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Maitrī

November 30, 2023

"Mettā" redirects here. For other uses, see Metta (disambiguation).

Maitrī (Sanskrit; Pali: mettā) means benevolence,[1] loving-kindness,[2][3] friendliness,[3][4] amity,[4] good will,[5] and active interest in others.[4] It is the first of the four sublime states (Brahmaviharas) and one of the ten pāramīs of the Theravāda school of Buddhism.

Translations of
Mettā
EnglishLoving-kindness, benevolence
Sanskritमैत्री
(IAST: maitrī)
Palimettā
Burmeseမေတ္တာ
(MLCTS: mjɪʔ tà)
Chinese慈
(Pinyin: cí)
Japanese慈
(Rōmaji: ji)
Khmerមេត្តា
(UNGEGN: métta)
Korean자
(RR: ja)
Sinhalaමෛත්‍රිය
TagalogMaitli
Thaiเมตตา
(RTGS: metta)
Vietnamesetừ
Glossary of Buddhism

The cultivation of benevolence (mettā bhāvanā) is a popular form of Buddhist meditation.[6]: 318–319  It is a part of the four immeasurables in Brahmavihara (divine abidings) meditation.[6]: 278–279  Metta as "compassion meditation" is often practiced in Asia by broadcast chanting, wherein monks chant for the laity.[6]: 318–319 

The compassion and universal loving-kindness concept of metta is discussed in the Metta Sutta of Buddhism, and is also found in the ancient and medieval texts of Hinduism and Jainism as metta or maitri.[7]

Small sample studies on the potential of loving-kindness meditation approach on patients[clarification needed] suggest potential benefits.[8][9] However, peer reviews question the quality and sample size of these studies.[10][11]

Etymology and meaning edit

Mettā is a Pali word, from maitrī which was itself derived from mitra which, states Monier-Williams, means "friend".[12] The term is found in this sense in the Vedic literature,[13] such as the Shatapatha Brahmana and various early Upanishads, and Vedanga literature such as Pāṇini's Aṣṭādhyāyī 5.4.36.[12] The term appears in Buddhist texts as an important concept and practice.[13]

Buswell and Lopez, as well as Harvey, translate mettā as "loving-kindness".[14][6]: 327  In Buddhist belief, this is a Brahmavihara (divine abode) or an immeasurable that leads to a meditative state by being a counter to ill-will. It removes clinging to negative states of mind, by cultivating kindness unto all beings.[6]: 327 

The "far enemy" of mettā is hate or ill-will, a mind-state in obvious opposition. The "near enemy" (quality which superficially resembles mettā but is in fact more subtly in opposition to it), is attachment (greed): here too one likes experiencing a virtue, but for the wrong reason.[15]

Mettā meditation edit

Mettā meditation, or often "loving-kindness meditation", is the practice concerned with the cultivation of mettā, i.e. benevolence, kindness, and amity. The practice generally consists of silent repetitions of phrases such as "may you be happy" or "may you be free from suffering", for example directed at a person who, depending on tradition, may or may not be internally visualized.[8]

Two different methodological approaches have been discerned in recent review papers: practices that focus on compassion, and practices focusing on loving-kindness. Focusing on compassion means that meditation consists of the wish to relieve a being from suffering, whereas focusing on loving-kindness means wishing a being happiness.[8][9]

The practice gradually increases in difficulty with respect to the targets that receive the practitioner's compassion or loving-kindness. At first the practitioner is targeting "oneself, then loved ones, neutral ones, difficult ones, and finally all beings, with variations across traditions".[8]

A 2015 meta-analysis, synthesizing various high-quality experiments on loving-kindness meditation, found a medium-sized[quantify] improvement to daily positive emotion, with meditation on the loving-kindness aspect of mettā having a greater effect than practices with a focus on compassion. The length of time meditating did not affect the magnitude of positive impact of the practice.[8]

Origins edit

According to Martin Wiltshire, prior to the advent of the Buddha, there existed traditions of Brahmaloka and of meditation with the four virtues of loving-kindness, compassion, empathetic joy, and equanimity.[16]: 248–264  The early Buddhist texts assert that pre-Buddha ancient Indian sages who taught these virtues were earlier incarnations of the Buddha.[16]: 248–264  Post-Buddha, these same virtues are found in the Hindu texts such as verse 1.33 of the Yoga Sutras of Patañjali, wherein the word maitri is synonymous with metta.[17]

Loving-kindness (maitri), along with compassion and equanimity, are found in the early Upanishads of Hinduism, while loving-kindness (metta) is found in early Sutras of Jainism along with compassion, empathetic joy and equanimity.[16]: 241–242  The ancient Indian Paccekabuddhas who are mentioned in the early Buddhist Suttas, those who lived before the Buddha, mention all "four immeasurables" and Brahmavihara, and they are claimed in the Suttas to be previous incarnations of the Buddha.[16]: 248–264 

According to Ian Harris, the Buddhist scriptures acknowledge that the metta-concept containing four Brahmavihara meditation practices "did not originate within the Buddhist tradition".[18] The Buddha never claimed that the "four immeasurables" and related metta-meditation were his unique ideas, states Harvey Aronson, in a manner similar to[clarification needed] "cessation, quieting, nirvana".[19]

The pre-Buddha Chandogya Upanishad, states Jayatilleke, in section 8.15 teaches metta and ahimsa (doctrine of non-harm, esp. non-violence) to all creatures claiming that this practice leads to Brahmaloka.[20] The shift in Vedic ideas, from rituals to virtues, is particularly discernible in the early Upanishadic thought, and it is unclear as to what extent and how early Upanishadic traditions of Hinduism and Sramanic traditions such as Buddhism and Jainism influenced each other, on ideas such as "four immeasurables", meditation, and Brahmavihara.[16]: 248–264 

In the Jain text, the Tattvartha Sutra (Chapter 7, sutra 11), which is accepted by all Jain sub-traditions as authoritative, there is a mention of four right sentiments: Maitri, pramoda, karunya, and madhyastha:

Benevolence towards all living beings, joy at the sight of the virtuous, compassion and sympathy for the afflicted, and tolerance towards the insolent and ill-behaved.

Buddhist texts edit

In the Pāli Canon, the term metta appears in many texts such as the Kakacupama Sutta and Karaniya Metta Sutta. Other canonical materials, such as in the Paṭisambhidāmagga, elaborate on it as a practice. Yet other canonical sources, such as the Abhidhamma, underline the key role of benevolence in the development of wholesome karma for better rebirths.

This basic statement of intention and verse[clarification needed] can also be found in several other canonical discourses.[21]

Karaniya Metta Sutta (Sn 1.8) edit

Main article: Metta Sutta

May all beings be happy and secure, may they be happy-minded.
Whatever living beings there are—feeble or strong, long, stout or medium,
short, small or large, seen or unseen (ghosts, gods and hell-beings),
those dwelling far or near, those who are born or those who await rebirth
may all beings, without exception be happy-minded.
Let none deceive another nor despise any person whatever in any place;
in anger or ill-will let them not wish any suffering to each other.
Just as a mother would protect her only child at the risk of her own life,
even so, let him cultivate a boundless heart towards all beings.
Let her thoughts of boundless lovingkindness pervade the whole world:
above, below and across, without obstruction, without any hatred, without any enmity.
⋮
This they say is divine abiding here.
She will surely not come again to any womb (rebirth in the sense-desire realm).

— Metta Sutta, Khp 8-9, Translated by Peter Harvey[6]: 279 

Metta or lovingkindness here, states Harvey, is a heartfelt aspiration for the happiness of all beings. It is different from "lack of ill-will", and more an antidote to fear and hatred. It is the precept to conquer anger by kindness, conquer the liar by truth, conquer the stingy by giving, and conquer evil by good, says Harvey.[6]: 279 

Vatthūpama Sutta edit

In over a dozen discourses, the following description (in English and Pāli) is provided for radiating loving-kindness in six directions:[22]

In the canon, this basic formula is expanded upon in a variety of ways. For instance, a couple of discourses[25] provide the following description of how to gain rebirth in the heavenly realm of Brahmā (brahmānaṃ sahavyatāya maggo) :

"What... is the path to the company of Brahmā? Here a bhikkhu abides pervading one quarter with a mind imbued with benevolence, likewise the second, likewise the third, likewise the fourth; so above, below, around, and everywhere, and to all as to himself, he abides pervading the all-encompassing world with a mind imbued with benevolence, abundant, exalted, immeasurable, without hostility, and without ill will. When the deliverance of mind by benevolence is developed in this way, no limiting action remains there, none persists there.
"Just as a vigorous trumpeter could make himself (or herself) heard without difficulty in the four quarters, so too, when the deliverance of mind by benevolence is developed in this way, no limiting action remains there, none persists there. This is the path to the company of Brahmā."[26]

Patisambhidamagga Mettakatha (Ps. 2.4) edit

May all beings be free from
enmity, affliction and anxiety,
and live contentedly.

Mettākathā (Ps. 2.4)[27]

In the Khuddaka Nikāya's Paṭisambhidāmagga, traditionally ascribed to Sariputta, is a section entitled Mettākathā (Ps. 2.4, "Story on Loving-Kindness").[28] In this instruction, a general formula (below, in English and Pāli), essentially identical to the aforementioned Cunda Kammaraputta Sutta verse (especially evident in the Pāli), is provided for radiating benevolence:

In addition, this instruction categorizes twenty-two ways in which "the mind-deliverance of benevolence" (mettācetovimutti) can be radiated with

five ways of "unspecified pervasion" (anodhiso pharaṇā)
all beings (sabbe sattā), all breathing things (sabbe pāṇā bhāvapariyāpannā), all creatures (sabbe bhūtā bhāvapariyāpannā), all persons (sabbe puggalā bhāvapariyāpannā), all with a personality (sabbe attabhāvapariyāpannā)
seven ways of "specified pervasion" (anodhiso pharaṇā)
all women (sabbā itthiyo), all men (sabbe purisā), all Noble Ones (sabbe ariyā), all non-Noble Ones (sabbe anariyā), all deities (sabbe devā), all humans (sabbe manussā), all born in lower realms (sabbe vinipātikā),
ten ways of "directional pervasion" (disā-pharaṇā)
of the eastern direction (puratthimāya disāya), of the western direction (pacchimāya disāya), of the northern direction (uttarā disāya), of the southern direction (dakkhīṇāya disāya), of the eastern intermediate direction (puratthimāya anudisāya), of the western intermediate direction (pacchimāya anudisāya), of the northern intermediate direction (uttarā anudisāya), of the southern intermediate direction (dakkhīṇāya anudisāya), of the downward direction (heṭṭhimāya disāya), of the upward direction (uparimāya disāya).

Moreover, the directional pervasions can then be applied to each of the unspecific and specific pervasions. For instance, after radiating benevolence to all beings in the east (Sabbe puratthimāya disāya sattā...), one radiates it to all beings in the west and then north and then south, etc.; then, one radiates it to all breathing things in this fashion (Sabbe puratthimāya disāya pāṇā...), then all creatures, persons, and so forth until such is extended for all those born in the lower realms.

Benefits edit

The Pali canon says that there are a number of benefits from the practicing of metta meditation, including:

One sleeps easily, wakes easily, dreams no evil dreams. One is dear to human beings, dear to non-human beings. The devas protect one. Neither fire, poison, nor weapons can touch one. One's mind gains concentration quickly. One's complexion is bright. One dies unconfused and—if penetrating no higher—is headed for [rebirth in][29] the Brahma worlds.[30]

The canon also upholds fully ripened metta development as a foremost antidote to ill will:

"No other thing do I know, O monks, on account of which unarisen ill will does not arise and arisen ill will is abandoned so much as on account of this: the liberation of the heart by benevolence. For one who attends properly to the liberation of the heart by benevolence, unarisen ill will does not arise and arisen ill will is abandoned."[31]
"Monks, whatever grounds there are for making merit productive of a future birth, all these do not equal a sixteenth part of the liberation of mind by benevolence. The liberation of mind by benevolence surpasses them and shines forth, bright and brilliant."[32]

Mettā meditation is regularly recommended to the Buddha's followers in the Pali canon. The canon generally advises radiating metta in each of the six directions, to whatever beings there may be.[repetition][33] A different set of practical instructions, still widely used today, is found in the 5th century CE Visuddhimagga; this is also the main source for the "near and far enemies" given above. In addition, variations on this traditional practice have been popularized by modern teachers and applied in modern research settings.

Maitrī and mettā edit

Mettā is found in pre-Buddhist Vedic Sanskrit texts as Maitrī, Maitra, and Mitra, which are derived from the ancient root Mid (love).[13] These Vedic words appear in the Samhita, Aranyaka, Brahmana, and Upanishad layers of texts in the Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda.[34]

Speaking the truth I desire this:
May I enjoy her lovingkindness as do ye,
May not one of you supplant another,
She hath enjoyed my lovingkindness, the all-knower.

— Taittiriya Samhita 4.3.12, Yajurveda, Translated by Arthur Keith[35]

Similarly, the term appears in hymn 55 of Book 19 of the Atharvaveda,[36] and various Upanishads.[37] A major early Upanishad of Hinduism, named Maitri Upanishad, discusses universal kindness and amity. The Maitri Upanishad, states Martin Wiltshire, provides the philosophical underpinning, by asserting, "what one thinks, that one becomes, this is the eternal mystery". This idea, adds Wiltshire, reflects the assumption in the ancient thought that one influences one's own environment and situation, causality is equitable, and "good volitional acts conduce pleasant situations, while bad volitional acts conduce unpleasant situations".[16]: 94–95  The Maitri Upanishad teaches, states Juan Mascaró, that peace begins in one's own mind, in one's longing for truth, in looking within, and that "a quietness of mind overcomes good and evil works, and in quietness the soul is one: then one feels the joy of eternity."[38]

The Isha Upanishad similarly discusses universal amity and loving-kindness, but without the term mettā.[39] These teachings of universal maitri influenced Mahatma Gandhi.[40]

In Jainism, Yogabindu – the 6th-century yoga text by Haribhadra – uses the Sanskrit word maitri in verses 402–404, in the sense of loving-kindness towards all living beings.[41]

Mettā meditation research edit

Some pilot research studies on the effect of mettā meditation indicate an increase in positive emotions for practitioners.[8][9] In particular, an immediate impact on positive emotions after practice as well as a long-term effect could be shown, though these effects might not hold true for everybody.[8] In one proof-of-concept study, uncontrolled in sample selection and benchmarking, the researchers report therapeutic potential for psychological problems like depression or social anxiety, when combined with other reliable treatments.[9]

Therapeutic potential edit

The application of mettā meditation for the treatment of psychological and other healthcare-related problems is a topic of research. Hofmann et al. discuss the potential use for therapy and report insufficient data, with some promising studies so far. Those studies could show a positive impact on problems such as schizophrenia, depression, and anxiety. According to Hofmann et al., there needs to be more rigorous research, especially with the application of Buddhist approaches to loving-kindness and compassion meditation.[9]

In an eight-week pilot study in 2005, loving-kindness meditation led to reduced pain and anger in people with chronic lower back pain.[42] Compassion meditation, a Science Daily article states, may reduce inflammatory and behavioral responses to stress that have been linked to depression and a number of medical illnesses.[43]

Mettā meditation is a central practice within mindfulness-based pain management (MBPM),[44] the effectiveness of which has been supported by a range of studies.[45]

Caution and reviews edit

Bishop, in a 2002 review, suggests caution on claims of benefits, and states, "what has been published has been rife with methodological problems. At present, we know very little about the effectiveness of this [mindfulness-lovingkindness-compassion meditation] approach; however, there is some evidence that suggests that it may hold some promise."[11]

In a 2014 review of multiple studies, Galante et al. reach a similar conclusion, stating "results were inconclusive for some outcomes, in particular against active controls; the methodological quality of the reports was low to moderate; results suffered from imprecision due to wide CIs (confidence intervals) deriving from small studies" and that "the kindness meditation methods show evidence of individual and community benefits through its effects on their well-being and social interaction".[10]

See also edit

Notes edit

  1. ^ In the Buddha's Words: An Anthology of Discourses from the Pali Canon. Translated by Bodhi, Bhikkhu. Somerville, Mass.: Wisdom Publications. 2005. pp. 90, 131, 134. ISBN 0-86171-491-1.
  2. ^
    • Gethin, Rupert (1998). The Foundations of Buddhism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 26, 30, passim. ISBN 0-19-289223-1. [spelled as two words: "loving kindness"]
    • Harvey, Peter (2007). An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 247–48. ISBN 978-0-521-31333-9. [spelled without a hyphen: "lovingkindness"]
    • Bodhi, Bhikkhu, ed. (2001). The Middle-Length Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Majjhima Nikāya. Translated by Ñāṇamoli, Bhikkhu. Boston: Wisdom Publications. pp. 120, 374, 474, passim. ISBN 0-86171-072-X.
    • Salzberg, Sharon (1995). Lovingkindness: The Revolutionary Art of Happiness. Boston: Shambhala Publications. pp. passim. ISBN 1-57062-176-4. [without a hyphen]
    • The Long Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Dīgha Nikāya. Translated by Walshe, Maurice. Somerville, Mass.: Wisdom Publications. 1995. p. 194. ISBN 0-86171-103-3.
  3. ^ a b Warder, A. K. (2004) [1970]. Indian Buddhism. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 63, 94. ISBN 81-208-1741-9.
  4. ^ a b c Rhys Davids, T.W.; Stede, William, eds. (1921–25). "Mettā". The Pali Text Society's Pali–English Dictionary. Chipstead: Pali Text Society. p. 540. Retrieved 2008-04-29.
  5. ^ Gombrich, Richard (2002) [1988]. Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-07585-8.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g Harvey, Peter (2012). An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-85942-4.
  7. ^ Dunne, Finley P. (2013). The World Religions Speak on "The Relevance of Religion in the Modern World". Springer. pp. 94–95. ISBN 978-94-017-5892-5.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g Zeng, Xianglong; Chiu, Cleo P. K.; Wang, Rong; Oei, Tian P. S.; Leung, Freedom Y. K. (2015). "The effect of loving-kindness meditation on positive emotions: a meta-analytic review". Frontiers in Psychology. 6: 1693. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01693. PMC 4630307. PMID 26579061.
  9. ^ a b c d e Hofmann, Stefan G.; Petrocchi, Nicola; Steinberg, James; Lin, Muyu; Arimitsu, Kohki; Kind, Shelley; Mendes, Adriana; Stangier, Ulrich (2015-06-02). "Loving-Kindness Meditation to Target Affect in Mood Disorders: A Proof-of-Concept Study". Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2015: 269126. doi:10.1155/2015/269126. ISSN 1741-427X. PMC 4468348. PMID 26136807.
  10. ^ a b Galante, Julieta; Galante, Ignacio; Bekkers, Marie-Jet; Gallacher, John (2014). "Effect of kindness-based meditation on health and well-being: A systematic review and meta-analysis". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 82 (6): 1101–1114. doi:10.1037/a0037249. ISSN 1939-2117. PMID 24979314.
  11. ^ a b Bishop, S.R. (2002). "What do we really know about mindfulness-based stress reduction?". Psychosom Med. 64 (1): 71–83. doi:10.1097/00006842-200201000-00010. PMID 11818588. S2CID 9853003.
  12. ^ a b Monier-Williams, Monier (1956) [1857]. "Mitra, Maitrī". A Sanskrit-English Dictionary: Etymologically and Philologically Arranged with Special Reference to Cognate Indo-European languages. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 816 & 834.
  13. ^ a b c Rhys Davids, Thomas William; Stede, William (1952) [1921]. Pali-English Dictionary. Vol. VI. London: The Pali Text Society. pp. 164–165. ISBN 978-81-208-1144-7.
  14. ^ Buswell, Robert E. Jr.; Lopez, Donald S. Jr. (2013). "pāramitā". The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism. Princeton University Press. p. 624. ISBN 978-1-4008-4805-8.
  15. ^
    • Buddhagosha, Bhadantācariya (2010). Vishudimagga: The Path of Purification (PDF). Translated by Ñāṇamoli, Bhikkhu. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society. II.IX.98.
    • "Dhamma Lists". Insight Meditation Center. Redwood City, Calif.
  16. ^ a b c d e f Wiltshire, Martin G. (1990). Ascetic Figures Before and in Early Buddhism: The Emergence of Gautama as the Buddha. Religion and Reason. Vol. 30. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-009896-9.
  17. ^ Patanjali. "Yogasutra". SanskritDocuments.Org. १.३३. मैत्री करुणा मुदितोपेक्षाणां सुखदुःखपुण्यापुण्यविषयाणां भावनातश्चित्तप्रसादनम्
  18. ^ Harris, Ian (2001). Harvey, Peter (ed.). Buddhism. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 247. ISBN 978-1-4411-4726-4.
  19. ^ Aronson, Harvey B. (1980). Love and Sympathy in Theravāda Buddhism. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 71. ISBN 978-81-208-1403-5.
  20. ^ Jayatilleke, K. N. (1963). Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd. pp. 478–479. ISBN 978-1-134-54287-1.
  21. ^ In addition to AN 10.176, other discourses that contain this text[clarification needed] include:
    • Discourse for the Brahmans of Sala (Sāleyyaka Sutta, MN 41) (Ñanamoli & Khantipalo, 1993)
    • Discourse for the Brahmins of Verañja (Verañjaka Sutta, MN 42, which is substantially a reiteration of MN 41 in a different locale)
    • Sutta on the To Be Cultivated and Not to Be Cultivated (Sevitabbāsevitabba Sutta, MN 114) (Ñāṇamoli & Bodhi, 2001, p. 917)
    • First Discourse on Hell and Heaven (Paṭhama-niraya-sagga Sutta, AN 10.211)
    • Second Discourse on Hell and Heaven (Dutiya-niraya-sagga Sutta, AN 10.212)
    • First Discourse on Intentional Actions (Paṭhama-sañcetanika Sutta, AN 10.217)
    • Second Discourse on Intentional Actions (Dutiya-sañcetanika Sutta, AN 10.218)
    • the Paṭisambhidāmagga (see below)
    • the paracanonical Milinda Pañha.
  22. ^ See for instance, in the Digha Nikāya alone:
    • The Great Splendor Discourse (Mahāsudassana Sutta, DN 17), v. 2.4 (Walshe, 1995, p. 287)
    • The Great Steward Discourse (Mahāgovinda Sutta, DN 19), v. 59 (Walshe, 1995, p. 312)
    • The Great Lion's Roar to the Udumbarikans Discourse (Udumbarika-Sīhanāda Sutta, DN 19), v. 17 (Walshe, 1995, pp. 390-391)
    • The Lion's Roar on the Turning of the Wheel Discourse (Cakkavatti-Sīhanāda Sutta, DN 79), v. 28 (Walshe, 1995, p. 405).
  23. ^ "Vatthupama Sutta: The Simile of the Cloth". Translated by Nyanaponika, Thera. 1998. MN VII.12, PTS M i 36.
  24. ^ . Bodhgaya News. book 1, BJT p. 88. Archived from the original on 2011-07-19. Retrieved 2009-08-07..
  25. ^ See, for instance
    • the Discourse to Subha (Subha Sutta, MN 99) (Ñāṇamoli & Bodhi, 2001, pp. 816–17)
    • The Threefold Knowledge Discourse (Tevijja Sutta, DN 13), vv. 76–77 (Walshe, 1995, p. 194)
    See also the Discourse to Dhānañjāni (Dhānañjāni Sutta, MN 97) (IAST|Ñāṇamoli & Bodhi, 2001, p. 796), in which a similar statement about union with Brahma is made by the Ven. Sariputta without the trumpeter metaphor.
  26. ^ MN 99 (Ñāṇamoli & Bodhi, 2001, pp. 816-17). In that translation, this text was presented as one paragraph. Here, it is divided into two, thus following the Pāli text presentation, to enhance readability. Given this text's length, relatively uncomplicated translation and lesser known status (e.g., compared with the Karaniya Metta Sutta), the associated Pāli text is not represented in this main article but here:
    Katamo ca..., brahmānaṃ sahavyatāya maggo: idha..., bhikkhu mettāsahagatena cetasā ekaṃ disaṃ pharitvā viharati. Tathā dutiyaṃ, tathā tatiyaṃ, tathā catutthiṃ. Iti uddhamadho tiriyaṃ sabbadhi sabbattatāya sabbāvantaṃ lokaṃ mettā sahagatena cetasā vipulena mahaggatena appamāṇena averena abyāpajjhena pharitvā viharati. Evaṃ bhāvitāya kho..., mettāya cetovimuttiyā yaṃ pamāṇakataṃ kammaṃ, na taṃ tatrāvasissati. Na taṃ tatrāvatiṭṭhati.
    Seyyathāpi..., balavā saṅkhadhamo appakasireneva catuddisā viññāpeyya. Evameva kho..., evaṃ bhavitāya mettāya ceto vimuttiyā, yaṃ pamāṇakataṃ kammaṃ na taṃ tatrāvasissati. Na taṃ tatrāvatiṭṭhati. Ayampi kho..., brahmāṇaṃ sahavyatāya maggo.
    . Bodhgaya News. book 2, BJT p. 730 [MN 99]. Archived from the original on 2011-07-19. Retrieved 2009-08-07. The word that is repeatedly elided ("...") is māṇava ("student" or "young man") so that only the text that is common to all of the identified discourses is represented here. (For instance, in MN 97, instead of māṇava, it uses the name of the Brahmin being addressed.)
  27. ^ Cited in Buddhaghosa & Ñāṇamoli (1999), p. 302, Vsm.IX,50. See also Ñanamoli (1987), section 11, "Methodical Practice: from the Patisambhidamagga," where this sentence is translated as: "May all beings be freed from enmity, distress and anxiety, and may they guide themselves to bliss."
  28. ^ In this section of this article, the primary English-language sources are:
    • Buddhaghosa, Bhadantacariya (1999). The Path of Purification: Visuddhimagga. Translated by Ñāṇamoli, Bhikkhu. Seattle, Wash.: BPS Pariyatti Editions. pp. 301–304 (Vsm.IX.49–58). ISBN 1-928706-00-2.
    • Ñanamoli, Thera, ed. (1994) [1987]. "Methodical Practice: from the Patisambhidamagga". The Practice of Loving-Kindness (Metta): As Taught by the Buddha in the Pali Canon. The Wheel. Vol. 7. Translated by Ñanamoli, Thera. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society. Retrieved 2007-11-25.
    The Pali is primarily based on Patisambhidamagga 2, BJT pp. 64–80, see: . Bodhgaya News. Archived from the original on 2010-06-11. Retrieved 2009-08-07.
  29. ^ "Metta (Mettanisamsa) Sutta: Discourse on Advantages of Loving-kindness". Access to Insight. Translated by Piyadassi, Thera. 13 June 2010.
  30. ^
    • "Metta (Mettanisamsa) Sutta: Good Will". Translated by Thanissaro, Bhikkhu. 1997. AN 11.16.
    • See also AN 8.1 (similarly entitled, Mettānisaṃsa Sutta [SLTP] and Mettā Suttaṃ [CSCD]) which omits the last three of four benefits mentioned in AN 11.16 (that is, it omits "One's mind gains concentration quickly. One's complexion is bright. One dies unconfused...").
  31. ^ Numerical Discourses of the Buddha: An anthology of Suttas from the Aṅguttara Nikāya. Translated by Nyanaponika, Thera; Bodhi, Bhikkhu. Walnut Creek, Calif.: AltaMira Press. 1999. AN 1.ii.7. ISBN 0-7425-0405-0.
  32. ^ Bhikkhu, Thanissaro (2001). "Itivuttaka: The Group of Ones". accesstoinsight.
  33. ^ For example:
    • "Vatthupama Sutta: The Simile of the Cloth". Translated by Nyanaponika, Thera. MN 7.12.
    • "Karaniya Metta Sutta: Good Will". Translated by Thanissaro, Bhikkhu. Snp 1.8/Khp 9.
  34. ^ Bloomfield, Maurice (1906). A Vedic Concordance. Harvard Oriental Series. Vol. 10. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. pp. 713–717.
  35. ^ The Veda of the Black Yajus School entitled Taittiriya Sanhita. Vol. 2: Kandas IV–VII. Translated by Keith, Arthur Berriedale. Harvard University Press. 1914. p. 335 (iv,3,12,i:k).
  36. ^ Ralph Griffith (1896). The Hymns of the Atharvaveda. E. J. Lazarus. pp. 312–313.
  37. ^ Radhakrishnan, S. (1992). Rabindranath Tagore: A Centenary. Sahitya Akademi. p. 387. ISBN 978-81-7201-332-5.
  38. ^ Mascaró, Juan (1965). The Upanishads. Penguin. pp. 103–104. ISBN 978-0-14-044163-5.
  39. ^ Gupta, Kalyan Sen (2016). The Philosophy of Rabindranath Tagore. Routledge. p. 10. ISBN 978-1-317-02143-8.
  40. ^ Snow, Nancy (2012). Chatterjee, Deen K. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Global Justice. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 2155. ISBN 978-1-4020-9160-5.
  41. ^ Chapple, Christopher Key (2015). Yoga in Jainism. Routledge. p. 175. ISBN 978-1-317-57217-6.
  42. ^ Carson, J. W. (2005). "Loving-Kindness Meditation for Chronic Low Back Pain: Results From a Pilot Trial". Journal of Holistic Nursing. 23 (3): 287–304. doi:10.1177/0898010105277651. PMID 16049118. S2CID 22556878.
  43. ^ "Compassion Meditation May Improve Physical And Emotional Responses To Psychological Stress". ScienceDaily. 2008. Retrieved 2016-06-07.
  44. ^ Burch, Vidyamala (2016). "Meditation and the management of pain". The Psychology of Meditation. Oxford University Press. pp. 153–176. doi:10.1093/med:psych/9780199688906.003.0007. ISBN 978-0-19-968890-6.
  45. ^ Mehan, Suraj; Morris, Julia (2018). "A literature review of Breathworks and mindfulness intervention". British Journal of Healthcare Management. 24 (5): 235–241. doi:10.12968/bjhc.2018.24.5.235. ISSN 1358-0574.

Sources edit

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External links edit

November 30, 2023
maitrī, mettā, redirects, here, other, uses, metta, disambiguation, sanskrit, pali, mettā, means, benevolence, loving, kindness, friendliness, amity, good, will, active, interest, others, first, four, sublime, states, brahmaviharas, pāramīs, theravāda, school,. Metta redirects here For other uses see Metta disambiguation Maitri Sanskrit Pali metta means benevolence 1 loving kindness 2 3 friendliness 3 4 amity 4 good will 5 and active interest in others 4 It is the first of the four sublime states Brahmaviharas and one of the ten paramis of the Theravada school of Buddhism Translations ofMettaEnglishLoving kindness benevolenceSanskritम त र IAST maitri PalimettaBurmeseမ တ တ MLCTS mjɪʔ ta Chinese慈 Pinyin ci Japanese慈 Rōmaji ji Khmerម ត ត UNGEGN metta Korean자 RR ja Sinhalaම ත ර යTagalogMaitliThaiemtta RTGS metta VietnamesetừGlossary of BuddhismThe cultivation of benevolence metta bhavana is a popular form of Buddhist meditation 6 318 319 It is a part of the four immeasurables in Brahmavihara divine abidings meditation 6 278 279 Metta as compassion meditation is often practiced in Asia by broadcast chanting wherein monks chant for the laity 6 318 319 The compassion and universal loving kindness concept of metta is discussed in the Metta Sutta of Buddhism and is also found in the ancient and medieval texts of Hinduism and Jainism as metta or maitri 7 Small sample studies on the potential of loving kindness meditation approach on patients clarification needed suggest potential benefits 8 9 However peer reviews question the quality and sample size of these studies 10 11 Contents 1 Etymology and meaning 2 Metta meditation 3 Origins 4 Buddhist texts 4 1 Karaniya Metta Sutta Sn 1 8 4 2 Vatthupama Sutta 4 3 Patisambhidamagga Mettakatha Ps 2 4 4 4 Benefits 5 Maitri and metta 6 Metta meditation research 6 1 Therapeutic potential 6 2 Caution and reviews 7 See also 8 Notes 9 Sources 10 External linksEtymology and meaning editMetta is a Pali word from maitri which was itself derived from mitra which states Monier Williams means friend 12 The term is found in this sense in the Vedic literature 13 such as the Shatapatha Brahmana and various early Upanishads and Vedanga literature such as Paṇini s Aṣṭadhyayi 5 4 36 12 The term appears in Buddhist texts as an important concept and practice 13 Buswell and Lopez as well as Harvey translate metta as loving kindness 14 6 327 In Buddhist belief this is a Brahmavihara divine abode or an immeasurable that leads to a meditative state by being a counter to ill will It removes clinging to negative states of mind by cultivating kindness unto all beings 6 327 The far enemy of metta is hate or ill will a mind state in obvious opposition The near enemy quality which superficially resembles metta but is in fact more subtly in opposition to it is attachment greed here too one likes experiencing a virtue but for the wrong reason 15 Metta meditation editMetta meditation or often loving kindness meditation is the practice concerned with the cultivation of metta i e benevolence kindness and amity The practice generally consists of silent repetitions of phrases such as may you be happy or may you be free from suffering for example directed at a person who depending on tradition may or may not be internally visualized 8 Two different methodological approaches have been discerned in recent review papers practices that focus on compassion and practices focusing on loving kindness Focusing on compassion means that meditation consists of the wish to relieve a being from suffering whereas focusing on loving kindness means wishing a being happiness 8 9 The practice gradually increases in difficulty with respect to the targets that receive the practitioner s compassion or loving kindness At first the practitioner is targeting oneself then loved ones neutral ones difficult ones and finally all beings with variations across traditions 8 A 2015 meta analysis synthesizing various high quality experiments on loving kindness meditation found a medium sized quantify improvement to daily positive emotion with meditation on the loving kindness aspect of metta having a greater effect than practices with a focus on compassion The length of time meditating did not affect the magnitude of positive impact of the practice 8 Origins editAccording to Martin Wiltshire prior to the advent of the Buddha there existed traditions of Brahmaloka and of meditation with the four virtues of loving kindness compassion empathetic joy and equanimity 16 248 264 The early Buddhist texts assert that pre Buddha ancient Indian sages who taught these virtues were earlier incarnations of the Buddha 16 248 264 Post Buddha these same virtues are found in the Hindu texts such as verse 1 33 of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali wherein the word maitri is synonymous with metta 17 Loving kindness maitri along with compassion and equanimity are found in the early Upanishads of Hinduism while loving kindness metta is found in early Sutras of Jainism along with compassion empathetic joy and equanimity 16 241 242 The ancient Indian Paccekabuddhas who are mentioned in the early Buddhist Suttas those who lived before the Buddha mention all four immeasurables and Brahmavihara and they are claimed in the Suttas to be previous incarnations of the Buddha 16 248 264 According to Ian Harris the Buddhist scriptures acknowledge that the metta concept containing four Brahmavihara meditation practices did not originate within the Buddhist tradition 18 The Buddha never claimed that the four immeasurables and related metta meditation were his unique ideas states Harvey Aronson in a manner similar to clarification needed cessation quieting nirvana 19 The pre Buddha Chandogya Upanishad states Jayatilleke in section 8 15 teaches metta and ahimsa doctrine of non harm esp non violence to all creatures claiming that this practice leads to Brahmaloka 20 The shift in Vedic ideas from rituals to virtues is particularly discernible in the early Upanishadic thought and it is unclear as to what extent and how early Upanishadic traditions of Hinduism and Sramanic traditions such as Buddhism and Jainism influenced each other on ideas such as four immeasurables meditation and Brahmavihara 16 248 264 In the Jain text the Tattvartha Sutra Chapter 7 sutra 11 which is accepted by all Jain sub traditions as authoritative there is a mention of four right sentiments Maitri pramoda karunya and madhyastha Benevolence towards all living beings joy at the sight of the virtuous compassion and sympathy for the afflicted and tolerance towards the insolent and ill behaved Buddhist texts editIn the Pali Canon the term metta appears in many texts such as the Kakacupama Sutta and Karaniya Metta Sutta Other canonical materials such as in the Paṭisambhidamagga elaborate on it as a practice Yet other canonical sources such as the Abhidhamma underline the key role of benevolence in the development of wholesome karma for better rebirths This basic statement of intention and verse clarification needed can also be found in several other canonical discourses 21 Karaniya Metta Sutta Sn 1 8 edit Main article Metta Sutta May all beings be happy and secure may they be happy minded Whatever living beings there are feeble or strong long stout or medium short small or large seen or unseen ghosts gods and hell beings those dwelling far or near those who are born or those who await rebirth may all beings without exception be happy minded Let none deceive another nor despise any person whatever in any place in anger or ill will let them not wish any suffering to each other Just as a mother would protect her only child at the risk of her own life even so let him cultivate a boundless heart towards all beings Let her thoughts of boundless lovingkindness pervade the whole world above below and across without obstruction without any hatred without any enmity This they say is divine abiding here She will surely not come again to any womb rebirth in the sense desire realm Metta Sutta Khp 8 9 Translated by Peter Harvey 6 279 Metta or lovingkindness here states Harvey is a heartfelt aspiration for the happiness of all beings It is different from lack of ill will and more an antidote to fear and hatred It is the precept to conquer anger by kindness conquer the liar by truth conquer the stingy by giving and conquer evil by good says Harvey 6 279 Vatthupama Sutta edit In over a dozen discourses the following description in English and Pali is provided for radiating loving kindness in six directions 22 One abides having suffused with a mind of benevolence one direction of the world likewise the second likewise the third likewise the fourth and so above below around and everywhere and to all as to himself one abides suffusing the entire universe with benevolence with a mind grown great lofty boundless and free from enmity and ill will 23 So mettasahagatena cetasa ekaṃ disaṃ pharitva viharati Tatha dutiyaṃ Tatha tatiyaṃ Tatha catutthiṃ Iti uddhamadho tiriyaṃ sabbadhi sabbattataya sabbavantaṃ lokaṃ mettasahagatena cetasa vipulena mahaggatena appamaṇena averena abyapajjena pharitva viharati 24 In the canon this basic formula is expanded upon in a variety of ways For instance a couple of discourses 25 provide the following description of how to gain rebirth in the heavenly realm of Brahma brahmanaṃ sahavyataya maggo What is the path to the company of Brahma Here a bhikkhu abides pervading one quarter with a mind imbued with benevolence likewise the second likewise the third likewise the fourth so above below around and everywhere and to all as to himself he abides pervading the all encompassing world with a mind imbued with benevolence abundant exalted immeasurable without hostility and without ill will When the deliverance of mind by benevolence is developed in this way no limiting action remains there none persists there Just as a vigorous trumpeter could make himself or herself heard without difficulty in the four quarters so too when the deliverance of mind by benevolence is developed in this way no limiting action remains there none persists there This is the path to the company of Brahma 26 Patisambhidamagga Mettakatha Ps 2 4 edit May all beings be free from enmity affliction and anxiety and live contentedly Mettakatha Ps 2 4 27 In the Khuddaka Nikaya s Paṭisambhidamagga traditionally ascribed to Sariputta is a section entitled Mettakatha Ps 2 4 Story on Loving Kindness 28 In this instruction a general formula below in English and Pali essentially identical to the aforementioned Cunda Kammaraputta Sutta verse especially evident in the Pali is provided for radiating benevolence In addition this instruction categorizes twenty two ways in which the mind deliverance of benevolence mettacetovimutti can be radiated with five ways of unspecified pervasion anodhiso pharaṇa all beings sabbe satta all breathing things sabbe paṇa bhavapariyapanna all creatures sabbe bhuta bhavapariyapanna all persons sabbe puggala bhavapariyapanna all with a personality sabbe attabhavapariyapanna seven ways of specified pervasion anodhiso pharaṇa all women sabba itthiyo all men sabbe purisa all Noble Ones sabbe ariya all non Noble Ones sabbe anariya all deities sabbe deva all humans sabbe manussa all born in lower realms sabbe vinipatika ten ways of directional pervasion disa pharaṇa of the eastern direction puratthimaya disaya of the western direction pacchimaya disaya of the northern direction uttara disaya of the southern direction dakkhiṇaya disaya of the eastern intermediate direction puratthimaya anudisaya of the western intermediate direction pacchimaya anudisaya of the northern intermediate direction uttara anudisaya of the southern intermediate direction dakkhiṇaya anudisaya of the downward direction heṭṭhimaya disaya of the upward direction uparimaya disaya Moreover the directional pervasions can then be applied to each of the unspecific and specific pervasions For instance after radiating benevolence to all beings in the east Sabbe puratthimaya disaya satta one radiates it to all beings in the west and then north and then south etc then one radiates it to all breathing things in this fashion Sabbe puratthimaya disaya paṇa then all creatures persons and so forth until such is extended for all those born in the lower realms Benefits edit The Pali canon says that there are a number of benefits from the practicing of metta meditation including One sleeps easily wakes easily dreams no evil dreams One is dear to human beings dear to non human beings The devas protect one Neither fire poison nor weapons can touch one One s mind gains concentration quickly One s complexion is bright One dies unconfused and if penetrating no higher is headed for rebirth in 29 the Brahma worlds 30 The canon also upholds fully ripened metta development as a foremost antidote to ill will No other thing do I know O monks on account of which unarisen ill will does not arise and arisen ill will is abandoned so much as on account of this the liberation of the heart by benevolence For one who attends properly to the liberation of the heart by benevolence unarisen ill will does not arise and arisen ill will is abandoned 31 Monks whatever grounds there are for making merit productive of a future birth all these do not equal a sixteenth part of the liberation of mind by benevolence The liberation of mind by benevolence surpasses them and shines forth bright and brilliant 32 Metta meditation is regularly recommended to the Buddha s followers in the Pali canon The canon generally advises radiating metta in each of the six directions to whatever beings there may be repetition 33 A different set of practical instructions still widely used today is found in the 5th century CE Visuddhimagga this is also the main source for the near and far enemies given above In addition variations on this traditional practice have been popularized by modern teachers and applied in modern research settings Maitri and metta editMetta is found in pre Buddhist Vedic Sanskrit texts as Maitri Maitra and Mitra which are derived from the ancient root Mid love 13 These Vedic words appear in the Samhita Aranyaka Brahmana and Upanishad layers of texts in the Rigveda Samaveda Yajurveda and Atharvaveda 34 Speaking the truth I desire this May I enjoy her lovingkindness as do ye May not one of you supplant another She hath enjoyed my lovingkindness the all knower Taittiriya Samhita 4 3 12 Yajurveda Translated by Arthur Keith 35 Similarly the term appears in hymn 55 of Book 19 of the Atharvaveda 36 and various Upanishads 37 A major early Upanishad of Hinduism named Maitri Upanishad discusses universal kindness and amity The Maitri Upanishad states Martin Wiltshire provides the philosophical underpinning by asserting what one thinks that one becomes this is the eternal mystery This idea adds Wiltshire reflects the assumption in the ancient thought that one influences one s own environment and situation causality is equitable and good volitional acts conduce pleasant situations while bad volitional acts conduce unpleasant situations 16 94 95 The Maitri Upanishad teaches states Juan Mascaro that peace begins in one s own mind in one s longing for truth in looking within and that a quietness of mind overcomes good and evil works and in quietness the soul is one then one feels the joy of eternity 38 The Isha Upanishad similarly discusses universal amity and loving kindness but without the term metta 39 These teachings of universal maitri influenced Mahatma Gandhi 40 In Jainism Yogabindu the 6th century yoga text by Haribhadra uses the Sanskrit word maitri in verses 402 404 in the sense of loving kindness towards all living beings 41 Metta meditation research editSome pilot research studies on the effect of metta meditation indicate an increase in positive emotions for practitioners 8 9 In particular an immediate impact on positive emotions after practice as well as a long term effect could be shown though these effects might not hold true for everybody 8 In one proof of concept study uncontrolled in sample selection and benchmarking the researchers report therapeutic potential for psychological problems like depression or social anxiety when combined with other reliable treatments 9 Therapeutic potential edit The application of metta meditation for the treatment of psychological and other healthcare related problems is a topic of research Hofmann et al discuss the potential use for therapy and report insufficient data with some promising studies so far Those studies could show a positive impact on problems such as schizophrenia depression and anxiety According to Hofmann et al there needs to be more rigorous research especially with the application of Buddhist approaches to loving kindness and compassion meditation 9 In an eight week pilot study in 2005 loving kindness meditation led to reduced pain and anger in people with chronic lower back pain 42 Compassion meditation a Science Daily article states may reduce inflammatory and behavioral responses to stress that have been linked to depression and a number of medical illnesses 43 Metta meditation is a central practice within mindfulness based pain management MBPM 44 the effectiveness of which has been supported by a range of studies 45 Caution and reviews edit Bishop in a 2002 review suggests caution on claims of benefits and states what has been published has been rife with methodological problems At present we know very little about the effectiveness of this mindfulness lovingkindness compassion meditation approach however there is some evidence that suggests that it may hold some promise 11 In a 2014 review of multiple studies Galante et al reach a similar conclusion stating results were inconclusive for some outcomes in particular against active controls the methodological quality of the reports was low to moderate results suffered from imprecision due to wide CIs confidence intervals deriving from small studies and that the kindness meditation methods show evidence of individual and community benefits through its effects on their well being and social interaction 10 See also edit nbsp Religion portalAnapanasati Sutta Bhavana contemplation Brahmavihara Karuṇa Mudita Kammaṭṭhana Kayagatasati Sutta Parami perfection Panna wisdom Sacca truth Dana generosity Sila morality Nekkhamma renunciation Upekkha equanimity Khanti patience Adhiṭṭhana resolute determination Virya diligence Satipatthana Sutta also called the Four Satipatthanas Similar concepts in other cultures Caritas Latin term for love Chesed a similar Hebrew term given the association of kindness and love Philia Philautia Storge Eros Agape Greek terms for loveNotes edit In the Buddha s Words An Anthology of Discourses from the Pali Canon Translated by Bodhi Bhikkhu Somerville Mass Wisdom Publications 2005 pp 90 131 134 ISBN 0 86171 491 1 Gethin Rupert 1998 The Foundations of Buddhism Oxford Oxford University Press pp 26 30 passim ISBN 0 19 289223 1 spelled as two words loving kindness Harvey Peter 2007 An Introduction to Buddhism Teachings History and Practices Cambridge Cambridge University Press pp 247 48 ISBN 978 0 521 31333 9 spelled without a hyphen lovingkindness Bodhi Bhikkhu ed 2001 The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha A Translation of the Majjhima Nikaya Translated by Naṇamoli Bhikkhu Boston Wisdom Publications pp 120 374 474 passim ISBN 0 86171 072 X Salzberg Sharon 1995 Lovingkindness The Revolutionary Art of Happiness Boston Shambhala Publications pp passim ISBN 1 57062 176 4 without a hyphen The Long Discourses of the Buddha A Translation of the Digha Nikaya Translated by Walshe Maurice Somerville Mass Wisdom Publications 1995 p 194 ISBN 0 86171 103 3 a b Warder A K 2004 1970 Indian Buddhism Delhi Motilal Banarsidass pp 63 94 ISBN 81 208 1741 9 a b c Rhys Davids T W Stede William eds 1921 25 Metta The Pali Text Society s Pali English Dictionary Chipstead Pali Text Society p 540 Retrieved 2008 04 29 Gombrich Richard 2002 1988 Theravada Buddhism A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo London Routledge ISBN 0 415 07585 8 a b c d e f g Harvey Peter 2012 An Introduction to Buddhism Teachings History and Practices Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 85942 4 Dunne Finley P 2013 The World Religions Speak on The Relevance of Religion in the Modern World Springer pp 94 95 ISBN 978 94 017 5892 5 a b c d e f g Zeng Xianglong Chiu Cleo P K Wang Rong Oei Tian P S Leung Freedom Y K 2015 The effect of loving kindness meditation on positive emotions a meta analytic review Frontiers in Psychology 6 1693 doi 10 3389 fpsyg 2015 01693 PMC 4630307 PMID 26579061 a b c d e Hofmann Stefan G Petrocchi Nicola Steinberg James Lin Muyu Arimitsu Kohki Kind Shelley Mendes Adriana Stangier Ulrich 2015 06 02 Loving Kindness Meditation to Target Affect in Mood Disorders A Proof of Concept Study Evidence Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2015 269126 doi 10 1155 2015 269126 ISSN 1741 427X PMC 4468348 PMID 26136807 a b Galante Julieta Galante Ignacio Bekkers Marie Jet Gallacher John 2014 Effect of kindness based meditation on health and well being A systematic review and meta analysis Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 82 6 1101 1114 doi 10 1037 a0037249 ISSN 1939 2117 PMID 24979314 a b Bishop S R 2002 What do we really know about mindfulness based stress reduction Psychosom Med 64 1 71 83 doi 10 1097 00006842 200201000 00010 PMID 11818588 S2CID 9853003 a b Monier Williams Monier 1956 1857 Mitra Maitri A Sanskrit English Dictionary Etymologically and Philologically Arranged with Special Reference to Cognate Indo European languages Oxford Clarendon Press pp 816 amp 834 a b c Rhys Davids Thomas William Stede William 1952 1921 Pali English Dictionary Vol VI London The Pali Text Society pp 164 165 ISBN 978 81 208 1144 7 Buswell Robert E Jr Lopez Donald S Jr 2013 paramita The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism Princeton University Press p 624 ISBN 978 1 4008 4805 8 Buddhagosha Bhadantacariya 2010 Vishudimagga The Path of Purification PDF Translated by Naṇamoli Bhikkhu Kandy Sri Lanka Buddhist Publication Society II IX 98 Dhamma Lists Insight Meditation Center Redwood City Calif a b c d e f Wiltshire Martin G 1990 Ascetic Figures Before and in Early Buddhism The Emergence of Gautama as the Buddha Religion and Reason Vol 30 Walter de Gruyter ISBN 978 3 11 009896 9 Patanjali Yogasutra SanskritDocuments Org १ ३३ म त र कर ण म द त प क ष ण स खद खप ण य प ण यव षय ण भ वन तश च त तप रस दनम Harris Ian 2001 Harvey Peter ed Buddhism Bloomsbury Academic p 247 ISBN 978 1 4411 4726 4 Aronson Harvey B 1980 Love and Sympathy in Theravada Buddhism Motilal Banarsidass p 71 ISBN 978 81 208 1403 5 Jayatilleke K N 1963 Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge London George Allen amp Unwin Ltd pp 478 479 ISBN 978 1 134 54287 1 In addition to AN 10 176 other discourses that contain this text clarification needed include Discourse for the Brahmans of Sala Saleyyaka Sutta MN 41 Nanamoli amp Khantipalo 1993 Discourse for the Brahmins of Veranja Veranjaka Sutta MN 42 which is substantially a reiteration of MN 41 in a different locale Sutta on the To Be Cultivated and Not to Be Cultivated Sevitabbasevitabba Sutta MN 114 Naṇamoli amp Bodhi 2001 p 917 First Discourse on Hell and Heaven Paṭhama niraya sagga Sutta AN 10 211 Second Discourse on Hell and Heaven Dutiya niraya sagga Sutta AN 10 212 First Discourse on Intentional Actions Paṭhama sancetanika Sutta AN 10 217 Second Discourse on Intentional Actions Dutiya sancetanika Sutta AN 10 218 the Paṭisambhidamagga see below the paracanonical Milinda Panha See for instance in the Digha Nikaya alone The Great Splendor Discourse Mahasudassana Sutta DN 17 v 2 4 Walshe 1995 p 287 The Great Steward Discourse Mahagovinda Sutta DN 19 v 59 Walshe 1995 p 312 The Great Lion s Roar to the Udumbarikans Discourse Udumbarika Sihanada Sutta DN 19 v 17 Walshe 1995 pp 390 391 The Lion s Roar on the Turning of the Wheel Discourse Cakkavatti Sihanada Sutta DN 79 v 28 Walshe 1995 p 405 Vatthupama Sutta The Simile of the Cloth Translated by Nyanaponika Thera 1998 MN VII 12 PTS M i 36 Majjhima Nikaya Sutta Pitaka Bodhgaya News book 1 BJT p 88 Archived from the original on 2011 07 19 Retrieved 2009 08 07 See for instance the Discourse to Subha Subha Sutta MN 99 Naṇamoli amp Bodhi 2001 pp 816 17 The Threefold Knowledge Discourse Tevijja Sutta DN 13 vv 76 77 Walshe 1995 p 194 See also the Discourse to Dhananjani Dhananjani Sutta MN 97 IAST Naṇamoli amp Bodhi 2001 p 796 in which a similar statement about union with Brahma is made by the Ven Sariputta without the trumpeter metaphor MN 99 Naṇamoli amp Bodhi 2001 pp 816 17 In that translation this text was presented as one paragraph Here it is divided into two thus following the Pali text presentation to enhance readability Given this text s length relatively uncomplicated translation and lesser known status e g compared with the Karaniya Metta Sutta the associated Pali text is not represented in this main article but here Katamo ca brahmanaṃ sahavyataya maggo idha bhikkhu mettasahagatena cetasa ekaṃ disaṃ pharitva viharati Tatha dutiyaṃ tatha tatiyaṃ tatha catutthiṃ Iti uddhamadho tiriyaṃ sabbadhi sabbattataya sabbavantaṃ lokaṃ metta sahagatena cetasa vipulena mahaggatena appamaṇena averena abyapajjhena pharitva viharati Evaṃ bhavitaya kho mettaya cetovimuttiya yaṃ pamaṇakataṃ kammaṃ na taṃ tatravasissati Na taṃ tatravatiṭṭhati Seyyathapi balava saṅkhadhamo appakasireneva catuddisa vinnapeyya Evameva kho evaṃ bhavitaya mettaya ceto vimuttiya yaṃ pamaṇakataṃ kammaṃ na taṃ tatravasissati Na taṃ tatravatiṭṭhati Ayampi kho brahmaṇaṃ sahavyataya maggo Majjhima Nikaya Sutta Pitaka Bodhgaya News book 2 BJT p 730 MN 99 Archived from the original on 2011 07 19 Retrieved 2009 08 07 The word that is repeatedly elided is maṇava student or young man so that only the text that is common to all of the identified discourses is represented here For instance in MN 97 instead of maṇava it uses the name of the Brahmin being addressed Cited in Buddhaghosa amp Naṇamoli 1999 p 302 Vsm IX 50 See also Nanamoli 1987 section 11 Methodical Practice from the Patisambhidamagga where this sentence is translated as May all beings be freed from enmity distress and anxiety and may they guide themselves to bliss In this section of this article the primary English language sources are Buddhaghosa Bhadantacariya 1999 The Path of Purification Visuddhimagga Translated by Naṇamoli Bhikkhu Seattle Wash BPS Pariyatti Editions pp 301 304 Vsm IX 49 58 ISBN 1 928706 00 2 Nanamoli Thera ed 1994 1987 Methodical Practice from the Patisambhidamagga The Practice of Loving Kindness Metta As Taught by the Buddha in the Pali Canon The Wheel Vol 7 Translated by Nanamoli Thera Kandy Sri Lanka Buddhist Publication Society Retrieved 2007 11 25 The Pali is primarily based on Patisambhidamagga 2 BJT pp 64 80 see Patisambhidamaggo 2 Bodhgaya News Archived from the original on 2010 06 11 Retrieved 2009 08 07 Metta Mettanisamsa Sutta Discourse on Advantages of Loving kindness Access to Insight Translated by Piyadassi Thera 13 June 2010 Metta Mettanisamsa Sutta Good Will Translated by Thanissaro Bhikkhu 1997 AN 11 16 See also AN 8 1 similarly entitled Mettanisaṃsa Sutta SLTP and Metta Suttaṃ CSCD which omits the last three of four benefits mentioned in AN 11 16 that is it omits One s mind gains concentration quickly One s complexion is bright One dies unconfused Numerical Discourses of the Buddha An anthology of Suttas from the Aṅguttara Nikaya Translated by Nyanaponika Thera Bodhi Bhikkhu Walnut Creek Calif AltaMira Press 1999 AN 1 ii 7 ISBN 0 7425 0405 0 Bhikkhu Thanissaro 2001 Itivuttaka The Group of Ones accesstoinsight For example Vatthupama Sutta The Simile of the Cloth Translated by Nyanaponika Thera MN 7 12 Karaniya Metta Sutta Good Will Translated by Thanissaro Bhikkhu Snp 1 8 Khp 9 Bloomfield Maurice 1906 A Vedic Concordance Harvard Oriental Series Vol 10 Cambridge Mass Harvard University Press pp 713 717 The Veda of the Black Yajus School entitled Taittiriya Sanhita Vol 2 Kandas IV VII Translated by Keith Arthur Berriedale Harvard University Press 1914 p 335 iv 3 12 i k Ralph Griffith 1896 The Hymns of the Atharvaveda E J Lazarus pp 312 313 Radhakrishnan S 1992 Rabindranath Tagore A Centenary Sahitya Akademi p 387 ISBN 978 81 7201 332 5 Mascaro Juan 1965 The Upanishads Penguin pp 103 104 ISBN 978 0 14 044163 5 Gupta Kalyan Sen 2016 The Philosophy of Rabindranath Tagore Routledge p 10 ISBN 978 1 317 02143 8 Snow Nancy 2012 Chatterjee Deen K ed Encyclopedia of Global Justice Springer Science amp Business Media p 2155 ISBN 978 1 4020 9160 5 Chapple Christopher Key 2015 Yoga in Jainism Routledge p 175 ISBN 978 1 317 57217 6 Carson J W 2005 Loving Kindness Meditation for Chronic Low Back Pain Results From a Pilot Trial Journal of Holistic Nursing 23 3 287 304 doi 10 1177 0898010105277651 PMID 16049118 S2CID 22556878 Compassion Meditation May Improve Physical And Emotional Responses To Psychological Stress ScienceDaily 2008 Retrieved 2016 06 07 Burch Vidyamala 2016 Meditation and the management of pain The Psychology of Meditation Oxford University Press pp 153 176 doi 10 1093 med psych 9780199688906 003 0007 ISBN 978 0 19 968890 6 Mehan Suraj Morris Julia 2018 A literature review of Breathworks and mindfulness intervention British Journal of Healthcare Management 24 5 235 241 doi 10 12968 bjhc 2018 24 5 235 ISSN 1358 0574 Sources editAcharya Buddharakkhita trans 1987 2006 Kakacupama Sutta The Parable of the Saw excerpt from Positive Response How to Meet Evil With Good Bodhi Leaves No 109 Kandy Sri Lanka Buddhist Publication Society 1987 Retrieved from Access to Insight 2006 at Kakacupama Sutta The Parable of the Saw Amaravati Sangha trans 1994 2004 Karaniya Metta Sutta The Buddha s Words on Loving Kindness from Chanting Book Morning and Evening Puja and Reflections 1994 Hemel Hempstead Amaravati Publications Retrieved 2007 11 25 from Access to Insight 2004 at Karaniya Metta Sutta The Buddha s Words on Loving Kindness Bodhi Bhikkhu 2005 In the Buddha s Words An Anthology of Discourses from the Pali Canon Somerville MA Wisdom Publications ISBN 0 86171 491 1 Buddhaghosa Bhadantacariya amp Bhikkhu Naṇamoli trans 1999 The Path of Purification Visuddhimagga Seattle WA BPS Pariyatti Editions ISBN 1 928706 00 2 Gethin Rupert 1998 The Foundations of Buddhism Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 0 19 289223 1 Gombrich Richard 1988 reprinted 2002 Theravada Buddhism A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo Routledge London ISBN 0 415 07585 8 Harvey Peter 2007 An Introduction to Buddhism Teachings History and Practices Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 0 521 31333 3 Monier Williams Monier 1899 1964 A Sanskrit English Dictionary London Oxford University Press ISBN 0 19 864308 X Retrieved 2008 04 29 from Cologne University at MW Scan Nanamoli Thera ed trans 1987 1994 The Practice of Loving Kindness Metta As Taught by the Buddha in the Pali Canon The Wheel No 7 Kandy Sri Lanka Buddhist Publication Society 1987 Retrieved 2007 11 25 from Access to Insight 1994 transcription at The Practice of Loving Kindness Metta As Taught by the Buddha in the Pali Canon Naṇamoli Bhikkhu trans amp Bhikkhu Bodhi ed 2001 The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha A Translation of the Majjhima Nikaya Boston Wisdom Publications ISBN 0 86171 072 X Nanamoli Thera trans amp Bhikkhu Khantipalo ed 1993 1994 Saleyyaka Sutta The Brahmans of Sala MN 41 Retrieved 2007 12 23 from Access to Insight 1994 transcription at Saleyyaka Sutta The Brahmans of Sala Nyanaponika Thera trans 1988 1998 Vatthupama Sutta The Simile of the Cloth MN 7 from The Simile of the Cloth amp the Discourse on Effacement Wheel No 61 Kandy Sri Lanka Buddhist Publication Society 1988 Retrieved 2007 12 03 from Access to Insight 1998 at Vatthupama Sutta The Simile of the Cloth Nyanaponika Thera amp Bhikkhu Bodhi trans 1999 Numerical Discourses of the Buddha An anthology of Suttas from the Aṅguttara Nikaya Walnut Creek CA AltaMira Press ISBN 0 7425 0405 0 Rhys Davids Caroline A F 1900 2003 Buddhist Manual of Psychological Ethics of the Fourth Century B C Being a Translation now made for the First Time from the Original Pali of the First Book of the Abhidhamma Piṭaka entitled Dhamma Sangaṇi Compendium of States or Phenomena Kessinger Publishing ISBN 0 7661 4702 9 Rhys Davids T W amp William Stede eds 1921 5 The Pali Text Society s Pali English Dictionary Chipstead Pali Text Society Retrieved 2008 04 29 from U Chicago at http dsal uchicago edu dictionaries pali Salzberg Sharon 1995 Lovingkindness The Revolutionary Art of Happiness Boston Shambhala Publications ISBN 1 57062 176 4 Thanissaro Bhikkhu trans 1994 Raja Sutta The King Ud 5 1 Retrieved 2007 11 25 from Access to Insight at Rajan Sutta The King Thanissaro Bhikkhu trans 1997a Cunda Kammaraputta Sutta To Cunda the Silversmith AN 10 176 Retrieved 2007 11 25 from Access to Insight at Cunda Kammaraputta Sutta To Cunda the Silversmith Thanissaro Bhikkhu trans 1997b Metta Mettanisamsa Sutta Good Will AN 11 16 Retrieved 2010 07 07 from Access to Insight at Metta Mettanisamsa Sutta Good Will Trungpa Chogyam 1993 Training the Mind amp Cultivating Loving Kindness Boston Shambhala ISBN 0 87773 954 4 Upatissa Arahant N R M Ehara trans Soma Thera trans and Kheminda Thera trans 1995 The Path of Freedom Vimuttimagga Kandy Sri Lanka Buddhist Publication Society ISBN 955 24 0054 6 Walshe Maurice 1995 The Long Discourses of the Buddha A Translation of the Digha Nikaya Somerville MA Wisdom Publications ISBN 0 86171 103 3 Warder A K 1970 reprinted 2004 Indian Buddhism Motilal Banarsidass Delhi ISBN 81 208 1741 9 External links editBrahmavihara Dhamma by Mahasi Sayadaw An essay on metta by Acharya Buddharakkhita The Four Sublime States and the Practice of Loving Kindness by Naṇamoli Bhikkhu amp Nyanaponika Thera Abundant Exalted Immeasurable by Ajahn Pasanno I m Right You re Wrong by Ajahn Amaro The Metta Sutta Dharma Dictionary RangjungYesheWiki Byams Pa Maitri Facets of Metta Archived 2019 12 01 at the Wayback Machine by Sharon Salzberg Curbing Anger Spreading Love by Visuddhacara Matthieu Ricard talks about his lifelong practice of Compassion Meditation Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Maitri amp oldid 1187245119, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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