fbpx
Wikipedia

Open source

January 13, 2023

For common use, see Open-source software. For other uses, see Open source (disambiguation). Not to be confused with Open access.

Open source is source code that is made freely available for possible modification and redistribution. Products include permission to use the source code,[1] design documents,[2] or content of the product. The open-source model is a decentralized software development model that encourages open collaboration.[3][4] A main principle of open-source software development is peer production, with products such as source code, blueprints, and documentation freely available to the public. The open-source movement in software began as a response to the limitations of proprietary code. The model is used for projects such as in open-source appropriate technology,[5] and open-source drug discovery.[6][7]

Open source promotes universal access via an open-source or free license to a product's design or blueprint, and universal redistribution of that design or blueprint.[8][9] Before the phrase open source became widely adopted, developers and producers have used a variety of other terms. Open source gained hold with the rise of the Internet.[10] The open-source software movement arose to clarify copyright, licensing, domain, and consumer issues.

Generally, open source refers to a computer program in which the source code is available to the general public for use or modification from its original design. Code is released under the terms of a software license. Depending on the license terms, others may then download, modify, and publish their version (fork) back to the community. Many large formal institutions have sprung up to support the development of the open-source movement, including the Apache Software Foundation, which supports community projects such as the open-source framework Apache Hadoop and the open-source HTTP server Apache HTTP.

History

Main article: History of free and open-source software

The sharing of technical information predates the Internet and the personal computer considerably. For instance, in the early years of automobile development a group of capital monopolists owned the rights to a 2-cycle gasoline-engine patent originally filed by George B. Selden.[11] By controlling this patent, they were able to monopolize the industry and force car manufacturers to adhere to their demands, or risk a lawsuit.

In 1911, independent automaker Henry Ford won a challenge to the Selden patent. The result was that the Selden patent became virtually worthless and a new association (which would eventually become the Motor Vehicle Manufacturers Association) was formed.[11] The new association instituted a cross-licensing agreement among all US automotive manufacturers: although each company would develop technology and file patents, these patents were shared openly and without the exchange of money among all the manufacturers.[11] By the time the US entered World War II, 92 Ford patents and 515 patents from other companies were being shared among these manufacturers, without any exchange of money (or lawsuits).[11]

Early instances of the free sharing of source code include IBM's source releases of its operating systems and other programs in the 1950s and 1960s, and the SHARE user group that formed to facilitate the exchange of software.[12][13] Beginning in the 1960s, ARPANET researchers used an open "Request for Comments" (RFC) process to encourage feedback in early telecommunication network protocols. This led to the birth of the early Internet in 1969.

The sharing of source code on the Internet began when the Internet was relatively primitive, with software distributed via UUCP, Usenet, IRC, and Gopher. BSD, for example, was first widely distributed by posts to comp.os.linux on the Usenet, which is also where its development was discussed. Linux followed in this model.

Open source as a term

There is an example of "open source," meaning the source code was published, but not free software (purchasing a license was still required for use), in 1996.[14] Other recollection have it in use during the 1980s.[15]

It was later proposed by a group of people in the free software movement who were critical of the political agenda and moral philosophy implied in the term "free software" and sought to reframe the discourse to reflect a more commercially minded position.[16] In addition, the ambiguity of the term "free software" was seen as discouraging business adoption.[17][18] However, the ambiguity of the word "free" exists primarily in English as it can refer to cost. The group included Christine Peterson, Todd Anderson, Larry Augustin, Jon Hall, Sam Ockman, Michael Tiemann and Eric S. Raymond. Peterson suggested "open source" at a meeting[19] held at Palo Alto, California, in reaction to Netscape's announcement in January 1998 of a source code release for Navigator. Linus Torvalds gave his support the following day, and Phil Hughes backed the term in Linux Journal. Richard Stallman, the founder of the free software movement, quickly decided against endorsing the term.[19][20] Netscape released its source code under the Netscape Public License and later under the Mozilla Public License.[21]

Raymond was especially active in the effort to popularize the new term. He made the first public call to the free software community to adopt it in February 1998.[22] Shortly after, he founded The Open Source Initiative in collaboration with Bruce Perens.[19]

The term gained further visibility through an event organized in April 1998 by technology publisher Tim O'Reilly. Originally titled the "Freeware Summit" and later known as the "Open Source Summit,"[23] the event was attended by the leaders of many of the most important free and open-source projects, including Linus Torvalds, Larry Wall, Brian Behlendorf, Eric Allman, Guido van Rossum, Michael Tiemann, Paul Vixie, Jamie Zawinski, and Eric Raymond. At that meeting, alternatives to the term "free software" were discussed. Tiemann argued for "sourceware" as a new term, while Raymond argued for "open source." The assembled developers took a vote, and the winner was announced at a press conference the same evening.[23]

"Open source" has never managed to entirely supersede the older term "free software," giving rise to the combined term free and open-source software (FOSS).

Economics

Main article: Open-source economics
 
Area of application of open source software[24]
 
Survey on the reasons for using Open Source in 200 Swiss organizations[24]

Some economists agree that open-source is an information good[25] or "knowledge good" with original work involving a significant amount of time, money, and effort. The cost of reproducing the work is low enough that additional users may be added at zero or near zero cost – this is referred to as the marginal cost of a product. Copyright creates a monopoly so that the price charged to consumers can be significantly higher than the marginal cost of production. This allows the author to recoup the cost of making the original work. Copyright thus creates access costs for consumers who value the work more than the marginal cost but less than the initial production cost. Access costs also pose problems for authors who wish to create a derivative work—such as a copy of a software program modified to fix a bug or add a feature, or a remix of a song—but are unable or unwilling to pay the copyright holder for the right to do so.

Being organized as effectively a "consumers' cooperative", open source eliminates some of the access costs of consumers and creators of derivative works by reducing the restrictions of copyright. Basic economic theory predicts that lower costs would lead to higher consumption and also more frequent creation of derivative works. Organizations such as Creative Commons host websites where individuals can file for alternative "licenses", or levels of restriction, for their works.[26] These self-made protections free the general society of the costs of policing copyright infringement.

Others argue that since consumers do not pay for their copies, creators are unable to recoup the initial cost of production and thus have little economic incentive to create in the first place. By this argument, consumers would lose out because some of the goods they would otherwise purchase would not be available. In practice, content producers can choose whether to adopt a proprietary license and charge for copies, or an open license. Some goods which require large amounts of professional research and development, such as the pharmaceutical industry (which depends largely on patents, not copyright for intellectual property protection) are almost exclusively proprietary, although increasingly sophisticated technologies are being developed on open-source principles.[27]

There is evidence that open-source development creates enormous value.[28] For example, in the context of open-source hardware design, digital designs are shared for free and anyone with access to digital manufacturing technologies (e.g. RepRap 3D printers) can replicate the product for the cost of materials.[29] The original sharer may receive feedback and potentially improvements on the original design from the peer production community.

Many open source projects have a high economic value. According to the Battery Open Source Software Index (BOSS), the ten economically most important open source projects are:[30][31]

Ranking Project Leading company Market Value
1 Linux Red Hat $16 billion
2 Git GitHub $2 billion
3 MySQL Oracle $1.87 billion
4 Node.js NodeSource ?
5 Docker Docker $1 billion
6 Hadoop Cloudera $3 billion
7 Elasticsearch Elastic $700 million
8 Spark Databricks $513 million
9 MongoDB MongoDB $1.57 billion
10 Selenium Sauce Labs $470 million

The rank given is based on the activity regarding projects in online discussions, on GitHub, on search activity in search engines and on the influence on the labour market.

Licensing alternatives

Further information: Business models for open-source software

Alternative arrangements have also been shown to result in good creation outside of the proprietary license model. Examples include:[citation needed]

  •  
    Wikipedia is an example of a global application of the open source model.
    Creation for its own sake – For example, Wikipedia editors add content for recreation. Artists have a drive to create. Both communities benefit from free starting material.
  • Voluntary after-the-fact donations – used by shareware, street performers, and public broadcasting in the United States.[citation needed]
  • Patron – For example, open access publishing relies on institutional and government funding of research faculty, who also have a professional incentive to publish for reputation and career advancement. Works of the U.S. federal government are automatically released into the public domain.[citation needed]
  • Freemium – Give away a limited version for free and charge for a premium version (potentially using a dual license).
  • Give away the product and charge something related – Charge for support of open-source enterprise software, give away music but charge for concert admission.[citation needed]
  • Give away work in order to gain market share – Used by artists, in corporate software to spoil a dominant competitor (for example in the browser wars and the Android operating system).[citation needed]
  • For own use – Businesses or individual software developers often create software to solve a problem, bearing the full cost of initial creation. They will then open source the solution, and benefit from the improvements others make for their own needs. Communalizing the maintenance burden distributes the cost across more users; free riders can also benefit without undermining the creation process.

Open collaboration

The open-source model is a decentralized software development model that encourages open collaboration,[3][32] meaning "any system of innovation or production that relies on goal-oriented yet loosely coordinated participants who interact to create a product (or service) of economic value, which they make available to contributors and noncontributors alike."[3] A main principle of open-source software development is peer production, with products such as source code, blueprints, and documentation freely available to the public. The open-source movement in software began as a response to the limitations of proprietary code. The model is used for projects such as in open-source appropriate technology,[5] and open-source drug discovery.[6][7]

The open-source model for software development inspired the use of the term to refer to other forms of open collaboration, such as in Internet forums,[8] mailing lists[33] and online communities.[34] Open collaboration is also thought to be the operating principle underlining a gamut of diverse ventures, including TEDx and Wikipedia.[35]

Open collaboration is the principle underlying peer production, mass collaboration, and wikinomics.[3] It was observed initially in open source software, but can also be found in many other instances, such as in Internet forums,[8] mailing lists,[33] Internet communities,[34] and many instances of open content, such as Creative Commons. It also explains some instances of crowdsourcing, collaborative consumption, and open innovation.[3]

Riehle et al. define open collaboration as collaboration based on three principles of egalitarianism, meritocracy, and self-organization.[36] Levine and Prietula define open collaboration as "any system of innovation or production that relies on goal-oriented yet loosely coordinated participants who interact to create a product (or service) of economic value, which they make available to contributors and noncontributors alike."[3] This definition captures multiple instances, all joined by similar principles. For example, all of the elements — goods of economic value, open access to contribute and consume, interaction and exchange, purposeful yet loosely coordinated work — are present in an open source software project, in Wikipedia, or in a user forum or community. They can also be present in a commercial website that is based on user-generated content. In all of these instances of open collaboration, anyone can contribute and anyone can freely partake in the fruits of sharing, which are produced by interacting participants who are loosely coordinated.

An annual conference dedicated to the research and practice of open collaboration is the International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration (OpenSym, formerly WikiSym).[37] As per its website, the group defines open collaboration as "collaboration that is egalitarian (everyone can join, no principled or artificial barriers to participation exist), meritocratic (decisions and status are merit-based rather than imposed) and self-organizing (processes adapt to people rather than people adapt to pre-defined processes)."[38]

Open-source license

Main article: Open-source license

Open source promotes universal access via an open-source or free license to a product's design or blueprint, and universal redistribution of that design or blueprint.[8][9] Before the phrase open source became widely adopted, developers and producers used a variety of other terms. Open source gained hold in part due to the rise of the Internet.[39] The open-source software movement arose to clarify copyright, licensing, domain, and consumer issues.

An open-source license is a type of license for computer software and other products that allows the source code, blueprint or design to be used, modified or shared (with or without modification) under defined terms and conditions.[40][41] This allows end users and commercial companies to review and modify the source code, blueprint or design for their own customization, curiosity or troubleshooting needs. Open-source licensed software is mostly available free of charge, though this does not necessarily have to be the case. Licenses which only permit non-commercial redistribution or modification of the source code for personal use only are generally not considered as open-source licenses. However, open-source licenses may have some restrictions, particularly regarding the expression of respect to the origin of software, such as a requirement to preserve the name of the authors and a copyright statement within the code, or a requirement to redistribute the licensed software only under the same license (as in a copyleft license). One popular set of open-source software licenses are those approved by the Open Source Initiative (OSI) based on their Open Source Definition (OSD).

Applications

 
Open-source model application domains

Social and political views have been affected by the growth of the concept of open source. Advocates in one field often support the expansion of open source in other fields. But Eric Raymond and other founders of the open-source movement have sometimes publicly argued against speculation about applications outside software, saying that strong arguments for software openness should not be weakened by overreaching into areas where the story may be less compelling. The broader impact of the open-source movement, and the extent of its role in the development of new information sharing procedures, remain to be seen.

The open-source movement has inspired increased transparency and liberty in biotechnology research, for example CAMBIA[42] Even the research methodologies themselves can benefit from the application of open-source principles.[43] It has also given rise to the rapidly-expanding open-source hardware movement.

Computer software

Main article: Free and open-source software
 
Blender, an open-source 3D graphics editor, running in Windows 7

Open-source software is software which source code is published and made available to the public, enabling anyone to copy, modify and redistribute the source code without paying royalties or fees.[44]

LibreOffice and the GNU Image Manipulation Program are examples of open source software. As they do with proprietary software, users must accept the terms of a license when they use open source software—but the legal terms of open source licenses differ dramatically from those of proprietary licenses.

Open-source code can evolve through community cooperation. These communities are composed of individual programmers as well as large companies. Some of the individual programmers who start an open-source project may end up establishing companies offering products or services incorporating open-source programs.[citation needed] Examples of open-source software products are:[45]

Electronics

Open-source hardware is hardware which initial specification, usually in a software format, is published and made available to the public, enabling anyone to copy, modify and redistribute the hardware and source code without paying royalties or fees. Open-source hardware evolves through community cooperation. These communities are composed of individual hardware/software developers, hobbyists, as well as very large companies. Examples of open-source hardware initiatives are:

  • Openmoko: a family of open-source mobile phones, including the hardware specification and the operating system.
  • OpenRISC: an open-source microprocessor family, with architecture specification licensed under GNU GPL and implementation under LGPL.
  • Sun Microsystems's OpenSPARC T1 Multicore processor. Sun has released it under GPL.[46]
  • Arduino, a microcontroller platform for hobbyists, artists and designers.[47]
  • Simputer, an open hardware handheld computer, designed in India for use in environments where computing devices such as personal computers are deemed inappropriate.[48]
  • LEON: A family of open-source microprocessors distributed in a library with peripheral IP cores, open SPARC V8 specification, implementation available under GNU GPL.
  • Tinkerforge: A system of open-source stackable microcontroller building blocks. Allows control of motors and read out sensors with the programming languages C, C++, C#, Object Pascal, Java, PHP, Python and Ruby over a USB or Wifi connection on Windows, Linux and Mac OS X. All of the hardware is licensed under CERN OHL (CERN Open Hardware License).
  • Open Compute Project: designs for computer data center including power supply, Intel motherboard, AMD motherboard, chassis, racks, battery cabinet, and aspects of electrical and mechanical design.[49]

Food and beverages

 
Barack Obama and Dakota Meyer drinking White House Honey Ale in 2011. The recipe is available for free.

Some publishers of open-access journals have argued that data from food science and gastronomy studies should be freely available to aid reproducibility.[50] A number of people have published creative commons licensed recipe books.[51]

  • Open-source colas – cola soft drinks, similar to Coca-Cola and Pepsi, whose recipe is open source and developed by volunteers. The taste is said to be comparable to that of the standard beverages. Most corporations producing beverages hold their formulas as closely guarded secrets.[52]
  • Free Beer (originally Vores Øl) – is an open-source beer created by students at the IT-University in Copenhagen together with Superflex, an artist collective, to illustrate how open-source concepts might be applied outside the digital world.[53][54][55]

Digital content

  • Open-content projects organized by the Wikimedia Foundation – Sites such as Wikipedia and Wiktionary have embraced the open-content Creative Commons content licenses. These licenses were designed to adhere to principles similar to various open-source software development licenses. Many of these licenses ensure that content remains free for re-use, that source documents are made readily available to interested parties, and that changes to content are accepted easily back into the system. Important sites embracing open-source-like ideals are Project Gutenberg[56] and Wikisource, both of which post many books on which the copyright has expired and are thus in the public domain, ensuring that anyone has free, unlimited access to that content.
  • Open ICEcat is an open catalog for the IT, CE and Lighting sectors with product data-sheets based on Open Content License agreement. The digital content are distributed in XML and URL formats.
  • Google Sketchup's 3D Warehouse is an open-source design community centered around the use of proprietary software that's distributed free of charge.
  • The University of Waterloo Stratford Campus invites students every year to use its three-storey Christie MicroTiles wall as a digital canvas for their creative work.[57]

Medicine

  • Pharmaceuticals – There have been several proposals for open-source pharmaceutical development,[58][59] which led to the establishment of the Tropical Disease Initiative[60] and the Open Source Drug Discovery for Malaria Consortium.[7]
  • Genomics – The term "open-source genomics" refers to the combination of rapid release of sequence data (especially raw reads) and crowdsourced analyses from bioinformaticians around the world that characterised the analysis of the 2011 E. coli O104:H4 outbreak.[61]
  • OpenEMR – OpenEMR is an ONC-ATB Ambulatory EHR 2011-2012 certified electronic health records and medical practice management application. It features fully integrated electronic health, records, practice management, scheduling, electronic billing, and is the base for many EHR programs.

Science and engineering

Further information: Open research
  • Research – The Science Commons was created as an alternative to the expensive legal costs of sharing and reusing scientific works in journals etc.[62]
  • Research – The Open Solar Outdoors Test Field (OSOTF)[63] is a grid-connected photovoltaic test system, which continuously monitors the output of a number of photovoltaic modules and correlates their performance to a long list of highly accurate meteorological readings. The OSOTF is organized under open-source principles – All data and analysis is to be made freely available to the entire photovoltaic community and the general public.[63]
  • Engineering – Hyperloop, a form of high-speed transport proposed by entrepreneur Elon Musk, which he describes as "an elevated, reduced-pressure tube that contains pressurized capsules driven within the tube by a number of linear electric motors".[64]
  • Construction – WikiHouse is an open-source project for designing and building houses.[65][66]
  • Energy research - The Open Energy Modelling Initiative promotes open-source models and open data in energy research and policy advice.

Robotics

Main article: Open-source robotics

An open-source robot is a robot whose blueprints, schematics, or source code are released under an open-source model

Other

 
VIA OpenBook is an open-source hardware laptop reference design.
  • Open-source principles can be applied to technical areas such as digital communication protocols and data storage formats.
  • Open-design – which involves applying open-source methodologies to the design of artifacts and systems in the physical world. It is very nascent but has huge potential.[67]
  • Open-source appropriate technology (OSAT) refers to technologies that are designed in the same fashion as free and open-source software.[68] These technologies must be "appropriate technology" (AT) – meaning technology that is designed with special consideration to the environmental, ethical, cultural, social, political, and economic aspects of the community it is intended for. An example of this application is the use of open-source 3D printers like the RepRap to manufacture appropriate technology.[69]
  • Teaching – which involves applying the concepts of open source to instruction using a shared web space as a platform to improve upon learning, organizational, and management challenges. An example of an Open-source courseware is the Java Education & Development Initiative (JEDI).[70] Other examples include Khan Academy and wikiversity. At the university level, the use of open-source-appropriate technology classroom projects has been shown to be successful in forging the connection between science/engineering and social benefit:[71] This approach has the potential to use university students' access to resources and testing equipment in furthering the development of appropriate technology. Similarly OSAT has been used as a tool for improving service learning.[72][73]
  • There are few examples of business information (methodologies, advice, guidance, practices) using the open-source model, although this is another case where the potential is enormous. ITIL is close to open source. It uses the Cathedral model (no mechanism exists for user contribution) and the content must be bought for a fee that is small by business consulting standards (hundreds of British pounds). Various checklists are published by government, banks or accounting firms.
  • An open-source group emerged in 2012 that is attempting to design a firearm that may be downloaded from the internet and "printed" on a 3D Printer.[74] Calling itself Defense Distributed, the group wants to facilitate "a working plastic gun that could be downloaded and reproduced by anybody with a 3D printer".[75]
  • Agrecol, a German NGO has developed an open-source licence for seeds operating with copyleft and created OpenSourceSeeds as a respective service provider. Breeders that apply the license to their new invented material prevent it from the threat of privatisation and help to establish a commons-based breeding sector as an alternative to the commercial sector.[76]
  • Open Source Ecology, farm equipment and global village construction kit.

"Open" versus "free" versus "free and open"

Free and open-source software (FOSS) or free/libre and open-source software (FLOSS) is openly shared source code that is licensed without any restrictions on usage, modification, or distribution.[citation needed] Confusion persists about this definition because the "free", also known as "libre", refers to the freedom of the product, not the price, expense, cost, or charge. For example, "being free to speak" is not the same as "free beer".[20]

Conversely, Richard Stallman argues the "obvious meaning" of term "open source" is that the source code is public/accessible for inspection, without necessarily any other rights granted, although the proponents of the term say the conditions in the Open Source Definition must be fulfilled.[77]

"Free and open" should not be confused with public ownership (state ownership), deprivatization (nationalization), anti-privatization (anti-corporate activism), or transparent behavior.[citation needed]

Software

Main article: Open-source software

Generally, open source refers to a computer program in which the source code is available to the general public for use for any (including commercial) purpose, or modification from its original design. Open-source code is meant to be a collaborative effort, where programmers improve upon the source code and share the changes within the community. Code is released under the terms of a software license. Depending on the license terms, others may then download, modify, and publish their version (fork) back to the community.

Agriculture, economy, manufacturing and production

Science and medicine

Media

Organizations

Procedures

Society

The rise of open-source culture in the 20th century resulted from a growing tension between creative practices that involve require access to content that is often copyrighted, and restrictive intellectual property laws and policies governing access to copyrighted content. The two main ways in which intellectual property laws became more restrictive in the 20th century were extensions to the term of copyright (particularly in the United States) and penalties, such as those articulated in the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA), placed on attempts to circumvent anti-piracy technologies.[78]

Although artistic appropriation is often permitted under fair-use doctrines, the complexity and ambiguity of these doctrines creates an atmosphere of uncertainty among cultural practitioners. Also, the protective actions of copyright owners create what some call a "chilling effect" among cultural practitioners.[79]

The idea of an "open-source" culture runs parallel to "Free Culture," but is substantively different. Free culture is a term derived from the free software movement, and in contrast to that vision of culture, proponents of open-source culture (OSC) maintain that some intellectual property law needs to exist to protect cultural producers. Yet they propose a more nuanced position than corporations have traditionally sought. Instead of seeing intellectual property law as an expression of instrumental rules intended to uphold either natural rights or desirable outcomes, an argument for OSC takes into account diverse goods (as in "the Good life") and ends.

Sites such as ccMixter offer up free web space for anyone willing to license their work under a Creative Commons license. The resulting cultural product is then available to download free (generally accessible) to anyone with an Internet connection.[80] Older, analog technologies such as the telephone or television have limitations on the kind of interaction users can have.

Through various technologies such as peer-to-peer networks and blogs, cultural producers can take advantage of vast social networks to distribute their products. As opposed to traditional media distribution, redistributing digital media on the Internet can be virtually costless. Technologies such as BitTorrent and Gnutella take advantage of various characteristics of the Internet protocol (TCP/IP) in an attempt to totally decentralize file distribution.

Further information: Open-source software movement

Government

  • Open politics (sometimes known as Open-source politics) is a political process that uses Internet technologies such as blogs, email and polling to provide for a rapid feedback mechanism between political organizations and their supporters. There is also an alternative conception of the term Open-source politics which relates to the development of public policy under a set of rules and processes similar to the open-source software movement.
  • Open-source governance is similar to open-source politics, but it applies more to the democratic process and promotes the freedom of information.
  • Open-source political campaigns refer specifically to political campaigns.
  • The South Korean government wants to increase its use of free and open-source software, in order to decrease its dependence on proprietary software solutions. It plans to make open standards a requirement, to allow the government to choose between multiple operating systems and web browsers. Korea's Ministry of Science, ICT & Future Planning is also preparing ten pilots on using open-source software distributions.[81]

Ethics

Open-source ethics is split into two strands:

  • Open-source ethics as an ethical school – Charles Ess and David Berry are researching whether ethics can learn anything from an open-source approach. Ess famously even defined the AoIR Research Guidelines as an example of open-source ethics.[82]
  • Open-source ethics as a professional body of rules – This is based principally on the computer ethics school, studying the questions of ethics and professionalism in the computer industry in general and software development in particular.[83]

Religion

Main article: Open-source religion

Irish philosopher Richard Kearney has used the term "open-source Hinduism" to refer to the way historical figures such as Mohandas Gandhi and Swami Vivekananda worked upon this ancient tradition.[84]

Media

Open-source journalism formerly referred to the standard journalistic techniques of news gathering and fact checking, reflecting open-source intelligence, a similar term used in military intelligence circles. Now, open-source journalism commonly refers to forms of innovative publishing of online journalism, rather than the sourcing of news stories by a professional journalist. In the 25 December 2006 issue of TIME magazine this is referred to as user created content and listed alongside more traditional open-source projects such as OpenSolaris and Linux.

Weblogs, or blogs, are another significant platform for open-source culture. Blogs consist of periodic, reverse chronologically ordered posts, using a technology that makes webpages easily updatable with no understanding of design, code, or file transfer required. While corporations, political campaigns and other formal institutions have begun using these tools to distribute information, many blogs are used by individuals for personal expression, political organizing, and socializing. Some, such as LiveJournal or WordPress, utilize open-source software that is open to the public and can be modified by users to fit their own tastes. Whether the code is open or not, this format represents a nimble tool for people to borrow and re-present culture; whereas traditional websites made the illegal reproduction of culture difficult to regulate, the mutability of blogs makes "open sourcing" even more uncontrollable since it allows a larger portion of the population to replicate material more quickly in the public sphere.

Messageboards are another platform for open-source culture. Messageboards (also known as discussion boards or forums), are places online where people with similar interests can congregate and post messages for the community to read and respond to. Messageboards sometimes have moderators who enforce community standards of etiquette such as banning spammers. Other common board features are private messages (where users can send messages to one another) as well as chat (a way to have a real time conversation online) and image uploading. Some messageboards use phpBB, which is a free open-source package. Where blogs are more about individual expression and tend to revolve around their authors, messageboards are about creating a conversation amongst its users where information can be shared freely and quickly. Messageboards are a way to remove intermediaries from everyday life—for instance, instead of relying on commercials and other forms of advertising, one can ask other users for frank reviews of a product, movie or CD. By removing the cultural middlemen, messageboards help speed the flow of information and exchange of ideas.

OpenDocument is an open document file format for saving and exchanging editable office documents such as text documents (including memos, reports, and books), spreadsheets, charts, and presentations. Organizations and individuals that store their data in an open format such as OpenDocument avoid being locked into a single software vendor, leaving them free to switch software if their current vendor goes out of business, raises their prices, changes their software, or changes their licensing terms to something less favorable.

Open-source movie production is either an open call system in which a changing crew and cast collaborate in movie production, a system in which the result is made available for re-use by others or in which exclusively open-source products are used in the production. The 2006 movie Elephants Dream is said to be the "world's first open movie",[85] created entirely using open-source technology.

An open-source documentary film has a production process allowing the open contributions of archival material footage, and other filmic elements, both in unedited and edited form, similar to crowdsourcing. By doing so, on-line contributors become part of the process of creating the film, helping to influence the editorial and visual material to be used in the documentary, as well as its thematic development. The first open-source documentary film is the non-profit WBCN and the American Revolution, which went into development in 2006, and will examine the role media played in the cultural, social and political changes from 1968 to 1974 through the story of radio station WBCN-FM in Boston.[86][87][88][89] The film is being produced by Lichtenstein Creative Media and the non-profit Center for Independent Documentary. Open Source Cinema is a website to create Basement Tapes, a feature documentary about copyright in the digital age, co-produced by the National Film Board of Canada.[90]Open-source film-making refers to a form of film-making that takes a method of idea formation from open-source software, but in this case the 'source' for a filmmaker is raw unedited footage rather than programming code. It can also refer to a method of film-making where the process of creation is 'open' i.e. a disparate group of contributors, at different times contribute to the final piece.

Open-IPTV is IPTV that is not limited to one recording studio, production studio, or cast. Open-IPTV uses the Internet or other means to pool efforts and resources together to create an online community that all contributes to a show.

Education

Within the academic community, there is discussion about expanding what could be called the "intellectual commons" (analogous to the Creative Commons). Proponents of this view have hailed the Connexions Project at Rice University, OpenCourseWare project at MIT, Eugene Thacker's article on "open-source DNA", the "Open Source Cultural Database", Salman Khan's Khan Academy and Wikipedia as examples of applying open source outside the realm of computer software.

Open-source curricula are instructional resources whose digital source can be freely used, distributed and modified. Another strand to the academic community is in the area of research. Many funded research projects produce software as part of their work. Due to the benefits of sharing software openly in scientific endeavours,[91] there is an increasing interest in making the outputs of research projects available under an open-source license. In the UK the Joint Information Systems Committee (JISC) has developed a policy on open-source software. JISC also funds a development service called OSS Watch which acts as an advisory service for higher and further education institutions wishing to use, contribute to and develop open-source software.

On 30 March 2010, President Barack Obama signed the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act, which included $2 billion over four years to fund the TAACCCT program, which is described as "the largest OER (open education resources) initiative in the world and uniquely focused on creating curricula in partnership with industry for credentials in vocational industry sectors like manufacturing, health, energy, transportation, and IT".[92]

Innovation communities

The principle of sharing pre-dates the open-source movement; for example, the free sharing of information has been institutionalized in the scientific enterprise since at least the 19th century. Open-source principles have always been part of the scientific community. The sociologist Robert K. Merton described the four basic elements of the community—universalism (an international perspective), communalism (sharing information), objectivity (removing one's personal views from the scientific inquiry) and organized skepticism (requirements of proof and review) that describe the (idealised) scientific community.

These principles are, in part, complemented by US law's focus on protecting expression and method but not the ideas themselves. There is also a tradition of publishing research results to the scientific community instead of keeping all such knowledge proprietary. One of the recent initiatives in scientific publishing has been open access—the idea that research should be published in such a way that it is free and available to the public. There are currently many open access journals where the information is available free online, however most journals do charge a fee (either to users or libraries for access). The Budapest Open Access Initiative is an international effort with the goal of making all research articles available free on the Internet.

The National Institutes of Health has recently proposed a policy on "Enhanced Public Access to NIH Research Information". This policy would provide a free, searchable resource of NIH-funded results to the public and with other international repositories six months after its initial publication. The NIH's move is an important one because there is significant amount of public funding in scientific research. Many of the questions have yet to be answered—the balancing of profit vs. public access, and ensuring that desirable standards and incentives do not diminish with a shift to open access.

Benjamin Franklin was an early contributor eventually donating all his inventions including the Franklin stove, bifocals, and the lightning rod to the public domain. New NGO communities are starting to use the open-source technology as a tool. One example is the Open Source Youth Network started in 2007 in Lisboa by ISCA members.[93] Open innovation is also a new emerging concept which advocate putting R&D in a common pool. The Eclipse platform is openly presenting itself as an Open innovation network.[94]

Arts and recreation

Copyright protection is used in the performing arts and even in athletic activities. Some groups have attempted to remove copyright from such practices.[95]

In 2012, Russian music composer, scientist and Russian Pirate Party member Victor Argonov presented detailed raw files of his electronic opera "2032"[96] under free license CC-BY-NC 3.0 (later relicensed under CC-BY-SA 4.0[97]). This opera was originally composed and published in 2007 by Russian label MC Entertainment as a commercial product, but then the author changed its status to free. In his blog[98] he said that he decided to open raw files (including wav, midi and other used formats) to the public in order to support worldwide pirate actions against SOPA and PIPA. Several Internet resources called "2032" the first open-source musical opera in history.[99][100][101][102]

Other related movements

Notable events and applications that have been developed via the open source community, and echo the ideologies of the open source movement,[103] include the Open Education Consortium, Project Gutenberg, Synthethic Biology, and Wikipedia. The Open Education Consortium is an organization composed of various colleges that support open source and share some of their material online. This organization, headed by Massachusetts Institute of Technology, was established to aid in the exchange of open source educational materials. Wikipedia is an user-generated online encyclopedia with sister projects in academic areas, such as Wikiversity—a community dedicated to the creation and exchange of learning materials.[104][failed verification]

Prior to the existence of Google Scholar Beta, Project Gutenberg was the first supplier of electronic books and the first free library project.[104][failed verification] Synthetic Biology is a new technology that promises to enable cheap, lifesaving new drugs, as well as helping to yield biofuels that may help to solve our energy problem. Although synthetic biology has not yet come out of its lab stage, it has potential to become industrialized in the near future. In order to industrialize open source science, there are some scientists who are trying to build their own brand of it.[105]

Ideologically-related movements

The open-access movement is a movement that is similar in ideology to the open source movement. Members of this movement maintain that academic material should be readily available to provide help with "future research, assist in teaching and aid in academic purposes." The open-access movement aims to eliminate subscription fees and licensing restrictions of academic materials.[106] The free-culture movement is a movement that seeks to achieve a culture that engages in collective freedom via freedom of expression, free public access to knowledge and information, full demonstration of creativity and innovation in various arenas, and promotion of citizen liberties.[107][citation needed] Creative Commons is an organization that "develops, supports, and stewards legal and technical infrastructure that maximizes digital creativity, sharing, and innovation." It encourages the use of protected properties online for research, education, and creative purposes in pursuit of a universal access. Creative Commons provides an infrastructure through a set of copyright licenses and tools that creates a better balance within the realm of "all rights reserved" properties.[108] The Creative Commons license offers a slightly more lenient alternative to "all rights reserved" copyrights for those who do not wish to exclude the use of their material.[109]

The Zeitgeist Movement (TZM) is an international social movement that advocates a transition into a sustainable "resource-based economy" based on collaboration in which monetary incentives are replaced by commons-based ones with everyone having access to everything (from code to products) as in "open source everything".[110][111] While its activism and events are typically focused on media and education, TZM is a major supporter of open source projects worldwide since they allow for uninhibited advancement of science and technology, independent of constraints posed by institutions of patenting and capitalist investment.[112] P2P Foundation is an "international organization focused on studying, researching, documenting and promoting peer to peer practices in a very broad sense." Its objectives incorporate those of the open source movement, whose principles are integrated in a larger socio-economic model.[113]

See also

 
Meta has related information at: Open-source
 
Scholia has a topic profile for Open source.
 
Wikispecies has information related to Open-source.

Terms based on open source

Other

References

  1. ^ . Open Source Org. 7 July 2006. Archived from the original on 11 June 2007. Retrieved 22 January 2020. Open source doesn't just mean access to the source code.
  2. ^ . Diffingo Solutions Inc. Archived from the original on 28 October 2008. Retrieved 22 January 2020. Open source software differers from other software because it has a less restrictive license agreement: Instead of using a restrictive license that prevents you from modifying the program or sharing it with friends for example, sharing and modifying open source software is encouraged. Anyone who wishes to do so may distribute, modify or even create derivative works based on that source code!
  3. ^ a b c d e f Levine, Sheen S.; Prietula, M. J. (2013). "Open Collaboration for Innovation: Principles and Performance". Organization Science. 25 (5): 1414–1433. arXiv:1406.7541. doi:10.1287/orsc.2013.0872. ISSN 1047-7039. S2CID 6583883. SSRN 1096442.
  4. ^ Raymond, Eric S. (2001). The cathedral and the bazaar: musings on Linux and Open Source by an accidental revolutionary. OReilly. ISBN 978-0-596-00108-7.[page needed]
  5. ^ a b Pearce, Joshua M (2012). "The Case for Open Source Appropriate Technology". Environment, Development and Sustainability. 14 (3): 425–431. doi:10.1007/s10668-012-9337-9. ISSN 1387-585X.
  6. ^ a b Menon, Sreelatha (1 March 2009). ""Science 2.0 is here as CSIR resorts to open-source drug research for TB"". Business Standard India – via Business Standard.
  7. ^ a b c "Open Source Drug Discovery for Malaria Consortium
  8. ^ a b c d Lakhani, K.R.; von Hippel, E. (June 2003). "How Open Source Software Works: Free User to User Assistance". Research Policy. 32 (6): 923–943. doi:10.1016/S0048-7333(02)00095-1. hdl:1721.1/70028. ISSN 0048-7333. SSRN 290305.
  9. ^ a b Gerbe, Aurona; Molefo, Onkgopotse; Van der Merwe, Alta (2010). "Documenting open-source migration processes for re-use". In Kotze, P.; Gerber, A.; van der Merwe, A.; et al. (eds.). Proceedings of the SAICSIT 2010 Conference — Fountains of Computing Research. ACM Press. pp. 75–85. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.1033.7791. doi:10.1145/1899503.1899512. ISBN 978-1-60558-950-3. S2CID 11970697.
  10. ^ Weber 2004[page needed]
  11. ^ a b c d Flink, James J. (1977). The Car Culture. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-56015-3.
  12. ^ Fisher, Franklin M.; McKie, James W.; Mancke, Richard B. (1983). IBM and the U.S. Data Processing Industry: An Economic History. Praeger. pp. 172–9. ISBN 978-0-03-063059-0. IBM unbundled (began charging for) software 23 June 1969
  13. ^ Dave Pitts' IBM 7090 support 2015-08-27 at the Wayback Machine – An example of distributed source: Page contains a link to IBM 7090/94 IBSYS source, including COBOL and FORTRAN compilers.
  14. ^ . The Hyperlogos. 2 April 2018. Archived from the original on 2 April 2018.
  15. ^ "Why do Tech Journalists so often get Computer History... totally wrong?" – via www.youtube.com.
  16. ^ O'Mahony, Siobhan Clare (2002). "The emergence of a new commercial actor: Community managed software projects". Stanford, CA: Stanford University: 34–42. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  17. ^ Raymond, Eric S. "Goodbye, "free software"; hello, "open source"". The problem with it is twofold. First, ... the term "free" is very ambiguous ... Second, the term makes a lot of corporate types nervous.
  18. ^ Shea, Tom (23 June 1983). "Free software - Free software is a junkyard of software spare parts". InfoWorld. Retrieved 10 February 2016. "In contrast to commercial software is a large and growing body of free software that exists in the public domain. Public-domain software is written by microcomputer hobbyists (also known as "hackers") many of whom are professional programmers in their work life. [...] Since everybody has access to source code, many routines have not only been used but dramatically improved by other programmers."
  19. ^ a b c Tiemann, Michael (19 September 2006). . Open Source Initiative. Archived from the original on 1 October 2002. Retrieved 23 August 2008.
  20. ^ a b Stallman, Richard (18 May 2012). "Why Open Source misses the point of Free Software". Free Software Foundation.
  21. ^ Muffatto, Moreno (2006). Open Source: A Multidisciplinary Approach. Imperial College Press. ISBN 978-1-86094-665-3.
  22. ^ "Goodbye, "free software"; hello, "open source"". Catb.org. Retrieved 25 October 2012.
  23. ^ a b van Rossum, Guido (10 April 1998). . Linux Gazette. Archived from the original on 29 December 2013. Retrieved 7 February 2015.
  24. ^ a b . Der Verband für den Informatiker & für die Informatik (in Swiss High German). Archived from the original on 13 March 2017. Retrieved 23 December 2018.
  25. ^ Granstrand, Ove (1999). The economics and management of intellectual property : towards intellectual capitalism. Cheltenham, UK: E. Elgar. ISBN 978-1-85898-967-9.
  26. ^ . Creative Commons. Archived from the original on 6 January 2011. Retrieved 25 October 2012.
  27. ^ J.M. Pearce, Open-Source Lab: How to Build Your Own Hardware and Reduce Research Costs, Elsevier, 2014
  28. ^ 3D Printed Open Hardware Syringe Yields $800M Value, Study Finds- 3D Printing Industry 2-2-2015
  29. ^ Wittbrodt, B.T.; Glover, A.G.; Laureto, J.; Anzalone, G.C.; Oppliger, D.; Irwin, J.L.; Pearce, J.M. (2013). "Life-cycle economic analysis of distributed manufacturing with open-source 3-D printers". Mechatronics. 23 (6): 713–726. doi:10.1016/j.mechatronics.2013.06.002. ISSN 0957-4158. S2CID 1766321.
  30. ^ Joe McCann, "The Meteoric Rise Of Open Source And Why Investors Should Care", Forbes (in German), retrieved 10 October 2017
  31. ^ Dharmesh Thakker (7 April 2017), "Tracking the explosive growth of open-source software", TechCrunch (in German), retrieved 10 October 2017
  32. ^ Raymond, Eric S. (2001). The cathedral and the bazaar: musings on Linux and Open Source by an accidental revolutionary. OReilly. ISBN 978-0-596-00108-7.[page needed]
  33. ^ a b Jarvenpaa, S. L., & Majchrzak, Ann (2008). Knowledge Collaboration Among Professionals Protecting National Security: Role of Transactive Memories in Ego-Centered Knowledge Networks. Organization Science, 19(2), 260-276 doi:10.1287/orsc.1070.0315. ISSN 1047-7039
  34. ^ a b Faraj, S., Jarvenpaa, S. L., & Majchrzak, Ann (2011). Knowledge Collaboration in Online Communities. Organization Science, 22(5), 1224-1239, doi:10.1287/orsc.1100.0614 ISSN 1047-7039
  35. ^ "Open collaboration leading to novel organizations « Kurzweil".
  36. ^ Riehle, D.; Ellenberger, J.; Menahem, T.; Mikhailovski, B.; Natchetoi, Y.; Naveh, B.; Odenwald, T. (March 2009). (PDF). IEEE Software. 26 (2): 52–58. doi:10.1109/MS.2009.44. ISSN 0740-7459. S2CID 6038418. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 October 2016. Retrieved 22 November 2018.
  37. ^ "About". The International Symposium on Open Collaboration. 15 June 2010.
  38. ^ Riehle, Dirk. . The Joint International Symposium on Open Collaboration. Archived from the original on 12 March 2013. Retrieved 26 March 2013. Open collaboration is collaboration that is egalitarian (everyone can join, no principled or artificial barriers to participation exist), meritocratic (decisions and status are merit-based rather than imposed) and self-organizing (processes adapt to people rather than people adapt to pre-defined processes).
  39. ^ Weber, Steve (2009) [2004]. The Success of Open Source. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-04499-9.[page needed]
  40. ^ "Brief Definition of Open Source Licenses". Open Source Initiative. Retrieved 25 April 2013.
  41. ^ Popp, Dr. Karl Michael (2015). Best Practices for commercial use of open source software. Norderstedt, Germany: Books on Demand. ISBN 978-3738619096.
  42. ^ . Cambia. Archived from the original on 1 November 2012. Retrieved 25 October 2012.
  43. ^ Pearce, Joshua M. (1 August 2012). "Open Source Research in Sustainability". Sustainability: The Journal of Record. 5 (4): 238–243. doi:10.1089/sus.2012.9944. ISSN 1937-0695.
  44. ^ . Lucidimagination.com. 8 August 2012. Archived from the original on 28 April 2011. Retrieved 25 October 2012.
  45. ^ Metcalfe, Randolph (31 January 2012). "Examples of Open Source Software". OSS Watch. Retrieved 25 October 2012.
  46. ^ "An Open Source Processor used in Sun SPARC Servers". OpenSPARC. Retrieved 25 October 2012.
  47. ^ "Arduino — HomePage". Arduino.cc. Retrieved 25 October 2012.
  48. ^ "Computers: Systems: Handhelds: Open Source: Simputer". Open Directory. Dmoz.org. Retrieved 25 October 2012.
  49. ^ . Open Compute Project website. Facebook Inc. 2011. Archived from the original on 23 August 2011. Retrieved 8 August 2011.
  50. ^ Arkinstall, Kam (2 December 2013). "Mega Bites – how open data and gastronomy are proving a recipe for success". Research In Progress Blog. biomedcentral.com.
  51. ^ Lersch, Martin. "TEXTURE - A hydrocolloid recipe collection" (PDF).
  52. ^ "Open Cola Soft Drink Formula, Version 1.1.3 from Tyromaniac" (PDF). Alfredo.octavio.net. Retrieved 25 October 2012.
  53. ^ The concept expands upon a statement found in the Free Software Definition: "Free software is a matter of liberty, not price. To understand the concept, you should think of 'free' as in 'free speech' not as in 'free beer.'"
  54. ^ Stallman, Richard M. "The Gnu Organisation: What is free software?". Gnu.org. Retrieved 25 October 2012.
  55. ^ Cohn, David (18 July 2005). "Free Beer for Geeks". Wired News.
  56. ^ "Project Gutenberg — free ebooks". Gutenberg.org. Retrieved 25 October 2012.
  57. ^ . uwaterloo.ca/stratford-campus. Archived from the original on 18 April 2013. Retrieved 7 April 2013.
  58. ^ Munos B (September 2006). "Can open-source R&D reinvigorate drug research?". Nat Rev Drug Discov. 5 (9): 723–9. doi:10.1038/nrd2131. ISSN 1474-1776. PMID 16915233. S2CID 205476443.
  59. ^ Maurer SM, Rai A, Sali A (December 2004). "Finding cures for tropical diseases: is open source an answer?". PLOS Med. 1 (3): e56. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0010056. ISSN 1549-1676. PMC 539047. PMID 15630466.
  60. ^ "the Tropical Disease Initiative". Tropicaldisease.org. 16 July 2009. Retrieved 25 October 2012.
  61. ^ Rohde H; Qin, J; Cui, Y; Li, D; Loman, NJ; Hentschke, M; Chen, W; Pu, F; et al. (2011). "Open-Source Genomic Analysis of Shiga-Toxin–Producing E. coli O104:H4" (PDF). N Engl J Med. 365 (8): 718–24. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1107643. ISSN 0028-4793. PMID 21793736.
  62. ^ "Science — Creative Commons". Sciencecommons.org. 17 November 2010. Retrieved 25 October 2012.
  63. ^ a b Pearce, Joshua M.; Babasola, Adegboyega; Andrews, Rob (2012). "Open Solar Photovoltaic Systems Optimization" (PDF). Proceedings of the 16th Annual National Collegiate Inventors and Innovators Alliance Conference: 1–7.
  64. ^ Musk, Elon (12 August 2013). "Hyperloop". Tesla Motors website. Retrieved 22 September 2013.
  65. ^ LaBarre, Suzanne (25 August 2011). "WikiHouse, An Online Building Kit, Shows How To Make A House In 24 Hours". Co.Design. Fast Company, Inc. Retrieved 17 December 2013.
  66. ^ Kingsley, Jeremy (22 February 2012). "The WikiHouse Revolution". Slate. The Slate Group, LLC. Retrieved 17 December 2013.
  67. ^ . AdCiv. 29 July 2010. Archived from the original on 29 June 2019. Retrieved 25 October 2012.
  68. ^ A. J. Buitenhuis, I. Zelenika and J. M. Pearce, "Open Design-Based Strategies to Enhance Appropriate Technology Development", Proceedings of the 14th Annual National Collegiate Inventors and Innovators Alliance Conference : Open, 25–27 March 2010, pp. 1-12.
  69. ^ J.M. Pearce; C. Morris Blair; K.J. Laciak; R. Andrews; A. Nosrat; I. Zelenika-Zovko (2010). "3-D Printing of Open Source Appropriate Technologies for Self-Directed Sustainable Development". Journal of Sustainable Development. 3 (4): 17–29. doi:10.5539/jsd.v3n4p17. ISSN 1913-9063.
  70. ^ . Kenai.com. Archived from the original on 16 May 2010. Retrieved 25 October 2012.
  71. ^ J.M. Pearce (2007). "Teaching Physics Using Appropriate Technology Projects". The Physics Teacher. 45 (3): 164–7. Bibcode:2007PhTea..45..164P. doi:10.1119/1.2709675. ISSN 0031-921X.
  72. ^ Pearce, Joshua M. (2009). "Appropedia as a Tool for Service Learning in Sustainable Development". Journal of Education for Sustainable Development. 3 (1): 45–53. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.620.246. doi:10.1177/097340820900300112. hdl:1974/5306. ISSN 0973-4082. S2CID 145118511.
  73. ^ S. Murphy and N. Saleh, "Information literacy in CEAB's accreditation criteria: the hidden attribute", In Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Innovation and Practices in Engineering Design and Engineering Education, 2009. Hamilton, ON 27–29 July 2009.
  74. ^ Greenberg, Andy (23 August 2012). "'Wiki Weapon Project' Aims To Create A Gun Anyone Can 3D-Print At Home". Forbes. Retrieved 27 August 2012.
  75. ^ Poeter, Damon (24 August 2012). "Could a 'Printable Gun' Change the World?". PC Magazine. Retrieved 27 August 2012.
  76. ^ "New Open Source License Fights the Enclosure of Seeds | David Bollier". www.bollier.org. Retrieved 3 July 2017.
  77. ^ Stallman, Richard. "Why Open Source misses the point of Free Software". gnu.org. Retrieved 17 February 2019. However, the obvious meaning for the expression "open source software"—and the one most people seem to think it means—is "You can look at the source code." [...] the obvious meaning for "open source" is not the meaning that its advocates intend [...]
  78. ^ US Copyright Office (December 1998). "The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998" (PDF). Retrieved 25 October 2012.
  79. ^ "Chilling Effects Clearinghouse". Chillingeffects.org. Retrieved 25 October 2012.
  80. ^ "Open source software development – Just another case of collective invention?". from the original on 27 December 2011. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  81. ^ "South Korean government to sw… | Joinup". 4 July 2014.
  82. ^ Berry (2004) Internet Ethics: Privacy, Ethics and Alienation – An Open Source Approach. (PDF file)
  83. ^ El-Emam, K (2001). "Ethics and Open Source". Empirical Software Engineering. 6 (4).
  84. ^ Kearney, Richard (2011). Anatheism: Returning to God After God. Columbia University Press. p. xiii. ISBN 978-0-231-14789-7.
  85. ^ "Elephants Dream". Elephants Dream. 13 August 2006. Retrieved 25 October 2012.
  86. ^ "Web Power to the People," The Boston Herald, 29 September 2005
  87. ^ "The Glory Days of the Rock of Boston," Boston Globe, Op-Ed, 18 July 2009.
  88. ^ "'BCN Documentary Looks for Archival Contributors," Boston Herald, 11 August 2009
  89. ^ "WBCN and The American Revolution," The Huffington Post, 11 August 2009
  90. ^ "Watch Documentaries and Animated Films Online". NFB.ca. 27 August 2012. Retrieved 25 October 2012.
  91. ^ Besançon, Lonni; Peiffer-Smadja, Nathan; Segalas, Corentin; Jiang, Haiting; Masuzzo, Paola; Smout, Cooper; Billy, Eric; Deforet, Maxime; Leyrat, Clémence (2020). "Open Science Saves Lives: Lessons from the COVID-19 Pandemic". BMC Medical Research Methodology. 21 (1): 117. doi:10.1186/s12874-021-01304-y. PMC 8179078. PMID 34090351.
  92. ^ "Open Education 2013: Large Scale OER - A TAACCCT Case Study". Openeducation2013.sched.org. Retrieved 16 February 2022.
  93. ^ . International Sport and Culture Association. Archived from the original on 19 March 2007.
  94. ^ "Eclipse" (PDF). Eclipse.org. Retrieved 25 October 2012.
  95. ^ . Yogaunity.org. Archived from the original on 3 March 2015. Retrieved 25 October 2012.
  96. ^ "Техно-опера "2032: Легенда о несбывшемся грядущем"". Argonov.ru. Retrieved 7 June 2013.
  97. ^ "Техно-опера "2032: Легенда о несбывшемся грядущем"". Complexnumbers.ru. from the original on 13 March 2021. Retrieved 13 March 2021.
  98. ^ Argonovwrote, 2012-01-18 18:14:00 Argonov Argonov 2012-01-18 18:14:00. "2032 - первая в мире музыкальная опера с открытыми исходниками?". argonov.livejournal.com. Retrieved 14 March 2021.
  99. ^ "CjClub - 2032 - первая в мире техно-опера с открытыми исходниками". www.cjclub.ru. Retrieved 14 March 2021.
  100. ^ . Muznews.rockzvuk.com. Archived from the original on 28 March 2014. Retrieved 7 June 2013.
  101. ^ "Музыкальная опера "2032" становится opensource — Talks — Форум". Linux.org.ru. Retrieved 7 June 2013.
  102. ^ "Первая в мире музыкальная опера с открытыми исходниками". Netskop.ru. from the original on 29 March 2019. Retrieved 7 June 2013.
  103. ^ "The case for open source: Open source has made significant leaps in recent years. what does it have to offer education?". Technology & Learning. 27 (7): 16. 2007.
  104. ^ a b Warger, T. (2002). The Open Source Movement 17 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 22 November 2009, from Education Resources Information Center
  105. ^ Wilson Center. (2009). Synthetic Biology: Feasibility of the Open Source Movement 24 March 2010 at the Wayback Machine. Wislson On Demand Center.
  106. ^ Harnad, S. (14 November 2009). Zine & Articles: Open Access Movement and Its Implications for the Future of Academic Writing. Retrieved 22 November 2009.
  107. ^ Students For Free Culture. (2009). Main Page. Retrieved 22 November 2009, from free culture.org
  108. ^ "Creative Commons Organization". Creative Commons. Retrieved 20 October 2011.
  109. ^ "How to find Creative Commons images on Flickr". New Media Rights. Retrieved 20 October 2011.
  110. ^ Dostaler, Kim (19 July 2012). "The Zeitgeist Movement: Getting to the Root of the Problem". Retrieved 10 June 2015.
  111. ^ Dobson, Stuart (27 January 2013). . Archived from the original on 11 June 2015. Retrieved 10 June 2015.
  112. ^ "Open Source Ecology - Zeitgeist movement". Open Source Ecology.
  113. ^ . P2P Foundation. Archived from the original on 4 June 2016. Retrieved 15 February 2015.

Further reading

  • Benkler, Yochai (2006). The Wealth of Networks: How Social Production Transforms Markets and Freedom (PDF). Yale University Press.
  • Berry, David M. (2008). Copy, Rip, Burn: The Politics of Copyleft and Open Source. London:Pluto Press. ISBN 978-0745324142.
  • Karl Fogel. Producing Open Source Software (How to run a successful free-software project). Free PDF version available.
  • Goldman, Ron; Gabriel, Richard P. (2005). Innovation Happens Elsewhere: Open Source as Business Strategy. Richard P. Gabriel. ISBN 978-1-55860-889-4.
  • Dunlap, Isaac Hunter (2006). Open Source Database Driven Web Development: A Guide for Information Professionals. Oxford: Chandos. ISBN 978-1-84334-161-1.
  • Kostakis, V.; Bauwens, M. (2014). Network Society and Future Scenarios for a Collaborative Economy. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-137-41506-6. (wiki)
  • Nettingsmeier, Jörn. "So What? I Don't Hack!" eContact! 11.3 – Logiciels audio " open source " / Open Source for Audio Application (September 2009). Montréal: CEC.
  • Stallman, Richard M. Free Software Free Society: Selected essays of Richard M. Stallman.
  • Schrape, Jan-Felix (2019). "Open-source projects as incubators of innovation. From niche phenomenon to integral part of the industry". Convergence. 25 (3): 409–427. doi:10.1177/1354856517735795. ISSN 1354-8565. S2CID 149165772.
  • Various authors. eContact! 11.3 – Logiciels audio " open source " / Open Source for Audio Application (September 2009). Montréal: CEC.
  • Various authors. "Open Source Travel Guide [wiki]". eContact! 11.3 – Logiciels audio " open source " / Open Source for Audio Application (September 2009). Montréal: CEC.
  • Weber, Steve (2004). The Success of Open Source. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01292-9.
  • Ray, Partha Pratim; Rai, Rebika (2013). Open Source Hardware: An Introductory Approach. Lap Lambert Publishing House. ISBN 978-3-659-46591-8.

Literature on legal and economic aspects

  • Benkler, Y. (December 2002). "Coase's Penguin, or, Linux and The Nature of the Firm" (PDF). Yale Law Journal. 112 (3): 369–446. arXiv:cs/0109077. doi:10.2307/1562247. hdl:10535/2974. ISSN 0044-0094. JSTOR 1562247. S2CID 16684329.
  • Berry, D.M.; Moss, G. (2008). "Libre Culture: Meditations on Free Culture" (PDF). Canada: Pygmalion Books.
  • Bitzer, J.; Schröder, P.J.H. (2005). "The Impact of Entry and Competition by Open Source Software on Innovation Activity" (PDF). Industrial Organization 0512001. EconWPA.
  • v. Engelhardt, S. (2008). "The Economic Properties of Software" (PDF). Jena Economic Research Papers. 2: 2008–045.
  • v. Engelhardt, S. (2008): "Intellectual Property Rights and Ex-Post Transaction Costs: the Case of Open and Closed Source Software", Jena Economic Research Papers 2008-047. (PDF)
  • v. Engelhardt, S.; Swaminathan, S. (2008). "Open Source Software, Closed Source Software or Both: Impacts on Industry Growth and the Role of Intellectual Property Rights" (PDF). Discussion Papers of Diw Berlin.
  • European Commission. (2006). . Brussels.
  • Feller, J.; Fitzgerald, B.; Hissam, S.A., eds. (2005). Perspectives on Free and Open Source Software. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-06246-6.
  • v. Hippel, E.; v. Krogh, G. (2003). "Open source software and the "private-collective" innovation model: Issues for organization science" (PDF). Organization Science. 14 (2): 209–223. doi:10.1287/orsc.14.2.209.14992. hdl:1721.1/66145. ISSN 1047-7039. S2CID 11947692.
  • Kostakis, V.; Bauwens, M. (2014). Network Society and Future Scenarios for a Collaborative Economy. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-137-41506-6. (wiki)
  • Lerner J., Pathak P. A., Tirole, J. (2006). "The Dynamics of Open Source Contributors". American Economic Review. 96 (2): 114–8. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.510.9948. doi:10.1257/000282806777211874. ISSN 0002-8282.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  • Lerner, J., Tirole, J. (2002). "Some simple economics on open source". Journal of Industrial Economics. 50 (2): 197–234. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.461.3373. doi:10.1111/1467-6451.00174. ISSN 0022-1821. S2CID 219722756.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) earlier revision (PDF)
  • Lerner, J.; Tirole, J. (2005). "The Scope of Open Source Licensing". The Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization. 21: 20–56. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.72.465. doi:10.1093/jleo/ewi002. ISSN 8756-6222.
  • Lerner, J.; Tirole, J. (2005). "The Economics of Technology Sharing: Open Source and Beyond" (PDF). Journal of Economic Perspectives. 19 (2): 99–120. doi:10.1257/0895330054048678. ISSN 0895-3309. S2CID 17968894.
  • Maurer, S.M. (2008). "Open source biology: Finding a niche (or maybe several)". UMKC Law Review. 76 (2). doi:10.2139/ssrn.1114371. ISSN 1556-5068. S2CID 54046895. SSRN 1114371.
  • Osterloh, M.; Rota, S. (2007). "Open source software development — Just another case of collective invention?" (PDF). Research Policy. 36 (2): 157–171. doi:10.1016/j.respol.2006.10.004. hdl:10419/214322. ISSN 0048-7333.
  • Riehle, D. (April 2007). "The Economic Motivation of Open Source: Stakeholder Perspectives". IEEE Computer. 40 (4): 25–32. doi:10.1109/MC.2007.147. ISSN 0018-9162. S2CID 168544.
  • Rossi, M.A. (2006). "Decoding the free/open source software puzzle: A survey of theoretical and empirical contributions" (PDF). In Bitzer, J.; Schröder, P. (eds.). The Economics of Open Source Software Development. Elsevier. pp. 15–55. ISBN 978-0-444-52769-1.
  • Schiff, A. (2002). "The Economics of Open Source Software: A Survey of the Early Literature" (PDF). Review of Network Economics. 1 (1): 66–74. doi:10.2202/1446-9022.1004. ISSN 2194-5993. S2CID 201280221.
  • Schwarz, M.; Takhteyev, Y. (2010). "Half a Century of Public Software Institutions: Open Source as a Solution to the Hold-Up Problem". Journal of Public Economic Theory. 12 (4): 609–639. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.625.2368. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9779.2010.01467.x. ISSN 1097-3923. S2CID 154317482. earlier revision
  • Spagnoletti, P.; Federici, T. (2011). "Exploring the Interplay Between FLOSS Adoption and Organizational Innovation". Communications of the Association for Information Systems (CAIS). 29 (15): 279–298.
  • Abramson, Bruce (2005). Digital Phoenix; Why the Information Economy Collapsed and How it Will Rise Again. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-51196-4.
  • Sampathkumar, K.S. Understanding FOSS Version 4.0 revised. ISBN 978-8-184-65469-1.

External links

 
Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Open Source
 
Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Use the Source

January 13, 2023
open, source, common, open, source, software, other, uses, disambiguation, confused, with, open, access, source, code, that, made, freely, available, possible, modification, redistribution, products, include, permission, source, code, design, documents, conten. For common use see Open source software For other uses see Open source disambiguation Not to be confused with Open access Open source is source code that is made freely available for possible modification and redistribution Products include permission to use the source code 1 design documents 2 or content of the product The open source model is a decentralized software development model that encourages open collaboration 3 4 A main principle of open source software development is peer production with products such as source code blueprints and documentation freely available to the public The open source movement in software began as a response to the limitations of proprietary code The model is used for projects such as in open source appropriate technology 5 and open source drug discovery 6 7 Open source promotes universal access via an open source or free license to a product s design or blueprint and universal redistribution of that design or blueprint 8 9 Before the phrase open source became widely adopted developers and producers have used a variety of other terms Open source gained hold with the rise of the Internet 10 The open source software movement arose to clarify copyright licensing domain and consumer issues Generally open source refers to a computer program in which the source code is available to the general public for use or modification from its original design Code is released under the terms of a software license Depending on the license terms others may then download modify and publish their version fork back to the community Many large formal institutions have sprung up to support the development of the open source movement including the Apache Software Foundation which supports community projects such as the open source framework Apache Hadoop and the open source HTTP server Apache HTTP Contents 1 History 1 1 Open source as a term 2 Economics 2 1 Licensing alternatives 3 Open collaboration 4 Open source license 5 Applications 5 1 Computer software 5 2 Electronics 5 3 Food and beverages 5 4 Digital content 5 5 Medicine 5 6 Science and engineering 5 6 1 Robotics 5 7 Other 6 Open versus free versus free and open 7 Software 8 Agriculture economy manufacturing and production 9 Science and medicine 10 Media 11 Organizations 12 Procedures 13 Society 13 1 Government 13 2 Ethics 13 3 Religion 13 4 Media 13 5 Education 13 6 Innovation communities 13 7 Arts and recreation 13 8 Other related movements 13 9 Ideologically related movements 14 See also 14 1 Terms based on open source 14 2 Other 15 References 16 Further reading 16 1 Literature on legal and economic aspects 17 External linksHistory EditMain article History of free and open source software The sharing of technical information predates the Internet and the personal computer considerably For instance in the early years of automobile development a group of capital monopolists owned the rights to a 2 cycle gasoline engine patent originally filed by George B Selden 11 By controlling this patent they were able to monopolize the industry and force car manufacturers to adhere to their demands or risk a lawsuit In 1911 independent automaker Henry Ford won a challenge to the Selden patent The result was that the Selden patent became virtually worthless and a new association which would eventually become the Motor Vehicle Manufacturers Association was formed 11 The new association instituted a cross licensing agreement among all US automotive manufacturers although each company would develop technology and file patents these patents were shared openly and without the exchange of money among all the manufacturers 11 By the time the US entered World War II 92 Ford patents and 515 patents from other companies were being shared among these manufacturers without any exchange of money or lawsuits 11 Early instances of the free sharing of source code include IBM s source releases of its operating systems and other programs in the 1950s and 1960s and the SHARE user group that formed to facilitate the exchange of software 12 13 Beginning in the 1960s ARPANET researchers used an open Request for Comments RFC process to encourage feedback in early telecommunication network protocols This led to the birth of the early Internet in 1969 The sharing of source code on the Internet began when the Internet was relatively primitive with software distributed via UUCP Usenet IRC and Gopher BSD for example was first widely distributed by posts to comp os linux on the Usenet which is also where its development was discussed Linux followed in this model Open source as a term Edit There is an example of open source meaning the source code was published but not free software purchasing a license was still required for use in 1996 14 Other recollection have it in use during the 1980s 15 It was later proposed by a group of people in the free software movement who were critical of the political agenda and moral philosophy implied in the term free software and sought to reframe the discourse to reflect a more commercially minded position 16 In addition the ambiguity of the term free software was seen as discouraging business adoption 17 18 However the ambiguity of the word free exists primarily in English as it can refer to cost The group included Christine Peterson Todd Anderson Larry Augustin Jon Hall Sam Ockman Michael Tiemann and Eric S Raymond Peterson suggested open source at a meeting 19 held at Palo Alto California in reaction to Netscape s announcement in January 1998 of a source code release for Navigator Linus Torvalds gave his support the following day and Phil Hughes backed the term in Linux Journal Richard Stallman the founder of the free software movement quickly decided against endorsing the term 19 20 Netscape released its source code under the Netscape Public License and later under the Mozilla Public License 21 Raymond was especially active in the effort to popularize the new term He made the first public call to the free software community to adopt it in February 1998 22 Shortly after he founded The Open Source Initiative in collaboration with Bruce Perens 19 The term gained further visibility through an event organized in April 1998 by technology publisher Tim O Reilly Originally titled the Freeware Summit and later known as the Open Source Summit 23 the event was attended by the leaders of many of the most important free and open source projects including Linus Torvalds Larry Wall Brian Behlendorf Eric Allman Guido van Rossum Michael Tiemann Paul Vixie Jamie Zawinski and Eric Raymond At that meeting alternatives to the term free software were discussed Tiemann argued for sourceware as a new term while Raymond argued for open source The assembled developers took a vote and the winner was announced at a press conference the same evening 23 Open source has never managed to entirely supersede the older term free software giving rise to the combined term free and open source software FOSS Economics EditMain article Open source economics Area of application of open source software 24 Survey on the reasons for using Open Source in 200 Swiss organizations 24 Some economists agree that open source is an information good 25 or knowledge good with original work involving a significant amount of time money and effort The cost of reproducing the work is low enough that additional users may be added at zero or near zero cost this is referred to as the marginal cost of a product Copyright creates a monopoly so that the price charged to consumers can be significantly higher than the marginal cost of production This allows the author to recoup the cost of making the original work Copyright thus creates access costs for consumers who value the work more than the marginal cost but less than the initial production cost Access costs also pose problems for authors who wish to create a derivative work such as a copy of a software program modified to fix a bug or add a feature or a remix of a song but are unable or unwilling to pay the copyright holder for the right to do so Being organized as effectively a consumers cooperative open source eliminates some of the access costs of consumers and creators of derivative works by reducing the restrictions of copyright Basic economic theory predicts that lower costs would lead to higher consumption and also more frequent creation of derivative works Organizations such as Creative Commons host websites where individuals can file for alternative licenses or levels of restriction for their works 26 These self made protections free the general society of the costs of policing copyright infringement Others argue that since consumers do not pay for their copies creators are unable to recoup the initial cost of production and thus have little economic incentive to create in the first place By this argument consumers would lose out because some of the goods they would otherwise purchase would not be available In practice content producers can choose whether to adopt a proprietary license and charge for copies or an open license Some goods which require large amounts of professional research and development such as the pharmaceutical industry which depends largely on patents not copyright for intellectual property protection are almost exclusively proprietary although increasingly sophisticated technologies are being developed on open source principles 27 There is evidence that open source development creates enormous value 28 For example in the context of open source hardware design digital designs are shared for free and anyone with access to digital manufacturing technologies e g RepRap 3D printers can replicate the product for the cost of materials 29 The original sharer may receive feedback and potentially improvements on the original design from the peer production community Many open source projects have a high economic value According to the Battery Open Source Software Index BOSS the ten economically most important open source projects are 30 31 Ranking Project Leading company Market Value1 Linux Red Hat 16 billion2 Git GitHub 2 billion3 MySQL Oracle 1 87 billion4 Node js NodeSource 5 Docker Docker 1 billion6 Hadoop Cloudera 3 billion7 Elasticsearch Elastic 700 million8 Spark Databricks 513 million9 MongoDB MongoDB 1 57 billion10 Selenium Sauce Labs 470 millionThe rank given is based on the activity regarding projects in online discussions on GitHub on search activity in search engines and on the influence on the labour market Licensing alternatives Edit Further information Business models for open source software Alternative arrangements have also been shown to result in good creation outside of the proprietary license model Examples include citation needed Wikipedia is an example of a global application of the open source model Creation for its own sake For example Wikipedia editors add content for recreation Artists have a drive to create Both communities benefit from free starting material Voluntary after the fact donations used by shareware street performers and public broadcasting in the United States citation needed Patron For example open access publishing relies on institutional and government funding of research faculty who also have a professional incentive to publish for reputation and career advancement Works of the U S federal government are automatically released into the public domain citation needed Freemium Give away a limited version for free and charge for a premium version potentially using a dual license Give away the product and charge something related Charge for support of open source enterprise software give away music but charge for concert admission citation needed Give away work in order to gain market share Used by artists in corporate software to spoil a dominant competitor for example in the browser wars and the Android operating system citation needed For own use Businesses or individual software developers often create software to solve a problem bearing the full cost of initial creation They will then open source the solution and benefit from the improvements others make for their own needs Communalizing the maintenance burden distributes the cost across more users free riders can also benefit without undermining the creation process Open collaboration EditThe open source model is a decentralized software development model that encourages open collaboration 3 32 meaning any system of innovation or production that relies on goal oriented yet loosely coordinated participants who interact to create a product or service of economic value which they make available to contributors and noncontributors alike 3 A main principle of open source software development is peer production with products such as source code blueprints and documentation freely available to the public The open source movement in software began as a response to the limitations of proprietary code The model is used for projects such as in open source appropriate technology 5 and open source drug discovery 6 7 The open source model for software development inspired the use of the term to refer to other forms of open collaboration such as in Internet forums 8 mailing lists 33 and online communities 34 Open collaboration is also thought to be the operating principle underlining a gamut of diverse ventures including TEDx and Wikipedia 35 Open collaboration is the principle underlying peer production mass collaboration and wikinomics 3 It was observed initially in open source software but can also be found in many other instances such as in Internet forums 8 mailing lists 33 Internet communities 34 and many instances of open content such as Creative Commons It also explains some instances of crowdsourcing collaborative consumption and open innovation 3 Riehle et al define open collaboration as collaboration based on three principles of egalitarianism meritocracy and self organization 36 Levine and Prietula define open collaboration as any system of innovation or production that relies on goal oriented yet loosely coordinated participants who interact to create a product or service of economic value which they make available to contributors and noncontributors alike 3 This definition captures multiple instances all joined by similar principles For example all of the elements goods of economic value open access to contribute and consume interaction and exchange purposeful yet loosely coordinated work are present in an open source software project in Wikipedia or in a user forum or community They can also be present in a commercial website that is based on user generated content In all of these instances of open collaboration anyone can contribute and anyone can freely partake in the fruits of sharing which are produced by interacting participants who are loosely coordinated An annual conference dedicated to the research and practice of open collaboration is the International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration OpenSym formerly WikiSym 37 As per its website the group defines open collaboration as collaboration that is egalitarian everyone can join no principled or artificial barriers to participation exist meritocratic decisions and status are merit based rather than imposed and self organizing processes adapt to people rather than people adapt to pre defined processes 38 Open source license EditMain article Open source license Open source promotes universal access via an open source or free license to a product s design or blueprint and universal redistribution of that design or blueprint 8 9 Before the phrase open source became widely adopted developers and producers used a variety of other terms Open source gained hold in part due to the rise of the Internet 39 The open source software movement arose to clarify copyright licensing domain and consumer issues An open source license is a type of license for computer software and other products that allows the source code blueprint or design to be used modified or shared with or without modification under defined terms and conditions 40 41 This allows end users and commercial companies to review and modify the source code blueprint or design for their own customization curiosity or troubleshooting needs Open source licensed software is mostly available free of charge though this does not necessarily have to be the case Licenses which only permit non commercial redistribution or modification of the source code for personal use only are generally not considered as open source licenses However open source licenses may have some restrictions particularly regarding the expression of respect to the origin of software such as a requirement to preserve the name of the authors and a copyright statement within the code or a requirement to redistribute the licensed software only under the same license as in a copyleft license One popular set of open source software licenses are those approved by the Open Source Initiative OSI based on their Open Source Definition OSD Applications Edit Open source model application domains Social and political views have been affected by the growth of the concept of open source Advocates in one field often support the expansion of open source in other fields But Eric Raymond and other founders of the open source movement have sometimes publicly argued against speculation about applications outside software saying that strong arguments for software openness should not be weakened by overreaching into areas where the story may be less compelling The broader impact of the open source movement and the extent of its role in the development of new information sharing procedures remain to be seen The open source movement has inspired increased transparency and liberty in biotechnology research for example CAMBIA 42 Even the research methodologies themselves can benefit from the application of open source principles 43 It has also given rise to the rapidly expanding open source hardware movement Computer software Edit Main article Free and open source software Blender an open source 3D graphics editor running in Windows 7 Open source software is software which source code is published and made available to the public enabling anyone to copy modify and redistribute the source code without paying royalties or fees 44 LibreOffice and the GNU Image Manipulation Program are examples of open source software As they do with proprietary software users must accept the terms of a license when they use open source software but the legal terms of open source licenses differ dramatically from those of proprietary licenses Open source code can evolve through community cooperation These communities are composed of individual programmers as well as large companies Some of the individual programmers who start an open source project may end up establishing companies offering products or services incorporating open source programs citation needed Examples of open source software products are 45 Linux that much of world s server parks are running MediaWiki that Wikipedia is based upon Many more List of free and open source software packages List of formerly proprietary softwareElectronics Edit Open Source Hardware logo Open source hardware is hardware which initial specification usually in a software format is published and made available to the public enabling anyone to copy modify and redistribute the hardware and source code without paying royalties or fees Open source hardware evolves through community cooperation These communities are composed of individual hardware software developers hobbyists as well as very large companies Examples of open source hardware initiatives are Openmoko a family of open source mobile phones including the hardware specification and the operating system OpenRISC an open source microprocessor family with architecture specification licensed under GNU GPL and implementation under LGPL Sun Microsystems s OpenSPARC T1 Multicore processor Sun has released it under GPL 46 Arduino a microcontroller platform for hobbyists artists and designers 47 Simputer an open hardware handheld computer designed in India for use in environments where computing devices such as personal computers are deemed inappropriate 48 LEON A family of open source microprocessors distributed in a library with peripheral IP cores open SPARC V8 specification implementation available under GNU GPL Tinkerforge A system of open source stackable microcontroller building blocks Allows control of motors and read out sensors with the programming languages C C C Object Pascal Java PHP Python and Ruby over a USB or Wifi connection on Windows Linux and Mac OS X All of the hardware is licensed under CERN OHL CERN Open Hardware License Open Compute Project designs for computer data center including power supply Intel motherboard AMD motherboard chassis racks battery cabinet and aspects of electrical and mechanical design 49 Food and beverages Edit Vores Ol An Open Source Beer Barack Obama and Dakota Meyer drinking White House Honey Ale in 2011 The recipe is available for free Some publishers of open access journals have argued that data from food science and gastronomy studies should be freely available to aid reproducibility 50 A number of people have published creative commons licensed recipe books 51 Open source colas cola soft drinks similar to Coca Cola and Pepsi whose recipe is open source and developed by volunteers The taste is said to be comparable to that of the standard beverages Most corporations producing beverages hold their formulas as closely guarded secrets 52 Free Beer originally Vores Ol is an open source beer created by students at the IT University in Copenhagen together with Superflex an artist collective to illustrate how open source concepts might be applied outside the digital world 53 54 55 Digital content Edit Open Knowledge Foundation logo Open content projects organized by the Wikimedia Foundation Sites such as Wikipedia and Wiktionary have embraced the open content Creative Commons content licenses These licenses were designed to adhere to principles similar to various open source software development licenses Many of these licenses ensure that content remains free for re use that source documents are made readily available to interested parties and that changes to content are accepted easily back into the system Important sites embracing open source like ideals are Project Gutenberg 56 and Wikisource both of which post many books on which the copyright has expired and are thus in the public domain ensuring that anyone has free unlimited access to that content Open ICEcat is an open catalog for the IT CE and Lighting sectors with product data sheets based on Open Content License agreement The digital content are distributed in XML and URL formats Google Sketchup s 3D Warehouse is an open source design community centered around the use of proprietary software that s distributed free of charge The University of Waterloo Stratford Campus invites students every year to use its three storey Christie MicroTiles wall as a digital canvas for their creative work 57 Medicine Edit Pharmaceuticals There have been several proposals for open source pharmaceutical development 58 59 which led to the establishment of the Tropical Disease Initiative 60 and the Open Source Drug Discovery for Malaria Consortium 7 Genomics The term open source genomics refers to the combination of rapid release of sequence data especially raw reads and crowdsourced analyses from bioinformaticians around the world that characterised the analysis of the 2011 E coli O104 H4 outbreak 61 OpenEMR OpenEMR is an ONC ATB Ambulatory EHR 2011 2012 certified electronic health records and medical practice management application It features fully integrated electronic health records practice management scheduling electronic billing and is the base for many EHR programs Science and engineering Edit Open access Further information Open research Research The Science Commons was created as an alternative to the expensive legal costs of sharing and reusing scientific works in journals etc 62 Research The Open Solar Outdoors Test Field OSOTF 63 is a grid connected photovoltaic test system which continuously monitors the output of a number of photovoltaic modules and correlates their performance to a long list of highly accurate meteorological readings The OSOTF is organized under open source principles All data and analysis is to be made freely available to the entire photovoltaic community and the general public 63 Engineering Hyperloop a form of high speed transport proposed by entrepreneur Elon Musk which he describes as an elevated reduced pressure tube that contains pressurized capsules driven within the tube by a number of linear electric motors 64 Construction WikiHouse is an open source project for designing and building houses 65 66 Energy research The Open Energy Modelling Initiative promotes open source models and open data in energy research and policy advice Robotics Edit Main article Open source robotics An open source robot is a robot whose blueprints schematics or source code are released under an open source model Other Edit VIA OpenBook is an open source hardware laptop reference design Open source principles can be applied to technical areas such as digital communication protocols and data storage formats Open design which involves applying open source methodologies to the design of artifacts and systems in the physical world It is very nascent but has huge potential 67 Open source appropriate technology OSAT refers to technologies that are designed in the same fashion as free and open source software 68 These technologies must be appropriate technology AT meaning technology that is designed with special consideration to the environmental ethical cultural social political and economic aspects of the community it is intended for An example of this application is the use of open source 3D printers like the RepRap to manufacture appropriate technology 69 Teaching which involves applying the concepts of open source to instruction using a shared web space as a platform to improve upon learning organizational and management challenges An example of an Open source courseware is the Java Education amp Development Initiative JEDI 70 Other examples include Khan Academy and wikiversity At the university level the use of open source appropriate technology classroom projects has been shown to be successful in forging the connection between science engineering and social benefit 71 This approach has the potential to use university students access to resources and testing equipment in furthering the development of appropriate technology Similarly OSAT has been used as a tool for improving service learning 72 73 There are few examples of business information methodologies advice guidance practices using the open source model although this is another case where the potential is enormous ITIL is close to open source It uses the Cathedral model no mechanism exists for user contribution and the content must be bought for a fee that is small by business consulting standards hundreds of British pounds Various checklists are published by government banks or accounting firms An open source group emerged in 2012 that is attempting to design a firearm that may be downloaded from the internet and printed on a 3D Printer 74 Calling itself Defense Distributed the group wants to facilitate a working plastic gun that could be downloaded and reproduced by anybody with a 3D printer 75 Agrecol a German NGO has developed an open source licence for seeds operating with copyleft and created OpenSourceSeeds as a respective service provider Breeders that apply the license to their new invented material prevent it from the threat of privatisation and help to establish a commons based breeding sector as an alternative to the commercial sector 76 Open Source Ecology farm equipment and global village construction kit Open versus free versus free and open EditFree and open source software FOSS or free libre and open source software FLOSS is openly shared source code that is licensed without any restrictions on usage modification or distribution citation needed Confusion persists about this definition because the free also known as libre refers to the freedom of the product not the price expense cost or charge For example being free to speak is not the same as free beer 20 Conversely Richard Stallman argues the obvious meaning of term open source is that the source code is public accessible for inspection without necessarily any other rights granted although the proponents of the term say the conditions in the Open Source Definition must be fulfilled 77 Free and open should not be confused with public ownership state ownership deprivatization nationalization anti privatization anti corporate activism or transparent behavior citation needed GNU GNU Manifesto Richard Stallman Gratis versus libre no cost vs no restriction Software EditMain article Open source software Generally open source refers to a computer program in which the source code is available to the general public for use for any including commercial purpose or modification from its original design Open source code is meant to be a collaborative effort where programmers improve upon the source code and share the changes within the community Code is released under the terms of a software license Depending on the license terms others may then download modify and publish their version fork back to the community List of free and open source software packagesOpen source license a copyright license that makes the source code available with a product The Open Source Definition as used by the Open Source Initiative for open source software Open source model a decentralized software development model that encourages open collaboration Open source software software which permits the use and modification of its source code History of free and open source software Open source software advocacy Open source software development Open source software movement Open source video games List of open source video games Business models for open source software Comparison of open source and closed source software Diversity in open source software MapGuide Open Source a web based map making platform to develop and deploy web mapping applications and geospatial web services not to be confused with OpenStreetMap OSM a collaborative project to create a free editable map of the world Agriculture economy manufacturing and production EditOpen source appropriate technology OSAT is designed for environmental ethical cultural social political economic and community aspects Open design movement development of physical products machines and systems via publicly shared design information including free and open source software and open source hardware among many others Open Architecture Network improving global living conditions through innovative sustainable design OpenCores a community developing digital electronic open source hardware Open Design Alliance develops Teigha a software development platform to create engineering applications including CAD software Open Hardware and Design Alliance OHANDA sharing open hardware and designs via free online services Open Source Ecology OSE a network of farmers engineers architects and supporters striving to manufacture the Global Village Construction Set GVCS OpenStructures OSP a modular construction model where everyone designs on the basis of one shared geometrical OS grid Open manufacturing or Open Production or Design Global Manufacture Local a new socioeconomic production model to openly and collaboratively produce and distribute physical objects Open source architecture OSArc emerging procedures in imagination and formation of virtual and real spaces within an inclusive universal infrastructure Open source cola cola soft drinks made to open sourced recipes Open source hardware or open hardware computer hardware such as microprocessors that is designed in the same fashion as open source software List of open source hardware projects Open source product development OSPD collaborative product and process openness of open source hardware for any interested participants Open source robotics physical artifacts of the subject are offered by the open design movement Open Source Seed Initiative open source varieties of crop seeds as an alternative to patent protected seeds sold by large agriculture companies Science and medicine EditOpen science the movement to make scientific research data and dissemination accessible to all levels of an inquiring society amateur or professional Open science data a type of open data focused on publishing observations and results of scientific activities available for anyone to analyze and reuse Open Science Framework and the Center for Open Science Open Source Lab disambiguation several laboratories Open Source Lab book a 2014 book by Joshua M PearceSee also The antithesis of open science is Scientism a blind faith in profit driven proprietary closed science and marketing ie proprietary software proprietary protocols fields of private biomedical engineering biological patents chemical patents drugs minimal sufficiency of disclosure etc Open notebook science the practice of making the entire primary record of a research project publicly available online as it is recorded Open Source Physics OSP a National Science Foundation and Davidson College project to spread the use of open source code libraries that take care of much of the heavy lifting for physics Open Source Geospatial Foundation NASA Open Source Agreement NOSA an OSI approved software license List of open source software for mathematics List of open source bioinformatics software List of open source health software List of open source health hardwareMedia EditOpen source film open source movies List of open source films Open Source Cinema a collaborative website to produce a documentary film Open source journalism commonly describes a spectrum on online publications forms of innovative publishing of online journalism and content voting rather than the sourcing of news stories by professional journalists Open source investigationSee also Crowdsourcing crowdsourced journalism crowdsourced investigation trutherism and historical revisionism considered fringe by corporate media Open source record label open source music Open Source a 1960s rock song performed by The Magic Mushrooms Open Source radio show a radio show using open content information gathering methods hosted by Christopher Lydon Open textbook an open copyright licensed textbook made freely available online for students teachers and the publicOrganizations EditOpen Source Initiative OSI an organization dedicated to promote open source Open Source Software Institute Journal of Open Source Software Open Source Day the dated varies from year to year for an international conference for fans of open solutions from Central and Eastern Europe Open Source Developers Conference Open Source Development Labs OSDL a non profit corporation that provides space for open source project Open Source Drug Discovery a collaborative drug discovery platform for neglected tropical diseases Open Source Technology Group OSTG news forums and other SourceForge resources for IT Open source in Kosovo Open Source University Meetup New Zealand Open Source AwardsProcedures EditOpen security application of open source philosophies to computer security Open Source Information System the former name of an American unclassified network serving the U S intelligence community with open source intelligence since mid 2006 the content of OSIS is now known as Intelink U while the network portion is known as DNI U Open source intelligence an intelligence gathering discipline based on information collected from open sources not to be confused with open source artificial intelligence such as Mycroft software Society EditThe rise of open source culture in the 20th century resulted from a growing tension between creative practices that involve require access to content that is often copyrighted and restrictive intellectual property laws and policies governing access to copyrighted content The two main ways in which intellectual property laws became more restrictive in the 20th century were extensions to the term of copyright particularly in the United States and penalties such as those articulated in the Digital Millennium Copyright Act DMCA placed on attempts to circumvent anti piracy technologies 78 Although artistic appropriation is often permitted under fair use doctrines the complexity and ambiguity of these doctrines creates an atmosphere of uncertainty among cultural practitioners Also the protective actions of copyright owners create what some call a chilling effect among cultural practitioners 79 The idea of an open source culture runs parallel to Free Culture but is substantively different Free culture is a term derived from the free software movement and in contrast to that vision of culture proponents of open source culture OSC maintain that some intellectual property law needs to exist to protect cultural producers Yet they propose a more nuanced position than corporations have traditionally sought Instead of seeing intellectual property law as an expression of instrumental rules intended to uphold either natural rights or desirable outcomes an argument for OSC takes into account diverse goods as in the Good life and ends Sites such as ccMixter offer up free web space for anyone willing to license their work under a Creative Commons license The resulting cultural product is then available to download free generally accessible to anyone with an Internet connection 80 Older analog technologies such as the telephone or television have limitations on the kind of interaction users can have Through various technologies such as peer to peer networks and blogs cultural producers can take advantage of vast social networks to distribute their products As opposed to traditional media distribution redistributing digital media on the Internet can be virtually costless Technologies such as BitTorrent and Gnutella take advantage of various characteristics of the Internet protocol TCP IP in an attempt to totally decentralize file distribution Further information Open source software movement Government Edit Open politics sometimes known as Open source politics is a political process that uses Internet technologies such as blogs email and polling to provide for a rapid feedback mechanism between political organizations and their supporters There is also an alternative conception of the term Open source politics which relates to the development of public policy under a set of rules and processes similar to the open source software movement Open source governance is similar to open source politics but it applies more to the democratic process and promotes the freedom of information Open source political campaigns refer specifically to political campaigns The South Korean government wants to increase its use of free and open source software in order to decrease its dependence on proprietary software solutions It plans to make open standards a requirement to allow the government to choose between multiple operating systems and web browsers Korea s Ministry of Science ICT amp Future Planning is also preparing ten pilots on using open source software distributions 81 Ethics Edit Open source ethics is split into two strands Open source ethics as an ethical school Charles Ess and David Berry are researching whether ethics can learn anything from an open source approach Ess famously even defined the AoIR Research Guidelines as an example of open source ethics 82 Open source ethics as a professional body of rules This is based principally on the computer ethics school studying the questions of ethics and professionalism in the computer industry in general and software development in particular 83 Religion Edit Main article Open source religion Irish philosopher Richard Kearney has used the term open source Hinduism to refer to the way historical figures such as Mohandas Gandhi and Swami Vivekananda worked upon this ancient tradition 84 Media Edit Open source journalism formerly referred to the standard journalistic techniques of news gathering and fact checking reflecting open source intelligence a similar term used in military intelligence circles Now open source journalism commonly refers to forms of innovative publishing of online journalism rather than the sourcing of news stories by a professional journalist In the 25 December 2006 issue of TIME magazine this is referred to as user created content and listed alongside more traditional open source projects such as OpenSolaris and Linux Weblogs or blogs are another significant platform for open source culture Blogs consist of periodic reverse chronologically ordered posts using a technology that makes webpages easily updatable with no understanding of design code or file transfer required While corporations political campaigns and other formal institutions have begun using these tools to distribute information many blogs are used by individuals for personal expression political organizing and socializing Some such as LiveJournal or WordPress utilize open source software that is open to the public and can be modified by users to fit their own tastes Whether the code is open or not this format represents a nimble tool for people to borrow and re present culture whereas traditional websites made the illegal reproduction of culture difficult to regulate the mutability of blogs makes open sourcing even more uncontrollable since it allows a larger portion of the population to replicate material more quickly in the public sphere Messageboards are another platform for open source culture Messageboards also known as discussion boards or forums are places online where people with similar interests can congregate and post messages for the community to read and respond to Messageboards sometimes have moderators who enforce community standards of etiquette such as banning spammers Other common board features are private messages where users can send messages to one another as well as chat a way to have a real time conversation online and image uploading Some messageboards use phpBB which is a free open source package Where blogs are more about individual expression and tend to revolve around their authors messageboards are about creating a conversation amongst its users where information can be shared freely and quickly Messageboards are a way to remove intermediaries from everyday life for instance instead of relying on commercials and other forms of advertising one can ask other users for frank reviews of a product movie or CD By removing the cultural middlemen messageboards help speed the flow of information and exchange of ideas OpenDocument is an open document file format for saving and exchanging editable office documents such as text documents including memos reports and books spreadsheets charts and presentations Organizations and individuals that store their data in an open format such as OpenDocument avoid being locked into a single software vendor leaving them free to switch software if their current vendor goes out of business raises their prices changes their software or changes their licensing terms to something less favorable Open source movie production is either an open call system in which a changing crew and cast collaborate in movie production a system in which the result is made available for re use by others or in which exclusively open source products are used in the production The 2006 movie Elephants Dream is said to be the world s first open movie 85 created entirely using open source technology An open source documentary film has a production process allowing the open contributions of archival material footage and other filmic elements both in unedited and edited form similar to crowdsourcing By doing so on line contributors become part of the process of creating the film helping to influence the editorial and visual material to be used in the documentary as well as its thematic development The first open source documentary film is the non profit WBCN and the American Revolution which went into development in 2006 and will examine the role media played in the cultural social and political changes from 1968 to 1974 through the story of radio station WBCN FM in Boston 86 87 88 89 The film is being produced by Lichtenstein Creative Media and the non profit Center for Independent Documentary Open Source Cinema is a website to create Basement Tapes a feature documentary about copyright in the digital age co produced by the National Film Board of Canada 90 Open source film making refers to a form of film making that takes a method of idea formation from open source software but in this case the source for a filmmaker is raw unedited footage rather than programming code It can also refer to a method of film making where the process of creation is open i e a disparate group of contributors at different times contribute to the final piece Open IPTV is IPTV that is not limited to one recording studio production studio or cast Open IPTV uses the Internet or other means to pool efforts and resources together to create an online community that all contributes to a show Education Edit Open Educational Resources logo Within the academic community there is discussion about expanding what could be called the intellectual commons analogous to the Creative Commons Proponents of this view have hailed the Connexions Project at Rice University OpenCourseWare project at MIT Eugene Thacker s article on open source DNA the Open Source Cultural Database Salman Khan s Khan Academy and Wikipedia as examples of applying open source outside the realm of computer software Open source curricula are instructional resources whose digital source can be freely used distributed and modified Another strand to the academic community is in the area of research Many funded research projects produce software as part of their work Due to the benefits of sharing software openly in scientific endeavours 91 there is an increasing interest in making the outputs of research projects available under an open source license In the UK the Joint Information Systems Committee JISC has developed a policy on open source software JISC also funds a development service called OSS Watch which acts as an advisory service for higher and further education institutions wishing to use contribute to and develop open source software On 30 March 2010 President Barack Obama signed the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act which included 2 billion over four years to fund the TAACCCT program which is described as the largest OER open education resources initiative in the world and uniquely focused on creating curricula in partnership with industry for credentials in vocational industry sectors like manufacturing health energy transportation and IT 92 Innovation communities Edit The principle of sharing pre dates the open source movement for example the free sharing of information has been institutionalized in the scientific enterprise since at least the 19th century Open source principles have always been part of the scientific community The sociologist Robert K Merton described the four basic elements of the community universalism an international perspective communalism sharing information objectivity removing one s personal views from the scientific inquiry and organized skepticism requirements of proof and review that describe the idealised scientific community These principles are in part complemented by US law s focus on protecting expression and method but not the ideas themselves There is also a tradition of publishing research results to the scientific community instead of keeping all such knowledge proprietary One of the recent initiatives in scientific publishing has been open access the idea that research should be published in such a way that it is free and available to the public There are currently many open access journals where the information is available free online however most journals do charge a fee either to users or libraries for access The Budapest Open Access Initiative is an international effort with the goal of making all research articles available free on the Internet The National Institutes of Health has recently proposed a policy on Enhanced Public Access to NIH Research Information This policy would provide a free searchable resource of NIH funded results to the public and with other international repositories six months after its initial publication The NIH s move is an important one because there is significant amount of public funding in scientific research Many of the questions have yet to be answered the balancing of profit vs public access and ensuring that desirable standards and incentives do not diminish with a shift to open access Benjamin Franklin was an early contributor eventually donating all his inventions including the Franklin stove bifocals and the lightning rod to the public domain New NGO communities are starting to use the open source technology as a tool One example is the Open Source Youth Network started in 2007 in Lisboa by ISCA members 93 Open innovation is also a new emerging concept which advocate putting R amp D in a common pool The Eclipse platform is openly presenting itself as an Open innovation network 94 Arts and recreation Edit Copyright protection is used in the performing arts and even in athletic activities Some groups have attempted to remove copyright from such practices 95 In 2012 Russian music composer scientist and Russian Pirate Party member Victor Argonov presented detailed raw files of his electronic opera 2032 96 under free license CC BY NC 3 0 later relicensed under CC BY SA 4 0 97 This opera was originally composed and published in 2007 by Russian label MC Entertainment as a commercial product but then the author changed its status to free In his blog 98 he said that he decided to open raw files including wav midi and other used formats to the public in order to support worldwide pirate actions against SOPA and PIPA Several Internet resources called 2032 the first open source musical opera in history 99 100 101 102 Other related movements Edit This article or section may need to be cleaned up or summarized because it has been split from to Open source software movement Notable events and applications that have been developed via the open source community and echo the ideologies of the open source movement 103 include the Open Education Consortium Project Gutenberg Synthethic Biology and Wikipedia The Open Education Consortium is an organization composed of various colleges that support open source and share some of their material online This organization headed by Massachusetts Institute of Technology was established to aid in the exchange of open source educational materials Wikipedia is an user generated online encyclopedia with sister projects in academic areas such as Wikiversity a community dedicated to the creation and exchange of learning materials 104 failed verification Prior to the existence of Google Scholar Beta Project Gutenberg was the first supplier of electronic books and the first free library project 104 failed verification Synthetic Biology is a new technology that promises to enable cheap lifesaving new drugs as well as helping to yield biofuels that may help to solve our energy problem Although synthetic biology has not yet come out of its lab stage it has potential to become industrialized in the near future In order to industrialize open source science there are some scientists who are trying to build their own brand of it 105 Ideologically related movements Edit The open access movement is a movement that is similar in ideology to the open source movement Members of this movement maintain that academic material should be readily available to provide help with future research assist in teaching and aid in academic purposes The open access movement aims to eliminate subscription fees and licensing restrictions of academic materials 106 The free culture movement is a movement that seeks to achieve a culture that engages in collective freedom via freedom of expression free public access to knowledge and information full demonstration of creativity and innovation in various arenas and promotion of citizen liberties 107 citation needed Creative Commons is an organization that develops supports and stewards legal and technical infrastructure that maximizes digital creativity sharing and innovation It encourages the use of protected properties online for research education and creative purposes in pursuit of a universal access Creative Commons provides an infrastructure through a set of copyright licenses and tools that creates a better balance within the realm of all rights reserved properties 108 The Creative Commons license offers a slightly more lenient alternative to all rights reserved copyrights for those who do not wish to exclude the use of their material 109 The Zeitgeist Movement TZM is an international social movement that advocates a transition into a sustainable resource based economy based on collaboration in which monetary incentives are replaced by commons based ones with everyone having access to everything from code to products as in open source everything 110 111 While its activism and events are typically focused on media and education TZM is a major supporter of open source projects worldwide since they allow for uninhibited advancement of science and technology independent of constraints posed by institutions of patenting and capitalist investment 112 P2P Foundation is an international organization focused on studying researching documenting and promoting peer to peer practices in a very broad sense Its objectives incorporate those of the open source movement whose principles are integrated in a larger socio economic model 113 See also Edit Free and open source software portal Meta has related information at Open source Scholia has a topic profile for Open source Wikispecies has information related to Open source Access to Knowledge movement A2K Cooperative Decentralization Decentralized computing Distributed data storage Distributed file systems Internet privacy Privacy software Free Beer Free culture movement Free Knowledge Foundation Freedom of contract OpenBTS Open catalogue Open Compute Project Open Data Institute Open education Open educational resources Open format Open Knowledge International Open copyright license Open publishing Open research Open source curriculum OSC Open source governance Open politics Open source religion Open source unionism Open standard Paywall Peer to peer Radical transparency Sharing economy Social collaboration Solidarity economy Tactical Technology Collective Voluntary association Voluntaryism or Agorism Terms based on open source Edit Open implementation Open security Open source record label Open standard Shared Source Source available softwareOther Edit Open Sources Voices from the Open Source Revolution book Commons based peer production Digital rights Diseconomies of scale Free content Gift economy Glossary of legal terms in technology Mass collaboration Network effect Open Source Initiative Openness Proprietary softwareReferences Edit The Open Source Definition Open Source Org 7 July 2006 Archived from the original on 11 June 2007 Retrieved 22 January 2020 Open source doesn t just mean access to the source code What is Open Source Software Diffingo Solutions Inc Archived from the original on 28 October 2008 Retrieved 22 January 2020 Open source software differers from other software because it has a less restrictive license agreement Instead of using a restrictive license that prevents you from modifying the program or sharing it with friends for example sharing and modifying open source software is encouraged Anyone who wishes to do so may distribute modify or even create derivative works based on that source code a b c d e f Levine Sheen S Prietula M J 2013 Open Collaboration for Innovation Principles and Performance Organization Science 25 5 1414 1433 arXiv 1406 7541 doi 10 1287 orsc 2013 0872 ISSN 1047 7039 S2CID 6583883 SSRN 1096442 Raymond Eric S 2001 The cathedral and the bazaar musings on Linux and Open Source by an accidental revolutionary OReilly ISBN 978 0 596 00108 7 page needed a b Pearce Joshua M 2012 The Case for Open Source Appropriate Technology Environment Development and Sustainability 14 3 425 431 doi 10 1007 s10668 012 9337 9 ISSN 1387 585X a b Menon Sreelatha 1 March 2009 Science 2 0 is here as CSIR resorts to open source drug research for TB Business Standard India via Business Standard a b c Open Source Drug Discovery for Malaria Consortium a b c d Lakhani K R von Hippel E June 2003 How Open Source Software Works Free User to User Assistance Research Policy 32 6 923 943 doi 10 1016 S0048 7333 02 00095 1 hdl 1721 1 70028 ISSN 0048 7333 SSRN 290305 a b Gerbe Aurona Molefo Onkgopotse Van der Merwe Alta 2010 Documenting open source migration processes for re use In Kotze P Gerber A van der Merwe A et al eds Proceedings of the SAICSIT 2010 Conference Fountains of Computing Research ACM Press pp 75 85 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 1033 7791 doi 10 1145 1899503 1899512 ISBN 978 1 60558 950 3 S2CID 11970697 Weber 2004 page needed a b c d Flink James J 1977 The Car Culture MIT Press ISBN 978 0 262 56015 3 Fisher Franklin M McKie James W Mancke Richard B 1983 IBM and the U S Data Processing Industry An Economic History Praeger pp 172 9 ISBN 978 0 03 063059 0 IBM unbundled began charging for software 23 June 1969 Dave Pitts IBM 7090 support Archived 2015 08 27 at the Wayback Machine An example of distributed source Page contains a link to IBM 7090 94 IBSYS source including COBOL and FORTRAN compilers CALDERA ANNOUNCES OPEN SOURCE CODE MODEL FOR DOS The Hyperlogos 2 April 2018 Archived from the original on 2 April 2018 Why do Tech Journalists so often get Computer History totally wrong via www youtube com O Mahony Siobhan Clare 2002 The emergence of a new commercial actor Community managed software projects Stanford CA Stanford University 34 42 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Raymond Eric S Goodbye free software hello open source The problem with it is twofold First the term free is very ambiguous Second the term makes a lot of corporate types nervous Shea Tom 23 June 1983 Free software Free software is a junkyard of software spare parts InfoWorld Retrieved 10 February 2016 In contrast to commercial software is a large and growing body of free software that exists in the public domain Public domain software is written by microcomputer hobbyists also known as hackers many of whom are professional programmers in their work life Since everybody has access to source code many routines have not only been used but dramatically improved by other programmers a b c Tiemann Michael 19 September 2006 History of the OSI Open Source Initiative Archived from the original on 1 October 2002 Retrieved 23 August 2008 a b Stallman Richard 18 May 2012 Why Open Source misses the point of Free Software Free Software Foundation Muffatto Moreno 2006 Open Source A Multidisciplinary Approach Imperial College Press ISBN 978 1 86094 665 3 Goodbye free software hello open source Catb org Retrieved 25 October 2012 a b van Rossum Guido 10 April 1998 Open Source Summit Linux Gazette Archived from the original on 29 December 2013 Retrieved 7 February 2015 a b Open Source Studie Schweiz 2015 publiziert Mehr Unabhangigkeit und Sicherheit dank Open Source Der Verband fur den Informatiker amp fur die Informatik in Swiss High German Archived from the original on 13 March 2017 Retrieved 23 December 2018 Granstrand Ove 1999 The economics and management of intellectual property towards intellectual capitalism Cheltenham UK E Elgar ISBN 978 1 85898 967 9 About The Licenses Creative Commons Archived from the original on 6 January 2011 Retrieved 25 October 2012 J M Pearce Open Source Lab How to Build Your Own Hardware and Reduce Research Costs Elsevier 2014 3D Printed Open Hardware Syringe Yields 800M Value Study Finds 3D Printing Industry 2 2 2015 Wittbrodt B T Glover A G Laureto J Anzalone G C Oppliger D Irwin J L Pearce J M 2013 Life cycle economic analysis of distributed manufacturing with open source 3 D printers Mechatronics 23 6 713 726 doi 10 1016 j mechatronics 2013 06 002 ISSN 0957 4158 S2CID 1766321 Joe McCann The Meteoric Rise Of Open Source And Why Investors Should Care Forbes in German retrieved 10 October 2017 Dharmesh Thakker 7 April 2017 Tracking the explosive growth of open source software TechCrunch in German retrieved 10 October 2017 Raymond Eric S 2001 The cathedral and the bazaar musings on Linux and Open Source by an accidental revolutionary OReilly ISBN 978 0 596 00108 7 page needed a b Jarvenpaa S L amp Majchrzak Ann 2008 Knowledge Collaboration Among Professionals Protecting National Security Role of Transactive Memories in Ego Centered Knowledge Networks Organization Science 19 2 260 276 doi 10 1287 orsc 1070 0315 ISSN 1047 7039 a b Faraj S Jarvenpaa S L amp Majchrzak Ann 2011 Knowledge Collaboration in Online Communities Organization Science 22 5 1224 1239 doi 10 1287 orsc 1100 0614 ISSN 1047 7039 Open collaboration leading to novel organizations Kurzweil Riehle D Ellenberger J Menahem T Mikhailovski B Natchetoi Y Naveh B Odenwald T March 2009 Open Collaboration within Corporations Using Software Forges PDF IEEE Software 26 2 52 58 doi 10 1109 MS 2009 44 ISSN 0740 7459 S2CID 6038418 Archived from the original PDF on 8 October 2016 Retrieved 22 November 2018 About The International Symposium on Open Collaboration 15 June 2010 Riehle Dirk Definition of Open Collaboration The Joint International Symposium on Open Collaboration Archived from the original on 12 March 2013 Retrieved 26 March 2013 Open collaboration is collaboration that is egalitarian everyone can join no principled or artificial barriers to participation exist meritocratic decisions and status are merit based rather than imposed and self organizing processes adapt to people rather than people adapt to pre defined processes Weber Steve 2009 2004 The Success of Open Source Harvard University Press ISBN 978 0 674 04499 9 page needed Brief Definition of Open Source Licenses Open Source Initiative Retrieved 25 April 2013 Popp Dr Karl Michael 2015 Best Practices for commercial use of open source software Norderstedt Germany Books on Demand ISBN 978 3738619096 Open Source Practices for Biotechnology Cambia Enabling Innovation Cambia Archived from the original on 1 November 2012 Retrieved 25 October 2012 Pearce Joshua M 1 August 2012 Open Source Research in Sustainability Sustainability The Journal of Record 5 4 238 243 doi 10 1089 sus 2012 9944 ISSN 1937 0695 FAQ LucidWorks Lucidimagination com 8 August 2012 Archived from the original on 28 April 2011 Retrieved 25 October 2012 Metcalfe Randolph 31 January 2012 Examples of Open Source Software OSS Watch Retrieved 25 October 2012 An Open Source Processor used in Sun SPARC Servers OpenSPARC Retrieved 25 October 2012 Arduino HomePage Arduino cc Retrieved 25 October 2012 Computers Systems Handhelds Open Source Simputer Open Directory Dmoz org Retrieved 25 October 2012 Download Specs amp Designs Open Compute Project website Facebook Inc 2011 Archived from the original on 23 August 2011 Retrieved 8 August 2011 Arkinstall Kam 2 December 2013 Mega Bites how open data and gastronomy are proving a recipe for success Research In Progress Blog biomedcentral com Lersch Martin TEXTURE A hydrocolloid recipe collection PDF Open Cola Soft Drink Formula Version 1 1 3 from Tyromaniac PDF Alfredo octavio net Retrieved 25 October 2012 The concept expands upon a statement found in the Free Software Definition Free software is a matter of liberty not price To understand the concept you should think of free as in free speech not as in free beer Stallman Richard M The Gnu Organisation What is free software Gnu org Retrieved 25 October 2012 Cohn David 18 July 2005 Free Beer for Geeks Wired News Project Gutenberg free ebooks Gutenberg org Retrieved 25 October 2012 Want to take 3 storeys to tell your story uwaterloo ca stratford campus Archived from the original on 18 April 2013 Retrieved 7 April 2013 Munos B September 2006 Can open source R amp D reinvigorate drug research Nat Rev Drug Discov 5 9 723 9 doi 10 1038 nrd2131 ISSN 1474 1776 PMID 16915233 S2CID 205476443 Maurer SM Rai A Sali A December 2004 Finding cures for tropical diseases is open source an answer PLOS Med 1 3 e56 doi 10 1371 journal pmed 0010056 ISSN 1549 1676 PMC 539047 PMID 15630466 the Tropical Disease Initiative Tropicaldisease org 16 July 2009 Retrieved 25 October 2012 Rohde H Qin J Cui Y Li D Loman NJ Hentschke M Chen W Pu F et al 2011 Open Source Genomic Analysis of Shiga Toxin Producing E coli O104 H4 PDF N Engl J Med 365 8 718 24 doi 10 1056 NEJMoa1107643 ISSN 0028 4793 PMID 21793736 Science Creative Commons Sciencecommons org 17 November 2010 Retrieved 25 October 2012 a b Pearce Joshua M Babasola Adegboyega Andrews Rob 2012 Open Solar Photovoltaic Systems Optimization PDF Proceedings of the 16th Annual National Collegiate Inventors and Innovators Alliance Conference 1 7 Musk Elon 12 August 2013 Hyperloop Tesla Motors website Retrieved 22 September 2013 LaBarre Suzanne 25 August 2011 WikiHouse An Online Building Kit Shows How To Make A House In 24 Hours Co Design Fast Company Inc Retrieved 17 December 2013 Kingsley Jeremy 22 February 2012 The WikiHouse Revolution Slate The Slate Group LLC Retrieved 17 December 2013 Open collaborative design AdCiv 29 July 2010 Archived from the original on 29 June 2019 Retrieved 25 October 2012 A J Buitenhuis I Zelenika and J M Pearce Open Design Based Strategies to Enhance Appropriate Technology Development Proceedings of the 14th Annual National Collegiate Inventors and Innovators Alliance Conference Open 25 27 March 2010 pp 1 12 J M Pearce C Morris Blair K J Laciak R Andrews A Nosrat I Zelenika Zovko 2010 3 D Printing of Open Source Appropriate Technologies for Self Directed Sustainable Development Journal of Sustainable Development 3 4 17 29 doi 10 5539 jsd v3n4p17 ISSN 1913 9063 JEDI The Open Source Curricullum Project Kenai Kenai com Archived from the original on 16 May 2010 Retrieved 25 October 2012 J M Pearce 2007 Teaching Physics Using Appropriate Technology Projects The Physics Teacher 45 3 164 7 Bibcode 2007PhTea 45 164P doi 10 1119 1 2709675 ISSN 0031 921X Pearce Joshua M 2009 Appropedia as a Tool for Service Learning in Sustainable Development Journal of Education for Sustainable Development 3 1 45 53 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 620 246 doi 10 1177 097340820900300112 hdl 1974 5306 ISSN 0973 4082 S2CID 145118511 S Murphy and N Saleh Information literacy in CEAB s accreditation criteria the hidden attribute In Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Innovation and Practices in Engineering Design and Engineering Education 2009 Hamilton ON 27 29 July 2009 Greenberg Andy 23 August 2012 Wiki Weapon Project Aims To Create A Gun Anyone Can 3D Print At Home Forbes Retrieved 27 August 2012 Poeter Damon 24 August 2012 Could a Printable Gun Change the World PC Magazine Retrieved 27 August 2012 New Open Source License Fights the Enclosure of Seeds David Bollier www bollier org Retrieved 3 July 2017 Stallman Richard Why Open Source misses the point of Free Software gnu org Retrieved 17 February 2019 However the obvious meaning for the expression open source software and the one most people seem to think it means is You can look at the source code the obvious meaning for open source is not the meaning that its advocates intend US Copyright Office December 1998 The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998 PDF Retrieved 25 October 2012 Chilling Effects Clearinghouse Chillingeffects org Retrieved 25 October 2012 Open source software development Just another case of collective invention Archived from the original on 27 December 2011 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help South Korean government to sw Joinup 4 July 2014 Berry 2004 Internet Ethics Privacy Ethics and Alienation An Open Source Approach PDF file El Emam K 2001 Ethics and Open Source Empirical Software Engineering 6 4 Kearney Richard 2011 Anatheism Returning to God After God Columbia University Press p xiii ISBN 978 0 231 14789 7 Elephants Dream Elephants Dream 13 August 2006 Retrieved 25 October 2012 Web Power to the People The Boston Herald 29 September 2005 The Glory Days of the Rock of Boston Boston Globe Op Ed 18 July 2009 BCN Documentary Looks for Archival Contributors Boston Herald 11 August 2009 WBCN and The American Revolution The Huffington Post 11 August 2009 Watch Documentaries and Animated Films Online NFB ca 27 August 2012 Retrieved 25 October 2012 Besancon Lonni Peiffer Smadja Nathan Segalas Corentin Jiang Haiting Masuzzo Paola Smout Cooper Billy Eric Deforet Maxime Leyrat Clemence 2020 Open Science Saves Lives Lessons from the COVID 19 Pandemic BMC Medical Research Methodology 21 1 117 doi 10 1186 s12874 021 01304 y PMC 8179078 PMID 34090351 Open Education 2013 Large Scale OER A TAACCCT Case Study Openeducation2013 sched org Retrieved 16 February 2022 Yource network International Sport and Culture Association Archived from the original on 19 March 2007 Eclipse PDF Eclipse org Retrieved 25 October 2012 Open Source Yoga Unity Home Yogaunity org Archived from the original on 3 March 2015 Retrieved 25 October 2012 Tehno opera 2032 Legenda o nesbyvshemsya gryadushem Argonov ru Retrieved 7 June 2013 Tehno opera 2032 Legenda o nesbyvshemsya gryadushem Complexnumbers ru Archived from the original on 13 March 2021 Retrieved 13 March 2021 Argonovwrote 2012 01 18 18 14 00 Argonov Argonov 2012 01 18 18 14 00 2032 pervaya v mire muzykalnaya opera s otkrytymi ishodnikami argonov livejournal com Retrieved 14 March 2021 CjClub 2032 pervaya v mire tehno opera s otkrytymi ishodnikami www cjclub ru Retrieved 14 March 2021 Pervaya v mire muzykalnaya opera s otkrytymi ishodnikami 25 Yanvarya 2012 Novosti muzyki i shoubiznesa Muznews rockzvuk com Archived from the original on 28 March 2014 Retrieved 7 June 2013 Muzykalnaya opera 2032 stanovitsya opensource Talks Forum Linux org ru Retrieved 7 June 2013 Pervaya v mire muzykalnaya opera s otkrytymi ishodnikami Netskop ru Archived from the original on 29 March 2019 Retrieved 7 June 2013 The case for open source Open source has made significant leaps in recent years what does it have to offer education Technology amp Learning 27 7 16 2007 a b Warger T 2002 The Open Source Movement Archived 17 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 22 November 2009 from Education Resources Information Center Wilson Center 2009 Synthetic Biology Feasibility of the Open Source Movement Archived 24 March 2010 at the Wayback Machine Wislson On Demand Center Harnad S 14 November 2009 Zine amp Articles Open Access Movement and Its Implications for the Future of Academic Writing Retrieved 22 November 2009 Students For Free Culture 2009 Main Page Retrieved 22 November 2009 from free culture org Creative Commons Organization Creative Commons Retrieved 20 October 2011 How to find Creative Commons images on Flickr New Media Rights Retrieved 20 October 2011 Dostaler Kim 19 July 2012 The Zeitgeist Movement Getting to the Root of the Problem Retrieved 10 June 2015 Dobson Stuart 27 January 2013 Forget the Class War How to Win the Fight Against the Elite Archived from the original on 11 June 2015 Retrieved 10 June 2015 Open Source Ecology Zeitgeist movement Open Source Ecology P2P Foundation About P2P Foundation Archived from the original on 4 June 2016 Retrieved 15 February 2015 Further reading EditBenkler Yochai 2006 The Wealth of Networks How Social Production Transforms Markets and Freedom PDF Yale University Press Berry David M 2008 Copy Rip Burn The Politics of Copyleft and Open Source London Pluto Press ISBN 978 0745324142 Karl Fogel Producing Open Source Software How to run a successful free software project Free PDF version available Goldman Ron Gabriel Richard P 2005 Innovation Happens Elsewhere Open Source as Business Strategy Richard P Gabriel ISBN 978 1 55860 889 4 Dunlap Isaac Hunter 2006 Open Source Database Driven Web Development A Guide for Information Professionals Oxford Chandos ISBN 978 1 84334 161 1 Kostakis V Bauwens M 2014 Network Society and Future Scenarios for a Collaborative Economy Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 978 1 137 41506 6 wiki Nettingsmeier Jorn So What I Don t Hack eContact 11 3 Logiciels audio open source Open Source for Audio Application September 2009 Montreal CEC Stallman Richard M Free Software Free Society Selected essays of Richard M Stallman Schrape Jan Felix 2019 Open source projects as incubators of innovation From niche phenomenon to integral part of the industry Convergence 25 3 409 427 doi 10 1177 1354856517735795 ISSN 1354 8565 S2CID 149165772 Various authors eContact 11 3 Logiciels audio open source Open Source for Audio Application September 2009 Montreal CEC Various authors Open Source Travel Guide wiki eContact 11 3 Logiciels audio open source Open Source for Audio Application September 2009 Montreal CEC Weber Steve 2004 The Success of Open Source Harvard University Press ISBN 978 0 674 01292 9 Ray Partha Pratim Rai Rebika 2013 Open Source Hardware An Introductory Approach Lap Lambert Publishing House ISBN 978 3 659 46591 8 Literature on legal and economic aspects Edit Benkler Y December 2002 Coase s Penguin or Linux and The Nature of the Firm PDF Yale Law Journal 112 3 369 446 arXiv cs 0109077 doi 10 2307 1562247 hdl 10535 2974 ISSN 0044 0094 JSTOR 1562247 S2CID 16684329 Berry D M Moss G 2008 Libre Culture Meditations on Free Culture PDF Canada Pygmalion Books Bitzer J Schroder P J H 2005 The Impact of Entry and Competition by Open Source Software on Innovation Activity PDF Industrial Organization 0512001 EconWPA v Engelhardt S 2008 The Economic Properties of Software PDF Jena Economic Research Papers 2 2008 045 v Engelhardt S 2008 Intellectual Property Rights and Ex Post Transaction Costs the Case of Open and Closed Source Software Jena Economic Research Papers 2008 047 PDF v Engelhardt S Swaminathan S 2008 Open Source Software Closed Source Software or Both Impacts on Industry Growth and the Role of Intellectual Property Rights PDF Discussion Papers of Diw Berlin European Commission 2006 Economic impact of open source software on innovation and the competitiveness of the Information and Communication Technologies sector in the EU Brussels Feller J Fitzgerald B Hissam S A eds 2005 Perspectives on Free and Open Source Software MIT Press ISBN 978 0 262 06246 6 v Hippel E v Krogh G 2003 Open source software and the private collective innovation model Issues for organization science PDF Organization Science 14 2 209 223 doi 10 1287 orsc 14 2 209 14992 hdl 1721 1 66145 ISSN 1047 7039 S2CID 11947692 Kostakis V Bauwens M 2014 Network Society and Future Scenarios for a Collaborative Economy Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 978 1 137 41506 6 wiki Lerner J Pathak P A Tirole J 2006 The Dynamics of Open Source Contributors American Economic Review 96 2 114 8 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 510 9948 doi 10 1257 000282806777211874 ISSN 0002 8282 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Lerner J Tirole J 2002 Some simple economics on open source Journal of Industrial Economics 50 2 197 234 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 461 3373 doi 10 1111 1467 6451 00174 ISSN 0022 1821 S2CID 219722756 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link earlier revision PDF Lerner J Tirole J 2005 The Scope of Open Source Licensing The Journal of Law Economics and Organization 21 20 56 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 72 465 doi 10 1093 jleo ewi002 ISSN 8756 6222 Lerner J Tirole J 2005 The Economics of Technology Sharing Open Source and Beyond PDF Journal of Economic Perspectives 19 2 99 120 doi 10 1257 0895330054048678 ISSN 0895 3309 S2CID 17968894 Maurer S M 2008 Open source biology Finding a niche or maybe several UMKC Law Review 76 2 doi 10 2139 ssrn 1114371 ISSN 1556 5068 S2CID 54046895 SSRN 1114371 Osterloh M Rota S 2007 Open source software development Just another case of collective invention PDF Research Policy 36 2 157 171 doi 10 1016 j respol 2006 10 004 hdl 10419 214322 ISSN 0048 7333 Riehle D April 2007 The Economic Motivation of Open Source Stakeholder Perspectives IEEE Computer 40 4 25 32 doi 10 1109 MC 2007 147 ISSN 0018 9162 S2CID 168544 Rossi M A 2006 Decoding the free open source software puzzle A survey of theoretical and empirical contributions PDF In Bitzer J Schroder P eds The Economics of Open Source Software Development Elsevier pp 15 55 ISBN 978 0 444 52769 1 Schiff A 2002 The Economics of Open Source Software A Survey of the Early Literature PDF Review of Network Economics 1 1 66 74 doi 10 2202 1446 9022 1004 ISSN 2194 5993 S2CID 201280221 Schwarz M Takhteyev Y 2010 Half a Century of Public Software Institutions Open Source as a Solution to the Hold Up Problem Journal of Public Economic Theory 12 4 609 639 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 625 2368 doi 10 1111 j 1467 9779 2010 01467 x ISSN 1097 3923 S2CID 154317482 earlier revision Spagnoletti P Federici T 2011 Exploring the Interplay Between FLOSS Adoption and Organizational Innovation Communications of the Association for Information Systems CAIS 29 15 279 298 Abramson Bruce 2005 Digital Phoenix Why the Information Economy Collapsed and How it Will Rise Again MIT Press ISBN 978 0 262 51196 4 Sampathkumar K S Understanding FOSS Version 4 0 revised ISBN 978 8 184 65469 1 External links EditOpen source at Wikipedia s sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Data from Wikidata Wikibooks has a book on the topic of Open Source Wikibooks has a book on the topic of Use the Source Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Open source amp oldid 1132864528, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.