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Wikipedia

Free content

January 08, 2023

For the use of free content on Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:Free content.

Free content, libre content, libre information, or free information, is any kind of functional work, work of art, or other creative content that meets the definition of a free cultural work.[1]

Definition

A free cultural work is, according to the definition of Free Cultural Works, one that has no significant legal restriction on people's freedom to:

  • use the content and benefit from using it,
  • study the content and apply what is learned,
  • make and distribute copies of the content,
  • change and improve the content and distribute these derivative works.[1][2]

Free content encompasses all works in the public domain and also those copyrighted works whose licenses honor and uphold the freedoms mentioned above. Because the Berne Convention in most countries by default grants copyright holders monopolistic control over their creations, copyright content must be explicitly declared free, usually by the referencing or inclusion of licensing statements from within the work.

Although there are a great many different definitions in regular everyday use, free content is legally very similar, if not like an identical twin, to open content. An analogy is a use of the rival terms free software and open-source, which describe ideological differences rather than legal ones.[3][4][5] For instance, the Open Knowledge Foundation's Open Definition describes "open" as synonymous to the definition of free in the "Definition of Free Cultural Works" (as also in the Open Source Definition and Free Software Definition).[6] For such free/open content both movements recommend the same three Creative Commons licenses, the CC BY, CC BY-SA, and CC0.[7][8][9][10]

Legal matters

Copyright

 
Copyright symbol
Main article: Copyright

Copyright is a legal concept, which gives the author or creator of a work legal control over the duplication and public performance of their work. In many jurisdictions, this is limited by a time period after which the works then enter the public domain. Copyright laws are a balance between the rights of creators of intellectual and artistic works and the rights of others to build upon those works. During the time period of copyright the author's work may only be copied, modified, or publicly performed with the consent of the author, unless the use is a fair use. Traditional copyright control limits the use of the work of the author to those who either pay royalties to the author for usage of the author's content or limit their use to fair use. Secondly, it limits the use of content whose author cannot be found.[11] Finally, it creates a perceived barrier between authors by limiting derivative works, such as mashups and collaborative content.[12]

Public domain

Main article: Public domain
 
Public domain logo

The public domain is a range of creative works whose copyright has expired or was never established, as well as ideas and facts[note 1] which are ineligible for copyright. A public domain work is a work whose author has either relinquished to the public or no longer can claim control over, the distribution and usage of the work. As such, any person may manipulate, distribute, or otherwise use the work, without legal ramifications. A work in the public domain or released under a permissive license may be referred to as "copycenter".[13]

Copyleft

Main article: Copyleft
 
Copyleft symbol

Copyleft is a play on the word copyright and describes the practice of using copyright law to remove restrictions on distributing copies and modified versions of a work.[14] The aim of copyleft is to use the legal framework of copyright to enable non-author parties to be able to reuse and, in many licensing schemes, modify content that is created by an author. Unlike works in the public domain, the author still maintains copyright over the material, however, the author has granted a non-exclusive license to any person to distribute, and often modify, the work. Copyleft licenses require that any derivative works be distributed under the same terms and that the original copyright notices be maintained. A symbol commonly associated with copyleft is a reversal of the copyright symbol, facing the other way; the opening of the C points left rather than right. Unlike the copyright symbol, the copyleft symbol does not have a codified meaning.[15]

Usage

Projects that provide free content exist in several areas of interest, such as software, academic literature, general literature, music, images, video, and engineering. Technology has reduced the cost of publication and reduced the entry barrier sufficiently to allow for the production of widely disseminated materials by individuals or small groups. Projects to provide free literature and multimedia content have become increasingly prominent owing to the ease of dissemination of materials that are associated with the development of computer technology. Such dissemination may have been too costly prior to these technological developments.

Media

 
Creative Commons logo

In media, which includes textual, audio, and visual content, free licensing schemes such as some of the licenses made by Creative Commons have allowed for the dissemination of works under a clear set of legal permissions. Not all Creative Commons licenses are entirely free; their permissions may range from very liberal general redistribution and modification of the work to a more restrictive redistribution-only licensing. Since February 2008, Creative Commons licenses which are entirely free carry a badge indicating that they are "approved for free cultural works".[16] Repositories exist which exclusively feature free material and provide content such as photographs, clip art, music,[17] and literature.[18] While extensive reuse of free content from one website in another website is legal, it is usually not sensible because of the duplicate content problem. Wikipedia is amongst the most well-known databases of user-uploaded free content on the web. While the vast majority of content on Wikipedia is free content, some copyrighted material is hosted under fair-use criteria.

Software

Main article: Free and open-source software
 
OSI logo

Free and open-source software, which is also often referred to as open source software and free software, is a maturing technology with major companies using free software to provide both services and technology to both end-users and technical consumers. The ease of dissemination has allowed for increased modularity, which allows for smaller groups to contribute to projects as well as simplifying collaboration. Open source development models have been classified as having a similar peer-recognition and collaborative benefit incentives that are typified by more classical fields such as scientific research, with the social structures that result from this incentive model decreasing production cost.[19] Given sufficient interest in a software component, by using peer-to-peer distribution methods, distribution costs of software may be reduced, removing the burden of infrastructure maintenance from developers. As distribution resources are simultaneously provided by consumers, these software distribution models are scalable, that is the method is feasible regardless of the number of consumers. In some cases, free software vendors may use peer-to-peer technology as a method of dissemination.[20] In general, project hosting and code distribution is not a problem for the most of free projects as a number of providers offer them these services free.

Engineering and technology

Main articles: Open-source hardware and Open design

Free content principles have been translated into fields such as engineering, where designs and engineering knowledge can be readily shared and duplicated, in order to reduce overheads associated with project development. Open design principles can be applied in engineering and technological applications, with projects in mobile telephony, small-scale manufacture,[21] the automotive industry,[22][23] and even agricultural areas. Technologies such as distributed manufacturing can allow computer-aided manufacturing and computer-aided design techniques to be able to develop small-scale production of components for the development of new, or repair of existing, devices. Rapid fabrication technologies underpin these developments, which allow end-users of technology to be able to construct devices from pre-existing blueprints, using software and manufacturing hardware to convert information into physical objects.

Academia

Main article: Open access (publishing)
 
Open access logo, originally designed by Public Library of Science

In academic work, the majority of works are not free, although the percentage of works that are open access is growing rapidly. Open access refers to online research outputs that are free of all restrictions on access (e.g. access tolls) and free of many restrictions on use (e.g. certain copyright and license restrictions).[24] Authors may see open access publishing as a method of expanding the audience that is able to access their work to allow for greater impact of the publication, or may support it for ideological reasons.[25][26][27] Open access publishers such as PLOS and BioMed Central provide capacity for review and publishing of free works; though such publications are currently more common in science than humanities. Various funding institutions and governing research bodies have mandated that academics must produce their works to be open-access, in order to qualify for funding, such as the US National Institutes of Health, Research Councils UK (effective 2016) and the European Union (effective 2020).[28][29][30][31] At an institutional level some universities, such as the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, have adopted open access publishing by default by introducing their own mandates.[32] Some mandates may permit delayed publication and may charge researchers for open access publishing.[33][34]

Open content publication has been seen as a method of reducing costs associated with information retrieval in research, as universities typically pay to subscribe for access to content that is published through traditional means[10][35][36] whilst improving journal quality by discouraging the submission of research articles of reduced quality.[10] Subscriptions for non-free content journals may be expensive for universities to purchase, though the article are written and peer-reviewed by academics themselves at no cost to the publisher. This has led to disputes between publishers and some universities over subscription costs, such as the one which occurred between the University of California and the Nature Publishing Group.[37][38] For teaching purposes, some universities, including MIT, provide freely available course content, such as lecture notes, video resources and tutorials. This content is distributed via Internet resources to the general public. Publication of such resources may be either by a formal institution-wide program,[39] or alternately via informal content provided by individual academics or departments.

Legislation

Any country has its own law and legal system, sustained by its legislation, a set of law-documents—documents containing statutory obligation rules, usually law and created by legislatures. In a democratic country, each law-document is published as open media content, is in principle free content; but in general, there are no explicit licenses attributed for each law-document, so the license must be interpreted, an implied license. Only a few countries have explicit licenses in their law-documents, as the UK's Open Government Licence (a CC BY compatible license). In the other countries, the implied license comes from its proper rules (general laws and rules about copyright in government works). The automatic protection provided by Berne Convention not apply to law-documents: Article 2.4 excludes the official texts from the automatic protection. It is also possible to "inherit" the license from context. The set of country's law-documents is made available through national repositories. Examples of law-document open repositories: LexML Brazil, Legislation.gov.uk, N-Lex. In general, a law-document is offered in more than one (open) official version, but the main one is that published by a government gazette. So, law-documents can eventually inherit license expressed by the repository or by the gazette that contains it.

Open content

 
Open Content Project logo, 1998
 
The logo on the screen in the subject's left hand is a Creative Commons license, while the paper in his right hand explains, in Khmer, that the image is open content.

Open content describes any work that others can copy or modify freely by attributing to the original creator, but without needing to ask for permission. This has been applied to a range of formats, including textbooks, academic journals, films and music. The term was an expansion of the related concept of open-source software.[40] Such content is said to be under an open license.

History

The concept of applying free software licenses to content was introduced by Michael Stutz, who in 1997 wrote the paper "Applying Copyleft to Non-Software Information" for the GNU Project. The term "open content" was coined by David A. Wiley in 1998 and evangelized via the Open Content Project, describing works licensed under the Open Content License (a non-free share-alike license, see 'Free content' below) and other works licensed under similar terms.[40]

It has since come to describe a broader class of content without conventional copyright restrictions. The openness of content can be assessed under the '5Rs Framework' based on the extent to which it can be reused, revised, remixed and redistributed by members of the public without violating copyright law.[41] Unlike free content and content under open-source licenses, there is no clear threshold that a work must reach to qualify as 'open content'.

Although open content has been described as a counterbalance to copyright,[42] open content licenses rely on a copyright holder's power to license their work, as copyleft which also utilizes copyright for such a purpose.

In 2003 Wiley announced that the Open Content Project has been succeeded by Creative Commons and their licenses, where he joined as "Director of Educational Licenses".[43][44]

In 2005, the Open Icecat project was launched, in which product information for e-commerce applications was created and published under the Open Content License. It was embraced by the tech sector, which was already quite open source minded.

 
Open Knowledge Foundation

In 2006 the Creative Commons' successor project was the Definition of Free Cultural Works[45] for free content, put forth by Erik Möller,[46] Richard Stallman, Lawrence Lessig, Benjamin Mako Hill,[46] Angela Beesley,[46] and others. The Definition of Free Cultural Works is used by the Wikimedia Foundation.[47] In 2008, the Attribution and Attribution-ShareAlike Creative Commons licenses were marked as "Approved for Free Cultural Works" among other licenses.[48]

Another successor project is the Open Knowledge Foundation,[49] founded by Rufus Pollock in Cambridge, in 2004[50] as a global non-profit network to promote and share open content and data.[51] In 2007 the OKF gave an Open Knowledge Definition for "content such as music, films, books; data be it scientific, historical, geographic or otherwise; government and other administrative information".[52] In October 2014 with version 2.0 Open Works and Open Licenses were defined and "open" is described as synonymous to the definitions of open/free in the Open Source Definition, the Free Software Definition and the Definition of Free Cultural Works.[53] A distinct difference is the focus given to the public domain and that it focuses also on the accessibility (open access) and the readability (open formats). Among several conformant licenses, six are recommended, three own (Open Data Commons Public Domain Dedication and Licence, Open Data Commons Attribution License, Open Data Commons Open Database License) and the CC BY, CC BY-SA, and CC0 Creative Commons licenses.[54][55][56]

"Open content" definition

The website of the Open Content Project once defined open content as 'freely available for modification, use and redistribution under a license similar to those used by the open-source / free software community'.[40] However, such a definition would exclude the Open Content License because that license forbids charging for content; a right required by free and open-source software licenses.[citation needed]

The term since shifted in meaning. Open content is "licensed in a manner that provides users with free and perpetual permission to engage in the 5R activities."[41]

The 5Rs are put forward on the Open Content Project website as a framework for assessing the extent to which content is open:

# Retain – the right to make, own, and control copies of the content (e.g., download, duplicate, store, and manage)

  1. Reuse – the right to use the content in a wide range of ways (e.g., in a class, in a study group, on a website, in a video)
  2. Revise – the right to adapt, adjust, modify, or alter the content itself (e.g., translate the content into another language)
  3. Remix – the right to combine the original or revised content with other open content to create something new (e.g., incorporate the content into a mashup)
  4. Redistribute – the right to share copies of the original content, your revisions, or your remixes with others (e.g., give a copy of the content to a friend)[41]

This broader definition distinguishes open content from open-source software, since the latter must be available for commercial use by the public. However, it is similar to several definitions for open educational resources, which include resources under noncommercial and verbatim licenses.[57][58]

The later Open Definition by the Open Knowledge Foundation define open knowledge with open content and open data as sub-elements and draws heavily on the Open Source Definition; it preserves the limited sense of open content as free content,[59] unifying both.

Open access

 
Open access symbol, originally designed by PLOS

"Open access" refers to toll-free or gratis access to content, mainly published originally peer-reviewed scholarly journals. Some open access works are also licensed for reuse and redistribution (libre open access), which would qualify them as open content.

Open content and education

Further information: Open educational resources
 
Unesco's Open Educational Resources logo

Over the past decade, open content has been used to develop alternative routes towards higher education. Traditional universities are expensive, and their tuition rates are increasing.[60] Open content allows a free way of obtaining higher education that is "focused on collective knowledge and the sharing and reuse of learning and scholarly content."[61] There are multiple projects and organizations that promote learning through open content, including OpenCourseWare, Khan Academy and the Saylor Academy. Some universities, like MIT, Yale, and Tufts are making their courses freely available on the internet.[62]

Textbooks

Main article: Open textbooks

The textbook industry is one of the educational industries in which open content can make the biggest impact.[63] Traditional textbooks, aside from being expensive, can also be inconvenient and out of date, because of publishers' tendency to constantly print new editions.[64] Open textbooks help to eliminate this problem, because they are online and thus easily updatable. Being openly licensed and online can be helpful to teachers, because it allows the textbook to be modified according to the teacher's unique curriculum.[63] There are multiple organizations promoting the creation of openly licensed textbooks. Some of these organizations and projects include the University of Minnesota's Open Textbook Library, Connexions, OpenStax College, the Saylor Academy, Open Textbook Challenge and Wikibooks.

Licenses

According to the current definition of open content on the OpenContent website, any general, royalty-free copyright license would qualify as an open license because it 'provides users with the right to make more kinds of uses than those normally permitted under the law. These permissions are granted to users free of charge.'[41]

However, the narrower definition used in the Open Definition effectively limits open content to libre content, any free content license, defined by the Definition of Free Cultural Works, would qualify as an open content license. According to this narrower criteria, the following still-maintained licenses qualify:

Further information: Open Knowledge Foundation, Free content, and Definition of Free Cultural Works

See also

  • Digital rights
  • Open catalogue
  • Open source
  • Free education
  • Free software movement
  • Freedom of information
  • Information wants to be free
  • Open publishing
  • Open-source hardware
  • Project Gutenberg [Knowledge for free – The Emergence of Open Educational Resources]. 2007, ISBN 92-64-03174-X.

Explanatory notes

  1. ^ The copyright status of uncreative aggregates of basic data may differ by region, for the USA see Feist Publications v. Rural Telephone Service, for Australia, see Telstra v Desktop Marketing Systems.

References

  1. ^ a b Erik Möller, e.a. (2008). "Definition of Free Cultural Works". 1.1. freedomdefined.org. from the original on 18 August 2016. Retrieved 20 April 2015.
  2. ^ Stallman, Richard (13 November 2008). "Free Software and Free Manuals". Free Software Foundation. from the original on 15 August 2021. Retrieved 22 March 2009.
  3. ^ Stallman, Richard. "Why Open Source misses the point of Free Software". Free Software Foundation. from the original on 4 August 2011. Retrieved 5 August 2016.
  4. ^ Kelty, Christpher M. (2008). "The Cultural Significance of Free Software - Two Bits" (PDF). Duke University press - Durham and London. p. 99. (PDF) from the original on 27 August 2008. Retrieved 5 August 2016. Prior to 1998, Free Software referred either to the Free Software Foundation (and the watchful, micromanaging eye of Stallman) or to one of thousands of different commercial, avocational, or university-research projects, processes, licenses, and ideologies that had a variety of names: sourceware, freeware, shareware, open software, public domain software, and so on. The term Open Source, by contrast, sought to encompass them all in one movement.
  5. ^ "Goodbye, "free software"; hello, "open source"". Catb.org. from the original on 2 January 2020. Retrieved 25 October 2012.
  6. ^ Open Definition 2.1 27 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine on opendefinition.org "This essential meaning matches that of "open" with respect to software as in the Open Source Definition and is synonymous with "free" or "libre" as in the Free Software Definition and Definition of Free Cultural Works."
  7. ^ licenses 1 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine on opendefinition.com
  8. ^ Creative Commons 4.0 BY and BY-SA licenses approved conformant with the Open Definition 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine by Timothy Vollmer on creativecommons.org (December 27th, 2013)
  9. ^ Open Definition 2.0 released 24 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine by Timothy Vollmer on creativecommons.org (October 7th, 2014)
  10. ^ a b c (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 February 2009. Retrieved 23 May 2009.
  11. ^ "The Importance of Orphan Works Legislation". from the original on 5 January 2010. Retrieved 13 June 2011.
  12. ^ Ben Depoorter; Francesco Parisi (2002). "Fair use and copyright protection: a price theory explanation". International Review of Law and Economics. 21 (4): 453. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.196.423. doi:10.1016/S0144-8188(01)00071-0.
  13. ^ Raymond, Eric S. "Copycenter". The Jargon File. from the original on 16 September 2010. Retrieved 9 August 2008.
  14. ^ Dusollier, S (2003). "Open source and copyleft. Authorship reconsidered?". Columbia Journal of Law and the Arts. 26 (296). {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  15. ^ Hall, G. Brent (2008). Open Source Approaches in Spatial Data Handling. Springer. p. 29. Bibcode:2008osas.book.....H. ISBN 978-3-540-74830-4. from the original on 21 March 2022. Retrieved 22 March 2009.
  16. ^ Linksvayer, Mike (20 February 2008). "Approved for Free Cultural Works". Creative Commons. from the original on 17 November 2015. Retrieved 22 March 2009.
  17. ^ . SourceForge.net. Archived from the original on 28 February 2009. Retrieved 22 March 2009.
  18. ^ "Gutenberg:No Cost or Freedom?". Project Gutenberg. 23 April 2007. from the original on 24 March 2009. Retrieved 22 March 2009.
  19. ^ Mustonen, Mikko. (PDF). Discussion Paper No. 493. Department of Economics, University of Helsinki. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 March 2009. Retrieved 22 March 2009. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  20. ^ Pawlak, Michel; Bryce, Ciarán; Laurière, Stéphane (29 May 2008). "The Practice of Free and Open Source Software Processes" (PDF). Rapport de Recherche. inria-00274193, version 2. N° 6519 (April 2008). ISSN 0249-6399. (PDF) from the original on 27 April 2011. Retrieved 22 March 2009.
  21. ^ Hendry, Andrew (4 March 2008). . Computerworld Australia. The Industry Standard. Archived from the original on 16 May 2008. Retrieved 22 March 2009.
  22. ^ Honsig, Markus (25 January 2006). . Technology Review (in German). Heinz Heise. Archived from the original on 6 April 2009. Retrieved 22 March 2009.
  23. ^ "Australian drive for green commuter cars". The Sydney Morning Herald. Sydney. 14 June 2010. Retrieved 5 June 2015.
  24. ^ Suber, Peter. "Open Access Overview" 19 May 2007 at the Wayback Machine. Earlham.edu. Retrieved on 2011-12-03.
  25. ^ Alma Swan; Sheridan Brown (May 2005). (PDF). Key Perspectives Limited. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 February 2012. Retrieved 26 July 2010.
  26. ^ Andrew, Theo (30 October 2003). "Trends in Self-Posting of Research Material Online by Academic Staff". Ariadne (37). ISSN 1361-3200. from the original on 20 November 2010. Retrieved 22 March 2009.
  27. ^ Key Perspectives. (PDF). Joint Information Systems Committee (JISC). Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 March 2009. Retrieved 22 March 2009.
  28. ^ Haslam, Maryanne. (PDF). National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC). Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 March 2009. Retrieved 22 March 2009.
  29. ^ "Policy on Enhancing Public Access to Archived Publications Resulting from NIH-Funded Research". from the original on 24 November 2010. Retrieved 12 July 2009.
  30. ^ . Archived from the original on 21 March 2018. Retrieved 13 July 2016.
  31. ^ "Outcome of Proceedings, 9526/16 RECH 208 TELECOM 100, The transition towards an Open Science System". from the original on 5 July 2016. Retrieved 13 July 2016.
  32. ^ "MIT faculty open access to their scholarly articles". MIT news. 20 March 2009. from the original on 30 January 2014. Retrieved 22 November 2010.
  33. ^ "Policy of the Society for General Microbiology towards author self-archiving on PubMed Central and institutional and other repositories". from the original on 26 May 2011. Retrieved 10 April 2009.
  34. ^ . Archived from the original on 27 April 2011. Retrieved 10 April 2009.
  35. ^ Mayor, Susan (19 April 2003). "Libraries face higher costs for academic journals". BMJ: British Medical Journal. 326 (7394): 840. PMC 1125769.
  36. ^ . Archived from the original on 28 March 2010. Retrieved 23 May 2009.
  37. ^ (PDF). 10 June 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 June 2010. Retrieved 13 September 2015.
  38. ^ Hawkes, Nigel (10 November 2003). . The Times. London. Archived from the original on 29 April 2011. Retrieved 13 September 2015.
  39. ^ . Archived from the original on 22 April 2009. Retrieved 10 April 2009.
  40. ^ a b c Wiley, David (1998). . OpenContent.org. Archived from the original on 28 January 1999. Retrieved 17 April 2012.
  41. ^ a b c d Wiley, David. "Open Content". OpenContent.org. from the original on 23 June 2012. Retrieved 18 November 2011.
  42. ^ "Lawrence Liang, "Free/Open Source Software Open Content", Asia-Pacific Development Information Programme: e-Primers on Free/Open Source Software, United Nations Development Programme – Asia-Pacific Development Information Programme, 2007" (PDF). (PDF) from the original on 22 March 2012. Retrieved 23 June 2012.
  43. ^ on opencontent.org (30 June 2003, archived)
  44. ^ by matt (23 June 2003)
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  46. ^ a b c "History – Definition of Free Cultural Works". Freedomdefined.org. from the original on 30 October 2012. Retrieved 14 November 2012.
  47. ^ "Resolution:Licensing policy". Wikimedia Foundation. from the original on 13 November 2012. Retrieved 14 November 2012.
  48. ^ "Approved for Free Cultural Works". Creative Commons. 24 July 2009. from the original on 25 June 2012. Retrieved 14 November 2012.
  49. ^ Davies, Tim (12 April 2014). "Data, information, knowledge and power – exploring Open Knowledge's new core purpose". Tim's Blog. from the original on 29 June 2017. Retrieved 25 October 2015.
  50. ^ "Open Knowledge Foundation launched". Open Knowledge Foundation Weblog. 24 May 2004. from the original on 1 October 2011. Retrieved 25 October 2015.
  51. ^ "Open Knowledge: About". okfn.org. from the original on 1 October 2015. Retrieved 25 October 2015.
  52. ^ on opendefinition.org (archived 2007)
  53. ^ Open Definition 2.1 27 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine on opendefinition.org
  54. ^ licenses 1 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine on opendefintion.com
  55. ^ Creative Commons 4.0 BY and BY-SA licenses approved conformant with the Open Definition 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine by Timothy Vollmer on creativecommons.org (27 December 2013)
  56. ^ Open Definition 2.0 released 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine by Timothy Vollmer on creativecommons.rog (7 October 2014)
  57. ^ Atkins, Daniel E.; John Seely Brown; Allen L. Hammond (February 2007). (PDF). Menlo Park, CA: The William and Flora Hewlett Foundation. p. 4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 March 2012. Retrieved 3 December 2010.
  58. ^ Geser, Guntram (January 2007). Open Educational Practices and Resources. OLCOS Roadmap 2012. Salzburg, Austria: Salzburg Research, EduMedia Group. p. 20. from the original on 4 June 2010. Retrieved 6 November 2010.
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  64. ^ Moushon, James (2012). "e-Textbooks: How do they stack up against tradition textbooks". Self Publishing Review. from the original on 9 August 2013. Retrieved 18 April 2012.

Further reading

  • D. Atkins; J. S. Brown; A. L. Hammond (February 2007). A Review of the Open Educational Resources (OER) Movement: Achievements, Challenges, and New Opportunities (PDF). Report to The William and Flora Hewlett Foundation.
  • OECD – Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development: [https://web.archive.org/web/20170707125154/http://oberon.sourceoecd.org/vl=1280635/cl=16/nw=1/rpsv/ij/oecdthemes/99980029/v2007n3/s1/p1l Archived 7 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine Giving Know

External links

  •   Media related to Free content at Wikimedia Commons

January 08, 2023
free, content, free, content, wikipedia, wikipedia, libre, content, libre, information, free, information, kind, functional, work, work, other, creative, content, that, meets, definition, free, cultural, work, logo, definition, free, cultural, works, project, . For the use of free content on Wikipedia see Wikipedia Free content Free content libre content libre information or free information is any kind of functional work work of art or other creative content that meets the definition of a free cultural work 1 Logo of the Definition of Free Cultural Works project Contents 1 Definition 2 Legal matters 2 1 Copyright 2 2 Public domain 2 3 Copyleft 3 Usage 3 1 Media 3 2 Software 3 3 Engineering and technology 3 4 Academia 3 5 Legislation 4 Open content 4 1 History 4 2 Open content definition 4 3 Open access 4 4 Open content and education 4 5 Textbooks 4 6 Licenses 5 See also 6 Explanatory notes 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External linksDefinitionA free cultural work is according to the definition of Free Cultural Works one that has no significant legal restriction on people s freedom to use the content and benefit from using it study the content and apply what is learned make and distribute copies of the content change and improve the content and distribute these derivative works 1 2 Free content encompasses all works in the public domain and also those copyrighted works whose licenses honor and uphold the freedoms mentioned above Because the Berne Convention in most countries by default grants copyright holders monopolistic control over their creations copyright content must be explicitly declared free usually by the referencing or inclusion of licensing statements from within the work Although there are a great many different definitions in regular everyday use free content is legally very similar if not like an identical twin to open content An analogy is a use of the rival terms free software and open source which describe ideological differences rather than legal ones 3 4 5 For instance the Open Knowledge Foundation s Open Definition describes open as synonymous to the definition of free in the Definition of Free Cultural Works as also in the Open Source Definition and Free Software Definition 6 For such free open content both movements recommend the same three Creative Commons licenses the CC BY CC BY SA and CC0 7 8 9 10 Legal mattersCopyright Copyright symbol Main article Copyright Copyright is a legal concept which gives the author or creator of a work legal control over the duplication and public performance of their work In many jurisdictions this is limited by a time period after which the works then enter the public domain Copyright laws are a balance between the rights of creators of intellectual and artistic works and the rights of others to build upon those works During the time period of copyright the author s work may only be copied modified or publicly performed with the consent of the author unless the use is a fair use Traditional copyright control limits the use of the work of the author to those who either pay royalties to the author for usage of the author s content or limit their use to fair use Secondly it limits the use of content whose author cannot be found 11 Finally it creates a perceived barrier between authors by limiting derivative works such as mashups and collaborative content 12 Public domain Main article Public domain Public domain logo The public domain is a range of creative works whose copyright has expired or was never established as well as ideas and facts note 1 which are ineligible for copyright A public domain work is a work whose author has either relinquished to the public or no longer can claim control over the distribution and usage of the work As such any person may manipulate distribute or otherwise use the work without legal ramifications A work in the public domain or released under a permissive license may be referred to as copycenter 13 Copyleft Main article Copyleft Copyleft symbol Copyleft is a play on the word copyright and describes the practice of using copyright law to remove restrictions on distributing copies and modified versions of a work 14 The aim of copyleft is to use the legal framework of copyright to enable non author parties to be able to reuse and in many licensing schemes modify content that is created by an author Unlike works in the public domain the author still maintains copyright over the material however the author has granted a non exclusive license to any person to distribute and often modify the work Copyleft licenses require that any derivative works be distributed under the same terms and that the original copyright notices be maintained A symbol commonly associated with copyleft is a reversal of the copyright symbol facing the other way the opening of the C points left rather than right Unlike the copyright symbol the copyleft symbol does not have a codified meaning 15 UsageProjects that provide free content exist in several areas of interest such as software academic literature general literature music images video and engineering Technology has reduced the cost of publication and reduced the entry barrier sufficiently to allow for the production of widely disseminated materials by individuals or small groups Projects to provide free literature and multimedia content have become increasingly prominent owing to the ease of dissemination of materials that are associated with the development of computer technology Such dissemination may have been too costly prior to these technological developments Media Creative Commons logo In media which includes textual audio and visual content free licensing schemes such as some of the licenses made by Creative Commons have allowed for the dissemination of works under a clear set of legal permissions Not all Creative Commons licenses are entirely free their permissions may range from very liberal general redistribution and modification of the work to a more restrictive redistribution only licensing Since February 2008 Creative Commons licenses which are entirely free carry a badge indicating that they are approved for free cultural works 16 Repositories exist which exclusively feature free material and provide content such as photographs clip art music 17 and literature 18 While extensive reuse of free content from one website in another website is legal it is usually not sensible because of the duplicate content problem Wikipedia is amongst the most well known databases of user uploaded free content on the web While the vast majority of content on Wikipedia is free content some copyrighted material is hosted under fair use criteria Software Main article Free and open source software OSI logo Free Software Foundation logo Free and open source software which is also often referred to as open source software and free software is a maturing technology with major companies using free software to provide both services and technology to both end users and technical consumers The ease of dissemination has allowed for increased modularity which allows for smaller groups to contribute to projects as well as simplifying collaboration Open source development models have been classified as having a similar peer recognition and collaborative benefit incentives that are typified by more classical fields such as scientific research with the social structures that result from this incentive model decreasing production cost 19 Given sufficient interest in a software component by using peer to peer distribution methods distribution costs of software may be reduced removing the burden of infrastructure maintenance from developers As distribution resources are simultaneously provided by consumers these software distribution models are scalable that is the method is feasible regardless of the number of consumers In some cases free software vendors may use peer to peer technology as a method of dissemination 20 In general project hosting and code distribution is not a problem for the most of free projects as a number of providers offer them these services free Engineering and technology Main articles Open source hardware and Open design Logo of the Open Source Hardware Association Free content principles have been translated into fields such as engineering where designs and engineering knowledge can be readily shared and duplicated in order to reduce overheads associated with project development Open design principles can be applied in engineering and technological applications with projects in mobile telephony small scale manufacture 21 the automotive industry 22 23 and even agricultural areas Technologies such as distributed manufacturing can allow computer aided manufacturing and computer aided design techniques to be able to develop small scale production of components for the development of new or repair of existing devices Rapid fabrication technologies underpin these developments which allow end users of technology to be able to construct devices from pre existing blueprints using software and manufacturing hardware to convert information into physical objects Academia Main article Open access publishing Open access logo originally designed by Public Library of Science In academic work the majority of works are not free although the percentage of works that are open access is growing rapidly Open access refers to online research outputs that are free of all restrictions on access e g access tolls and free of many restrictions on use e g certain copyright and license restrictions 24 Authors may see open access publishing as a method of expanding the audience that is able to access their work to allow for greater impact of the publication or may support it for ideological reasons 25 26 27 Open access publishers such as PLOS and BioMed Central provide capacity for review and publishing of free works though such publications are currently more common in science than humanities Various funding institutions and governing research bodies have mandated that academics must produce their works to be open access in order to qualify for funding such as the US National Institutes of Health Research Councils UK effective 2016 and the European Union effective 2020 28 29 30 31 At an institutional level some universities such as the Massachusetts Institute of Technology have adopted open access publishing by default by introducing their own mandates 32 Some mandates may permit delayed publication and may charge researchers for open access publishing 33 34 Open content publication has been seen as a method of reducing costs associated with information retrieval in research as universities typically pay to subscribe for access to content that is published through traditional means 10 35 36 whilst improving journal quality by discouraging the submission of research articles of reduced quality 10 Subscriptions for non free content journals may be expensive for universities to purchase though the article are written and peer reviewed by academics themselves at no cost to the publisher This has led to disputes between publishers and some universities over subscription costs such as the one which occurred between the University of California and the Nature Publishing Group 37 38 For teaching purposes some universities including MIT provide freely available course content such as lecture notes video resources and tutorials This content is distributed via Internet resources to the general public Publication of such resources may be either by a formal institution wide program 39 or alternately via informal content provided by individual academics or departments Legislation Any country has its own law and legal system sustained by its legislation a set of law documents documents containing statutory obligation rules usually law and created by legislatures In a democratic country each law document is published as open media content is in principle free content but in general there are no explicit licenses attributed for each law document so the license must be interpreted an implied license Only a few countries have explicit licenses in their law documents as the UK s Open Government Licence a CC BY compatible license In the other countries the implied license comes from its proper rules general laws and rules about copyright in government works The automatic protection provided by Berne Convention not apply to law documents Article 2 4 excludes the official texts from the automatic protection It is also possible to inherit the license from context The set of country s law documents is made available through national repositories Examples of law document open repositories LexML Brazil Legislation gov uk N Lex In general a law document is offered in more than one open official version but the main one is that published by a government gazette So law documents can eventually inherit license expressed by the repository or by the gazette that contains it Open content Open Content Project logo 1998 The logo on the screen in the subject s left hand is a Creative Commons license while the paper in his right hand explains in Khmer that the image is open content Open content describes any work that others can copy or modify freely by attributing to the original creator but without needing to ask for permission This has been applied to a range of formats including textbooks academic journals films and music The term was an expansion of the related concept of open source software 40 Such content is said to be under an open license History The concept of applying free software licenses to content was introduced by Michael Stutz who in 1997 wrote the paper Applying Copyleft to Non Software Information for the GNU Project The term open content was coined by David A Wiley in 1998 and evangelized via the Open Content Project describing works licensed under the Open Content License a non free share alike license see Free content below and other works licensed under similar terms 40 It has since come to describe a broader class of content without conventional copyright restrictions The openness of content can be assessed under the 5Rs Framework based on the extent to which it can be reused revised remixed and redistributed by members of the public without violating copyright law 41 Unlike free content and content under open source licenses there is no clear threshold that a work must reach to qualify as open content Although open content has been described as a counterbalance to copyright 42 open content licenses rely on a copyright holder s power to license their work as copyleft which also utilizes copyright for such a purpose In 2003 Wiley announced that the Open Content Project has been succeeded by Creative Commons and their licenses where he joined as Director of Educational Licenses 43 44 In 2005 the Open Icecat project was launched in which product information for e commerce applications was created and published under the Open Content License It was embraced by the tech sector which was already quite open source minded Open Knowledge Foundation In 2006 the Creative Commons successor project was the Definition of Free Cultural Works 45 for free content put forth by Erik Moller 46 Richard Stallman Lawrence Lessig Benjamin Mako Hill 46 Angela Beesley 46 and others The Definition of Free Cultural Works is used by the Wikimedia Foundation 47 In 2008 the Attribution and Attribution ShareAlike Creative Commons licenses were marked as Approved for Free Cultural Works among other licenses 48 Another successor project is the Open Knowledge Foundation 49 founded by Rufus Pollock in Cambridge in 2004 50 as a global non profit network to promote and share open content and data 51 In 2007 the OKF gave an Open Knowledge Definition for content such as music films books data be it scientific historical geographic or otherwise government and other administrative information 52 In October 2014 with version 2 0 Open Works and Open Licenses were defined and open is described as synonymous to the definitions of open free in the Open Source Definition the Free Software Definition and the Definition of Free Cultural Works 53 A distinct difference is the focus given to the public domain and that it focuses also on the accessibility open access and the readability open formats Among several conformant licenses six are recommended three own Open Data Commons Public Domain Dedication and Licence Open Data Commons Attribution License Open Data Commons Open Database License and the CC BY CC BY SA and CC0 Creative Commons licenses 54 55 56 Open content definition The website of the Open Content Project once defined open content as freely available for modification use and redistribution under a license similar to those used by the open source free software community 40 However such a definition would exclude the Open Content License because that license forbids charging for content a right required by free and open source software licenses citation needed The term since shifted in meaning Open content is licensed in a manner that provides users with free and perpetual permission to engage in the 5R activities 41 The 5Rs are put forward on the Open Content Project website as a framework for assessing the extent to which content is open Retain the right to make own and control copies of the content e g download duplicate store and manage Reuse the right to use the content in a wide range of ways e g in a class in a study group on a website in a video Revise the right to adapt adjust modify or alter the content itself e g translate the content into another language Remix the right to combine the original or revised content with other open content to create something new e g incorporate the content into a mashup Redistribute the right to share copies of the original content your revisions or your remixes with others e g give a copy of the content to a friend 41 This broader definition distinguishes open content from open source software since the latter must be available for commercial use by the public However it is similar to several definitions for open educational resources which include resources under noncommercial and verbatim licenses 57 58 The later Open Definition by the Open Knowledge Foundation define open knowledge with open content and open data as sub elements and draws heavily on the Open Source Definition it preserves the limited sense of open content as free content 59 unifying both Open access Open access symbol originally designed by PLOS Open access refers to toll free or gratis access to content mainly published originally peer reviewed scholarly journals Some open access works are also licensed for reuse and redistribution libre open access which would qualify them as open content Open content and education Further information Open educational resources Unesco s Open Educational Resources logo Open Content Alliance logo Over the past decade open content has been used to develop alternative routes towards higher education Traditional universities are expensive and their tuition rates are increasing 60 Open content allows a free way of obtaining higher education that is focused on collective knowledge and the sharing and reuse of learning and scholarly content 61 There are multiple projects and organizations that promote learning through open content including OpenCourseWare Khan Academy and the Saylor Academy Some universities like MIT Yale and Tufts are making their courses freely available on the internet 62 Textbooks Main article Open textbooks The textbook industry is one of the educational industries in which open content can make the biggest impact 63 Traditional textbooks aside from being expensive can also be inconvenient and out of date because of publishers tendency to constantly print new editions 64 Open textbooks help to eliminate this problem because they are online and thus easily updatable Being openly licensed and online can be helpful to teachers because it allows the textbook to be modified according to the teacher s unique curriculum 63 There are multiple organizations promoting the creation of openly licensed textbooks Some of these organizations and projects include the University of Minnesota s Open Textbook Library Connexions OpenStax College the Saylor Academy Open Textbook Challenge and Wikibooks Licenses According to the current definition of open content on the OpenContent website any general royalty free copyright license would qualify as an open license because it provides users with the right to make more kinds of uses than those normally permitted under the law These permissions are granted to users free of charge 41 However the narrower definition used in the Open Definition effectively limits open content to libre content any free content license defined by the Definition of Free Cultural Works would qualify as an open content license According to this narrower criteria the following still maintained licenses qualify Creative Commons licenses only Creative Commons Attribution Attribution Share Alike and Zero Open Publication License the original license of the Open Content Project the Open Content License did not permit for profit copying of the licensed work and therefore does not qualify Against DRM license GNU Free Documentation License without invariant sections Open Game License designed for role playing games by Wizards of the Coast Free Art LicenseFurther information Open Knowledge Foundation Free content and Definition of Free Cultural WorksSee also Free and open source software portalDigital rights Open catalogue Open source Free education Free software movement Freedom of information Information wants to be free Open publishing Open source hardware Project Gutenberg Knowledge for free The Emergence of Open Educational Resources 2007 ISBN 92 64 03174 X Explanatory notes The copyright status of uncreative aggregates of basic data may differ by region for the USA see Feist Publications v Rural Telephone Service for Australia see Telstra v Desktop Marketing Systems References a b Erik Moller e a 2008 Definition of Free Cultural Works 1 1 freedomdefined org Archived from the original on 18 August 2016 Retrieved 20 April 2015 Stallman Richard 13 November 2008 Free Software and Free Manuals Free Software Foundation Archived from the original on 15 August 2021 Retrieved 22 March 2009 Stallman Richard Why Open Source misses the point of Free Software Free Software Foundation Archived from the original on 4 August 2011 Retrieved 5 August 2016 Kelty Christpher M 2008 The Cultural Significance of Free Software Two Bits PDF Duke University press Durham and London p 99 Archived PDF from the original on 27 August 2008 Retrieved 5 August 2016 Prior to 1998 Free Software referred either to the Free Software Foundation and the watchful micromanaging eye of Stallman or to one of thousands of different commercial avocational or university research projects processes licenses and ideologies that had a variety of names sourceware freeware shareware open software public domain software and so on The term Open Source by contrast sought to encompass them all in one movement Goodbye free software hello open source Catb org Archived from the original on 2 January 2020 Retrieved 25 October 2012 Open Definition 2 1 Archived 27 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine on opendefinition org This essential meaning matches that of open with respect to software as in the Open Source Definition and is synonymous with free or libre as in the Free Software Definition and Definition of Free Cultural Works licenses Archived 1 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine on opendefinition com Creative Commons 4 0 BY and BY SA licenses approved conformant with the Open Definition Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine by Timothy Vollmer on creativecommons org December 27th 2013 Open Definition 2 0 released Archived 24 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine by Timothy Vollmer on creativecommons org October 7th 2014 a b c Costs and business models in scientific research publishing A report commissioned by the Wellcome Trust PDF Archived from the original PDF on 19 February 2009 Retrieved 23 May 2009 The Importance of Orphan Works Legislation Archived from the original on 5 January 2010 Retrieved 13 June 2011 Ben Depoorter Francesco Parisi 2002 Fair use and copyright protection a price theory explanation International Review of Law and Economics 21 4 453 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 196 423 doi 10 1016 S0144 8188 01 00071 0 Raymond Eric S Copycenter The Jargon File Archived from the original on 16 September 2010 Retrieved 9 August 2008 Dusollier S 2003 Open source and copyleft Authorship reconsidered Columbia Journal of Law and the Arts 26 296 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Hall G Brent 2008 Open Source Approaches in Spatial Data Handling Springer p 29 Bibcode 2008osas book H ISBN 978 3 540 74830 4 Archived from the original on 21 March 2022 Retrieved 22 March 2009 Linksvayer Mike 20 February 2008 Approved for Free Cultural Works Creative Commons Archived from the original on 17 November 2015 Retrieved 22 March 2009 iRate Radio SourceForge net Archived from the original on 28 February 2009 Retrieved 22 March 2009 Gutenberg No Cost or Freedom Project Gutenberg 23 April 2007 Archived from the original on 24 March 2009 Retrieved 22 March 2009 Mustonen Mikko Copyleft the economics of Linux and other open source software PDF Discussion Paper No 493 Department of Economics University of Helsinki Archived from the original PDF on 24 March 2009 Retrieved 22 March 2009 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Pawlak Michel Bryce Ciaran Lauriere Stephane 29 May 2008 The Practice of Free and Open Source Software Processes PDF Rapport de Recherche inria 00274193 version 2 N 6519 April 2008 ISSN 0249 6399 Archived PDF from the original on 27 April 2011 Retrieved 22 March 2009 Hendry Andrew 4 March 2008 RepRap An open source 3D printer for the masses Computerworld Australia The Industry Standard Archived from the original on 16 May 2008 Retrieved 22 March 2009 Honsig Markus 25 January 2006 The most open of all cars Technology Review in German Heinz Heise Archived from the original on 6 April 2009 Retrieved 22 March 2009 Australian drive for green commuter cars The Sydney Morning Herald Sydney 14 June 2010 Retrieved 5 June 2015 Suber Peter Open Access Overview Archived 19 May 2007 at the Wayback Machine Earlham edu Retrieved on 2011 12 03 Alma Swan Sheridan Brown May 2005 Open access self archiving An author study PDF Key Perspectives Limited Archived from the original PDF on 8 February 2012 Retrieved 26 July 2010 Andrew Theo 30 October 2003 Trends in Self Posting of Research Material Online by Academic Staff Ariadne 37 ISSN 1361 3200 Archived from the original on 20 November 2010 Retrieved 22 March 2009 Key Perspectives JISC OSI Journal Authors Survey Report PDF Joint Information Systems Committee JISC Archived from the original PDF on 24 March 2009 Retrieved 22 March 2009 Haslam Maryanne NHMRC Partnership Projects Funding Policy PDF National Health and Medical Research Council NHMRC Archived from the original PDF on 17 March 2009 Retrieved 22 March 2009 Policy on Enhancing Public Access to Archived Publications Resulting from NIH Funded Research Archived from the original on 24 November 2010 Retrieved 12 July 2009 Open access RCUK Policy and revised guidance Archived from the original on 21 March 2018 Retrieved 13 July 2016 Outcome of Proceedings 9526 16 RECH 208 TELECOM 100 The transition towards an Open Science System Archived from the original on 5 July 2016 Retrieved 13 July 2016 MIT faculty open access to their scholarly articles MIT news 20 March 2009 Archived from the original on 30 January 2014 Retrieved 22 November 2010 Policy of the Society for General Microbiology towards author self archiving on PubMed Central and institutional and other repositories Archived from the original on 26 May 2011 Retrieved 10 April 2009 OnlineOpen Archived from the original on 27 April 2011 Retrieved 10 April 2009 Mayor Susan 19 April 2003 Libraries face higher costs for academic journals BMJ British Medical Journal 326 7394 840 PMC 1125769 AMS Journal price survey Archived from the original on 28 March 2010 Retrieved 23 May 2009 Response from the University of California to the Public statement from Nature Publishing Group regarding subscription renewals at the California Digital Library PDF 10 June 2010 Archived from the original PDF on 26 June 2010 Retrieved 13 September 2015 Hawkes Nigel 10 November 2003 Boycott greedy journal publishers say scientists The Times London Archived from the original on 29 April 2011 Retrieved 13 September 2015 About OpenCourseWare Archived from the original on 22 April 2009 Retrieved 10 April 2009 a b c Wiley David 1998 Open Content OpenContent org Archived from the original on 28 January 1999 Retrieved 17 April 2012 a b c d Wiley David Open Content OpenContent org Archived from the original on 23 June 2012 Retrieved 18 November 2011 Lawrence Liang Free Open Source Software Open Content Asia Pacific Development Information Programme e Primers on Free Open Source Software United Nations Development Programme Asia Pacific Development Information Programme 2007 PDF Archived PDF from the original on 22 March 2012 Retrieved 23 June 2012 OpenContent is officially closed And that s just fine on opencontent org 30 June 2003 archived Creative Commons Welcomes David Wiley as Educational Use License Project Lead by matt 23 June 2003 Revision history of Definition Definition of Free Cultural Works Freedomdefined org Archived from the original on 2 November 2012 Retrieved 14 November 2012 a b c History Definition of Free Cultural Works Freedomdefined org Archived from the original on 30 October 2012 Retrieved 14 November 2012 Resolution Licensing policy Wikimedia Foundation Archived from the original on 13 November 2012 Retrieved 14 November 2012 Approved for Free Cultural Works Creative Commons 24 July 2009 Archived from the original on 25 June 2012 Retrieved 14 November 2012 Davies Tim 12 April 2014 Data information knowledge and power exploring Open Knowledge s new core purpose Tim s Blog Archived from the original on 29 June 2017 Retrieved 25 October 2015 Open Knowledge Foundation launched Open Knowledge Foundation Weblog 24 May 2004 Archived from the original on 1 October 2011 Retrieved 25 October 2015 Open Knowledge About okfn org Archived from the original on 1 October 2015 Retrieved 25 October 2015 version 1 0 on opendefinition org archived 2007 Open Definition 2 1 Archived 27 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine on opendefinition org licenses Archived 1 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine on opendefintion com Creative Commons 4 0 BY and BY SA licenses approved conformant with the Open Definition Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine by Timothy Vollmer on creativecommons org 27 December 2013 Open Definition 2 0 released Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine by Timothy Vollmer on creativecommons rog 7 October 2014 Atkins Daniel E John Seely Brown Allen L Hammond February 2007 A Review of the Open Educational Resources OER Movement Achievements Challenges and New Opportunities PDF Menlo Park CA The William and Flora Hewlett Foundation p 4 Archived from the original PDF on 9 March 2012 Retrieved 3 December 2010 Geser Guntram January 2007 Open Educational Practices and Resources OLCOS Roadmap 2012 Salzburg Austria Salzburg Research EduMedia Group p 20 Archived from the original on 4 June 2010 Retrieved 6 November 2010 Open Definition OpenDefinition org Archived from the original on 19 November 2011 Retrieved 18 November 2011 Kantrowitz Mark 2012 Tuition Inflation FinAid org Archived from the original on 15 April 2012 Retrieved 18 April 2012 NMC 2012 One Year or Less Open Content 2010 Horizon Report Archived from the original on 16 March 2012 Retrieved 18 April 2012 Admin 2012 Open edu Top 50 University Open Courseware Collections DIY Learning Archived from the original on 8 October 2017 Retrieved 18 April 2012 a b Fitzgerald Bill 2012 Using Open Content To Drive Educational Change Funny Monkey Archived from the original on 13 June 2018 Retrieved 18 April 2012 Moushon James 2012 e Textbooks How do they stack up against tradition textbooks Self Publishing Review Archived from the original on 9 August 2013 Retrieved 18 April 2012 Further readingD Atkins J S Brown A L Hammond February 2007 A Review of the Open Educational Resources OER Movement Achievements Challenges and New Opportunities PDF Report to The William and Flora Hewlett Foundation OECD Organisation for Economic Co operation and Development https web archive org web 20170707125154 http oberon sourceoecd org vl 1280635 cl 16 nw 1 rpsv ij oecdthemes 99980029 v2007n3 s1 p1l Archived 7 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine Giving KnowExternal links Media related to Free content at Wikimedia Commons Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Free content amp oldid 1125636236, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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