fbpx
Wikipedia

Wildlife smuggling

Wildlife smuggling or wildlife trafficking concerns the illegal gathering and trade of endangered species and protected wildlife, including plants and byproducts or products utilizing a species.[1] Research on wildlife smuggling has increased, however, knowledge of the illicit trade remains limited. The differences between international policies and tendencies likely contribute to the extensive estimated range of wildlife smuggling, anywhere from $5-$23 billion, with an additional $67-$193 billion when timber and fish are included.[2] The prolific growth of wildlife smuggling makes it the fourth-largest criminal enterprise globally after drug, firearm, and human trafficking. Products demanded by the trade include but are not limited to ivory, bushmeat, traditional medicine, and exotic pets. China and the United States are the largest buyers in the illegal wildlife trade.[3] It often involves other illegal activities such as tranquilizing animals without proper authorization.[4]

Illegal wildlife items seized by UK Border Patrol in 2013

Culture edit

In many instances, culture is a driving factor in wildlife trafficking. There are often traditional roots or societal trends behind the reasons specific wildlife faces a greater risk of targeting when it comes to traditional medicines, jewelry, trinkets, pets, and the consumption of wild meat (bushmeat).[5][6][7][8][9] With the help of globalization, the Internet, social media, and people moving from one nation to another over the centuries, many items desired by the wildlife trade are distributed multi-nationally, such as traditional medicines which appear in the United States, Canada, New Zealand, and South Africa.[10] Laws prohibiting the use of particular plant or animal-derived items fall short when people believe they encroach on traditional cultural values or what they believe is best for human life. Additionally, tourism has accounted for some accidental wildlife trafficking. A person may purchase an item not knowing it is prohibited or banned internationally.[11]

Below are some examples of culturally influenced illegal wildlife trade by various continents and their countries or regions:

Asia edit

China edit

The use of Traditional Chinese Medicines (TCM) began during the 10th century BCE. Utilizing a variety of plants and animals, TCM was considered the key to treating disease and mitigating the effects of aging. Around 200 years after discovering the germ theory of disease, TCM began to receive pushback from younger, educated crowds. Despite the pushback, TCM remains an essential aspect of cultural identity for many in the Chinese nation, bringing $10 million into the economy in 2005.[6]

Unfortunately, using animal derivatives for traditional medicines has been considered a key driver for the global wildlife trafficking trade. Many commonly used species are now listed as threatened or endangered by the IUCN, with other species showing declines in their populations.[6][10]

A recent study sought insights into China's millennial population's attitude towards consuming wildlife products for medicinal purposes. Of the 350 students surveyed by Chinese university students, three-quarters of respondents had yet to try any wildlife products, and only 11% of those respondents stated interest in trying them in the future. Chinese culture historically held a utilitarian view of nature. Still, with societal and cultural shifts, this may begin to change with China's youth.[7]

Africa edit

 
African elephants have experienced drastic reduction in population numbers due to the trafficking of ivory

Although understudied, wild meat is sourced illegally, often due to political and economic instability in African nations. In rural areas, bushmeat is often used as a way to survive poverty and a lack of food security. In contrast, urban residents typically eat bushmeat for the status it brings as a luxury item.[12] [13] [14] Additionally, wild meat is exported from Africa for international markets every year.[15][16][12]

Ivory continues to be in great demand for international markets as well, with an estimated 100 African elephants killed daily for their tusks.[17]

Ineffective monitoring of international wildlife trade edit

The volume of international trade in wildlife commodities is immense and continue to rise. According to an analysis to the 2012 Harmonized System customs statistics,[18] global import of wildlife products amounted to US$187 billion, of which fisheries commodities accounted for $113 billion; plants and forestries for $71 billion; non-fishery animal for $3 billion.

However, the global trade of wildlife commodities is ineffectively monitored and accounted for due to the constraint of the current HS Code System used by the customs worldwide. Majority of international imports of wildlife are only recorded in general categories such as plant or animal products with no further taxonomic detail (this is like importing metals without recording their element identity e.g. copper or iron). It is estimated that near 50% of the global import of plant and 70% of animals product are imported as general categories, with an exception for fisheries (ca. 5%) thanks to various multilateral fishery management agreements that requires taxon-specific fish catch reporting.[18] Furthermore, some frequently traded taxonomic groups including amphibian and live coral are not accounted for at all due to the absence of HS code.

Many jurisdictions relies on the declared HS Code of the consignments for detection and prosecution of illegal wildlife import. The lack of specificity of HS code precludes effective monitoring and traceability of global wildlife trade. There is an increasing call for a reform of the Harmonized System to strengthen monitoring and enforcement of global wildlife trade.[18][19][20][21][22][23][24]

Impact edit

Economic edit

Members of terrorist organizations and criminal organizations illicitly traffic in hundreds of millions of plants and animals to fund the purchase of weapons, finance civil conflicts, and launder money from illicit sources.[25][26][27][28] These often transnational efforts require a funding and a network of poachers, processors, smugglers, sellers, and buyers.[25] Well armed, highly organized poaching activities, such as the murderous 2012 attacks in Chad and the Republic of Congo, have captured headlines.[29] The appeal, in part, is the low risk of detection and punishment compared to drug trafficking.[30][31] In addition, trafficking can reap significant profits for those leading such efforts.[32] For example, a single Ploughshare tortoise from Madagascar (there are only 400 estimated left in the wild) can fetch US$24,000.[28]

Elephant ivory, a commonly trafficked contraband, can sell for little in the source country and can fetch high prices in destination countries. Prices depend greatly on the source country and the product.[33] Ivory prices and demand have skyrocketed, making it a growing and very lucrative market. Globally, The illegal ivory trade activity in 2014 has more than doubled what it was in 2007.[34] China is the largest importer of illegal ivory; the United States is second.[35][36][37]"According to reports from wildlife organization Save the Elephants, the price for raw ivory in China was $2,100 per kilogram."[38] Between 2010 and 2012, up to 33,000 elephants were poached and killed on average each year.[38] Wildlife smuggling presents an economic cost to the countries where it occurs, including lost tourism and development opportunities.[39]

Health edit

The spread of animal-borne disease affects both human health as well as threatening indigenous wildlife and natural ecosystems. According to the United States Government Accountability Office, nearly 75% of emerging diseases that reach humans come from animals. The link between wildlife trafficking and disease outbreak is questioned, although outbreaks of certain diseases have suspected links to smuggled animals.

Diseases believe to have originated and spread by wildlife smuggling edit

  • SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome) is caused by a virus and infects both humans and wildlife. Experts suspect that the SARS virus originated in the China due to contact between a civet (wildcats common in Chinese trade) and humans.
  • Avian flu (H5N1) is caused by a highly pathogenic virus. It can infect humans through contact with infected crested hawks[40] and other wild birds, but can be transmitted by contact with poultry as well.
  • Monkeypox is an infectious disease found in Africa's wildlife that can spread to humans.
  • Ebola Virus is a rare infectious disease that is transmitted from wild animals (chimpanzees, monkeys, gorillas, fruit bats, etc.) to human populations. The transmission of the virus usually occurs through consuming the infected animals, close quarters, or bodily liquid contact.[41]

Diseases linked to animal species that are targets of wildlife smuggling edit

  • Herpes B virus is a virus found among macaque monkeys that can be transmitted by bites or scratches to humans in extremely rare cases. If not treated soon after exposure, severe brain damage or death can follow infection.[42][43]
  • Salmonella infection can cause diarrhea, fever, and abdominal cramps. Infections have been linked to contact with turtles,[44] bearded dragons and other reptiles.

Environmental edit

Wildlife smuggling directly affects the biodiversity of different ecosystems. Certain animals are in higher demand by smugglers, leading to a visible decline of these species in their native habitats. Wildlife smuggling may also cause the introduction of invasive and harmful species into an ecosystem, which can endanger indigenous wildlife by putting a strain on the environment's resources through interspecific competition between species. Throughout the last hundred years, around twenty animals are extinct due to poaching and illegal smuggling, such as the West African black Rhinoceros, Pyrenean Ibex, Passenger Pigeon... Unfortunately, poaching and illicit hunting may cause extinction for new 7 species like Ploughshare Tortoise, Red-Fronted Macaw...[45]

International control measures edit

 
How wildlife trafficking networks operate.[46]

Increasingly interconnected globalization increases international trade in a wide variety of products, extending even to exotic animal products. Traders and consumers who still participate in the international exotic animal market ignore the detrimental effects of depleting our environment and ecosystem and instead give priority to individual consumer benefits, such as monetary gains or high fashion.[47] Some people and groups have realized these choices cannot be sustained or tolerated.

Many species are not protected until they are endangered, this delay in protection results in significant losses of biodiversity in the ecosystem.[48] Legislation, such as the Endangered Species Act (ESA), serves to regulate human environmental intervention on the international scale to protect and preserve “species of fish, wildlife, and plants (that) have been so depleted in numbers that they are in danger of or threatened with extinction” and their habitats and to hold those in violation of it accountable.[49] As the international community increases efforts in monitoring and controlling environmental damage, the United Nations aims to create more protected habitats and ecosystems through initiative like the Sustainable Development Goal 15.[50]

Wildlife trafficking is a rising international crisis that is not only taking away animal rights but also threatening the world on global environmental, social, and economic levels.[49] It's contributing to an illegal economy and having detrimental effects on humans’ well-being.[51] The Endangered Species Act (ESA) works along with international treaties like Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) and Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), aiming to combat transnational crimes and make joint efforts for wildlife protection.[52] The penalties as a result of breaking these laws are fines as small as $500 per violation and as large as $25,000 per violation or imprisonment up to 6 months.[53] These laws are weakened by these limited penalties and extensive exceptions. These exceptions include “scientific purposes or to enhance the propagation or survival of the affected species…, undue economic hardships…, and  Pre-Act endangered species parts exemption; application and certification; regulation; validity of sales contract; separability; renewal of exemption; expiration of renewal certification.”[54]

Coalition Against Wildlife Trafficking edit

The Coalition Against Wildlife Trafficking (CAWT) was established in 2005 by the U.S. State Department as a voluntary coalition of governments and organizations that aims to end the illegal trade of wildlife and wildlife products.[55] CAWT currently includes six governments and thirteen international NGOs. Their means of action include raising public awareness to curb demand, strengthening international cross-border law enforcement to limit supply, and endeavoring to mobilize political support from upper echelons.

Association of Southeast Asian Nations Wild Enforcement Network edit

The Freeland Foundation and TRAFFIC Southeast Asia worked with the Thai government and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), to establish the ASEAN Wildlife Enforcement Network (ASEAN-WEN) in 2005.[56] ASEAN-WEN oversees cross-border cooperation and aims to strengthen the collective law enforcement capacity of the ten ASEAN member countries. It is the largest regional wildlife law enforcement collaboration in the world and receives support from the United States Agency for International Development.

South Asian Enforcement Network edit

The South Asian Enforcement Network (SAWEN) was created with the help of CAWT and TRAFFIC.[57] In 2008, South Asian environment ministers agreed to create SAWEN under the support of the South Asia Co-operative Environment Programme. The SAWEN countries include Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka.

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species edit

The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) directs its efforts at the supply side of wildlife smuggling.[58] It aims to end wildlife smuggling and to ensure that international trade does not threaten endangered species. For example, Vicuna, the smallest member of the camelid family, was endangered because it was massively hunted for its wool. But after the Vicunas were under the protection of CITES, their numbers increased to reach 350,000 by 2008.

By country edit

Australia edit

International trade of Australia's wildlife is regulated under Part 13A of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999.[59] The same act implements provisions of CITES and the UN Biodiversity Convention in relation to imports of threatened biodiversity and wildlife.

Ecuador edit

Latin America is vulnerable to wildlife smuggling because of its biodiversity. Ecuador is known for its biodiversity. In northern Ecuador, the Yasuní National Park and the surrounding Waorani Ethnic Reserve, which cover about 1,770 square miles, are home to around 4,000 species of plants; numerous animals, including the giant river otter; more than 400 fish species; and more than 500 species of birds.[60] As a comparison, the United States is home to 900 species of birds. Commonly smuggled birds include the scarlet macaw; this colorful bird, with bright red, brilliant blue, yellow, and white feathers, is in high demand as a pet.[61][62] Animals stolen in Latin America often end up in Europe, the United States, or Japan. Though there are laws against wildlife smuggling, the lack of resources causes conservation to be low in priority.

Mexico edit

China has become involved in wildlife trafficking, another aspect of its illegal activities in Mexico that include involvement in drug trafficking and other organized crime.[63]

United States edit

The Lacey Act of 1900 is a U.S. federal law that prohibits trade in wildlife, fish, and plants that have been illegally taken, possessed, transported, or sold, including endangered species.[64] In 2022, the Big Cat Public Safety Act was enacted, requiring licenses to keep large exotic cats such as lions and tigers and banning cub petting, a lucrative enterprise that incentivized an illegal underground endangered animal trade publicized by the popular documentary miniseries Tiger King.[65]

See also edit

Notes edit

  1. ^ Smart, Utpal; Cihlar, Jennifer Churchill; Budowle, Bruce (2021-09-01). "International Wildlife Trafficking: A perspective on the challenges and potential forensic genetics solutions". Forensic Science International: Genetics. 54: 102551. doi:10.1016/j.fsigen.2021.102551. ISSN 1872-4973. PMID 34134047.
  2. ^ van Uhm, Daan; South, Nigel; Wyatt, Tanya (2021-12-01). "Connections between trades and trafficking in wildlife and drugs". Trends in Organized Crime. 24 (4): 425–446. doi:10.1007/s12117-021-09416-z. ISSN 1936-4830. PMC 8129602. PMID 34025109.
  3. ^ Guynup, Sharon; Shepherd, Chris R.; Shepherd, Loretta (2020). "The True Costs of Wildlife Trafficking". Georgetown Journal of International Affairs. 21: 28–37. doi:10.1353/gia.2020.0023. S2CID 225096811.
  4. ^ Satyaem, Chaiwat (May 12, 2023). . Bangkok Post. Archived from the original on 2023-11-01. Retrieved 2023-11-01.
  5. ^ Environmental crime in Latin America : the theft of nature and the poisoning of the land. David Rodríguez Goyes, Hanneke Mol, Avi Brisman, Nigel South. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK. 2017. ISBN 978-1-137-55705-6. OCLC 1004839723.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  6. ^ a b c Nuwer, Rachel (2018). Poached : inside the dark world of wildlife trafficking (1st ed.). New York, NY. ISBN 978-0-306-82550-7. OCLC 1019624065.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  7. ^ a b Rock, Katherine I.; MacMillan, Douglas C. (2022-02-01). "Can Substitutes Reduce Future Demand for Wildlife Products: A Case Study of China's Millennial Generation". Human Ecology. 50 (1): 91–111. doi:10.1007/s10745-021-00279-0. ISSN 1572-9915. PMC 8572063. PMID 34776585.
  8. ^ Bortolamiol, Sarah; Feuillet, Thierry; Kagoro, Wilson; Namirembe, Rukia; Asalu, Edward; Krief, Sabrina (2023). "Illegal Harvesting within a Protected Area: Spatial Distribution of Activities, Social Drivers of Wild Meat Consumption, and Wildlife Conservation". Animals. 13 (5): 771. doi:10.3390/ani13050771. ISSN 2076-2615. PMC 10000183. PMID 36899628.
  9. ^ Stringham, Oliver C.; García‐Díaz, Pablo; Toomes, Adam; Mitchell, Lewis; Ross, Joshua V.; Cassey, Phillip (2021). "Live reptile smuggling is predicted by trends in the legal exotic pet trade". Conservation Letters. 14 (6). doi:10.1111/conl.12833. hdl:2164/16960. ISSN 1755-263X. S2CID 238678892.
  10. ^ a b Nguyen, T.; Roberts, D. L. (2020). "Exploring the Africa-Asia Trade Nexus for Endangered Wildlife Used in Traditional Asian Medicine: Interviews With Traders in South Africa and Vietnam". Tropical Conservation Science. 13: 194008292097925. doi:10.1177/1940082920979252. ISSN 1940-0829. S2CID 229716233.
  11. ^ Illegal trade in wildlife : a North American perspective. Commission for Environmental Cooperation, North American Wildlife Enforcement Group. Montréal, Québec: Commission for Environmental Cooperation. 2005. ISBN 2-923358-26-0. OCLC 221623580.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  12. ^ a b Gluszek, Sarah; Viollaz, Julie; Mwinyihali, Robert; Wieland, Michelle; Gore, Meredith L. (2021). "Using conservation criminology to understand the role of restaurants in the urban wild meat trade". Conservation Science and Practice. 3 (5). doi:10.1111/csp2.368. ISSN 2578-4854. S2CID 233802543.
  13. ^ Dell, BreeAnna; Willcox, Adam; Souza, Marcy (2022-08-30). "Attitudes, practices, and zoonoses awareness of community members involved in the bushmeat trade near Murchison Falls National Park, northern Uganda". Open Science Framework. doi:10.17605/OSF.IO/Q4MDV. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  14. ^ Rentsch, Dennis; Damon, Amy (2013-07-01). "Prices, poaching, and protein alternatives: An analysis of bushmeat consumption around Serengeti National Park, Tanzania". Ecological Economics. 91: 1–9. doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2013.03.021. ISSN 0921-8009.
  15. ^ Chaber, Anne-Lise; Allebone-Webb, Sophie; Lignereux, Yves; Cunningham, Andrew A.; Marcus Rowcliffe, J. (2010). "The scale of illegal meat importation from Africa to Europe via Paris: Illegal intercontinental meat trade". Conservation Letters. 3 (5): 317–321. doi:10.1111/j.1755-263X.2010.00121.x. S2CID 83040531.
  16. ^ Musing, Louisa; Norwisz, Magdalena; Kloda, Jane; Kecse-Nagy, Katalin (2018). Wildlife Trade in Belgium: An analysis of CITES trade and seizure data. TRAFFIC International. ISBN 978-1-85850-443-8.
  17. ^ Persaud, Sabrina (2017-10-02). "Losing Our "CITES" on the "Traffic": How Taxing Ivory Trafficking Can Save the African Elephant From Its Bloody Extinction". Journal of International Wildlife Law & Policy. 20 (3–4): 295–320. doi:10.1080/13880292.2017.1403813. ISSN 1388-0292. S2CID 90577468.
  18. ^ a b c Chan, Hon-Ki; Zhang, Huarong; Yang, Feng; Fischer, Gunter (17 April 2015). "Improve customs systems to monitor global wildlife trade". Science. 348 (6232): 291–292. Bibcode:2015Sci...348..291C. doi:10.1126/science.aaa3141. PMID 25883346. S2CID 206633776.
  19. ^ "Illegal trade in environmentally sensitive goods". OECD.
  20. ^ "CITES Decision, 16.62, Rev. CoP16" (PDF). CITES.
  21. ^ "Calls for better traceability after report identifies Singapore as the world's second largest shark fin trader". TRAFFIC.
  22. ^ Cawthorn, Donna-Mareè; Mariani, Stefano (2017). "Global trade statistics lack granularity to inform traceability and management of diverse and high-value fishes". Scientific Reports. 7 (1): 12852. Bibcode:2017NatSR...712852C. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-12301-x. PMC 5634443. PMID 28993629.
  23. ^ Yap, Tiffany A.; Koo, Michelle S.; Ambrose, Richard F.; Wake, David B.; Vredenburg, Vance T. (31 July 2015). "Averting a North American biodiversity crisis". Science. 349 (6247): 481–482. Bibcode:2015Sci...349..481Y. doi:10.1126/science.aab1052. PMID 26228132. S2CID 27718701.
  24. ^ Rhyne, Andrew L.; Tlusty, Michael F.; Szczebak, Joseph T.; Holmberg, Robert J. (2017). "Expanding our understanding of the trade in marine aquarium animals". PeerJ. 5: e2949. doi:10.7717/peerj.2949. PMC 5274522. PMID 28149703.
  25. ^ a b Sellar, John (June 2007). "International Illicit Trafficking in Wildlife". Police Chief Magazine. 74 (6). Retrieved September 1, 2014.
  26. ^ Zite Media B.V. "Gerben Jan Gerbrandy claiming that terrorist networks hunt wildlife for funding themselves" (PDF). Retrieved 7 October 2014.
  27. ^ Neo, Hui Min. "Smuggling wildlife: From eggs in a bra to geckos in underwear". Physorg.org. Retrieved August 30, 2014.
  28. ^ a b "Malaysia's 'Lizard King' under probe for wildlife smuggling, report says". themalaymailonline.com. November 2, 2013. Retrieved September 1, 2014.
  29. ^ Gettleman, Jeffrey (December 31, 2012). "Rangers in Isolated Central Africa Uncover Grim Cost of Protecting Wildlife". New York Times. Retrieved August 30, 2014.
  30. ^ "The Escalating International Wildlife Trafficking Crisis: Ecological, Economic, and National Security Issues". Retrieved August 30, 2014.
  31. ^ Trex, Ethan (January 27, 2010). "The Ins & Outs of Exotic Animal Smuggling". Mental Floss. Retrieved August 31, 2014.
  32. ^ Sellar, John (June 2007). "International Illicit Trafficking in Wildlife". Police Chief Magazine. 74 (6). Retrieved August 31, 2014.
  33. ^ Begley, Sharon (March 1, 2008). "Big Business: Wildlife Trafficking". Newsweek. Retrieved August 30, 2014.
  34. ^ "Interior Announces Ban on Commercial Trade of Ivory as Part of Overall Effort to Combat Poaching, Wildlife Trafficking". 11 February 2014. Retrieved 2014-08-31.
  35. ^ The Editorial Board (2014-02-18). "Banning Ivory Sales in America". The New York Times. Retrieved 2014-08-31.
  36. ^ Christy, Bryan (2012-09-14). . Pictures, More From National Geographic Magazine. Archived from the original on September 16, 2012. Retrieved 2014-08-31.
  37. ^ Moore, Malcolm (2014-02-13). "Ivory trade: Can China get tough on tusks?". Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 2014-08-31.
  38. ^ a b "Wildlife Trafficking – Statistics on the Illegal Wildlife Trade". www.havocscope.com. Retrieved 2018-11-05.
  39. ^ Friday (2014-03-07). "Wildlife Trade News - Poaching and illegal wildlife trade threaten tourism and development options in Africa". TRAFFIC. Retrieved 2014-08-31.
  40. ^ Van Borm, S; Thomas, I; Hanquet, G; Lambrecht, B; Boschmans, M; Dupont, G; Decaestecker, M; Snacken, R; van den Berg, T (May 2005). "Highly pathogenic H5N1 influenza virus in smuggled Thai eagles, Belgium" (PDF). Emerging Infectious Diseases. 11 (5): 702–5. doi:10.3201/eid1105.050211. PMC 3320388. PMID 15890123. Retrieved October 3, 2014.
  41. ^ "Ebola virus disease". www.who.int. Retrieved 2019-03-06.
  42. ^ Center for Disease Prevention and Control. "B Virus (herpes B, monkey B virus, herpesvirus simiae, and herpesvirus B)". Center for Disease Prevention and Control. Retrieved September 16, 2014.
  43. ^ Rice, Thomas (April 28, 2009). "Mother and Daughter Sentenced to Jail for Smuggling Monkey from Thailand". Department of the Interior. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Retrieved September 14, 2014.
  44. ^ "Salmonella". Centers for Disease Prevention and Control. Retrieved October 3, 2014.
  45. ^ . National Geographic News. 2016-05-20. Archived from the original on October 1, 2019. Retrieved 2020-09-25.
  46. ^ Money Laundering and the Illegal Wildlife Trade, The Financial Action Task Force (FATF), 2020
  47. ^ 1 MAJLPP 26 (West)
  48. ^ Ryan S. Meczkowski, The Price of Species Protection: The Effect of The ESA on Forest Landowners, 1 Wm. & Mary Pol'y Rev. 185, (2010).
  49. ^ a b 16 U.S.C.A. § 1531(West)
  50. ^ "Goal 15 targets". UNDP. Retrieved 2020-09-24.
  51. ^ Reuters. “Wet Markets in China's Wuhan Struggle to Survive Coronavirus Blow.” New York Times, April 12, 2020. Wet Markets in China's Wuhan Struggle to Survive Coronavirus Blow By Reuters.
  52. ^ 16 U.S.C.A. § 1537 (West)
  53. ^ 16 U.S.C.A. § 1540 (West)
  54. ^ 16 U.S.C.A. § 1539 (West)
  55. ^ "CAWT - About". cawt-global.squarespace.com. Retrieved 2018-10-01.
  56. ^ "The ASEAN Wildlife Enforcement Network (ASEAN-WEN)". ASEAN Cooperation on Environment. 2012-11-21. Retrieved 2018-10-01.
  57. ^ "WelcomeSouth Asia Wildlife Enforcement Network". South Asia Wildlife Enforcement Network. Retrieved 2018-10-01.
  58. ^ "What is CITES? | CITES". www.cites.org. Retrieved 2018-10-01.
  59. ^ "Department of the Environment and Energy". Department of the Environment and Energy. Retrieved 2018-10-01.
  60. ^ USAID; Wildlife Conservation Society. "The Global Conservation Program Achievements and Lessons Learned from 10 Years of Support for Threats-based Conservation at a Landscape and Seascape Scale: Greater Yasuní-Napo Moist Forest Landscape Conservati on Area (Ecuador)" (PDF). USAID. USAID and Wildlife Conservation Society. Retrieved August 31, 2014.
  61. ^ Bergman, Charles (December 2009). "Wildlife Trafficking". Smithsonian. Retrieved August 31, 2014.
  62. ^ "Scarlet Macaw (Ara macao)". Rainforest Alliance. Retrieved August 31, 2014.
  63. ^ ""How is China involved in organized crime in Mexico?"". Brookings Institution. 23 February 2022. Retrieved 19 May 2022.
  64. ^ United States. Lacey Act (Game). 31 Stat. 187, ch. 553. Approved May 25, 1900. As amended by:
    • Lacey Act Amendments of 1981. Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 97–79 Approved November 16, 1981.
    • Captive Wildlife Safety Act. Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 108–191 (text) (PDF) Approved December 19, 2003.
    • Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008 (2008 Farm Bill). Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 110–246 (text) (PDF) Approved June 18, 2008.
  65. ^ Chung, Christine (December 21, 2022). "President Biden Signs Bill Outlawing Private Ownership of Big Cats". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved November 10, 2023.

References edit

  • Mastny, Lisa; French, Hillary (September–October 2002). "Crimes of (A) Global Nature". World Watch Magazine. Vol. 15, no. 5.
  • "Poaching American Security: Impacts of Illegal Wildlife Trade". U.S. Government Printing Office. 5 March 2008.

External links edit

  • ASEAN-WEN official website
  • FREELAND Foundation official website
  • Environmental Investigation Agency (EIA) official website
  • USA branch of EIA
  • TRAFFIC official website
  • "Wildlife smugglers see low risk, high profit". msnbc.com. Associated Press. 6 July 2007.
  • Lovgren, Stefan (26 July 2007). . National Geographic. Archived from the original on January 27, 2008.

wildlife, smuggling, legal, trade, species, wildlife, trade, this, article, needs, additional, citations, verification, please, help, improve, this, article, adding, citations, reliable, sources, unsourced, material, challenged, removed, find, sources, news, n. For the legal trade of species see Wildlife trade This article needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Wildlife smuggling news newspapers books scholar JSTOR October 2018 Learn how and when to remove this template message Wildlife smuggling or wildlife trafficking concerns the illegal gathering and trade of endangered species and protected wildlife including plants and byproducts or products utilizing a species 1 Research on wildlife smuggling has increased however knowledge of the illicit trade remains limited The differences between international policies and tendencies likely contribute to the extensive estimated range of wildlife smuggling anywhere from 5 23 billion with an additional 67 193 billion when timber and fish are included 2 The prolific growth of wildlife smuggling makes it the fourth largest criminal enterprise globally after drug firearm and human trafficking Products demanded by the trade include but are not limited to ivory bushmeat traditional medicine and exotic pets China and the United States are the largest buyers in the illegal wildlife trade 3 It often involves other illegal activities such as tranquilizing animals without proper authorization 4 Illegal wildlife items seized by UK Border Patrol in 2013Contents 1 Culture 1 1 Asia 1 1 1 China 1 2 Africa 2 Ineffective monitoring of international wildlife trade 3 Impact 3 1 Economic 3 2 Health 3 2 1 Diseases believe to have originated and spread by wildlife smuggling 3 2 2 Diseases linked to animal species that are targets of wildlife smuggling 3 3 Environmental 4 International control measures 4 1 Coalition Against Wildlife Trafficking 4 2 Association of Southeast Asian Nations Wild Enforcement Network 4 3 South Asian Enforcement Network 4 3 1 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species 5 By country 5 1 Australia 5 2 Ecuador 5 3 Mexico 5 4 United States 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 External linksCulture editIn many instances culture is a driving factor in wildlife trafficking There are often traditional roots or societal trends behind the reasons specific wildlife faces a greater risk of targeting when it comes to traditional medicines jewelry trinkets pets and the consumption of wild meat bushmeat 5 6 7 8 9 With the help of globalization the Internet social media and people moving from one nation to another over the centuries many items desired by the wildlife trade are distributed multi nationally such as traditional medicines which appear in the United States Canada New Zealand and South Africa 10 Laws prohibiting the use of particular plant or animal derived items fall short when people believe they encroach on traditional cultural values or what they believe is best for human life Additionally tourism has accounted for some accidental wildlife trafficking A person may purchase an item not knowing it is prohibited or banned internationally 11 Below are some examples of culturally influenced illegal wildlife trade by various continents and their countries or regions Asia edit China edit The use of Traditional Chinese Medicines TCM began during the 10th century BCE Utilizing a variety of plants and animals TCM was considered the key to treating disease and mitigating the effects of aging Around 200 years after discovering the germ theory of disease TCM began to receive pushback from younger educated crowds Despite the pushback TCM remains an essential aspect of cultural identity for many in the Chinese nation bringing 10 million into the economy in 2005 6 Unfortunately using animal derivatives for traditional medicines has been considered a key driver for the global wildlife trafficking trade Many commonly used species are now listed as threatened or endangered by the IUCN with other species showing declines in their populations 6 10 A recent study sought insights into China s millennial population s attitude towards consuming wildlife products for medicinal purposes Of the 350 students surveyed by Chinese university students three quarters of respondents had yet to try any wildlife products and only 11 of those respondents stated interest in trying them in the future Chinese culture historically held a utilitarian view of nature Still with societal and cultural shifts this may begin to change with China s youth 7 Africa edit nbsp African elephants have experienced drastic reduction in population numbers due to the trafficking of ivory Although understudied wild meat is sourced illegally often due to political and economic instability in African nations In rural areas bushmeat is often used as a way to survive poverty and a lack of food security In contrast urban residents typically eat bushmeat for the status it brings as a luxury item 12 13 14 Additionally wild meat is exported from Africa for international markets every year 15 16 12 Ivory continues to be in great demand for international markets as well with an estimated 100 African elephants killed daily for their tusks 17 Ineffective monitoring of international wildlife trade editThe volume of international trade in wildlife commodities is immense and continue to rise According to an analysis to the 2012 Harmonized System customs statistics 18 global import of wildlife products amounted to US 187 billion of which fisheries commodities accounted for 113 billion plants and forestries for 71 billion non fishery animal for 3 billion However the global trade of wildlife commodities is ineffectively monitored and accounted for due to the constraint of the current HS Code System used by the customs worldwide Majority of international imports of wildlife are only recorded in general categories such as plant or animal products with no further taxonomic detail this is like importing metals without recording their element identity e g copper or iron It is estimated that near 50 of the global import of plant and 70 of animals product are imported as general categories with an exception for fisheries ca 5 thanks to various multilateral fishery management agreements that requires taxon specific fish catch reporting 18 Furthermore some frequently traded taxonomic groups including amphibian and live coral are not accounted for at all due to the absence of HS code Many jurisdictions relies on the declared HS Code of the consignments for detection and prosecution of illegal wildlife import The lack of specificity of HS code precludes effective monitoring and traceability of global wildlife trade There is an increasing call for a reform of the Harmonized System to strengthen monitoring and enforcement of global wildlife trade 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Impact editEconomic edit Members of terrorist organizations and criminal organizations illicitly traffic in hundreds of millions of plants and animals to fund the purchase of weapons finance civil conflicts and launder money from illicit sources 25 26 27 28 These often transnational efforts require a funding and a network of poachers processors smugglers sellers and buyers 25 Well armed highly organized poaching activities such as the murderous 2012 attacks in Chad and the Republic of Congo have captured headlines 29 The appeal in part is the low risk of detection and punishment compared to drug trafficking 30 31 In addition trafficking can reap significant profits for those leading such efforts 32 For example a single Ploughshare tortoise from Madagascar there are only 400 estimated left in the wild can fetch US 24 000 28 Elephant ivory a commonly trafficked contraband can sell for little in the source country and can fetch high prices in destination countries Prices depend greatly on the source country and the product 33 Ivory prices and demand have skyrocketed making it a growing and very lucrative market Globally The illegal ivory trade activity in 2014 has more than doubled what it was in 2007 34 China is the largest importer of illegal ivory the United States is second 35 36 37 According to reports from wildlife organization Save the Elephants the price for raw ivory in China was 2 100 per kilogram 38 Between 2010 and 2012 up to 33 000 elephants were poached and killed on average each year 38 Wildlife smuggling presents an economic cost to the countries where it occurs including lost tourism and development opportunities 39 Health edit The spread of animal borne disease affects both human health as well as threatening indigenous wildlife and natural ecosystems According to the United States Government Accountability Office nearly 75 of emerging diseases that reach humans come from animals The link between wildlife trafficking and disease outbreak is questioned although outbreaks of certain diseases have suspected links to smuggled animals Diseases believe to have originated and spread by wildlife smuggling edit SARS severe acute respiratory syndrome is caused by a virus and infects both humans and wildlife Experts suspect that the SARS virus originated in the China due to contact between a civet wildcats common in Chinese trade and humans Avian flu H5N1 is caused by a highly pathogenic virus It can infect humans through contact with infected crested hawks 40 and other wild birds but can be transmitted by contact with poultry as well Monkeypox is an infectious disease found in Africa s wildlife that can spread to humans Ebola Virus is a rare infectious disease that is transmitted from wild animals chimpanzees monkeys gorillas fruit bats etc to human populations The transmission of the virus usually occurs through consuming the infected animals close quarters or bodily liquid contact 41 Diseases linked to animal species that are targets of wildlife smuggling edit Herpes B virus is a virus found among macaque monkeys that can be transmitted by bites or scratches to humans in extremely rare cases If not treated soon after exposure severe brain damage or death can follow infection 42 43 Salmonella infection can cause diarrhea fever and abdominal cramps Infections have been linked to contact with turtles 44 bearded dragons and other reptiles Environmental edit Wildlife smuggling directly affects the biodiversity of different ecosystems Certain animals are in higher demand by smugglers leading to a visible decline of these species in their native habitats Wildlife smuggling may also cause the introduction of invasive and harmful species into an ecosystem which can endanger indigenous wildlife by putting a strain on the environment s resources through interspecific competition between species Throughout the last hundred years around twenty animals are extinct due to poaching and illegal smuggling such as the West African black Rhinoceros Pyrenean Ibex Passenger Pigeon Unfortunately poaching and illicit hunting may cause extinction for new 7 species like Ploughshare Tortoise Red Fronted Macaw 45 International control measures edit nbsp How wildlife trafficking networks operate 46 See also Wildlife Enforcement Monitoring SystemIncreasingly interconnected globalization increases international trade in a wide variety of products extending even to exotic animal products Traders and consumers who still participate in the international exotic animal market ignore the detrimental effects of depleting our environment and ecosystem and instead give priority to individual consumer benefits such as monetary gains or high fashion 47 Some people and groups have realized these choices cannot be sustained or tolerated Many species are not protected until they are endangered this delay in protection results in significant losses of biodiversity in the ecosystem 48 Legislation such as the Endangered Species Act ESA serves to regulate human environmental intervention on the international scale to protect and preserve species of fish wildlife and plants that have been so depleted in numbers that they are in danger of or threatened with extinction and their habitats and to hold those in violation of it accountable 49 As the international community increases efforts in monitoring and controlling environmental damage the United Nations aims to create more protected habitats and ecosystems through initiative like the Sustainable Development Goal 15 50 Wildlife trafficking is a rising international crisis that is not only taking away animal rights but also threatening the world on global environmental social and economic levels 49 It s contributing to an illegal economy and having detrimental effects on humans well being 51 The Endangered Species Act ESA works along with international treaties like Convention on Migratory Species CMS and Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora CITES aiming to combat transnational crimes and make joint efforts for wildlife protection 52 The penalties as a result of breaking these laws are fines as small as 500 per violation and as large as 25 000 per violation or imprisonment up to 6 months 53 These laws are weakened by these limited penalties and extensive exceptions These exceptions include scientific purposes or to enhance the propagation or survival of the affected species undue economic hardships and Pre Act endangered species parts exemption application and certification regulation validity of sales contract separability renewal of exemption expiration of renewal certification 54 Coalition Against Wildlife Trafficking edit The Coalition Against Wildlife Trafficking CAWT was established in 2005 by the U S State Department as a voluntary coalition of governments and organizations that aims to end the illegal trade of wildlife and wildlife products 55 CAWT currently includes six governments and thirteen international NGOs Their means of action include raising public awareness to curb demand strengthening international cross border law enforcement to limit supply and endeavoring to mobilize political support from upper echelons Association of Southeast Asian Nations Wild Enforcement Network edit The Freeland Foundation and TRAFFIC Southeast Asia worked with the Thai government and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations ASEAN to establish the ASEAN Wildlife Enforcement Network ASEAN WEN in 2005 56 ASEAN WEN oversees cross border cooperation and aims to strengthen the collective law enforcement capacity of the ten ASEAN member countries It is the largest regional wildlife law enforcement collaboration in the world and receives support from the United States Agency for International Development South Asian Enforcement Network edit The South Asian Enforcement Network SAWEN was created with the help of CAWT and TRAFFIC 57 In 2008 South Asian environment ministers agreed to create SAWEN under the support of the South Asia Co operative Environment Programme The SAWEN countries include Afghanistan Bangladesh Bhutan India Maldives Nepal Pakistan and Sri Lanka Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species edit The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora CITES directs its efforts at the supply side of wildlife smuggling 58 It aims to end wildlife smuggling and to ensure that international trade does not threaten endangered species For example Vicuna the smallest member of the camelid family was endangered because it was massively hunted for its wool But after the Vicunas were under the protection of CITES their numbers increased to reach 350 000 by 2008 By country editAustralia edit International trade of Australia s wildlife is regulated under Part 13A of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 59 The same act implements provisions of CITES and the UN Biodiversity Convention in relation to imports of threatened biodiversity and wildlife Ecuador edit Latin America is vulnerable to wildlife smuggling because of its biodiversity Ecuador is known for its biodiversity In northern Ecuador the Yasuni National Park and the surrounding Waorani Ethnic Reserve which cover about 1 770 square miles are home to around 4 000 species of plants numerous animals including the giant river otter more than 400 fish species and more than 500 species of birds 60 As a comparison the United States is home to 900 species of birds Commonly smuggled birds include the scarlet macaw this colorful bird with bright red brilliant blue yellow and white feathers is in high demand as a pet 61 62 Animals stolen in Latin America often end up in Europe the United States or Japan Though there are laws against wildlife smuggling the lack of resources causes conservation to be low in priority Mexico edit China has become involved in wildlife trafficking another aspect of its illegal activities in Mexico that include involvement in drug trafficking and other organized crime 63 United States edit The Lacey Act of 1900 is a U S federal law that prohibits trade in wildlife fish and plants that have been illegally taken possessed transported or sold including endangered species 64 In 2022 the Big Cat Public Safety Act was enacted requiring licenses to keep large exotic cats such as lions and tigers and banning cub petting a lucrative enterprise that incentivized an illegal underground endangered animal trade publicized by the popular documentary miniseries Tiger King 65 See also editCITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species Environmental crime IUCN Red List International Union for the Conservation of Nature list of threatened species Poaching Wildlife conservation Wildlife management Wildlife farming Wildlife smuggling hubs in Asia Wildlife trade Wildlife smuggling in southern Africa Endangered speciesNotes edit Smart Utpal Cihlar Jennifer Churchill Budowle Bruce 2021 09 01 International Wildlife Trafficking A perspective on the challenges and potential forensic genetics solutions Forensic Science International Genetics 54 102551 doi 10 1016 j fsigen 2021 102551 ISSN 1872 4973 PMID 34134047 van Uhm Daan South Nigel Wyatt Tanya 2021 12 01 Connections between trades and trafficking in wildlife and drugs Trends in Organized Crime 24 4 425 446 doi 10 1007 s12117 021 09416 z ISSN 1936 4830 PMC 8129602 PMID 34025109 Guynup Sharon Shepherd Chris R Shepherd Loretta 2020 The True Costs of Wildlife Trafficking Georgetown Journal of International Affairs 21 28 37 doi 10 1353 gia 2020 0023 S2CID 225096811 Satyaem Chaiwat May 12 2023 Wildlife trafficking gang arrested Bangkok Post Archived from the original on 2023 11 01 Retrieved 2023 11 01 Environmental crime in Latin America the theft of nature and the poisoning of the land David Rodriguez Goyes Hanneke Mol Avi Brisman Nigel South London Palgrave Macmillan UK 2017 ISBN 978 1 137 55705 6 OCLC 1004839723 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint others link a b c Nuwer Rachel 2018 Poached inside the dark world of wildlife trafficking 1st ed New York NY ISBN 978 0 306 82550 7 OCLC 1019624065 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link a b Rock Katherine I MacMillan Douglas C 2022 02 01 Can Substitutes Reduce Future Demand for Wildlife Products A Case Study of China s Millennial Generation Human Ecology 50 1 91 111 doi 10 1007 s10745 021 00279 0 ISSN 1572 9915 PMC 8572063 PMID 34776585 Bortolamiol Sarah Feuillet Thierry Kagoro Wilson Namirembe Rukia Asalu Edward Krief Sabrina 2023 Illegal Harvesting within a Protected Area Spatial Distribution of Activities Social Drivers of Wild Meat Consumption and Wildlife Conservation Animals 13 5 771 doi 10 3390 ani13050771 ISSN 2076 2615 PMC 10000183 PMID 36899628 Stringham Oliver C Garcia Diaz Pablo Toomes Adam Mitchell Lewis Ross Joshua V Cassey Phillip 2021 Live reptile smuggling is predicted by trends in the legal exotic pet trade Conservation Letters 14 6 doi 10 1111 conl 12833 hdl 2164 16960 ISSN 1755 263X S2CID 238678892 a b Nguyen T Roberts D L 2020 Exploring the Africa Asia Trade Nexus for Endangered Wildlife Used in Traditional Asian Medicine Interviews With Traders in South Africa and Vietnam Tropical Conservation Science 13 194008292097925 doi 10 1177 1940082920979252 ISSN 1940 0829 S2CID 229716233 Illegal trade in wildlife a North American perspective Commission for Environmental Cooperation North American Wildlife Enforcement Group Montreal Quebec Commission for Environmental Cooperation 2005 ISBN 2 923358 26 0 OCLC 221623580 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint others link a b Gluszek Sarah Viollaz Julie Mwinyihali Robert Wieland Michelle Gore Meredith L 2021 Using conservation criminology to understand the role of restaurants in the urban wild meat trade Conservation Science and Practice 3 5 doi 10 1111 csp2 368 ISSN 2578 4854 S2CID 233802543 Dell BreeAnna Willcox Adam Souza Marcy 2022 08 30 Attitudes practices and zoonoses awareness of community members involved in the bushmeat trade near Murchison Falls National Park northern Uganda Open Science Framework doi 10 17605 OSF IO Q4MDV a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Rentsch Dennis Damon Amy 2013 07 01 Prices poaching and protein alternatives An analysis of bushmeat consumption around Serengeti National Park Tanzania Ecological Economics 91 1 9 doi 10 1016 j ecolecon 2013 03 021 ISSN 0921 8009 Chaber Anne Lise Allebone Webb Sophie Lignereux Yves Cunningham Andrew A Marcus Rowcliffe J 2010 The scale of illegal meat importation from Africa to Europe via Paris Illegal intercontinental meat trade Conservation Letters 3 5 317 321 doi 10 1111 j 1755 263X 2010 00121 x S2CID 83040531 Musing Louisa Norwisz Magdalena Kloda Jane Kecse Nagy Katalin 2018 Wildlife Trade in Belgium An analysis of CITES trade and seizure data TRAFFIC International ISBN 978 1 85850 443 8 Persaud Sabrina 2017 10 02 Losing Our CITES on the Traffic How Taxing Ivory Trafficking Can Save the African Elephant From Its Bloody Extinction Journal of International Wildlife Law amp Policy 20 3 4 295 320 doi 10 1080 13880292 2017 1403813 ISSN 1388 0292 S2CID 90577468 a b c Chan Hon Ki Zhang Huarong Yang Feng Fischer Gunter 17 April 2015 Improve customs systems to monitor global wildlife trade Science 348 6232 291 292 Bibcode 2015Sci 348 291C doi 10 1126 science aaa3141 PMID 25883346 S2CID 206633776 Illegal trade in environmentally sensitive goods OECD CITES Decision 16 62 Rev CoP16 PDF CITES Calls for better traceability after report identifies Singapore as the world s second largest shark fin trader TRAFFIC Cawthorn Donna Maree Mariani Stefano 2017 Global trade statistics lack granularity to inform traceability and management of diverse and high value fishes Scientific Reports 7 1 12852 Bibcode 2017NatSR 712852C doi 10 1038 s41598 017 12301 x PMC 5634443 PMID 28993629 Yap Tiffany A Koo Michelle S Ambrose Richard F Wake David B Vredenburg Vance T 31 July 2015 Averting a North American biodiversity crisis Science 349 6247 481 482 Bibcode 2015Sci 349 481Y doi 10 1126 science aab1052 PMID 26228132 S2CID 27718701 Rhyne Andrew L Tlusty Michael F Szczebak Joseph T Holmberg Robert J 2017 Expanding our understanding of the trade in marine aquarium animals PeerJ 5 e2949 doi 10 7717 peerj 2949 PMC 5274522 PMID 28149703 a b Sellar John June 2007 International Illicit Trafficking in Wildlife Police Chief Magazine 74 6 Retrieved September 1 2014 Zite Media B V Gerben Jan Gerbrandy claiming that terrorist networks hunt wildlife for funding themselves PDF Retrieved 7 October 2014 Neo Hui Min Smuggling wildlife From eggs in a bra to geckos in underwear Physorg org Retrieved August 30 2014 a b Malaysia s Lizard King under probe for wildlife smuggling report says themalaymailonline com November 2 2013 Retrieved September 1 2014 Gettleman Jeffrey December 31 2012 Rangers in Isolated Central Africa Uncover Grim Cost of Protecting Wildlife New York Times Retrieved August 30 2014 The Escalating International Wildlife Trafficking Crisis Ecological Economic and National Security Issues Retrieved August 30 2014 Trex Ethan January 27 2010 The Ins amp Outs of Exotic Animal Smuggling Mental Floss Retrieved August 31 2014 Sellar John June 2007 International Illicit Trafficking in Wildlife Police Chief Magazine 74 6 Retrieved August 31 2014 Begley Sharon March 1 2008 Big Business Wildlife Trafficking Newsweek Retrieved August 30 2014 Interior Announces Ban on Commercial Trade of Ivory as Part of Overall Effort to Combat Poaching Wildlife Trafficking 11 February 2014 Retrieved 2014 08 31 The Editorial Board 2014 02 18 Banning Ivory Sales in America The New York Times Retrieved 2014 08 31 Christy Bryan 2012 09 14 Ivory Worship Pictures More From National Geographic Magazine Archived from the original on September 16 2012 Retrieved 2014 08 31 Moore Malcolm 2014 02 13 Ivory trade Can China get tough on tusks Telegraph co uk Retrieved 2014 08 31 a b Wildlife Trafficking Statistics on the Illegal Wildlife Trade www havocscope com Retrieved 2018 11 05 Friday 2014 03 07 Wildlife Trade News Poaching and illegal wildlife trade threaten tourism and development options in Africa TRAFFIC Retrieved 2014 08 31 Van Borm S Thomas I Hanquet G Lambrecht B Boschmans M Dupont G Decaestecker M Snacken R van den Berg T May 2005 Highly pathogenic H5N1 influenza virus in smuggled Thai eagles Belgium PDF Emerging Infectious Diseases 11 5 702 5 doi 10 3201 eid1105 050211 PMC 3320388 PMID 15890123 Retrieved October 3 2014 Ebola virus disease www who int Retrieved 2019 03 06 Center for Disease Prevention and Control B Virus herpes B monkey B virus herpesvirus simiae and herpesvirus B Center for Disease Prevention and Control Retrieved September 16 2014 Rice Thomas April 28 2009 Mother and Daughter Sentenced to Jail for Smuggling Monkey from Thailand Department of the Interior U S Fish and Wildlife Service Retrieved September 14 2014 Salmonella Centers for Disease Prevention and Control Retrieved October 3 2014 Poaching May Drive These 7 Species to Extinction National Geographic News 2016 05 20 Archived from the original on October 1 2019 Retrieved 2020 09 25 Money Laundering and the Illegal Wildlife Trade The Financial Action Task Force FATF 2020 1 MAJLPP 26 West Ryan S Meczkowski The Price of Species Protection The Effect of The ESA on Forest Landowners 1 Wm amp Mary Pol y Rev 185 2010 a b 16 U S C A 1531 West Goal 15 targets UNDP Retrieved 2020 09 24 Reuters Wet Markets in China s Wuhan Struggle to Survive Coronavirus Blow New York Times April 12 2020 Wet Markets in China s Wuhan Struggle to Survive Coronavirus Blow By Reuters 16 U S C A 1537 West 16 U S C A 1540 West 16 U S C A 1539 West CAWT About cawt global squarespace com Retrieved 2018 10 01 The ASEAN Wildlife Enforcement Network ASEAN WEN ASEAN Cooperation on Environment 2012 11 21 Retrieved 2018 10 01 WelcomeSouth Asia Wildlife Enforcement Network South Asia Wildlife Enforcement Network Retrieved 2018 10 01 What is CITES CITES www cites org Retrieved 2018 10 01 Department of the Environment and Energy Department of the Environment and Energy Retrieved 2018 10 01 USAID Wildlife Conservation Society The Global Conservation Program Achievements and Lessons Learned from 10 Years of Support for Threats based Conservation at a Landscape and Seascape Scale Greater Yasuni Napo Moist Forest Landscape Conservati on Area Ecuador PDF USAID USAID and Wildlife Conservation Society Retrieved August 31 2014 Bergman Charles December 2009 Wildlife Trafficking Smithsonian Retrieved August 31 2014 Scarlet Macaw Ara macao Rainforest Alliance Retrieved August 31 2014 How is China involved in organized crime in Mexico Brookings Institution 23 February 2022 Retrieved 19 May 2022 United States Lacey Act Game 31 Stat 187 ch 553 Approved May 25 1900 As amended by Lacey Act Amendments of 1981 Pub L Tooltip Public Law United States 97 79 Approved November 16 1981 Captive Wildlife Safety Act Pub L Tooltip Public Law United States 108 191 text PDF Approved December 19 2003 Food Conservation and Energy Act of 2008 2008 Farm Bill Pub L Tooltip Public Law United States 110 246 text PDF Approved June 18 2008 Chung Christine December 21 2022 President Biden Signs Bill Outlawing Private Ownership of Big Cats The New York Times ISSN 0362 4331 Retrieved November 10 2023 References editMastny Lisa French Hillary September October 2002 Crimes of A Global Nature World Watch Magazine Vol 15 no 5 Poaching American Security Impacts of Illegal Wildlife Trade U S Government Printing Office 5 March 2008 External links edit nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Animal smuggling ASEAN WEN official website FREELAND Foundation official website Environmental Investigation Agency EIA official website USA branch of EIA TRAFFIC official website Wildlife smugglers see low risk high profit msnbc com Associated Press 6 July 2007 Lovgren Stefan 26 July 2007 Wildlife Smuggling Boom Plaguing L A Authorities Say National Geographic Archived from the original on January 27 2008 Pangolins Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Wildlife smuggling amp oldid 1219771752, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.