A.;, Latour. S.; Maisels, F.; Mbinak, C.; Mihindouk, Y.; Obiang, S. N.; Effa, E. N.; Starkey, M. P.; Telfer, P. M.; Thibault, M.; Tutin, C. E. G.; White, L. J. T.; Wilkie, D. S. (2003). "Catastrophic ape decline in western equatorial Africa" (PDF). Nature. 422 (6932): 611–614. Bibcode:2003Natur.422..611W. doi:10.1038/nature01566. PMID 12679788. S2CID 5905831.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  20. ^ Bahaa-el-din, L.; Henschel, P.; Aba’a, R.; Abernethy, K.; Bohm, T.; Bout, N.; Coad, L.; Head, J.; Inoue, E.; Lahm, S.; Lee, M. E.; Maisels, F.; Rabanal, L.; Starkey, M.; Taylor, G.; Vanthomme, A.; Nakashima, Y.; Hunter, L. (2013). "Notes on the distribution and status of small carnivores in Gabon". Small Carnivore Conservation (48): 19–29.
  21. ^ Dupain, J.; Bofaso, M.; Lompongo, J. & Elsacker, L. V. (2001). "Bonobos at the market of Basankusu (Equateur Province, DRC) in 1999: new evidence for bonobos between the lkelemba and Bosomba rivers" (PDF). Pan Africa News. 8 (2): 24–26. doi:10.5134/143400.
  22. ^ Martin, A. & Caro, T. (2013). "Illegal hunting in the Katavi-Rukwa ecosystem". African Journal of Ecology. 51 (1): 172–175. doi:10.1111/aje.12000.
  23. ^ Gardner, C.J. & Davies, Z.G. (2014). "Rural bushmeat consumption within multiple-use protected areas: qualitative evidence from southwest Madagascar". Human Ecology. 42 (1): 21–34. doi:10.1007/s10745-013-9629-1. S2CID 154683918.
  24. ^ Poulsen, J. R.; Clark, C. J.; Mavah, G. & Elkan, P. W. (2009). "Bushmeat supply and consumption in a tropical logging concession in northern Congo" (PDF). Conservation Biology. 23 (6): 1597–1608. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2009.01251.x. PMID 19459888. S2CID 42668922.
  25. ^ a b Lee, Tien Ming; Sigouin, Amanda; Pinedo-Vasquez, Miguel; Nasi, Robert (2020). "The Harvest of Tropical Wildlife for Bushmeat and Traditional Medicine". Annual Review of Environment and Resources. 45: 145–170. doi:10.1146/annurev-environ-102016-060827.
  26. ^ Brashares, J. S.; Arcese, P.; Sam, M. K.; Coppolillo, P. B.; Sinclair, A. R. E. & Balmford, A. (2004). "Bushmeat hunting, wildlife declines, and fish supply in West Africa". Science. 306 (5699): 1180–1183. Bibcode:2004Sci...306.1180B. doi:10.1126/science.1102425. PMID 15539602. S2CID 51325711.
  27. ^ Äbischer, T.; Ibrahim, T.; Hickisch, R.; Furrer, R. D.; Leuenberger, C. & Wegmann, D. (2020). "Apex predators decline after an influx of pastoralists in former Central African Republic hunting zones" (PDF). Biological Conservation. 241: 108326. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2019.108326. S2CID 213766740.
  28. ^ Khodakevich, L.; Szczeniowski, M.; Manbu-ma-Disu; Jezek, Z.; Marennikova, S.; Nakano, J. & Messinger, D. (1987). "The role of squirrels in sustaining monkeypox virus transmission". Tropical and Geographical Medicine. 39 (2): 115–122. PMID 2820094.
  29. ^ Wolfe, N. D.; Heneine, W.; Carr, J. K.; Garcia, A. D.; Shanmugam, V.; Tamoufe, U.; Torimiro, J. N.; Prosser, A. T.; Lebreton, M.; Mpoudi-Ngole, E.; McCutchan, F. E.; Birx, D. L.; Folks, T. M.; Burke, D. S. & Switzer, W. M. (2005). "Emergence of unique primate T-lymphotropic viruses among central African bushmeat hunters". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 102 (22): 7994–7999. Bibcode:2005PNAS..102.7994W. doi:10.1073/pnas.0501734102. PMC 1142377. PMID 15911757.
  30. ^ Wolfe, N. D.; Daszak, P.; Kilpatrick, A. M. & Burke, D. S. (2005). "Bushmeat hunting, deforestation, and prediction of zoonotic disease". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 11 (12): 1822–1827. doi:10.3201/eid1112.040789. PMC 3367616. PMID 16485465.
  31. ^ Subramanian, M. (2012). "Zoonotic disease risk and the bushmeat trade: Assessing awareness among hunters and traders in Sierra Leone" (PDF). EcoHealth. 9 (4): 471–482. doi:10.1007/s10393-012-0807-1. PMID 23408099. S2CID 22594553.
  32. ^ Friant, S.; Paige, S. B. & Goldberg, T. L. (2015). "Drivers of bushmeat hunting and perceptions of zoonoses in Nigerian hunting communities". PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 9 (5): e0003792. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0003792. PMC 4441483. PMID 26001078.
  33. ^ Keele, B. F.; Van Heuverswyn, F.; Li, Y.; Bailes, E.; Takehisa, J.; Santiago, M. L.; Bibollet-Ruche, F.; Chen, Y.; Wain, L. V.; Liegeois, F.; Loul, S.; Ngole, E. M.; Bienvenue, Y.; Delaporte, E.; Brookfield, J. F.; Sharp, P. M.; Shaw, G. M.; Peeters, M. & Hahn, B. H. (2006). "Chimpanzee reservoirs of pandemic and nonpandemic HIV-1". Science. 313 (5786): 523–526. Bibcode:2006Sci...313..523K. doi:10.1126/science.1126531. PMC 2442710. PMID 16728595.
  34. ^ Sharp, P. M. & Hahn, B. H. (2011). "Origins of HIV and the AIDS Pandemic". Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine. 1 (1): a006841–a006835. doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a006841. PMC 3234451. PMID 22229120.
  35. ^ Arts, E. J. & Tebit, D. M. (2011). "Tracking a century of global expansion and evolution of HIV to drive understanding and to combat disease". The Lancet Infectious Diseases. 11 (1): 45–56. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.964.6074. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(10)70186-9. PMID 21126914.
  36. ^ a b "What is Ebola Virus Disease?". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 5 November 2019. Retrieved 25 March 2021. Scientists do not know where Ebola virus comes from.
  37. ^ Rewar, Suresh; Mirdha, Dashrath (2015). "Transmission of Ebola Virus Disease: An Overview". Annals of Global Health. 80 (6): 444–451. doi:10.1016/j.aogh.2015.02.005. PMID 25960093. Despite concerted investigative efforts, the natural reservoir of the virus is unknown.
  38. ^ Baseler, Laura; Chertow, Daniel S.; Johnson, Karl M.; Feldmann, Heinz; Morens, David M. (2017). "The Pathogenesis of Ebola Virus Disease". Annual Review of Pathology: Mechanisms of Disease. 12: 387–418. doi:10.1146/annurev-pathol-052016-100506. PMID 27959626. The geographic ranges of many animal species, including bats, squirrels, mice and rats, dormice, and shrews, match or overlap with known outbreak sites of African filoviruses, but none of these mammals has yet been universally accepted as an EBOV reservoir.
  39. ^ Olivero, Jesús; Fa, John E.; Real, Raimundo; Farfán, Miguel Ángel; Márquez, Ana Luz; Vargas, J. Mario; Gonzalez, J. Paul; Cunningham, Andrew A.; Nasi, Robert (2017). "Mammalian biogeography and the Ebola virus in Africa" (PDF). Mammal Review. 47: 24–37. doi:10.1111/mam.12074. We found published evidence from cases of serological and/or polymerase chain reaction (PCR) positivity of EVD in non- human mammal, or of EVD-linked mortality, in 28 mammal species: 10 primates, three rodents, one shrew, eight bats, one carnivore, and five ungulates
  40. ^ Rouquet P.; Froment, J.; Bermejo, M.; Kilbourne, A.; Karesh, W.; Reed, P.; Kumulungui, B.; Yaba, P.; Délicat, A.; Rollin, P. E. & Leroy, E. M. (2005). "Wild animal mortality monitoring and human Ebola outbreaks, Gabon and Republic of Congo, 2001–2003". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 11 (2): 283–290. doi:10.3201/eid1102.040533. PMC 3320460. PMID 15752448.
  41. ^ Leroy, E.; Gonzalez, J. P. & Pourrut, X. (2007). "Ebolavirus and other filoviruses". In Childs, J. E.; Mackenzie, J. S. & Richt, J. A. (eds.). Wildlife and Emerging Zoonotic Diseases: The biology, circumstances and consequences of cross-species transmission. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology. Vol. 315. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. pp. 363–387. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-70962-6_15. ISBN 978-3-540-70961-9. PMC 7121322. PMID 17848072. Together, field and experimental findings indicate the plausibility of the hypothesis that certain species of bat serve as the principal reservoir host for at least some variants of Ebola virus.
  42. ^ Saéz, A. M.; Weiss, S.; Nowak, K.; Lapeyre, V.; Zimmermann, F.; Düx, A.; Kühl, H. S.; Kaba, M.; Regnaut, S.; Merkel, K.; Sachse, A.; Thiesen, U.; Villányi, L.; Boesch, C.; Dabrowski, P. W.; Radonić, A.; Nitsche, A.; Leendertz, S. A. J.; Petterson, S.; Becker, S.; Krähling, V.; Couacy‐Hymann, E.; Akoua‐Koffi, C.; Weber, N.; Schaade, L.; Fahr, J.; Borchert, M.; Gogarten, J. F.; Calvignac‐Spencer, S. & Leendertz, F. H. (2014). "Investigating the zoonotic origin of the West African Ebola epidemic". EMBO Molecular Medicine. 7 (1): 17–23. doi:10.15252/emmm.201404792. PMC 4309665. PMID 25550396.
  43. ^ Ordaz-Németh, I.; Arandjelovic, M.; Boesch, L.; Gatiso, T.; Grimes, T.; Kuehl, H. S.; Lormie, M.; Stephens, C. & Tweh, C. (2017). "The socio-economic drivers of bushmeat consumption during the West African Ebola crisis". PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 11 (3): e0005450. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0005450. PMC 5362244. PMID 28282378.
  44. ^ Pourrut, X.; Diffo, J. L. D.; Somo, R. M.; Bilong, C. B.; Delaporte, E.; LeBreton, M. & Gonzalez, J. P. (2011). "Prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites in primate bushmeat and pets in Cameroon". Veterinary Parasitology. 175 (1–2): 187–191. doi:10.1016/j.vetpar.2010.09.023. PMID 20970258.
  45. ^ Hardi, R.; Babocsay, G.; Tappe, D.; Sulyok, M.; Bodó, I. & Rózsa, L. (2017). "Armillifer-infected snakes sold at Congolese bushmeat markets represent an emerging zoonotic threat" (PDF). EcoHealth. 14 (4): 743–749. doi:10.1007/s10393-017-1274-5. PMC 7088293. PMID 29030787.
  46. ^ Wilkie, D. S.; Wieland, M.; Boulet, H.; Le Bel, S.; van Vliet, N.; Cornelis, D.; BriacWarnon, V.; Nasi, R. & Fa, J. E. (2016). "Eating and conserving bushmeat in Africa" (PDF). African Journal of Ecology. 54 (4): 402–414. doi:10.1111/aje.12392.

External links

  • "The Bushmeat Project". Biosynergy Institute.
  • "Bushmeat". Ape Alliance – Action for Apes.
  • "Action on wildlife trade". Traffic.
  • Pennisi, E. (2016). "People are hunting primates, bats, and other mammals to extinction". Science. Retrieved May 26, 2017.
  • "Understanding the bushmeat market: why do people risk infection from bat meat?". Research News. University of Cambridge. 2014.
  • "FAO warns of fruit bat risk in West African Ebola epidemic". Food and Agriculture Organisation News. 2014.
  • "Bushmeat consumption, wildlife trade and global public health risks". Food and Agriculture Organisation News. 2010.

January 08, 2023
bushmeat, confused, with, bushfood, meat, from, wildlife, species, that, hunted, human, consumption, most, often, referring, meat, game, africa, represents, primary, source, animal, protein, cash, earning, commodity, inhabitants, humid, tropical, forest, regio. Not to be confused with Bushfood Bushmeat is meat from wildlife species that are hunted for human consumption most often referring to the meat of game in Africa Bushmeat represents a primary source of animal protein and a cash earning commodity for inhabitants of humid tropical forest regions in Africa Latin America and Asia 1 Bushmeat is an important food resource for poor people particularly in rural areas 2 BushmeatBushmeat is often smoked to preserve itAlternative namesWild meat wild gameMain ingredientsWildlife Media BushmeatThe numbers of animals killed and traded as bushmeat in the 1990s in West and Central Africa were thought to be unsustainable 3 By 2005 commercial harvesting and trading of bushmeat was considered a threat to biodiversity 4 As of 2016 301 terrestrial mammals were threatened with extinction due to hunting for bushmeat including primates even toed ungulates bats diprotodont marsupials rodents and carnivores occurring in developing countries 5 Bushmeat provides increased opportunity for transmission of several zoonotic viruses from animal hosts to humans such as Ebolavirus and HIV 6 7 8 Contents 1 Nomenclature 2 Affected wildlife species 3 Dynamics 3 1 Logging 3 2 Nutrition 3 3 Overfishing 3 4 Pastoralism 4 Role in spread of diseases 4 1 HIV 4 2 Ebola 4 3 Parasites 5 Management 6 See also 7 References 8 External linksNomenclature EditThe term bushmeat is originally an African term for wildlife species that are hunted for human consumption 2 and usually refers specifically to the meat of African wildlife 9 In October 2000 the IUCN World Conservation Congress passed a resolution on the unsustainable commercial trade in wild meat Affected countries were urged to recognize the increasing impact of the bushmeat trade to strengthen and enforce legislation and to develop action programmes to mitigate the impact of the trade Donor organisations were requested to provide funding for the implementation of such programmes 10 Wildlife hunting for food is important for the livelihood security of and supply of dietary protein for poor people It can be sustainable when carried out by traditional hunter gatherers in large landscapes for their own consumption Due to the extent of bushmeat hunting for trade in markets the survival of those species that are large bodied and reproduce slowly is threatened The term bushmeat crisis was coined in 2007 and refers to this dual threat of depleting food resources and wildlife extinctions both entailed by the bushmeat trade 2 Affected wildlife species EditGlobally more than 1 000 animal species are estimated to be affected by hunting for bushmeat 1 Bushmeat hunters use mostly leg hold snare traps to catch any wildlife but prefer to kill large species as these provide a greater amount of meat than small species 11 Pangolin in Cameroon Gambian pouched rat in Cameroon Bushmeat in Gabon The volume of the bushmeat trade in West and Central Africa was estimated at 1 5 million metric tons 980 000 4 920 000 long tons 1 100 000 5 500 000 short tons per year at the turn of the 21st century 12 In 2002 it was estimated that species weighing more than 10 kg 22 lb contribute 177 7 358 4 kg km2 1 015 2 046 lb sq mi of meat per year to the bushmeat extracted in the Congo Basin based on 24 individuals Species weighing less than 10 kg 22 lb were estimated to contribute 35 4 72 2 kg km2 202 412 lb sq mi also based on 24 individuals Bushmeat extraction in the Amazon rainforest was estimated to be much lower at 3 69 3 9 kg km2 21 1 22 3 lb sq mi in the case of species weighing more than 10 kg and 0 6 0 9 kg km2 3 4 5 1 lb sq mi in the case of species weighing less than 10 kg based on 3 individuals 13 better source needed Based on these estimates a total of 2 200 000 t 2 200 000 long tons 2 400 000 short tons bushmeat is extracted in the Congo Basin per year ranging from 12 938 t 12 734 long tons 14 262 short tons in Equatorial Guinea to 1 665 972 t 1 639 661 long tons 1 836 420 short tons in the Democratic Republic of the Congo 14 The 301 mammal species threatened by hunting for bushmeat comprise 126 primates 65 even toed ungulates 27 bats 26 diprotodont marsupials 21 rodents 12 carnivores and all pangolin species 5 Primate species offered fresh and smoked in 2009 at a wildlife market by Liberia s Cavally River included chimpanzee Pan troglodytes Diana monkey Cercopithecus diana putty nosed monkey C nictitans lesser spot nosed monkey C petaurista Campbell s mona monkey C campbelli sooty mangabey Cercocebus atys king colobus Colobus polykomos olive colobus Procolobus verus western red colobus P badius Duiker species constituted more than half of the total 723 animals offered 15 In 2012 the bushmeat trade was surveyed in three villages in the Sassandra Department Ivory Coast During six months nine restaurants received 376 mammals and eight reptiles including dwarf crocodile Osteolaemus tetraspis harnessed bushbuck Tragelaphus scriptus Maxwell s duiker Philantomba maxwellii bay duiker Cephalophus dorsalis Campbell s mona monkey lesser spot nosed monkey potto Perodicticus potto tree pangolin Phataginus tricuspis long tailed pangolin P tetradactyla African brush tailed porcupine Atherurus africanus giant pouched rat Cricetomys gambianus greater cane rat Thryonomys swinderianus striped ground squirrel Xerus erythropus and western tree hyrax Dendrohyrax dorsalis 16 About 128 400 straw coloured fruit bats Eidolon helvum were estimated in 2011 to be traded as bushmeat every year in four cities in southern Ghana 17 In 2006 it was estimated that about 1 437 458 animals are killed every year in the Nigerian and Cameroon parts of the Cross Sanaga Bioko coastal forests including about 43 880 Emin s pouched rats Cricetomys emini 41 800 tree pangolins 39 700 putty nosed monkeys 22 500 Mona monkeys Cercopithecus mona 3 500 red eared guenons C erythrotis 20 300 drills Mandrillus leucophaeus 15 300 African civets Civettictis civetta 11 900 common kusimanses Crossarchus obscurus more than 7 600 African palm civets Nandinia binotata 26 760 Nile monitors Varanus niloticus and 410 African forest elephants Loxodonta cyclotis 18 A gorilla in the Democratic Republic of the Congo 2008 Between 1983 and 2002 the Gabon populations of western gorilla Gorilla gorilla and common chimpanzee Pan troglodytes were estimated to have declined by 56 This decline was primarily caused by the commercial hunting which was facilitated by the extended infrastructure for logging purposes 19 Marsh mongoose Atilax paludinosus and long nosed mongoose Herpestes naso are the most numerous small carnivores offered in rural bushmeat markets in the country 20 In the late 1990s fresh and smoked bonobo Pan paniscus carcasses were observed in Basankusu in the Province of Equateur in the Congo Basin 21 The main species killed by bushmeat hunters in Tanzania s Katavi Rukwa Region include impala Aepyceros melampus common duiker Sylvicapra grimmia warthog Phacocherus africanus Cape buffalo Syncerus caffer harnessed bushbuck red river hog Potamochoerus porcus and plains zebra Equus quagga 22 Lemurs killed in Madagascar for bushmeat A survey in a rural area in southwestern Madagascar revealed that bushmeat hunters target bushpig Potamochoerus larvatus ring tailed lemur Lemur catta Verreaux s sifaka Propithecus verreauxi Hubbard s sportive lemur Lepilemur hubbardorum fat tailed dwarf lemur Cheirogaleus medius common tenrec Tenrec ecaudatus grey mouse lemur Microcebus murinus reddish gray mouse lemur M griseorufus Madagascan fruit bat Eidolon dupreanum and Madagascan flying fox Pteropus rufus 23 Dynamics Edit Two Malagasy bushmeat hunters with their quarry Logging Edit Logging concessions operated by companies in African forests have been closely linked to the bushmeat trade Because they provide roads trucks and other access to remote forests they are the primary means for the transportation of hunters and meat between forests and urban centres Some including the Congolaise Industrielle du Bois CIB in the Republic of Congo partnered with governments and international conservation organizations to regulate the bushmeat trade within the concessions where they operate Numerous solutions are needed because each country has different circumstances traditions and laws no one solution will work in every location 24 Nutrition Edit Bushmeat can be an important source of micronutrients and macronutrients A study of South Americans in the Tres Fronteras region found that those who consumed bushmeat were at a lower risk of anemia and chronic health conditions as their diets included more iron zinc and vitamin C than those who did not eat bushmeat 25 Overfishing Edit In Ghana international illegal over exploitation of African fishing grounds has increased demand for bushmeat Both European Union subsidized fleets and local commercial fleets have depleted fish stocks leaving local people to supplement their diets with animals hunted from nature reserves Over 30 years of data link sharp declines in both mammal populations and the biomass of 41 wildlife species with a decreased supply of fish 26 Consumption of fish and of bushmeat is correlated the decline of one resource drives up the demand and price for the other 1 Pastoralism Edit Transhumant pastoralists from the border area between Sudan and the Central African Republic are accompanied by armed merchants who also engage in poaching large herbivores The decline of giant eland Cape buffalo hartebeest and waterbuck in the Chinko area between 2012 and 2017 is attributed to their poaching activities They use livestock to transport bushmeat to markets 27 Role in spread of diseases EditFurther information zoonotic disease Armillifer grandis specimens in a Rhinoceros viper sold for human consumption Animal sources may have been the cause for infectious diseases such as tuberculosis leprosy cholera smallpox measles influenza and syphilis acquired by early agrarians The emergence of HIV 1 AIDS Ebola virus disease and Creutzfeldt Jakob disease are attributed to animal sources today 7 Thomas s rope squirrel Funisciurus anerythrus and red legged sun squirrel Heliosciurus rufobrachium were identified as reservoirs of the monkeypox virus in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in the 1980s 28 Outbreaks of the Ebola virus in the Congo Basin and in Gabon in the 1990s have been associated with the butchering and consumption of chimpanzees and bonobos 6 Bushmeat hunters in Central Africa infected with the human T lymphotropic virus were closely exposed to wild primates 29 Anthrax can be transmitted when butchering and eating ungulates The risk of bloodborne diseases to be transmitted is higher when butchering a carcass than when transporting cooking and eating it 30 Many hunters and traders are not aware of zoonosis and the risks of disease transmissions 31 An interview survey in rural communities in Nigeria revealed that 55 of the respondents knew of zoonoses but their education and cultural traditions are important drivers for hunting and eating bushmeat despite the risks involved 32 HIV Edit Results of research on wild chimpanzees in Cameroon indicate that they are naturally infected with the simian foamy virus and constitute a reservoir of HIV 1 a precursor of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome AIDS in humans 33 There are several distinct strains of HIV indicating that this cross species transfer has occurred several times 34 Simian immunodeficiency virus present in chimpanzees is reportedly derived from older strains of the virus present in the collared mangabey Cercocebus torquatus and the putty nosed monkey It is likely that HIV was initially transferred to humans after having come into contact with infected bushmeat 35 Ebola Edit The natural reservoirs of ebolaviruses are unknown 36 37 38 Possible reservoirs include non human primates 36 megabats rodents shrews carnivores and ungulates 39 Between October 2001 and December 2003 five Ebola virus outbreaks occurred in the border area between Gabon and Republic of Congo Autopsies of wildlife carcasses showed that chimpanzees gorillas and bay duikers were infected with the virus 40 The Ebola virus has been linked to bushmeat with some researchers hypothesizing that megabats are a primary host of at least some variants of Ebola virus Between the first recorded outbreak in 1976 and the largest in 2014 the virus has transferred from animals to humans only 30 times despite large numbers of bats being killed and sold each year Bats drop partially eaten fruits and pulp then terrestrial mammals such as gorillas and duikers feed on these fruits This chain of events forms a possible indirect means of transmission from the natural host to animal populations 41 The suspected index case for the Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa in 2014 was a two year old boy in Meliandou in south eastern Guinea who played in a hollow tree harbouring a colony of Angolan free tailed bats Mops condylurus 42 Results of a study conducted during the Ebola crisis in Liberia showed that socio economic conditions impacted bushmeat consumption During the crisis there was a decrease in bushmeat consumption and daily meal frequency In addition preferences for bushmeat species stayed the same 43 Parasites Edit In Cameroon 15 primate species were examined for gastrointestinal parasites Bushmeat primates were infected with Trichuris Entamoeba Ascaris Capillaria pinworms Bertiella and Endolimax nana 44 A large proportion of Bitis vipers sold at rural bushmeat markets in the Democratic Republic of the Congo are infected by Armillifer grandis which represent a threat to public health 45 Management EditSuggestions for reducing or halting bushmeat harvest and trade include 46 increase access of consumers to affordable and reliable alternative sources of animal protein such as chicken small livestock and farmed fish raised at family level devolve rights and authority over wildlife to local communities strengthen the management of protected areas and enforce wildlife conservation laws As an alternative to bushmeat captive breeding of species traditionally harvested from the wild is sometimes feasible Captive breeding efforts must be closely monitored as there is risk they can be used to launder and legitimize individuals captured from the wild similar to the laundering of wild green tree pythons in Indonesia for the pet trade 25 See also EditCat meat Dog meat Game animals hunted for food Indigenous cuisine of the Americas Malnutrition Roadkill cuisine Wildlife trafficking and emerging zoonotic diseases Yewei wildlife meat sold at Chinese wet markets Food portalReferences Edit a b c Nasi R Brown D Wilkie D Bennett E Tutin C Van Tol G amp Christophersen T 2008 Conservation and use of wildlife based resources the bushmeat crisis PDF CBD Technical Series no 33 Montreal and Bogor Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity and Center for International Forestry Research CIFOR pp 1 50 a b c Bennett E L Blencowe E Brandon K Brown D Burn R W Cowlishaw G Davies G Dublin H Fa J E Milner Gulland E J Robinson J G Rowcliffe J M Underwood F M amp Wilkie D S 2007 Hunting for consensus reconciling bushmeat harvest conservation and development policy in West and Central Africa Conservation Biology 21 3 884 887 doi 10 1111 j 1523 1739 2006 00595 x PMID 17531066 S2CID 38428707 Bowen Jones E amp Pendry S 1999 The threats to primates and other mammals from the bushmeat trade in Africa and how this could be diminished Oryx 33 3 233 247 doi 10 1046 j 1365 3008 1999 00066 x Cowlishaw G Mendelson S amp Rowcliffe J 2005 Evidence for post depletion sustainability in a mature bushmeat market Journal of Applied Ecology 42 3 460 468 doi 10 1111 j 1365 2664 2005 01046 x a b Ripple W J Abernethy K Betts M G Chapron G Dirzo R Galetti M Levi T Lindsey P A Macdonald D W Machovina B Newsome T M Peres C A Wallach A D Wolf C amp Young H 2016 Bushmeat hunting and extinction risk to the world s mammals Royal Society Open Science 3 10 160498 Bibcode 2016RSOS 360498R doi 10 1098 rsos 160498 PMC 5098989 PMID 27853564 a b Georges Courbot M C Sanchez A Lu C Y Baize S Leroy E Lansout Soukate J Tevi Benissan C Georges A J Trappier S G Zaki S R Swanepoel R Leman P A Rollin P E Peters C J Nichol S T amp Ksiazek T G 1997 Isolation and phylogenetic characterization of Ebola viruses causing different outbreaks in Gabon Emerging Infectious Diseases 3 1 59 62 doi 10 3201 eid0301 970107 PMC 2627600 PMID 9126445 a b McMichael A J 2002 Population environment disease and survival past patterns uncertain futures PDF The Lancet 359 9312 1145 1148 doi 10 1016 s0140 6736 02 08164 3 PMID 11943282 S2CID 9159650 Karesh W B amp Noble E 2009 The bushmeat trade Increased opportunities for transmission of zoonotic disease Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine A Journal of Translational and Personalized Medicine 76 5 429 444 doi 10 1002 msj 20139 PMID 19787649 Hall Jani 2019 06 19 Bushmeat explained National Geographic Retrieved 2022 05 18 Mainka S Trivedi M eds 2002 IUCN Resolution 2 64 The unsustainable commercial trade in wild meat Links Between Biodiversity Conservation Livelihoods and Food Security The Sustainable Use of Wild Species for Meat Occasional papers of the IUCN Species Survival Commission Gland Switzerland International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources pp 5 6 ISBN 9782831706382 Wilkie D S Wieland M Boulet H Le Bel S van Vliet N Cornelis D BriacWarnon V Nasi R amp Fa J E 2016 Eating and conserving bushmeat in Africa African Journal of Ecology 54 4 402 414 doi 10 1111 aje 12392 Davies G 2002 Bushmeat and international development Conservation Biology 16 3 587 589 doi 10 1046 j 1523 1739 2002 01636 x S2CID 83996789 Fa J E Peres C A amp Meeuwig J 2002 Bushmeat exploitation in tropical forests an intercontinental comparison Conservation Biology 16 1 232 237 doi 10 1046 j 1523 1739 2002 00275 x PMID 35701970 S2CID 55246983 Fa J E Currie D amp Meeuwig J 2003 Bushmeat and food security in the Congo Basin linkages between wildlife and people s future Environmental Conservation 30 1 71 78 doi 10 1017 S0376892903000067 S2CID 84561619 Covey R amp McGraw W S 2014 Monkeys in a West African bushmeat market implications for cercopithecid conservation in eastern Liberia Tropical Conservation Science 7 1 115 125 doi 10 1177 194008291400700103 Bi S G Kone I Bene J C K Bitty E A Yao K A Kouassi B A amp Gaubert P 2017 Bushmeat hunting around a remnant coastal rainforest in Cote d Ivoire Oryx 51 3 418 427 doi 10 1017 S0030605315001453 Kamins A O Restif O Ntiamoa Baidu Y Suu Ire R Hayman D T Cunningham A A Wood J L amp Rowcliffe J M 2011 Uncovering the fruit bat bushmeat commodity chain and the true extent of fruit bat hunting in Ghana West Africa Biological Conservation 144 12 3000 3008 doi 10 1016 j biocon 2011 09 003 PMC 3323830 PMID 22514356 Fa J E Seymour S Dupain J E F Amin R Albrechtsen L amp Macdonald D 2006 Getting to grips with the magnitude of exploitation bushmeat in the Cross Sanaga rivers region Nigeria and Cameroon Biological Conservation 129 4 497 510 doi 10 1016 j biocon 2005 11 031 Walsh P D Abernethy K A Bermejo M Beyers R De Wachter P Akou M E Huijbregts B Mambounga D I Toham A K Kilbourn A M Lahm S A Latour S Maisels F Mbinak C Mihindouk Y Obiang S N Effa E N Starkey M P Telfer P M Thibault M Tutin C E G White L J T Wilkie D S 2003 Catastrophic ape decline in western equatorial Africa PDF Nature 422 6932 611 614 Bibcode 2003Natur 422 611W doi 10 1038 nature01566 PMID 12679788 S2CID 5905831 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Bahaa el din L Henschel P Aba a R Abernethy K Bohm T Bout N Coad L Head J Inoue E Lahm S Lee M E Maisels F Rabanal L Starkey M Taylor G Vanthomme A Nakashima Y Hunter L 2013 Notes on the distribution and status of small carnivores in Gabon Small Carnivore Conservation 48 19 29 Dupain J Bofaso M Lompongo J amp Elsacker L V 2001 Bonobos at the market of Basankusu Equateur Province DRC in 1999 new evidence for bonobos between the lkelemba and Bosomba rivers PDF Pan Africa News 8 2 24 26 doi 10 5134 143400 Martin A amp Caro T 2013 Illegal hunting in the Katavi Rukwa ecosystem African Journal of Ecology 51 1 172 175 doi 10 1111 aje 12000 Gardner C J amp Davies Z G 2014 Rural bushmeat consumption within multiple use protected areas qualitative evidence from southwest Madagascar Human Ecology 42 1 21 34 doi 10 1007 s10745 013 9629 1 S2CID 154683918 Poulsen J R Clark C J Mavah G amp Elkan P W 2009 Bushmeat supply and consumption in a tropical logging concession in northern Congo PDF Conservation Biology 23 6 1597 1608 doi 10 1111 j 1523 1739 2009 01251 x PMID 19459888 S2CID 42668922 a b Lee Tien Ming Sigouin Amanda Pinedo Vasquez Miguel Nasi Robert 2020 The Harvest of Tropical Wildlife for Bushmeat and Traditional Medicine Annual Review of Environment and Resources 45 145 170 doi 10 1146 annurev environ 102016 060827 Brashares J S Arcese P Sam M K Coppolillo P B Sinclair A R E amp Balmford A 2004 Bushmeat hunting wildlife declines and fish supply in West Africa Science 306 5699 1180 1183 Bibcode 2004Sci 306 1180B doi 10 1126 science 1102425 PMID 15539602 S2CID 51325711 Abischer T Ibrahim T Hickisch R Furrer R D Leuenberger C amp Wegmann D 2020 Apex predators decline after an influx of pastoralists in former Central African Republic hunting zones PDF Biological Conservation 241 108326 doi 10 1016 j biocon 2019 108326 S2CID 213766740 Khodakevich L Szczeniowski M Manbu ma Disu Jezek Z Marennikova S Nakano J amp Messinger D 1987 The role of squirrels in sustaining monkeypox virus transmission Tropical and Geographical Medicine 39 2 115 122 PMID 2820094 Wolfe N D Heneine W Carr J K Garcia A D Shanmugam V Tamoufe U Torimiro J N Prosser A T Lebreton M Mpoudi Ngole E McCutchan F E Birx D L Folks T M Burke D S amp Switzer W M 2005 Emergence of unique primate T lymphotropic viruses among central African bushmeat hunters Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 102 22 7994 7999 Bibcode 2005PNAS 102 7994W doi 10 1073 pnas 0501734102 PMC 1142377 PMID 15911757 Wolfe N D Daszak P Kilpatrick A M amp Burke D S 2005 Bushmeat hunting deforestation and prediction of zoonotic disease Emerging Infectious Diseases 11 12 1822 1827 doi 10 3201 eid1112 040789 PMC 3367616 PMID 16485465 Subramanian M 2012 Zoonotic disease risk and the bushmeat trade Assessing awareness among hunters and traders in Sierra Leone PDF EcoHealth 9 4 471 482 doi 10 1007 s10393 012 0807 1 PMID 23408099 S2CID 22594553 Friant S Paige S B amp Goldberg T L 2015 Drivers of bushmeat hunting and perceptions of zoonoses in Nigerian hunting communities PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases 9 5 e0003792 doi 10 1371 journal pntd 0003792 PMC 4441483 PMID 26001078 Keele B F Van Heuverswyn F Li Y Bailes E Takehisa J Santiago M L Bibollet Ruche F Chen Y Wain L V Liegeois F Loul S Ngole E M Bienvenue Y Delaporte E Brookfield J F Sharp P M Shaw G M Peeters M amp Hahn B H 2006 Chimpanzee reservoirs of pandemic and nonpandemic HIV 1 Science 313 5786 523 526 Bibcode 2006Sci 313 523K doi 10 1126 science 1126531 PMC 2442710 PMID 16728595 Sharp P M amp Hahn B H 2011 Origins of HIV and the AIDS Pandemic Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine 1 1 a006841 a006835 doi 10 1101 cshperspect a006841 PMC 3234451 PMID 22229120 Arts E J amp Tebit D M 2011 Tracking a century of global expansion and evolution of HIV to drive understanding and to combat disease The Lancet Infectious Diseases 11 1 45 56 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 964 6074 doi 10 1016 S1473 3099 10 70186 9 PMID 21126914 a b What is Ebola Virus Disease Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 5 November 2019 Retrieved 25 March 2021 Scientists do not know where Ebola virus comes from Rewar Suresh Mirdha Dashrath 2015 Transmission of Ebola Virus Disease An Overview Annals of Global Health 80 6 444 451 doi 10 1016 j aogh 2015 02 005 PMID 25960093 Despite concerted investigative efforts the natural reservoir of the virus is unknown Baseler Laura Chertow Daniel S Johnson Karl M Feldmann Heinz Morens David M 2017 The Pathogenesis of Ebola Virus Disease Annual Review of Pathology Mechanisms of Disease 12 387 418 doi 10 1146 annurev pathol 052016 100506 PMID 27959626 The geographic ranges of many animal species including bats squirrels mice and rats dormice and shrews match or overlap with known outbreak sites of African filoviruses but none of these mammals has yet been universally accepted as an EBOV reservoir Olivero Jesus Fa John E Real Raimundo Farfan Miguel Angel Marquez Ana Luz Vargas J Mario Gonzalez J Paul Cunningham Andrew A Nasi Robert 2017 Mammalian biogeography and the Ebola virus in Africa PDF Mammal Review 47 24 37 doi 10 1111 mam 12074 We found published evidence from cases of serological and or polymerase chain reaction PCR positivity of EVD in non human mammal or of EVD linked mortality in 28 mammal species 10 primates three rodents one shrew eight bats one carnivore and five ungulates Rouquet P Froment J Bermejo M Kilbourne A Karesh W Reed P Kumulungui B Yaba P Delicat A Rollin P E amp Leroy E M 2005 Wild animal mortality monitoring and human Ebola outbreaks Gabon and Republic of Congo 2001 2003 Emerging Infectious Diseases 11 2 283 290 doi 10 3201 eid1102 040533 PMC 3320460 PMID 15752448 Leroy E Gonzalez J P amp Pourrut X 2007 Ebolavirus and other filoviruses In Childs J E Mackenzie J S amp Richt J A eds Wildlife and Emerging Zoonotic Diseases The biology circumstances and consequences of cross species transmission Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology Vol 315 Berlin Heidelberg Springer pp 363 387 doi 10 1007 978 3 540 70962 6 15 ISBN 978 3 540 70961 9 PMC 7121322 PMID 17848072 Together field and experimental findings indicate the plausibility of the hypothesis that certain species of bat serve as the principal reservoir host for at least some variants of Ebola virus Saez A M Weiss S Nowak K Lapeyre V Zimmermann F Dux A Kuhl H S Kaba M Regnaut S Merkel K Sachse A Thiesen U Villanyi L Boesch C Dabrowski P W Radonic A Nitsche A Leendertz S A J Petterson S Becker S Krahling V Couacy Hymann E Akoua Koffi C Weber N Schaade L Fahr J Borchert M Gogarten J F Calvignac Spencer S amp Leendertz F H 2014 Investigating the zoonotic origin of the West African Ebola epidemic EMBO Molecular Medicine 7 1 17 23 doi 10 15252 emmm 201404792 PMC 4309665 PMID 25550396 Ordaz Nemeth I Arandjelovic M Boesch L Gatiso T Grimes T Kuehl H S Lormie M Stephens C amp Tweh C 2017 The socio economic drivers of bushmeat consumption during the West African Ebola crisis PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases 11 3 e0005450 doi 10 1371 journal pntd 0005450 PMC 5362244 PMID 28282378 Pourrut X Diffo J L D Somo R M Bilong C B Delaporte E LeBreton M amp Gonzalez J P 2011 Prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites in primate bushmeat and pets in Cameroon Veterinary Parasitology 175 1 2 187 191 doi 10 1016 j vetpar 2010 09 023 PMID 20970258 Hardi R Babocsay G Tappe D Sulyok M Bodo I amp Rozsa L 2017 Armillifer infected snakes sold at Congolese bushmeat markets represent an emerging zoonotic threat PDF EcoHealth 14 4 743 749 doi 10 1007 s10393 017 1274 5 PMC 7088293 PMID 29030787 Wilkie D S Wieland M Boulet H Le Bel S van Vliet N Cornelis D BriacWarnon V Nasi R amp Fa J E 2016 Eating and conserving bushmeat in Africa PDF African Journal of Ecology 54 4 402 414 doi 10 1111 aje 12392 External links Edit The Bushmeat Project Biosynergy Institute Bushmeat Ape Alliance Action for Apes Action on wildlife trade Traffic Pennisi E 2016 People are hunting primates bats and other mammals to extinction Science Retrieved May 26 2017 Understanding the bushmeat market why do people risk infection from bat meat Research News University of Cambridge 2014 FAO warns of fruit bat risk in West African Ebola epidemic Food and Agriculture Organisation News 2014 Bushmeat consumption wildlife trade and global public health risks Food and Agriculture Organisation News 2010 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Bushmeat amp oldid 1129882229, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.