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Wikipedia

Jehovah's Witnesses

April 10, 2024

Jehovah's Witnesses is a nontrinitarian, millenarian, restorationist Christian denomination.[8] As of 2023, the group reported approximately 8.6 million members involved in evangelism, with around 20.5 million attending the annual Memorial of Christ's death.[6][en 1] Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the destruction of the present world system at Armageddon is imminent, and the establishment of God's kingdom over earth is the only solution to all of humanity's problems.[9]

Jehovah's Witnesses
ClassificationRestorationist
OrientationPremillennialist[1]
ScriptureBible
TheologyNontrinitarian
GovernanceGoverning Body
StructureHierarchical[2]
RegionWorldwide
HeadquartersWarwick, New York, U.S.
FounderCharles Taze Russell (Bible Student movement)[3]
Joseph Franklin Rutherford[4]
Origin1870s
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U.S.
Branched fromBible Student movement, Adventism[5]
SeparationsJehovah's Witnesses splinter groups
Congregations118,117 (2023)[6]
Members8,625,042 (2023)[en 1][6]
Missionaries4,091 (2021)[7]
PublicationsJehovah's Witnesses publications
Official websitejw.org

The group emerged in the United States from the Bible Student movement founded in the late 1870s by Charles Taze Russell, who also co-founded Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society in 1881 to organize and print the movement's publications.[3] A leadership dispute after Russell's death resulted in several groups breaking away, with Joseph Franklin Rutherford retaining control of the Watch Tower Society and its properties.[10] Rutherford made significant organizational and doctrinal changes,[11] including adoption of the name Jehovah's witnesses[en 2] in 1931 to distinguish the group from other Bible Student groups and symbolize a break with the legacy of Russell's traditions.[13][14]

Jehovah's Witnesses are known for their door-to-door preaching, distributing literature such as The Watchtower and Awake!, and for refusing military service and blood transfusions. They consider the use of God's name vital for proper worship. They reject Trinitarianism, inherent immortality of the soul, and hellfire, which they consider unscriptural doctrines. They do not observe Christmas, Easter, birthdays, or other holidays and customs they consider to have pagan origins incompatible with Christianity.[15] They prefer to use their own Bible translation, the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures.[16][17] Witnesses commonly call their body of beliefs "The Truth" and consider themselves to be "in the Truth".[18] They consider human society morally corrupt and under the influence of Satan, and most limit their social interaction with non-Witnesses.[19]

The denomination is directed by a group of elders known as the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses, which establishes all doctrines.[20][21] Congregational disciplinary actions include disfellowshipping, their term for formal expulsion and shunning, a last resort for what they consider serious offenses.[22][23] Baptized people who formally leave are considered disassociated and are also shunned. Disfellowshipped and disassociated people may eventually be reinstated. Former members may experience significant mental distress as a result of being shunned,[24] and some seek reinstatement to keep contact with their friends and family.[25] Expelled individuals may eventually be reinstated to the congregation if deemed repentant by congregation elders, after a period of time, usually not less than six months. Reinstatement is a long process, which the individual may experience as mentally and emotionally draining.[25]

The group's position on conscientious objection to military service and refusal to salute state symbols (like national anthems and flags) has brought it into conflict with some governments.[26] Some Jehovah's Witnesses have been persecuted, and their activities banned or restricted in some countries. Persistent legal challenges by Jehovah's Witnesses have influenced legislation related to civil rights in several countries.[27] The organization has been criticized regarding biblical translation, doctrines, and alleged coercion of its members. The Watch Tower Society has made various unfulfilled predictions about major biblical events, such as Christ's Second Coming, the advent of God's kingdom, and Armageddon. Their policies for handling cases of child sexual abuse have been the subject of various formal inquiries.

History

Main article: History of Jehovah's Witnesses

Background (1870–1916)

See also: Bible Student movement
 
Pastor Russell, founder of the Watch Tower Society

In 1870, Charles Taze Russell and others formed a group in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, to study the Bible.[28] During his ministry, Russell disputed many of mainstream Christianity's tenets, including immortality of the soul, hellfire, predestination, the fleshly return of Jesus Christ, the Trinity, and the burning up of the world.[29] In 1876, he met Nelson H. Barbour. Later that year they jointly produced the book Three Worlds, which combined restitutionist views with end time prophecy.[29]

The book taught that God's dealings with humanity were divided dispensationally, each ending with a "harvest", that Christ had returned as an invisible spirit being in 1874,[29] inaugurating the "harvest of the Gospel age", and that 1914 would mark the end of a 2,520-year period called "the Gentile Times",[30] at which time world society would be replaced by the full establishment of God's kingdom on earth.[31] Beginning in 1878, Russell and Barbour jointly edited a religious magazine, Herald of the Morning.[32] In June 1879, the two split over doctrinal differences, and in July, Russell began publishing the magazine Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence,[33] saying its purpose was to demonstrate that the world was in "the last days" and that a new age of earthly and human restitution under Christ's reign was imminent.[34]

From 1879, Watch Tower supporters gathered as autonomous congregations to study the Bible topically. Thirty congregations were founded, and during 1879 and 1880, Russell visited each to provide the format he recommended for conducting meetings.[35] In 1881, Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society was presided over by William Henry Conley, and in 1884, Russell incorporated the society as a nonprofit business to distribute tracts and Bibles.[36][37] By about 1900, Russell had organized thousands of part- and full-time colporteurs,[33] and was appointing foreign missionaries and establishing branch offices. By the 1910s, Russell's organization maintained nearly a hundred "pilgrims", or traveling preachers.[38] Russell engaged in significant global publishing efforts during his ministry,[39][40] and by 1912, he was the most distributed Christian author in the United States.[41]

Russell moved the Watch Tower Society's headquarters to Brooklyn, New York, in 1909, combining printing and corporate offices with a house of worship; volunteers were housed in a nearby residence he named Bethel. He identified the religious movement as "Bible Students", and more formally as the International Bible Students Association.[42] By 1910, about 50,000 people worldwide were associated with the movement[43] and congregations reelected him annually as their pastor.[44] Russell died on October 31, 1916, at the age of 64 while returning from a ministerial speaking tour.[45]

Reorganization (1917–1942)

 
Joseph F. Rutherford, founder of Jehovah's Witnesses

In January 1917, the Watch Tower Society's legal representative, Joseph Franklin Rutherford, was elected as its next president. His election was disputed, and members of the Board of Directors accused him of acting in an autocratic and secretive manner.[46] The divisions between his supporters and opponents triggered a major turnover of members over the next decade.[21][47] In June 1917, he released The Finished Mystery as a seventh volume of Russell's Studies in the Scriptures series. The book, published as Russell's posthumous work, was a compilation of his commentaries on the Bible books of Ezekiel and Revelation with numerous additions by Bible Students Clayton Woodworth and George Fisher.[48][49] It strongly criticized Catholic and Protestant clergy and Christian involvement in the Great War.[50] As a result, Watch Tower Society directors were jailed for sedition under the Espionage Act in 1918 and members were subjected to mob violence; the directors were released in March 1919 and charges against them were dropped in 1920.[51]

Rutherford centralized organizational control of the Watch Tower Society. In 1919, he instituted the appointment of a director in each congregation, and a year later all members were instructed to report their weekly preaching activity to the Brooklyn headquarters.[52] Significant changes in doctrine and administration were regularly introduced during Rutherford's 25 years as president, including the 1920 announcement that the Hebrew patriarchs (such as Abraham and Isaac) would be resurrected in 1925, marking the beginning of Christ's thousand-year earthly kingdom.[53][54]

Because of disappointment over the changes and unfulfilled predictions, tens of thousands of defections occurred during the first half of Rutherford's tenure, leading to the formation of several Bible Student organizations independent of the Watch Tower Society,[55][56][57][58] most of which still exist.[59] By mid-1919, as many as one in seven of Russell-era Bible Students had ceased their association with the Society, and as many as three-quarters by the end of the 1920s.[57][60][61]

On July 26, 1931, at a convention in Columbus, Ohio, Rutherford introduced the new name Jehovah's witnesses, based on Isaiah 43:10: "'Ye are my witnesses, saith the Lord, and my servant whom I have chosen: that ye may know and believe me, and understand that I am he: before me there was no God formed, neither shall there be after me'" (King James Version). It was adopted by resolution. The name was chosen to distinguish his group of Bible Students from other independent groups that had severed ties with the Society, as well as to symbolize the instigation of new outlooks and the promotion of fresh evangelizing methods.[13][14] In 1932, Rutherford eliminated the system of locally elected elders and in 1938, he introduced what he called a theocratic (literally, God-ruled) organizational system, under which appointments in congregations worldwide were made from the Brooklyn headquarters.[52]

From 1932, it was taught that the "little flock" of 144,000 would not be the only people to survive Armageddon. Rutherford explained that in addition to the 144,000 anointed who would be resurrected—or transferred at death—to live in heaven to rule over earth with Christ, a separate class of members, the "great multitude", would live in a paradise restored on earth; from 1935, new converts to the movement were considered part of that class.[62][63] By the mid-1930s, the timing of the beginning of Christ's presence (Greek: parousía), his enthronement as king, and the start of the last days were each moved to 1914.[64]

 
Nathan H. Knorr, the third president of the Watch Tower Society

As their interpretations of the Bible evolved, Witness publications decreed that saluting national flags is a form of idolatry, which led to a new outbreak of mob violence and government opposition in the U.S., Canada, Germany, and other countries.[65][66]

Continued development (1942–present)

See also: Development of Jehovah's Witnesses doctrine and Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses

Nathan Knorr was appointed as third president of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society in 1942. He commissioned a new translation of the Bible, the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures, the full version of which was released in 1961. He organized large international assemblies, instituted new training programs for members, and expanded missionary activity and branch offices throughout the world.[67] Knorr's presidency was also marked by increased use of explicit instructions guiding Witnesses' lifestyle and conduct and a greater use of congregational judicial procedures to enforce a strict moral code.[68][69]

From 1966, Witness publications and convention talks built anticipation of the possibility that Christ's thousand-year reign might begin in 1975[70] or shortly thereafter.[71][72] The number of baptisms increased significantly, from about 59,000 in 1966 to more than 297,000 in 1974. By 1975, the number of active members exceeded two million. Membership declined during the late 1970s after expectations for 1975 were unfulfilled.[73][74][75][76] Watch Tower Society literature did not say that 1975 would definitely mark the end,[71] but in 1980 the Watch Tower Society admitted its responsibility in building up hope for that year.[77]

The offices of elder and ministerial servant were restored to Witness congregations in 1972, with appointments made from headquarters[78] (and later by branch committees too). It was announced that, as of September 2014, appointments would be made by traveling overseers. In a major organizational overhaul in 1976, the power of the Watch Tower Society president was diminished, with authority for doctrinal and organizational decisions passed to the Governing Body.[79] Since Knorr's death in 1977, the presidency has been held by Frederick Franz,[80] Milton Henschel,[81] Don Alden Adams[82] and Robert Ciranko.[83] In 1995, Jehovah's Witnesses abandoned the idea that Armageddon must occur during the lives of the generation that was alive in 1914.[84][85][86] In 2023, the Watch Tower Society announced that most Jehovah's Witness members would no longer be required to report the number of hours spent proselytizing.[87]

Organization

Main article: Organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses

Jehovah's Witnesses are organized hierarchically, in what the leadership calls a theocratic organization, reflecting their belief that it is God's visible organization on earth.[88] The organization is led by the Governing Body—an all-male group that varies in size. Since February 2023, it has comprised nine members,[89] all of whom profess to be of the "anointed" class with a hope of heavenly life—based in the Watch Tower Society's Warwick headquarters.[90][91] There is no election for membership; the existing body selects new members.[92] Until late 2012, the Governing Body described itself as the representative[93][94] and "spokesman" for God's "faithful and discreet slave class" (then approximately 10,000 self-professed "anointed" Jehovah's Witnesses).[95][96]

At the 2012 Annual Meeting of the Watch Tower Society, the "faithful and discreet slave" was defined as the Governing Body only.[97] The Governing Body directs several committees that are responsible for administrative functions, including publishing, assembly programs and evangelizing activities.[98] It appoints all branch committee members and traveling overseers, after they have been recommended by local branches, with traveling overseers supervising circuits of congregations within their jurisdictions. Traveling overseers appoint local elders and ministerial servants, while branch offices may appoint regional committees for matters such as Kingdom Hall construction or disaster relief.[99] The leadership and supporting staff lives in properties owned by the organization worldwide, called "Bethel", where they operate as a religious community and administrative unit.[100] Their living expenses and those of other full-time volunteers are covered by the organization along with a basic monthly stipend.[101][102][103]

Each congregation has a body of appointed unpaid male elders and ministerial servants. Elders maintain general responsibility for congregational governance, setting meeting times, selecting speakers and conducting meetings, directing the public preaching work, and creating judicial committees to investigate and decide disciplinary action for cases involving sexual misconduct or doctrinal breaches.[104] New elders are appointed by a traveling overseer after recommendation by the existing body of elders. Ministerial servants—appointed in a similar manner as elders—fulfill clerical and attendant duties, but may also teach and conduct meetings.[98] Witnesses do not use elder as a title to signify a formal clergy-laity division,[105] though elders may employ ecclesiastical privilege regarding confession of sins.[106]

Baptism is a requirement for membership in the Jehovah's Witnesses. Witnesses do not practice infant baptism,[107] and baptisms performed by other denominations are not considered valid.[108] People undergoing baptism must affirm publicly that dedication and baptism identify them "as one of Jehovah's Witnesses in association with God's spirit-directed organization,"[108] though Witness publications say baptism symbolizes personal dedication to God and not "to a man, work or organization."[109] Their literature emphasizes that members must be obedient and loyal to Jehovah and "his organization,"[110][111][en 3] and that people must remain part of it to receive God's favor and survive Armageddon.[112][113]

Publishing

The organization produces a significant amount of literature as part of its evangelism activities.[114] The Watch Tower Society has produced over 227 million copies of the New World Translation in whole or in part in over 185 languages.[115] In 2010, The Watchtower and Awake! were the world's most widely distributed magazines.[116]

Funding

Much of the Witnesses' funding is donated, primarily by members. There is no tithing or collection.[77] In 2001 Newsday listed the Watch Tower Society as one of New York's 40 richest corporations, with revenues exceeding $950 million.[114][117] The organization reported for the same year that it "spent over $70.9 million in caring for special pioneers, missionaries, and traveling overseers in their field service assignments."[118][en 4]

Beliefs

Main article: Jehovah's Witnesses beliefs

Sources of doctrine

Jehovah's Witnesses believe their denomination is a restoration of first-century Christianity.[119] Doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses are established by the Governing Body, which assumes responsibility for interpreting and applying scripture.[21] The Governing Body does not issue a single, comprehensive statement of faith, but expresses its doctrinal positions in a variety of ways through publications published by the Watch Tower Society.[120] The publications teach that doctrinal changes and refinements result from a process of progressive revelation, in which God gradually reveals his will and purpose,[121] and that such enlightenment or "new light" results from the application of reason and study,[122] the guidance of the holy spirit, and direction from Jesus Christ and angels.[123] The Society also teaches that the holy spirit helps the Governing Body discern "deep truths", which the Governing Body considers before making doctrinal decisions.[124] The group's leadership, while disclaiming divine inspiration and infallibility,[125] is said to provide "divine guidance"[126] through its teachings described as "based on God's Word thus ... not from men, but from Jehovah."[127][128]

The entire Protestant canon of scripture is considered the inspired, inerrant word of God.[129] Jehovah's Witnesses consider the Bible scientifically and historically accurate and reliable[130] and interpret much of it literally, but accept parts of it as symbolic.[131] They consider the Bible the final authority for their beliefs.[132] Sociologist Andrew Holden's ethnographic study of the group concluded that pronouncements of the Governing Body, through Watch Tower Society publications, carry almost as much weight as the Bible.[133]

Regular personal Bible reading is frequently recommended. Witnesses are discouraged from formulating doctrines and "private ideas" reached through Bible research independent of Watch Tower Society publications, and are cautioned against reading other religious literature.[134] Adherents are told to have "complete confidence" in the leadership, to avoid skepticism about what is taught in the Watch Tower Society's literature, and to "not advocate or insist on personal opinions or harbor private ideas when it comes to Bible understanding."[125] The organization makes no provision for members to criticize or contribute to its teachings.[135] Witnesses must abide by its doctrines and organizational requirements.[136]

Jehovah

 
The Tetragrammaton

Jehovah's Witnesses emphasize the use of God's name, and they prefer the form Jehovah—a vocalization of God's name based on the Tetragrammaton.[137][138][139] They believe that Jehovah is the only true God, the creator of all things, and the "Universal Sovereign". They believe that all worship should be directed toward him, and that he is not part of a Trinity;[140] consequently, the group places more emphasis on God than on Christ.[141] They believe that the Holy Spirit is God's applied power or "active force", rather than a person.[142]

Jesus

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus is God's only direct creation, that everything else was created through him by means of God's power, and that the initial unassisted act of creation uniquely identifies Jesus as God's "only-begotten Son".[143] Jesus served as a redeemer and a ransom sacrifice to pay for the sins of humanity.[144] They believe Jesus died on a single upright post rather than the traditional cross.[145] Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus was resurrected with a "spirit body", and that he assumed human form only temporarily after his resurrection.[146]

Biblical references to the Archangel Michael, Abaddon (Apollyon), and the Word are interpreted as names for Jesus in various roles.[147] Jesus is considered the only intercessor and high priest between God and humanity, appointed by God as the king and judge of his kingdom.[148] His role as a mediator (referred to in 1 Timothy 2:5) is applied to the "anointed" class, though the "other sheep" are said to also benefit from the arrangement.[149]

Satan

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Satan was originally a perfect angel who developed feelings of self-importance and craved worship. Satan influenced Adam and Eve to disobey God, and humanity subsequently became participants in a challenge involving the competing claims of Jehovah and Satan to universal sovereignty.[150] Other angels who sided with Satan became demons.

Jehovah's Witnesses teach that Satan and his demons were cast down to earth from heaven after October 1, 1914,[151] at which point the end times began. They believe that Satan rules the current world order,[150] that human society is influenced and misled by him and his demons, and that they are a cause of human suffering. They also believe that Satan controls human governments,[152] but that he does not directly control every human ruler.[153]

Life after death

Main article: Jehovah's Witnesses and salvation

Jehovah's Witnesses believe death is a state of nonexistence with no consciousness. There is no Hell of fiery torment; Hades and Sheol are understood to refer to the condition of death, termed the common grave.[154] Witnesses consider the soul a life or a living body that can die.[155] They believe that humanity is in a sinful state,[155] from which release is possible only by means of Jesus' shed blood as a ransom, or atonement, for humankind's sins.[156]

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that a "little flock" of 144,000 selected humans go to heaven, but that God will resurrect the majority (the "other sheep") to a cleansed earth after Armageddon. They interpret Revelation 14:1–5 to mean that the number of Christians going to heaven is limited to exactly 144,000, who will rule with Jesus as kings and priests over earth.[157] They believe that baptism as a Jehovah's Witness is vital for salvation,[158] and do not recognize baptism from other denominations as valid.[159] Jehovah's Witnesses believe that some people who died before Armageddon will be resurrected, will be taught the proper way to worship God, and face a final test at the end of the millennial reign.[160] This judgment will be based on their actions after resurrection rather than past deeds. At the end of the thousand years, Christ will hand all authority back to God. Then a final test will take place when Satan is released to mislead humankind. Those who fail will die, along with Satan and his demons.[161] They also believe that those who rejected their beliefs while still alive will not be resurrected and will continue to experience a state of non-existence.[162]

God's kingdom

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that God's kingdom is a literal government in heaven, ruled by Jesus Christ and 144,000 "spirit-anointed" Christians drawn from the earth, which they associate with Jesus' reference to a "new covenant".[163] The kingdom is viewed as the means by which God will accomplish his original purpose for the earth, transforming it into a paradise without sickness or death.[164] It is said to have been the focal point of Jesus' ministry on earth.[165] They believe the kingdom was established in heaven in 1914,[166] and that Jehovah's Witnesses serve as the kingdom's representatives on earth.[167] Due to their belief in God's kingdom as the only legitimate form of governance, Jehovah's Witnesses do not participate in political activities, such as voting in elections.[168]

Eschatology

Main article: Eschatology of Jehovah's Witnesses

A central teaching of Jehovah's Witnesses is that the current world era, or "system of things", entered the "last days" in 1914 and faces imminent destruction through intervention by God and Jesus Christ, leading to deliverance for those who worship God acceptably.[169] They consider all other present-day religions false, identifying them with Babylon the Great, the "harlot" of Revelation 17.[170] They believe they will soon be destroyed by the United Nations, which they believe is represented in scripture by the scarlet-colored wild beast, and that this development will mark the beginning of the "great tribulation".[171][172]

Satan will subsequently use world governments to attack Jehovah's Witnesses, which will prompt God to begin the war of Armageddon, during which all forms of government and all people not counted as Christ's sheep will die. After Armageddon, God will extend his heavenly kingdom to include earth, which will be transformed into a paradise like the Garden of Eden.[173]

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus Christ began to rule in heaven as king of God's kingdom in October 1914, and that Satan was subsequently ousted from heaven to the earth, resulting in "woe" to humanity. They believe that Jesus rules invisibly, from heaven, perceived only as a series of "signs". They base this belief on a rendering of the Greek word parousia—usually translated as "coming" when referring to Christ—as "presence". They believe Jesus' presence includes an unknown period beginning with his inauguration as king in heaven in 1914, and ending when he comes to bring final judgment against humans on earth. They thus depart from the mainstream Christian belief that the "second coming" of Matthew 24 refers to a single moment of arrival on earth to judge humans.[174]

Gender roles

Jehovah's Witnesses have a complementarian view of women. Only men may hold positions of authority, such as ministerial servant or elder. Women may actively participate in the public preaching work, serve at Bethel,[175] and profess to be members of the 144,000.[176] They are not typically allowed to address the congregation directly.[177] In rare circumstances, women can substitute in certain capacities if there are no eligible men. In these situations, women must wear a head covering if they are performing a teaching role.[175] Jehovah's Witnesses believe that transgender people should live as the gender they were assigned at birth and view gender-affirming surgery as mutilation.[178]

Practices

Main article: Jehovah's Witnesses practices

Worship

 
Worship at a Kingdom Hall in Portugal
 
Kingdom Hall in Kuopio, Finland

Meetings for worship and study are held at Kingdom Halls, which are typically functional in character, and do not contain religious symbols.[179] Witnesses are assigned to a congregation in whose "territory" they usually reside and attend weekly services they call "meetings", scheduled by congregation elders. The meetings are largely devoted to study of Watch Tower Society literature and the Bible. The meetings' format is established by the group's headquarters, and the subject matter for most meetings is the same worldwide.[179]

Congregations meet for two sessions each week, comprising five distinct meetings that total about three-and-a-half hours, typically gathering midweek (three meetings) and on the weekend (two meetings). Until 2009, congregations met three times each week; these meetings were condensed, with the intention that members dedicate an evening for family worship.[180][181] Gatherings are opened and closed with hymns called Kingdom songs and brief prayers.[182]

Twice each year, Witnesses from a number of congregations that form a "circuit" gather for a one-day assembly. Larger groups of congregations meet annually for a three-day "regional convention", usually at rented stadiums or auditoriums.[183] Their most important and solemn event is the commemoration of the "Lord's Evening Meal", or "Memorial of Christ's Death", on the date of the Jewish Passover.[184]

Evangelism

See also: Jehovah's Witnesses publications
 
Jehovah's Witnesses outside the British Museum, 2017

Jehovah's Witnesses are known for their efforts to spread their beliefs, most notably by visiting people's homes,[185][186][187] distributing Watch Tower Society literature. The objective is to start a regular "Bible study" with anyone who is not already a member,[188] with the intention that the student be baptized as a member of the group; Witnesses are advised to consider discontinuing Bible study with students who show no interest in becoming members.[189] Converts as a result of their door-to-door evangelism are rare and happen at a rate comparable with other religions that practice similar preaching methods.[190]

Witnesses are taught they are under a biblical command to engage in public preaching. They are instructed to devote as much time as possible to their ministry and required to submit an individual monthly "Field Service Report".[191] Those who do not submit reports for six consecutive months are termed "inactive".[192] From 1920 to 2023, every active Jehovah's Witness was expected to submit the amount of hours they spent preaching in their monthly field service report. As of November 1, 2023, this requirement was modified to only members who have agreed to a specific hour requirement (for example, pioneers). Other members will only be required to check to indicate they engaged in some form of ministry during the month, along with any Bible studies they conducted.[193]

Ethics and morality

All sexual relations outside marriage are grounds for expulsion if the person is not deemed repentant;[194] homosexual activity is considered a serious sin, and same-sex marriage is forbidden. Abortion is considered murder.[195] Modesty in dress and grooming is frequently emphasized. Gambling, drunkenness, illegal drugs, and tobacco use are forbidden.[196] Drinking of alcoholic beverages is permitted in moderation.[195]

The family structure is patriarchal. The husband is considered to have authority on family decisions, but is encouraged to solicit his wife's thoughts and feelings, as well as his children's. Marriages are required to be monogamous and legally registered.[197][198] Marrying a non-believer, or endorsing such a union, is strongly discouraged and carries religious sanctions.[199][200]

Divorce is discouraged, and remarriage is forbidden unless a divorce is obtained on the grounds of adultery, which is called a "scriptural divorce".[201] If a divorce is obtained for any other reason, remarriage is considered adulterous unless the ex-spouse has died or is considered to have committed sexual immorality.[202] Extreme physical abuse, willful non-support of one's family, and what the denomination terms "absolute endangerment of spirituality" are accepted as grounds for legal separation.[203][204]

Disciplinary action

Main article: Jehovah's Witnesses congregational discipline

Marking, a curtailing of social but not spiritual fellowship, is practiced if a baptized member persists in a course of action regarded as a violation of Bible principles but not a serious sin.[en 5] Formal discipline is administered by congregation elders when a baptized member is accused of committing a serious sin—usually cases of sexual misconduct[104][205] or apostasy for disputing Jehovah's Witness doctrines.[206][207] A judicial committee is formed to provide spiritual guidance and determine guilt. If considered repentant, the person is reproved and loses conspicuous privileges of service, but without restriction of social or spiritual fellowship.[208]

An individual who is not deemed repentant may be disfellowshipped, a form of shunning.[209] Members who disassociate (formally resign) are described in Watch Tower Society literature as wicked and are also shunned.[210] Procedures related to congregational discipline are primarily described in the book, Shepherd the Flock of God, provided only to elders.[211] Witnesses are taught that avoiding social and spiritual interaction with disfellowshipped people keeps the congregation free from immoral influence and that "losing precious fellowship with loved ones may help [the shunned person] to come 'to his senses,' see the seriousness of his wrong, and take steps to return to Jehovah."[212] The practice of shunning may also serve to deter other members from dissident behavior.[213] Contact with disfellowshipped or disassociated people is limited to direct family members living in the same home, and with congregation elders who may invite disfellowshipped people to apply for reinstatement.[214] Formal business dealings may continue if contractually or financially obliged.[215] Former members may experience significant mental distress as a result of being shunned,[24] and some seek reinstatement to keep contact with their friends and family.[25] Expelled individuals may eventually be reinstated to the congregation if deemed repentant by congregation elders. Reinstatement is a long process, which may be mentally and emotionally draining.[25]

Separateness

See also: Jehovah's Witnesses and governments

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the Bible condemns mixing religions, on the basis that there can only be one truth from God, and therefore reject interfaith and ecumenical movements.[216] They believe that only Jehovah's Witnesses represent true Christianity, and that other religions fail to meet all the requirements set by God and will soon be destroyed.[217] Jehovah's Witnesses are taught that it is vital to remain "separate from the world." The Witnesses' literature defines the "world" as "the mass of mankind apart from Jehovah's approved servants" and teach that it is morally contaminated and ruled by Satan.[218]

Witnesses are taught that association with "worldly" people presents a danger to their faith.[219] Attending university is discouraged and trade schools are suggested as an alternative.[220][221] Post-secondary education is considered "spiritually dangerous". Anthony Morris III, a member of the Governing Body, has said, "the most intelligent and eloquent professors will be trying to reshape the thinking of your child, and their influence can be tremendous."[222]

Jehovah's Witnesses believe their allegiance belongs to God's kingdom,[223] which is viewed as an actual government in heaven, with Christ as king. They remain politically neutral, do not seek public office, and are discouraged from voting, though individual members may participate in uncontroversial community improvement issues.[224] Although they do not take part in politics, they respect the authority of the governments under which they live.[225] They do not celebrate religious holidays such as Christmas and Easter, nor do they observe birthdays, national holidays, or other celebrations they consider to honor people other than Jesus. They feel that these and many other customs have pagan origins or reflect nationalistic or political spirit. Their position is that these traditional holidays reflect Satan's control over the world.[226][227] Witnesses are told that spontaneous giving at other times can help their children to not feel deprived of birthdays or other celebrations.[228]

Witnesses do not work in industries associated with the military, do not serve in the armed services,[229] and refuse national military service, which in some countries may result in their arrest and imprisonment.[230] They do not salute or pledge allegiance to flags or sing national anthems or patriotic songs.[231] Witnesses see themselves as a worldwide brotherhood that transcends national boundaries and ethnic loyalties.[232] Sociologist Ronald Lawson has suggested that the group's intellectual and organizational isolation, coupled with the intense indoctrination of adherents, rigid internal discipline, and considerable persecution, has contributed to the consistency of its sense of urgency in its apocalyptic message.[233]

Rejection of blood transfusions

Main article: Jehovah's Witnesses and blood transfusions

Jehovah's Witnesses refuse blood transfusions, which they consider a violation of God's law based on their interpretation of Acts 15:28, 29 and other scriptures.[234][235] Since 1961, the willing acceptance of a blood transfusion by an unrepentant member has been grounds for expulsion from the group.[236] Members are directed to refuse blood transfusions, even in "a life-or-death situation".[237][238] Jehovah's Witnesses accept non-blood alternatives and other medical procedures in lieu of blood transfusions, and their literature provides information about non-blood medical procedures.[239]

Jehovah's Witnesses do not accept the transfusion of "whole blood, packed red cells, platelets, white cells or plasma". Autologous blood donation, where one's blood is stored for later use, is also considered unacceptable.[240] Members may accept some blood plasma fractions at their own discretion.[241] The Watch Tower Society provides pre-formatted durable power of attorney documents prohibiting major blood components, in which members can specify which allowable fractions and treatments they will accept.[242] Witnesses have established Hospital Liaison Committees as a cooperative arrangement between individual Witnesses and medical professionals and hospitals to provide information about bloodless treatment options.[243] Patients who accept certain blood products in the committee's presence are disassociated from the religion and shunned.[244]

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Jehovah's Witnesses

Jehovah's Witnesses have an active presence in most countries. For 2023, Jehovah's Witnesses reported approximately 8.6 million publishers—the term they use for members actively involved in preaching—in about 118,000 congregations.[6] For the same year, they reported over 1.8 billion hours spent in preaching activity, and conducted Bible studies with more than 7.3 million individuals (including those conducted by Witness parents with their children[245][246]). 4,091 members served as missionaries in 2021.[7]

In 2023, Jehovah's Witnesses reported a worldwide annual increase of 1.3%. Over 20.5 million people attended the annual memorial of Christ's death.[6] According to the Watch Tower Society, more than 25,600 members have died of COVID-19.[247]

The official published membership statistics, such as those above, include only those who submit reports for their personal ministry;[248] official statistics do not include inactive and disfellowshipped people or others who attend their meetings. As a result, only about half of those who self-identify as Jehovah's Witnesses in independent demographic studies are considered active by the faith itself.[249][250]

The 2008 US Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life survey found a low retention rate among members of the denomination: about 37% of people raised in the group continued to identify as Jehovah's Witnesses.[251][252] The next lowest retention rates were for Buddhism at 50% and Catholicism at 68%. The study also found that 65% of adult U.S. Jehovah's Witnesses are converts.[253]

Sociological analysis

See also: Sociological classifications of religious movements

Sociologist James A. Beckford, in his 1975 study of Jehovah's Witnesses, classified the group's organizational structure as Totalizing, characterized by an assertive leadership, specific and narrow objectives, control over competing demands on members' time and energy, and control over the quality of new members. Other characteristics of the classification include likelihood of friction with secular authorities, reluctance to cooperate with other religious organizations, a high rate of membership turnover, a low rate of doctrinal change, and strict uniformity of beliefs among members.[254]

Beckford identified the group's chief characteristics as historicism (identifying historical events as relating to the outworking of God's purpose), absolutism (conviction that Jehovah's Witness leaders dispense absolute truth), activism (capacity to motivate members to perform missionary tasks), rationalism (conviction that Witness doctrines have a rational basis devoid of mystery), authoritarianism (rigid presentation of regulations without the opportunity for criticism) and world indifference (rejection of certain secular requirements and medical treatments).[255]

Sociologist Bryan R. Wilson, in his consideration of five religious groups including Jehovah's Witnesses, noted that each of the denominations:[256]

  1. "exists in a state of tension with the wider society;"
  2. "imposes tests of merit on would-be members;"
  3. "exercises stern discipline, regulating the declared beliefs and the life habits of members and prescribing and operating sanctions for those who deviate, including the possibility of expulsion;"
  4. "demands sustained and total commitment from its members, and the subordination, and perhaps even the exclusion of all other interests."

A sociological comparative study by the Pew Research Center found that U.S. Jehovah's Witnesses ranked highest in getting no further than high school graduation, belief in God, importance of religion in one's life, frequency of religious attendance, frequency of prayers, frequency of Bible reading outside of religious services, belief their prayers are answered, belief that their religion can only be interpreted one way, belief that theirs is the only one true faith leading to eternal life, opposition to abortion, and opposition to homosexuality. In the study, Jehovah's Witnesses ranked lowest in interest in politics.[257][258] It was also among the most ethnically diverse U.S. religious groups.[253]

Opposition

Controversy about various beliefs, doctrines and practices of Jehovah's Witnesses has led to opposition from governments, communities, and religious groups. Religious commentator Ken Jubber wrote, "Viewed globally, this persecution has been so persistent and of such intensity that it would not be inaccurate to regard Jehovah's Witnesses as the most persecuted group of Christians of the twentieth century."[259]

Persecution

Main article: Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses

Political and religious animosity toward Jehovah's Witnesses has at times led to mob action and government oppression in various countries. Their political neutrality and refusal to serve in the military has led to imprisonment of members who refused conscription during World War II and at other times where national service has been compulsory. Their religious activities are banned or restricted in some countries,[260] including China, Russia, Vietnam, and many Muslim-majority countries.[261]

 
Countries where Jehovah's Witnesses' activities are banned

Authors including William Whalen, Shawn Francis Peters and former Witnesses Barbara Grizzuti Harrison, Alan Rogerson, and William Schnell have claimed the arrests and mob violence in the U.S. in the 1930s and 1940s were the consequence of what appeared to be a deliberate course of provocation of authorities and other religious groups by Jehovah's Witnesses.[262][263] Harrison, Schnell, and Whalen have suggested Rutherford invited and cultivated opposition for publicity purposes in a bid to attract dispossessed members of society, and to convince members that persecution by the outside world was evidence of the truth of their struggle to serve God.[264][265] Watch Tower Society literature of the period directed that Witnesses "never seek a controversy" nor resist arrest, but also advised members not to cooperate with police officers or courts that ordered them to stop preaching, and to go to jail rather than pay fines.[266]

Canada

Main article: Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Canada

In 1940, a year after Canada entered World War II, the denomination was banned under the War Measures Act. This ban continued until 1943.[267] Hundreds of members were prosecuted for being members of an illegal organization.[268] Jehovah's Witnesses were interned in camps along with political dissidents and people of Chinese and Japanese descent.[269] Jehovah's Witnesses faced discrimination in Quebec until the Quiet Revolution, including bans on distributing literature or holding meetings.[270][271] Roncarelli v Duplessis was a legal case heard by the Supreme Court of Canada. The court held that in 1946 Maurice Duplessis, Premier and Attorney General of Quebec, had overstepped his authority by ordering the manager of the Liquor Commission to revoke the liquor licence of Frank Roncarelli, a Montreal restaurant owner and Jehovah's Witness who was an outspoken critic of the Roman Catholic Church in Quebec. Roncarelli provided bail for Jehovah's Witnesses arrested for distributing pamphlets attacking the Roman Catholic Church. The Supreme Court found Duplessis liable for $33,123.56 in damages plus Roncarelli's court costs.[272]

Germany

Main article: Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Nazi Germany
 
Jehovah's Witness prisoners were identified by purple triangle badges in Nazi concentration camps.

In 1933, there were approximately 20,000 Jehovah's Witnesses in Nazi Germany,[273] of whom about 10,000 were imprisoned. Jehovah's Witnesses suffered religious persecution by the Nazis because they refused military service and allegiance to Hitler's National Socialist Party.[274][275] Of those, 2,000 were sent to Nazi concentration camps, where they were identified by purple triangles;[275] as many as 1,200 died, including 250 who were executed.[276][277] Unlike Jews and Romani, who were persecuted on the basis of their ethnicity, Jehovah's Witnesses could escape persecution and personal harm by renouncing their religious beliefs by signing a document indicating renunciation of their faith, submission to state authority, and support of the German military.[278] Historian Sybil Milton writes, "their courage and defiance in the face of torture and death punctures the myth of a monolithic Nazi state ruling over docile and submissive subjects."[279]

In East Germany, from the 1950s to the 1980s, Jehovah's Witnesses were persecuted extensively by the State Security Service (the Stasi), which frequently used decomposition methods against them. Jehovah's Witnesses were considered a threat because their beliefs did not conform to socialist standards and their members sometimes had contact with the West.[280]

Russia

Main article: Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Russia

In April 1951, about 9,300 Jehovah's Witnesses in the Soviet Union were deported to Siberia as part of Operation North.[281]

In April 2017, the Supreme Court of Russia labeled Jehovah's Witnesses an extremist organization, banned its activities in Russia, and issued an order to confiscate its assets.[282]

Legal challenges

Main article: Supreme Court cases involving Jehovah's Witnesses by country

Several cases involving Jehovah's Witnesses have been heard by Supreme Courts worldwide.[283] They generally relate to the right to practice their religion, displays of patriotism and military service, and blood transfusions.[284]

In the U.S., legal challenges by Jehovah's Witnesses prompted a series of state and federal court rulings that reinforced judicial protections for civil liberties.[285][286] Among the rights strengthened by Witness court victories in the U.S. are the protection of religious conduct from federal and state interference, the right to abstain from patriotic rituals and military service, the right of patients to refuse medical treatment, and the right to engage in public discourse.[287] Similar cases in their favor have been heard in Canada.[288]

Criticism and controversy

Main article: Criticism of Jehovah's Witnesses

Jehovah's Witnesses have been criticized by mainstream Christians, members of the medical community, and former members and commentators for their beliefs and practices. The movement has been accused of doctrinal inconsistency and reversals, failed predictions, mistranslation of the Bible, harsh treatment and shunning of former members, and autocratic and coercive leadership. Criticism has also focused on the rejection of blood transfusions, particularly in life-threatening medical situations, and failing to report cases of sexual abuse to the authorities.

Free speech and thought

 
Raymond Franz (1922-2010), writer of Crisis of Conscience, former member of the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses and critic of the institution

Jehovah's Witnesses' doctrines are established by the Governing Body.[289][290] The denomination does not tolerate dissent over doctrines and practices;[291] members who openly disagree with the group's teachings are expelled and shunned.[207] Witness publications strongly discourage followers from questioning doctrine and counsel received from the Governing Body, reasoning that it is to be trusted as part of "God's organization".[291] It also warns members to "avoid independent thinking", claiming such thinking "was introduced by Satan the Devil"[292][293] and would "cause division".[294] Those who openly disagree with official teachings are condemned as apostates who are "mentally diseased".[213][295]

Recent research indicates that the effects of control of free speech and thought, and shunning disciplinary practice are detrimental to the individual’s well-being, physically, psychologically, and spiritually. Psychological distress, depression, panic attacks and suicidal thoughts have been also reported as possible consequences of being shunned. The psychological impact of losing family and friends caused by the shunning policy is the major cause of harm, and its effects are long-lasting. Shame and guilt, loss of social identity, social death, ambiguous loss and self-esteem issues are further consequences which underline the deep psychological and emotional impact of shunning.[25]

Former members Heather and Gary Botting compare the cultural paradigms of the denomination to George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four,[91] and Alan Rogerson describes the group's leadership as totalitarian.[296] Other critics say that by disparaging individual decision-making, the group's leaders cultivate a system of unquestioning obedience[134][297] in which Witnesses abrogate all responsibility and rights over their personal lives.[298][299] Critics also accuse the group's leaders of exercising "intellectual dominance" over Witnesses,[300] controlling information[207][301][302] and creating "mental isolation", which former Governing Body member Raymond Franz argued were all elements of mind control.[303]

Jehovah's Witness publications state that consensus of faith aids unity, and deny that it restricts individuality or imagination.[304] Historian James Irvin Lichti has rejected the description of the denomination as "totalitarian".[305] Sociologist Rodney Stark states that Jehovah's Witness leaders are "not always very democratic" and that members "are expected to conform to rather strict standards," but adds that "enforcement tends to be very informal, sustained by the close bonds of friendship within the group", and that Witnesses see themselves as "part of the power structure rather than subject to it."[75] Sociologist Andrew Holden states that most members who join millenarian movements such as Jehovah's Witnesses have made an informed choice,[306] but that defectors "are seldom allowed a dignified exit",[213] and describes the administration as autocratic.[289]

Some Jehovah's Witnesses describe themselves to academics as "Physically In, Mentally Out" (PIMO); these individuals privately question certain doctrine but remain inside the organization to keep contact with their friends and family.[177]

New World Translation

Main article: New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures

Various Bible scholars, including Bruce M. Metzger[307] and MacLean Gilmour,[308] have said that while scholarship is evident in New World Translation, its rendering of certain texts is inaccurate and biased in favor of Witness practices and doctrines.[98][309][310][311][312][313] Critics of the group such as Edmund C. Gruss,[314] and Christian writers such as Ray C. Stedman,[315] Walter Martin, Norman Klann,[316] and Anthony Hoekema[317] state that the New World Translation is scholastically dishonest. Most criticism of the New World Translation relates to its rendering of the New Testament, particularly regarding the introduction of the name Jehovah and in passages related to the Trinity doctrine.[318][319]

Unfulfilled predictions

Main article: Unfulfilled Watch Tower Society predictions

Watch Tower Society publications have claimed that God has used Jehovah's Witnesses (and formerly, the International Bible Students) to declare his will and provided advance knowledge of Armageddon and the establishment of God's kingdom.[320] Some publications also claimed that God has used Jehovah's Witnesses and the International Bible Students as a modern-day prophet.[en 6] George D. Chryssides stated, "while prediction may be part of a biblical prophet's role, the root meaning of prophecy is that of proclaiming God's word." He went on to say, "Jehovah's Witnesses ... are the recipients of prophecy, who regard themselves as invested with the interpretation of biblical writings."[321][en 7] With these interpretations, Jehovah's Witnesses' publications have made various predictions about world events they believe were prophesied in the Bible.[322] Some failed predictions had been presented as "beyond doubt" or "approved by God".[323]

The Watch Tower Society rejects accusations that it is a false prophet,[324] saying that its interpretations are not inspired or infallible,[325] and that it has not claimed its predictions were "the words of Jehovah."[324] Chryssides has suggested that with the exception of statements about 1914, 1925 and 1975, the changing views and dates of the Jehovah's Witnesses are largely attributable to changed understandings of biblical chronology rather than to failed predictions. Chryssides adds, "it is therefore simplistic and naïve to view the Witnesses as a group that continues to set a single end-date that fails and then devise a new one, as many counter-cultists do."[326] Sociologist Andrew Holden wrote that since the foundation of the movement around 140 years ago, "Witnesses have maintained that we are living on the precipice of the end of time."[327]

Handling of sexual abuse cases

Main article: Jehovah's Witnesses' handling of child sex abuse
 
Case Study of Jehovah's Witnesses in Australia's Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse

Jehovah's Witnesses have been accused of having policies and culture that help to conceal cases of sexual abuse within the organization.[328] The group has been criticized for its "two witness rule" for church discipline, based on its application of scriptures in Deuteronomy 19:15 and Matthew 18:15–17, which requires sexual abuse to be substantiated by secondary evidence if the accused person denies any wrongdoing.[329][330] In cases where corroboration is lacking, the Watch Tower Society's instruction is that "the elders will leave the matter in Jehovah's hands".[331]

A former member of the headquarters staff, Barbara Anderson, says the policy effectively requires that there be another witness to an act of molestation, "which is an impossibility". Anderson says the policies "protect pedophiles rather than protect the children."[332] Jehovah's Witnesses maintain that they have a strong policy to protect children, adding that the best way to protect children is by educating parents; they also say they do not sponsor activities that separate children from parents.[333]

The group's failure to report abuse allegations to authorities has also been criticized.[334] The Watch Tower Society's policy is that elders inform authorities when required by law to do so, but otherwise leave that up to the victim and their family.[335] William Bowen, a former Jehovah's Witness elder who established the Silentlambs organization to assist sex abuse victims in the denomination, has claimed Witness leaders discourage followers from reporting incidents of sexual misconduct to authorities, and other critics claim the organization is reluctant to alert authorities to protect its "crime-free" reputation.[328][336]

In court cases in the United Kingdom and the U.S., the Watch Tower Society has been found negligent in failing to protect children from known sex offenders within the congregation.[337][338] The Society has settled other child abuse lawsuits out of court, reportedly paying as much as $780,000 to one plaintiff without admitting wrongdoing.[332] In 2017, the Charity Commission for England and Wales began an inquiry into Jehovah's Witnesses' handling of allegations of child sexual abuse in the United Kingdom.[339][340]

The Australian Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse found that "there was no evidence before the Royal Commission of the Jehovah's Witness organisation having or not having reported to police any of the 1,006 alleged perpetrators of child sexual abuse identified by the organisation since 1950."[290] The Royal Commission also found that the Watch Tower Society legal department routinely provided incorrect information to elders based on an incorrect understanding of what constitutes a legal obligation to report crimes in Australia.[341][342] In 2021, Jehovah's Witnesses in Australia agreed to join the nation's redress scheme for sexual assault survivors to maintain its charity status there.[343]

In Japan, after the publication of the guideline for Shūkyō nisei, which aimed at addressing the problem of the Unification Church related to the assassination of Shinzo Abe, some lawyers conducted a survey on alleged Jehovah’s Witness child abuse. According to the press conference, almost ninety percent of respondents had experienced various forms of religious abuse, including sexual abuse.[344][345][346]

See also

Explanatory notes

  1. ^ a b The Watch Tower Society provides 'average' and 'peak' figures. Regarding the 'peak' figures, The Watchtower, August 15, 2011, states, "'Peak publishers' is the highest number reporting for any one month of the service year and may include late reports that were not added to the preceding month’s report. In this way some publishers may be counted twice." For this reason, the 'average' figure is used here.
  2. ^ Based on Isaiah 43:10–12,[12] the name was restyled as Jehovah's Witnesses (with capital W) in the 1970s.
  3. ^ Raymond Franz (In Search of Christian Freedom, 2007, p.449) cites various Watch Tower Society publications that stress loyalty and obedience to the organization, including:
    "Following Faithful Shepherds with Life in View". The Watchtower. October 1, 1967. p. 591.
    "Jehovah's Word Is Alive - Highlights From Book Five of Psalms". The Watchtower. September 1, 2006. p. 15.
    "Your Reminders Are What I Am Fond Of". The Watchtower. June 15, 2006. p. 26.
    "Are You Prepared for Survival?". The Watchtower. May 15, 2006. p. 22.
    Worship The Only True God. Watchtower Bible and Tract Society. 2002. p. 134.
  4. ^ 2013 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses. p. 178.
  5. ^ A common example given is a baptized Witness who dates a non-Witness; see "Questions From Readers". The Watchtower. July 15, 1999. p. 30.
  6. ^ Raymond Franz cites numerous examples. In Crisis of Conscience, 2002, pg. 173, he quotes from "They Shall Know That a Prophet Was Among Them". The Watchtower. April 1, 1972. pp. 197–200. which states that God had raised Jehovah's Witnesses as a prophet "to warn (people) of dangers and declare things to come". He also cites "Identifying the Right Kind of Messenger". The Watchtower. May 1, 1997. p. 8. which identifies the Witnesses as his "true messengers ... by making the messages he delivers through them come true", in contrast to "false messengers", whose predictions fail. In In Search of Christian Freedom, 2007, he quotes Commissioned to Speak in the Divine Name. Watchtower Bible and Tract Society. 1971. pp. 70, 292. which describes Witnesses as the modern Ezekiel class, "a genuine prophet within our generation". The Watch Tower book noted: "Concerning the message faithfully delivered by the Ezekiel class, Jehovah positively states that it 'must come true' ... those who wait undecided until it does 'come true' will also have to know that a prophet himself had proved to be in the midst of them." He also cites "Execution of the Great Harlot Nears". The Watchtower. October 15, 1980. p. 17. which claims God gives the Witnesses "special knowledge that others do not have ... advance knowledge about this system's end".
  7. ^ In Jehovah's Witnesses Continuity and Change Chryssides states, after discussing the April 1, 1972 Watchtower article, that, "It would be tedious to comment on each passage in which Watch Tower literature explains the Jehovah's Witnesses' position on prophecy. Some of it may lack the precision that its detractors appear to demand, but the Society's position is quite clear. Jehovah's Witnesses do not claim to have any new revelation or people who are designated as prophets. As cessationists, they identify the ability to prophesy as a gift that died out with the first generation of Christians, but prophetic utterances remain in the Bible, which serves as the key source of authority. ... since the Bible is held to contain predictive prophecy, Jehovah's Witnesses claim to see into the future through the Society's interpretation of scripture." pg 225.

References

  1. ^ Historical Dictionary of Jehovah's Witnesses. Rowman & Littlefield. 2019. p. 164. ISBN 9781538119525.
  2. ^ Cobb v. Brede (California Superior Court, San Mateo County February 22, 2012).
  3. ^ a b Stanley I. Kutler, ed. (2003). "Jehovah's Witnesses". Dictionary of American History (3rd ed.). New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. ISBN 978-0-684-80533-7.
  4. ^ Rogerson 1969, p. 55
  5. ^ Bergman 1995, p. 33.
  6. ^ a b c d e "2023 Grand Totals". Watchtower Bible and Tract Society. 2023. Retrieved January 9, 2024.
  7. ^ a b "Missionaries "to the Most Distant Part of the Earth"". jw.org. June 1, 2021. Retrieved March 22, 2024. Currently, there are 3,090 field missionaries worldwide. These missionaries are assigned to congregations where there is a need in the preaching work. Another 1,001 field missionaries serve in the circuit work.
  8. ^ Sources for descriptors:
  9. ^ "Jehovah's Witness". Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 2007. ISBN 978-1-59339-293-2.
  10. ^ Michael Hill, ed. (1972). "The Embryonic State of a Religious Sect's Development: The Jehovah's Witnesses". Sociological Yearbook of Religion in Britain (5): 11–12.
  11. ^ Leo P. Chall (1978). "Sociological Abstracts". Sociology of Religion. 26 (1–3): 193.
  12. ^ "Bearers of the Fear-inspiring Name". The Watchtower. Watch Tower Society. November 1, 1961. p. 654.
  13. ^ a b Rogerson 1969, p. 55.
  14. ^ a b Beckford 1975, p. 30.
  15. ^ Franz 2007, pp. 274–275.
  16. ^ Edwards, Linda (2001). A Brief Guide to Beliefs. Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press. p. 438. ISBN 978-0-664-22259-8.
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  18. ^ Singelenberg, Richard (1989). "It Separated the Wheat From the Chaff: The 1975 Prophecy and its Impact Among Dutch Jehovah's Witnesses". Sociological Analysis. 50 (Spring 1989): 23–40. doi:10.2307/3710916. JSTOR 3710916.
  19. ^ Penton 1997, p. 280–283.
  20. ^ Beckford 1975, p. 221: "Doctrine has always emanated from the Society's elite in Brooklyn and has never emerged from discussion among, or suggestion from, rank-and-file Witnesses."
  21. ^ a b c Penton 1997, pp. 58, 61–62.
  22. ^ Chryssides, George D. (1999). Exploring New Religions. London: Continuum. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-8264-5959-6.
  23. ^ Chryssides 2016, pp. 139–140
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  29. ^ a b c Beckford 1975, p. 2.
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  33. ^ a b Holden 2002, p. 18.
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  44. ^ Penton 1997, p. 26.
  45. ^ Rogerson 1969, p. 31.
  46. ^ Penton 1997, p. 53.
  47. ^ Crompton 1996, p. 101.
  48. ^ Lawson, John D. (1921). American State Trials. Vol. 13. Thomas Law Book Company. p. viii.
  49. ^ Crompton 1996, pp. 84–85
  50. ^ Penton 1997, p. 55.
  51. ^ Rogerson 1969, p. 44.
  52. ^ a b Franz 2007, "Chapter 4".
  53. ^ Franz 2007, p. 144.
  54. ^ Chryssides, George D. (2010). "How Prophecy Succeeds: The Jehovah's Witnesses and Prophetic Expectations". International Journal for the Study of New Religions. 1 (1): 27–48. doi:10.1558/ijsnr.v1i1.27. ISSN 2041-952X.
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  59. ^ Reed, David (1993). . Christian Research Journal: 27. Archived from the original on September 9, 2011.
  60. ^ Thirty Years a Watchtower Slave, William J. Schnell, Baker, Grand Rapids, 1956, as cited by Rogerson 1969, p. 52. Rogerson notes that it is not clear exactly how many Bible Students left, but quotes Rutherford (Jehovah, 1934, page 277) as saying "only a few" who left other religions were then "in God's organization".
  61. ^ Gruss, Edmond C. (1970). Apostles of Denial: An Examination and Exposé of the History, Doctrines and Claims of the Jehovah's Witnesses. Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Co. p. 265. ISBN 978-0-87552-305-7.
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  64. ^ Crompton 1996, pp. 109–110.
  65. ^ Beckford 1975, p. 35
  66. ^ Garbe, Detlef (2008). Between Resistance and Martyrdom: Jehovah's Witnesses in the Third Reich. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. p. 145. ISBN 978-0-299-20794-6.
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  68. ^ Beckford 1975, pp. 52–55
  69. ^ Penton 1997, pp. 89–90.
  70. ^ Chryssides 2008, p. 19
  71. ^ a b Penton 1997, p. 95
  72. ^ Botting & Botting 1984, p. 46.
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  74. ^ Singelenberg, Richard (1989). . Sociological Analysis. 50 (1): 23–40. doi:10.2307/3710916. JSTOR 3710916. Archived from the original on October 1, 2015. Retrieved July 27, 2006. Notes a nine percent drop in total publishers (door-to-door preachers) and a 38 per cent drop in pioneers (full-time preachers) in the Netherlands.
  75. ^ a b Stark and Iannoccone (1997). (PDF). Journal of Contemporary Religion: 142–143. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 12, 2019. Retrieved July 16, 2013.
  76. ^ Dart, John (January 30, 1982). "Defectors Feel 'Witness' Wrath: Critics say Baptism Rise Gives False Picture of Growth". Los Angeles Times. p. B4. Cited statistics showing a net increase of publishers worldwide from 1971 to 1981 of 737,241, while baptisms totaled 1.71 million for the same period.
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  322. ^ Beckford 1975, pp. 219–221.
  323. ^ James A. Beverley (1986). Crisis of Allegiance. Burlington, Ontario: Welch Publishing Company. pp. 86–91. ISBN 0-920413-37-4.
  324. ^ a b "Why So Many False Alarms?". Awake!. March 22, 1993. pp. 3–4. footnote
  325. ^ "To Whom Shall We Go but Jesus Christ?". The Watchtower. March 1, 1979. p. 23.
  326. ^ Chryssides 2008, p. xiv.
  327. ^ Holden 2002, p. 7.
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Sources

External links

 
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April 10, 2024
jehovah, witnesses, nontrinitarian, millenarian, restorationist, christian, denomination, 2023, group, reported, approximately, million, members, involved, evangelism, with, around, million, attending, annual, memorial, christ, death, believe, that, destructio. Jehovah s Witnesses is a nontrinitarian millenarian restorationist Christian denomination 8 As of 2023 the group reported approximately 8 6 million members involved in evangelism with around 20 5 million attending the annual Memorial of Christ s death 6 en 1 Jehovah s Witnesses believe that the destruction of the present world system at Armageddon is imminent and the establishment of God s kingdom over earth is the only solution to all of humanity s problems 9 Jehovah s WitnessesClassificationRestorationistOrientationPremillennialist 1 ScriptureBibleTheologyNontrinitarianGovernanceGoverning BodyStructureHierarchical 2 RegionWorldwideHeadquartersWarwick New York U S FounderCharles Taze Russell Bible Student movement 3 Joseph Franklin Rutherford 4 Origin1870s Pittsburgh Pennsylvania U S Branched fromBible Student movement Adventism 5 SeparationsJehovah s Witnesses splinter groupsCongregations118 117 2023 6 Members8 625 042 2023 en 1 6 Missionaries4 091 2021 7 PublicationsJehovah s Witnesses publicationsOfficial websitejw wbr orgThe group emerged in the United States from the Bible Student movement founded in the late 1870s by Charles Taze Russell who also co founded Zion s Watch Tower Tract Society in 1881 to organize and print the movement s publications 3 A leadership dispute after Russell s death resulted in several groups breaking away with Joseph Franklin Rutherford retaining control of the Watch Tower Society and its properties 10 Rutherford made significant organizational and doctrinal changes 11 including adoption of the name Jehovah s witnesses en 2 in 1931 to distinguish the group from other Bible Student groups and symbolize a break with the legacy of Russell s traditions 13 14 Jehovah s Witnesses are known for their door to door preaching distributing literature such as The Watchtower and Awake and for refusing military service and blood transfusions They consider the use of God s name vital for proper worship They reject Trinitarianism inherent immortality of the soul and hellfire which they consider unscriptural doctrines They do not observe Christmas Easter birthdays or other holidays and customs they consider to have pagan origins incompatible with Christianity 15 They prefer to use their own Bible translation the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures 16 17 Witnesses commonly call their body of beliefs The Truth and consider themselves to be in the Truth 18 They consider human society morally corrupt and under the influence of Satan and most limit their social interaction with non Witnesses 19 The denomination is directed by a group of elders known as the Governing Body of Jehovah s Witnesses which establishes all doctrines 20 21 Congregational disciplinary actions include disfellowshipping their term for formal expulsion and shunning a last resort for what they consider serious offenses 22 23 Baptized people who formally leave are considered disassociated and are also shunned Disfellowshipped and disassociated people may eventually be reinstated Former members may experience significant mental distress as a result of being shunned 24 and some seek reinstatement to keep contact with their friends and family 25 Expelled individuals may eventually be reinstated to the congregation if deemed repentant by congregation elders after a period of time usually not less than six months Reinstatement is a long process which the individual may experience as mentally and emotionally draining 25 The group s position on conscientious objection to military service and refusal to salute state symbols like national anthems and flags has brought it into conflict with some governments 26 Some Jehovah s Witnesses have been persecuted and their activities banned or restricted in some countries Persistent legal challenges by Jehovah s Witnesses have influenced legislation related to civil rights in several countries 27 The organization has been criticized regarding biblical translation doctrines and alleged coercion of its members The Watch Tower Society has made various unfulfilled predictions about major biblical events such as Christ s Second Coming the advent of God s kingdom and Armageddon Their policies for handling cases of child sexual abuse have been the subject of various formal inquiries Contents 1 History 1 1 Background 1870 1916 1 2 Reorganization 1917 1942 1 3 Continued development 1942 present 2 Organization 2 1 Publishing 2 2 Funding 3 Beliefs 3 1 Sources of doctrine 3 2 Jehovah 3 3 Jesus 3 4 Satan 3 5 Life after death 3 6 God s kingdom 3 7 Eschatology 3 8 Gender roles 4 Practices 4 1 Worship 4 2 Evangelism 4 3 Ethics and morality 4 4 Disciplinary action 4 5 Separateness 4 6 Rejection of blood transfusions 5 Demographics 6 Sociological analysis 7 Opposition 7 1 Persecution 7 1 1 Canada 7 1 2 Germany 7 1 3 Russia 7 2 Legal challenges 8 Criticism and controversy 8 1 Free speech and thought 8 2 New World Translation 8 3 Unfulfilled predictions 8 4 Handling of sexual abuse cases 9 See also 10 Explanatory notes 11 References 12 Sources 13 External linksHistoryMain article History of Jehovah s Witnesses Background 1870 1916 See also Bible Student movement nbsp Pastor Russell founder of the Watch Tower SocietyIn 1870 Charles Taze Russell and others formed a group in Pittsburgh Pennsylvania to study the Bible 28 During his ministry Russell disputed many of mainstream Christianity s tenets including immortality of the soul hellfire predestination the fleshly return of Jesus Christ the Trinity and the burning up of the world 29 In 1876 he met Nelson H Barbour Later that year they jointly produced the book Three Worlds which combined restitutionist views with end time prophecy 29 The book taught that God s dealings with humanity were divided dispensationally each ending with a harvest that Christ had returned as an invisible spirit being in 1874 29 inaugurating the harvest of the Gospel age and that 1914 would mark the end of a 2 520 year period called the Gentile Times 30 at which time world society would be replaced by the full establishment of God s kingdom on earth 31 Beginning in 1878 Russell and Barbour jointly edited a religious magazine Herald of the Morning 32 In June 1879 the two split over doctrinal differences and in July Russell began publishing the magazine Zion s Watch Tower and Herald of Christ s Presence 33 saying its purpose was to demonstrate that the world was in the last days and that a new age of earthly and human restitution under Christ s reign was imminent 34 From 1879 Watch Tower supporters gathered as autonomous congregations to study the Bible topically Thirty congregations were founded and during 1879 and 1880 Russell visited each to provide the format he recommended for conducting meetings 35 In 1881 Zion s Watch Tower Tract Society was presided over by William Henry Conley and in 1884 Russell incorporated the society as a nonprofit business to distribute tracts and Bibles 36 37 By about 1900 Russell had organized thousands of part and full time colporteurs 33 and was appointing foreign missionaries and establishing branch offices By the 1910s Russell s organization maintained nearly a hundred pilgrims or traveling preachers 38 Russell engaged in significant global publishing efforts during his ministry 39 40 and by 1912 he was the most distributed Christian author in the United States 41 Russell moved the Watch Tower Society s headquarters to Brooklyn New York in 1909 combining printing and corporate offices with a house of worship volunteers were housed in a nearby residence he named Bethel He identified the religious movement as Bible Students and more formally as the International Bible Students Association 42 By 1910 about 50 000 people worldwide were associated with the movement 43 and congregations reelected him annually as their pastor 44 Russell died on October 31 1916 at the age of 64 while returning from a ministerial speaking tour 45 Reorganization 1917 1942 nbsp Joseph F Rutherford founder of Jehovah s WitnessesIn January 1917 the Watch Tower Society s legal representative Joseph Franklin Rutherford was elected as its next president His election was disputed and members of the Board of Directors accused him of acting in an autocratic and secretive manner 46 The divisions between his supporters and opponents triggered a major turnover of members over the next decade 21 47 In June 1917 he released The Finished Mystery as a seventh volume of Russell s Studies in the Scriptures series The book published as Russell s posthumous work was a compilation of his commentaries on the Bible books of Ezekiel and Revelation with numerous additions by Bible Students Clayton Woodworth and George Fisher 48 49 It strongly criticized Catholic and Protestant clergy and Christian involvement in the Great War 50 As a result Watch Tower Society directors were jailed for sedition under the Espionage Act in 1918 and members were subjected to mob violence the directors were released in March 1919 and charges against them were dropped in 1920 51 Rutherford centralized organizational control of the Watch Tower Society In 1919 he instituted the appointment of a director in each congregation and a year later all members were instructed to report their weekly preaching activity to the Brooklyn headquarters 52 Significant changes in doctrine and administration were regularly introduced during Rutherford s 25 years as president including the 1920 announcement that the Hebrew patriarchs such as Abraham and Isaac would be resurrected in 1925 marking the beginning of Christ s thousand year earthly kingdom 53 54 Because of disappointment over the changes and unfulfilled predictions tens of thousands of defections occurred during the first half of Rutherford s tenure leading to the formation of several Bible Student organizations independent of the Watch Tower Society 55 56 57 58 most of which still exist 59 By mid 1919 as many as one in seven of Russell era Bible Students had ceased their association with the Society and as many as three quarters by the end of the 1920s 57 60 61 On July 26 1931 at a convention in Columbus Ohio Rutherford introduced the new name Jehovah s witnesses based on Isaiah 43 10 Ye are my witnesses saith the Lord and my servant whom I have chosen that ye may know and believe me and understand that I am he before me there was no God formed neither shall there be after me King James Version It was adopted by resolution The name was chosen to distinguish his group of Bible Students from other independent groups that had severed ties with the Society as well as to symbolize the instigation of new outlooks and the promotion of fresh evangelizing methods 13 14 In 1932 Rutherford eliminated the system of locally elected elders and in 1938 he introduced what he called a theocratic literally God ruled organizational system under which appointments in congregations worldwide were made from the Brooklyn headquarters 52 From 1932 it was taught that the little flock of 144 000 would not be the only people to survive Armageddon Rutherford explained that in addition to the 144 000 anointed who would be resurrected or transferred at death to live in heaven to rule over earth with Christ a separate class of members the great multitude would live in a paradise restored on earth from 1935 new converts to the movement were considered part of that class 62 63 By the mid 1930s the timing of the beginning of Christ s presence Greek parousia his enthronement as king and the start of the last days were each moved to 1914 64 nbsp Nathan H Knorr the third president of the Watch Tower SocietyAs their interpretations of the Bible evolved Witness publications decreed that saluting national flags is a form of idolatry which led to a new outbreak of mob violence and government opposition in the U S Canada Germany and other countries 65 66 Continued development 1942 present See also Development of Jehovah s Witnesses doctrine and Governing Body of Jehovah s Witnesses Nathan Knorr was appointed as third president of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society in 1942 He commissioned a new translation of the Bible the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures the full version of which was released in 1961 He organized large international assemblies instituted new training programs for members and expanded missionary activity and branch offices throughout the world 67 Knorr s presidency was also marked by increased use of explicit instructions guiding Witnesses lifestyle and conduct and a greater use of congregational judicial procedures to enforce a strict moral code 68 69 From 1966 Witness publications and convention talks built anticipation of the possibility that Christ s thousand year reign might begin in 1975 70 or shortly thereafter 71 72 The number of baptisms increased significantly from about 59 000 in 1966 to more than 297 000 in 1974 By 1975 the number of active members exceeded two million Membership declined during the late 1970s after expectations for 1975 were unfulfilled 73 74 75 76 Watch Tower Society literature did not say that 1975 would definitely mark the end 71 but in 1980 the Watch Tower Society admitted its responsibility in building up hope for that year 77 The offices of elder and ministerial servant were restored to Witness congregations in 1972 with appointments made from headquarters 78 and later by branch committees too It was announced that as of September 2014 appointments would be made by traveling overseers In a major organizational overhaul in 1976 the power of the Watch Tower Society president was diminished with authority for doctrinal and organizational decisions passed to the Governing Body 79 Since Knorr s death in 1977 the presidency has been held by Frederick Franz 80 Milton Henschel 81 Don Alden Adams 82 and Robert Ciranko 83 In 1995 Jehovah s Witnesses abandoned the idea that Armageddon must occur during the lives of the generation that was alive in 1914 84 85 86 In 2023 the Watch Tower Society announced that most Jehovah s Witness members would no longer be required to report the number of hours spent proselytizing 87 OrganizationMain article Organizational structure of Jehovah s Witnesses Jehovah s Witnesses are organized hierarchically in what the leadership calls a theocratic organization reflecting their belief that it is God s visible organization on earth 88 The organization is led by the Governing Body an all male group that varies in size Since February 2023 it has comprised nine members 89 all of whom profess to be of the anointed class with a hope of heavenly life based in the Watch Tower Society s Warwick headquarters 90 91 There is no election for membership the existing body selects new members 92 Until late 2012 the Governing Body described itself as the representative 93 94 and spokesman for God s faithful and discreet slave class then approximately 10 000 self professed anointed Jehovah s Witnesses 95 96 At the 2012 Annual Meeting of the Watch Tower Society the faithful and discreet slave was defined as the Governing Body only 97 The Governing Body directs several committees that are responsible for administrative functions including publishing assembly programs and evangelizing activities 98 It appoints all branch committee members and traveling overseers after they have been recommended by local branches with traveling overseers supervising circuits of congregations within their jurisdictions Traveling overseers appoint local elders and ministerial servants while branch offices may appoint regional committees for matters such as Kingdom Hall construction or disaster relief 99 The leadership and supporting staff lives in properties owned by the organization worldwide called Bethel where they operate as a religious community and administrative unit 100 Their living expenses and those of other full time volunteers are covered by the organization along with a basic monthly stipend 101 102 103 Each congregation has a body of appointed unpaid male elders and ministerial servants Elders maintain general responsibility for congregational governance setting meeting times selecting speakers and conducting meetings directing the public preaching work and creating judicial committees to investigate and decide disciplinary action for cases involving sexual misconduct or doctrinal breaches 104 New elders are appointed by a traveling overseer after recommendation by the existing body of elders Ministerial servants appointed in a similar manner as elders fulfill clerical and attendant duties but may also teach and conduct meetings 98 Witnesses do not use elder as a title to signify a formal clergy laity division 105 though elders may employ ecclesiastical privilege regarding confession of sins 106 Baptism is a requirement for membership in the Jehovah s Witnesses Witnesses do not practice infant baptism 107 and baptisms performed by other denominations are not considered valid 108 People undergoing baptism must affirm publicly that dedication and baptism identify them as one of Jehovah s Witnesses in association with God s spirit directed organization 108 though Witness publications say baptism symbolizes personal dedication to God and not to a man work or organization 109 Their literature emphasizes that members must be obedient and loyal to Jehovah and his organization 110 111 en 3 and that people must remain part of it to receive God s favor and survive Armageddon 112 113 Publishing The organization produces a significant amount of literature as part of its evangelism activities 114 The Watch Tower Society has produced over 227 million copies of the New World Translation in whole or in part in over 185 languages 115 In 2010 The Watchtower and Awake were the world s most widely distributed magazines 116 Funding Much of the Witnesses funding is donated primarily by members There is no tithing or collection 77 In 2001 Newsday listed the Watch Tower Society as one of New York s 40 richest corporations with revenues exceeding 950 million 114 117 The organization reported for the same year that it spent over 70 9 million in caring for special pioneers missionaries and traveling overseers in their field service assignments 118 en 4 BeliefsMain article Jehovah s Witnesses beliefs Sources of doctrine Jehovah s Witnesses believe their denomination is a restoration of first century Christianity 119 Doctrines of Jehovah s Witnesses are established by the Governing Body which assumes responsibility for interpreting and applying scripture 21 The Governing Body does not issue a single comprehensive statement of faith but expresses its doctrinal positions in a variety of ways through publications published by the Watch Tower Society 120 The publications teach that doctrinal changes and refinements result from a process of progressive revelation in which God gradually reveals his will and purpose 121 and that such enlightenment or new light results from the application of reason and study 122 the guidance of the holy spirit and direction from Jesus Christ and angels 123 The Society also teaches that the holy spirit helps the Governing Body discern deep truths which the Governing Body considers before making doctrinal decisions 124 The group s leadership while disclaiming divine inspiration and infallibility 125 is said to provide divine guidance 126 through its teachings described as based on God s Word thus not from men but from Jehovah 127 128 The entire Protestant canon of scripture is considered the inspired inerrant word of God 129 Jehovah s Witnesses consider the Bible scientifically and historically accurate and reliable 130 and interpret much of it literally but accept parts of it as symbolic 131 They consider the Bible the final authority for their beliefs 132 Sociologist Andrew Holden s ethnographic study of the group concluded that pronouncements of the Governing Body through Watch Tower Society publications carry almost as much weight as the Bible 133 Regular personal Bible reading is frequently recommended Witnesses are discouraged from formulating doctrines and private ideas reached through Bible research independent of Watch Tower Society publications and are cautioned against reading other religious literature 134 Adherents are told to have complete confidence in the leadership to avoid skepticism about what is taught in the Watch Tower Society s literature and to not advocate or insist on personal opinions or harbor private ideas when it comes to Bible understanding 125 The organization makes no provision for members to criticize or contribute to its teachings 135 Witnesses must abide by its doctrines and organizational requirements 136 Jehovah nbsp The TetragrammatonJehovah s Witnesses emphasize the use of God s name and they prefer the form Jehovah a vocalization of God s name based on the Tetragrammaton 137 138 139 They believe that Jehovah is the only true God the creator of all things and the Universal Sovereign They believe that all worship should be directed toward him and that he is not part of a Trinity 140 consequently the group places more emphasis on God than on Christ 141 They believe that the Holy Spirit is God s applied power or active force rather than a person 142 Jesus Jehovah s Witnesses believe that Jesus is God s only direct creation that everything else was created through him by means of God s power and that the initial unassisted act of creation uniquely identifies Jesus as God s only begotten Son 143 Jesus served as a redeemer and a ransom sacrifice to pay for the sins of humanity 144 They believe Jesus died on a single upright post rather than the traditional cross 145 Jehovah s Witnesses believe that Jesus was resurrected with a spirit body and that he assumed human form only temporarily after his resurrection 146 Biblical references to the Archangel Michael Abaddon Apollyon and the Word are interpreted as names for Jesus in various roles 147 Jesus is considered the only intercessor and high priest between God and humanity appointed by God as the king and judge of his kingdom 148 His role as a mediator referred to in 1 Timothy 2 5 is applied to the anointed class though the other sheep are said to also benefit from the arrangement 149 Satan Jehovah s Witnesses believe that Satan was originally a perfect angel who developed feelings of self importance and craved worship Satan influenced Adam and Eve to disobey God and humanity subsequently became participants in a challenge involving the competing claims of Jehovah and Satan to universal sovereignty 150 Other angels who sided with Satan became demons Jehovah s Witnesses teach that Satan and his demons were cast down to earth from heaven after October 1 1914 151 at which point the end times began They believe that Satan rules the current world order 150 that human society is influenced and misled by him and his demons and that they are a cause of human suffering They also believe that Satan controls human governments 152 but that he does not directly control every human ruler 153 Life after death Main article Jehovah s Witnesses and salvation Jehovah s Witnesses believe death is a state of nonexistence with no consciousness There is no Hell of fiery torment Hades and Sheol are understood to refer to the condition of death termed the common grave 154 Witnesses consider the soul a life or a living body that can die 155 They believe that humanity is in a sinful state 155 from which release is possible only by means of Jesus shed blood as a ransom or atonement for humankind s sins 156 Jehovah s Witnesses believe that a little flock of 144 000 selected humans go to heaven but that God will resurrect the majority the other sheep to a cleansed earth after Armageddon They interpret Revelation 14 1 5 to mean that the number of Christians going to heaven is limited to exactly 144 000 who will rule with Jesus as kings and priests over earth 157 They believe that baptism as a Jehovah s Witness is vital for salvation 158 and do not recognize baptism from other denominations as valid 159 Jehovah s Witnesses believe that some people who died before Armageddon will be resurrected will be taught the proper way to worship God and face a final test at the end of the millennial reign 160 This judgment will be based on their actions after resurrection rather than past deeds At the end of the thousand years Christ will hand all authority back to God Then a final test will take place when Satan is released to mislead humankind Those who fail will die along with Satan and his demons 161 They also believe that those who rejected their beliefs while still alive will not be resurrected and will continue to experience a state of non existence 162 God s kingdom Jehovah s Witnesses believe that God s kingdom is a literal government in heaven ruled by Jesus Christ and 144 000 spirit anointed Christians drawn from the earth which they associate with Jesus reference to a new covenant 163 The kingdom is viewed as the means by which God will accomplish his original purpose for the earth transforming it into a paradise without sickness or death 164 It is said to have been the focal point of Jesus ministry on earth 165 They believe the kingdom was established in heaven in 1914 166 and that Jehovah s Witnesses serve as the kingdom s representatives on earth 167 Due to their belief in God s kingdom as the only legitimate form of governance Jehovah s Witnesses do not participate in political activities such as voting in elections 168 Eschatology Main article Eschatology of Jehovah s Witnesses A central teaching of Jehovah s Witnesses is that the current world era or system of things entered the last days in 1914 and faces imminent destruction through intervention by God and Jesus Christ leading to deliverance for those who worship God acceptably 169 They consider all other present day religions false identifying them with Babylon the Great the harlot of Revelation 17 170 They believe they will soon be destroyed by the United Nations which they believe is represented in scripture by the scarlet colored wild beast and that this development will mark the beginning of the great tribulation 171 172 Satan will subsequently use world governments to attack Jehovah s Witnesses which will prompt God to begin the war of Armageddon during which all forms of government and all people not counted as Christ s sheep will die After Armageddon God will extend his heavenly kingdom to include earth which will be transformed into a paradise like the Garden of Eden 173 Jehovah s Witnesses believe that Jesus Christ began to rule in heaven as king of God s kingdom in October 1914 and that Satan was subsequently ousted from heaven to the earth resulting in woe to humanity They believe that Jesus rules invisibly from heaven perceived only as a series of signs They base this belief on a rendering of the Greek word parousia usually translated as coming when referring to Christ as presence They believe Jesus presence includes an unknown period beginning with his inauguration as king in heaven in 1914 and ending when he comes to bring final judgment against humans on earth They thus depart from the mainstream Christian belief that the second coming of Matthew 24 refers to a single moment of arrival on earth to judge humans 174 Gender roles Jehovah s Witnesses have a complementarian view of women Only men may hold positions of authority such as ministerial servant or elder Women may actively participate in the public preaching work serve at Bethel 175 and profess to be members of the 144 000 176 They are not typically allowed to address the congregation directly 177 In rare circumstances women can substitute in certain capacities if there are no eligible men In these situations women must wear a head covering if they are performing a teaching role 175 Jehovah s Witnesses believe that transgender people should live as the gender they were assigned at birth and view gender affirming surgery as mutilation 178 PracticesMain article Jehovah s Witnesses practices Worship nbsp Worship at a Kingdom Hall in Portugal nbsp Kingdom Hall in Kuopio FinlandMeetings for worship and study are held at Kingdom Halls which are typically functional in character and do not contain religious symbols 179 Witnesses are assigned to a congregation in whose territory they usually reside and attend weekly services they call meetings scheduled by congregation elders The meetings are largely devoted to study of Watch Tower Society literature and the Bible The meetings format is established by the group s headquarters and the subject matter for most meetings is the same worldwide 179 Congregations meet for two sessions each week comprising five distinct meetings that total about three and a half hours typically gathering midweek three meetings and on the weekend two meetings Until 2009 congregations met three times each week these meetings were condensed with the intention that members dedicate an evening for family worship 180 181 Gatherings are opened and closed with hymns called Kingdom songs and brief prayers 182 Twice each year Witnesses from a number of congregations that form a circuit gather for a one day assembly Larger groups of congregations meet annually for a three day regional convention usually at rented stadiums or auditoriums 183 Their most important and solemn event is the commemoration of the Lord s Evening Meal or Memorial of Christ s Death on the date of the Jewish Passover 184 Evangelism See also Jehovah s Witnesses publications nbsp Jehovah s Witnesses outside the British Museum 2017Jehovah s Witnesses are known for their efforts to spread their beliefs most notably by visiting people s homes 185 186 187 distributing Watch Tower Society literature The objective is to start a regular Bible study with anyone who is not already a member 188 with the intention that the student be baptized as a member of the group Witnesses are advised to consider discontinuing Bible study with students who show no interest in becoming members 189 Converts as a result of their door to door evangelism are rare and happen at a rate comparable with other religions that practice similar preaching methods 190 Witnesses are taught they are under a biblical command to engage in public preaching They are instructed to devote as much time as possible to their ministry and required to submit an individual monthly Field Service Report 191 Those who do not submit reports for six consecutive months are termed inactive 192 From 1920 to 2023 every active Jehovah s Witness was expected to submit the amount of hours they spent preaching in their monthly field service report As of November 1 2023 this requirement was modified to only members who have agreed to a specific hour requirement for example pioneers Other members will only be required to check to indicate they engaged in some form of ministry during the month along with any Bible studies they conducted 193 Ethics and morality All sexual relations outside marriage are grounds for expulsion if the person is not deemed repentant 194 homosexual activity is considered a serious sin and same sex marriage is forbidden Abortion is considered murder 195 Modesty in dress and grooming is frequently emphasized Gambling drunkenness illegal drugs and tobacco use are forbidden 196 Drinking of alcoholic beverages is permitted in moderation 195 The family structure is patriarchal The husband is considered to have authority on family decisions but is encouraged to solicit his wife s thoughts and feelings as well as his children s Marriages are required to be monogamous and legally registered 197 198 Marrying a non believer or endorsing such a union is strongly discouraged and carries religious sanctions 199 200 Divorce is discouraged and remarriage is forbidden unless a divorce is obtained on the grounds of adultery which is called a scriptural divorce 201 If a divorce is obtained for any other reason remarriage is considered adulterous unless the ex spouse has died or is considered to have committed sexual immorality 202 Extreme physical abuse willful non support of one s family and what the denomination terms absolute endangerment of spirituality are accepted as grounds for legal separation 203 204 Disciplinary action Main article Jehovah s Witnesses congregational discipline Marking a curtailing of social but not spiritual fellowship is practiced if a baptized member persists in a course of action regarded as a violation of Bible principles but not a serious sin en 5 Formal discipline is administered by congregation elders when a baptized member is accused of committing a serious sin usually cases of sexual misconduct 104 205 or apostasy for disputing Jehovah s Witness doctrines 206 207 A judicial committee is formed to provide spiritual guidance and determine guilt If considered repentant the person is reproved and loses conspicuous privileges of service but without restriction of social or spiritual fellowship 208 An individual who is not deemed repentant may be disfellowshipped a form of shunning 209 Members who disassociate formally resign are described in Watch Tower Society literature as wicked and are also shunned 210 Procedures related to congregational discipline are primarily described in the book Shepherd the Flock of God provided only to elders 211 Witnesses are taught that avoiding social and spiritual interaction with disfellowshipped people keeps the congregation free from immoral influence and that losing precious fellowship with loved ones may help the shunned person to come to his senses see the seriousness of his wrong and take steps to return to Jehovah 212 The practice of shunning may also serve to deter other members from dissident behavior 213 Contact with disfellowshipped or disassociated people is limited to direct family members living in the same home and with congregation elders who may invite disfellowshipped people to apply for reinstatement 214 Formal business dealings may continue if contractually or financially obliged 215 Former members may experience significant mental distress as a result of being shunned 24 and some seek reinstatement to keep contact with their friends and family 25 Expelled individuals may eventually be reinstated to the congregation if deemed repentant by congregation elders Reinstatement is a long process which may be mentally and emotionally draining 25 Separateness See also Jehovah s Witnesses and governments Jehovah s Witnesses believe that the Bible condemns mixing religions on the basis that there can only be one truth from God and therefore reject interfaith and ecumenical movements 216 They believe that only Jehovah s Witnesses represent true Christianity and that other religions fail to meet all the requirements set by God and will soon be destroyed 217 Jehovah s Witnesses are taught that it is vital to remain separate from the world The Witnesses literature defines the world as the mass of mankind apart from Jehovah s approved servants and teach that it is morally contaminated and ruled by Satan 218 Witnesses are taught that association with worldly people presents a danger to their faith 219 Attending university is discouraged and trade schools are suggested as an alternative 220 221 Post secondary education is considered spiritually dangerous Anthony Morris III a member of the Governing Body has said the most intelligent and eloquent professors will be trying to reshape the thinking of your child and their influence can be tremendous 222 Jehovah s Witnesses believe their allegiance belongs to God s kingdom 223 which is viewed as an actual government in heaven with Christ as king They remain politically neutral do not seek public office and are discouraged from voting though individual members may participate in uncontroversial community improvement issues 224 Although they do not take part in politics they respect the authority of the governments under which they live 225 They do not celebrate religious holidays such as Christmas and Easter nor do they observe birthdays national holidays or other celebrations they consider to honor people other than Jesus They feel that these and many other customs have pagan origins or reflect nationalistic or political spirit Their position is that these traditional holidays reflect Satan s control over the world 226 227 Witnesses are told that spontaneous giving at other times can help their children to not feel deprived of birthdays or other celebrations 228 Witnesses do not work in industries associated with the military do not serve in the armed services 229 and refuse national military service which in some countries may result in their arrest and imprisonment 230 They do not salute or pledge allegiance to flags or sing national anthems or patriotic songs 231 Witnesses see themselves as a worldwide brotherhood that transcends national boundaries and ethnic loyalties 232 Sociologist Ronald Lawson has suggested that the group s intellectual and organizational isolation coupled with the intense indoctrination of adherents rigid internal discipline and considerable persecution has contributed to the consistency of its sense of urgency in its apocalyptic message 233 Rejection of blood transfusions Main article Jehovah s Witnesses and blood transfusions Jehovah s Witnesses refuse blood transfusions which they consider a violation of God s law based on their interpretation of Acts 15 28 29 and other scriptures 234 235 Since 1961 the willing acceptance of a blood transfusion by an unrepentant member has been grounds for expulsion from the group 236 Members are directed to refuse blood transfusions even in a life or death situation 237 238 Jehovah s Witnesses accept non blood alternatives and other medical procedures in lieu of blood transfusions and their literature provides information about non blood medical procedures 239 Jehovah s Witnesses do not accept the transfusion of whole blood packed red cells platelets white cells or plasma Autologous blood donation where one s blood is stored for later use is also considered unacceptable 240 Members may accept some blood plasma fractions at their own discretion 241 The Watch Tower Society provides pre formatted durable power of attorney documents prohibiting major blood components in which members can specify which allowable fractions and treatments they will accept 242 Witnesses have established Hospital Liaison Committees as a cooperative arrangement between individual Witnesses and medical professionals and hospitals to provide information about bloodless treatment options 243 Patients who accept certain blood products in the committee s presence are disassociated from the religion and shunned 244 DemographicsMain article Demographics of Jehovah s Witnesses Jehovah s Witnesses have an active presence in most countries For 2023 Jehovah s Witnesses reported approximately 8 6 million publishers the term they use for members actively involved in preaching in about 118 000 congregations 6 For the same year they reported over 1 8 billion hours spent in preaching activity and conducted Bible studies with more than 7 3 million individuals including those conducted by Witness parents with their children 245 246 4 091 members served as missionaries in 2021 7 In 2023 Jehovah s Witnesses reported a worldwide annual increase of 1 3 Over 20 5 million people attended the annual memorial of Christ s death 6 According to the Watch Tower Society more than 25 600 members have died of COVID 19 247 The official published membership statistics such as those above include only those who submit reports for their personal ministry 248 official statistics do not include inactive and disfellowshipped people or others who attend their meetings As a result only about half of those who self identify as Jehovah s Witnesses in independent demographic studies are considered active by the faith itself 249 250 The 2008 US Pew Forum on Religion amp Public Life survey found a low retention rate among members of the denomination about 37 of people raised in the group continued to identify as Jehovah s Witnesses 251 252 The next lowest retention rates were for Buddhism at 50 and Catholicism at 68 The study also found that 65 of adult U S Jehovah s Witnesses are converts 253 Sociological analysisSee also Sociological classifications of religious movements Sociologist James A Beckford in his 1975 study of Jehovah s Witnesses classified the group s organizational structure as Totalizing characterized by an assertive leadership specific and narrow objectives control over competing demands on members time and energy and control over the quality of new members Other characteristics of the classification include likelihood of friction with secular authorities reluctance to cooperate with other religious organizations a high rate of membership turnover a low rate of doctrinal change and strict uniformity of beliefs among members 254 Beckford identified the group s chief characteristics as historicism identifying historical events as relating to the outworking of God s purpose absolutism conviction that Jehovah s Witness leaders dispense absolute truth activism capacity to motivate members to perform missionary tasks rationalism conviction that Witness doctrines have a rational basis devoid of mystery authoritarianism rigid presentation of regulations without the opportunity for criticism and world indifference rejection of certain secular requirements and medical treatments 255 Sociologist Bryan R Wilson in his consideration of five religious groups including Jehovah s Witnesses noted that each of the denominations 256 exists in a state of tension with the wider society imposes tests of merit on would be members exercises stern discipline regulating the declared beliefs and the life habits of members and prescribing and operating sanctions for those who deviate including the possibility of expulsion demands sustained and total commitment from its members and the subordination and perhaps even the exclusion of all other interests A sociological comparative study by the Pew Research Center found that U S Jehovah s Witnesses ranked highest in getting no further than high school graduation belief in God importance of religion in one s life frequency of religious attendance frequency of prayers frequency of Bible reading outside of religious services belief their prayers are answered belief that their religion can only be interpreted one way belief that theirs is the only one true faith leading to eternal life opposition to abortion and opposition to homosexuality In the study Jehovah s Witnesses ranked lowest in interest in politics 257 258 It was also among the most ethnically diverse U S religious groups 253 OppositionControversy about various beliefs doctrines and practices of Jehovah s Witnesses has led to opposition from governments communities and religious groups Religious commentator Ken Jubber wrote Viewed globally this persecution has been so persistent and of such intensity that it would not be inaccurate to regard Jehovah s Witnesses as the most persecuted group of Christians of the twentieth century 259 Persecution Main article Persecution of Jehovah s Witnesses Political and religious animosity toward Jehovah s Witnesses has at times led to mob action and government oppression in various countries Their political neutrality and refusal to serve in the military has led to imprisonment of members who refused conscription during World War II and at other times where national service has been compulsory Their religious activities are banned or restricted in some countries 260 including China Russia Vietnam and many Muslim majority countries 261 nbsp Countries where Jehovah s Witnesses activities are bannedAuthors including William Whalen Shawn Francis Peters and former Witnesses Barbara Grizzuti Harrison Alan Rogerson and William Schnell have claimed the arrests and mob violence in the U S in the 1930s and 1940s were the consequence of what appeared to be a deliberate course of provocation of authorities and other religious groups by Jehovah s Witnesses 262 263 Harrison Schnell and Whalen have suggested Rutherford invited and cultivated opposition for publicity purposes in a bid to attract dispossessed members of society and to convince members that persecution by the outside world was evidence of the truth of their struggle to serve God 264 265 Watch Tower Society literature of the period directed that Witnesses never seek a controversy nor resist arrest but also advised members not to cooperate with police officers or courts that ordered them to stop preaching and to go to jail rather than pay fines 266 Canada Main article Persecution of Jehovah s Witnesses in Canada In 1940 a year after Canada entered World War II the denomination was banned under the War Measures Act This ban continued until 1943 267 Hundreds of members were prosecuted for being members of an illegal organization 268 Jehovah s Witnesses were interned in camps along with political dissidents and people of Chinese and Japanese descent 269 Jehovah s Witnesses faced discrimination in Quebec until the Quiet Revolution including bans on distributing literature or holding meetings 270 271 Roncarelli v Duplessis was a legal case heard by the Supreme Court of Canada The court held that in 1946 Maurice Duplessis Premier and Attorney General of Quebec had overstepped his authority by ordering the manager of the Liquor Commission to revoke the liquor licence of Frank Roncarelli a Montreal restaurant owner and Jehovah s Witness who was an outspoken critic of the Roman Catholic Church in Quebec Roncarelli provided bail for Jehovah s Witnesses arrested for distributing pamphlets attacking the Roman Catholic Church The Supreme Court found Duplessis liable for 33 123 56 in damages plus Roncarelli s court costs 272 Germany Main article Persecution of Jehovah s Witnesses in Nazi Germany nbsp Jehovah s Witness prisoners were identified by purple triangle badges in Nazi concentration camps In 1933 there were approximately 20 000 Jehovah s Witnesses in Nazi Germany 273 of whom about 10 000 were imprisoned Jehovah s Witnesses suffered religious persecution by the Nazis because they refused military service and allegiance to Hitler s National Socialist Party 274 275 Of those 2 000 were sent to Nazi concentration camps where they were identified by purple triangles 275 as many as 1 200 died including 250 who were executed 276 277 Unlike Jews and Romani who were persecuted on the basis of their ethnicity Jehovah s Witnesses could escape persecution and personal harm by renouncing their religious beliefs by signing a document indicating renunciation of their faith submission to state authority and support of the German military 278 Historian Sybil Milton writes their courage and defiance in the face of torture and death punctures the myth of a monolithic Nazi state ruling over docile and submissive subjects 279 In East Germany from the 1950s to the 1980s Jehovah s Witnesses were persecuted extensively by the State Security Service the Stasi which frequently used decomposition methods against them Jehovah s Witnesses were considered a threat because their beliefs did not conform to socialist standards and their members sometimes had contact with the West 280 Russia Main article Persecution of Jehovah s Witnesses in Russia In April 1951 about 9 300 Jehovah s Witnesses in the Soviet Union were deported to Siberia as part of Operation North 281 In April 2017 the Supreme Court of Russia labeled Jehovah s Witnesses an extremist organization banned its activities in Russia and issued an order to confiscate its assets 282 Legal challenges Main article Supreme Court cases involving Jehovah s Witnesses by country Several cases involving Jehovah s Witnesses have been heard by Supreme Courts worldwide 283 They generally relate to the right to practice their religion displays of patriotism and military service and blood transfusions 284 In the U S legal challenges by Jehovah s Witnesses prompted a series of state and federal court rulings that reinforced judicial protections for civil liberties 285 286 Among the rights strengthened by Witness court victories in the U S are the protection of religious conduct from federal and state interference the right to abstain from patriotic rituals and military service the right of patients to refuse medical treatment and the right to engage in public discourse 287 Similar cases in their favor have been heard in Canada 288 Criticism and controversyMain article Criticism of Jehovah s Witnesses Jehovah s Witnesses have been criticized by mainstream Christians members of the medical community and former members and commentators for their beliefs and practices The movement has been accused of doctrinal inconsistency and reversals failed predictions mistranslation of the Bible harsh treatment and shunning of former members and autocratic and coercive leadership Criticism has also focused on the rejection of blood transfusions particularly in life threatening medical situations and failing to report cases of sexual abuse to the authorities Free speech and thought nbsp Raymond Franz 1922 2010 writer of Crisis of Conscience former member of the Governing Body of Jehovah s Witnesses and critic of the institutionJehovah s Witnesses doctrines are established by the Governing Body 289 290 The denomination does not tolerate dissent over doctrines and practices 291 members who openly disagree with the group s teachings are expelled and shunned 207 Witness publications strongly discourage followers from questioning doctrine and counsel received from the Governing Body reasoning that it is to be trusted as part of God s organization 291 It also warns members to avoid independent thinking claiming such thinking was introduced by Satan the Devil 292 293 and would cause division 294 Those who openly disagree with official teachings are condemned as apostates who are mentally diseased 213 295 Recent research indicates that the effects of control of free speech and thought and shunning disciplinary practice are detrimental to the individual s well being physically psychologically and spiritually Psychological distress depression panic attacks and suicidal thoughts have been also reported as possible consequences of being shunned The psychological impact of losing family and friends caused by the shunning policy is the major cause of harm and its effects are long lasting Shame and guilt loss of social identity social death ambiguous loss and self esteem issues are further consequences which underline the deep psychological and emotional impact of shunning 25 Former members Heather and Gary Botting compare the cultural paradigms of the denomination to George Orwell s Nineteen Eighty Four 91 and Alan Rogerson describes the group s leadership as totalitarian 296 Other critics say that by disparaging individual decision making the group s leaders cultivate a system of unquestioning obedience 134 297 in which Witnesses abrogate all responsibility and rights over their personal lives 298 299 Critics also accuse the group s leaders of exercising intellectual dominance over Witnesses 300 controlling information 207 301 302 and creating mental isolation which former Governing Body member Raymond Franz argued were all elements of mind control 303 Jehovah s Witness publications state that consensus of faith aids unity and deny that it restricts individuality or imagination 304 Historian James Irvin Lichti has rejected the description of the denomination as totalitarian 305 Sociologist Rodney Stark states that Jehovah s Witness leaders are not always very democratic and that members are expected to conform to rather strict standards but adds that enforcement tends to be very informal sustained by the close bonds of friendship within the group and that Witnesses see themselves as part of the power structure rather than subject to it 75 Sociologist Andrew Holden states that most members who join millenarian movements such as Jehovah s Witnesses have made an informed choice 306 but that defectors are seldom allowed a dignified exit 213 and describes the administration as autocratic 289 Some Jehovah s Witnesses describe themselves to academics as Physically In Mentally Out PIMO these individuals privately question certain doctrine but remain inside the organization to keep contact with their friends and family 177 New World Translation Main article New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures Various Bible scholars including Bruce M Metzger 307 and MacLean Gilmour 308 have said that while scholarship is evident in New World Translation its rendering of certain texts is inaccurate and biased in favor of Witness practices and doctrines 98 309 310 311 312 313 Critics of the group such as Edmund C Gruss 314 and Christian writers such as Ray C Stedman 315 Walter Martin Norman Klann 316 and Anthony Hoekema 317 state that the New World Translation is scholastically dishonest Most criticism of the New World Translation relates to its rendering of the New Testament particularly regarding the introduction of the name Jehovah and in passages related to the Trinity doctrine 318 319 Unfulfilled predictions Main article Unfulfilled Watch Tower Society predictions Watch Tower Society publications have claimed that God has used Jehovah s Witnesses and formerly the International Bible Students to declare his will and provided advance knowledge of Armageddon and the establishment of God s kingdom 320 Some publications also claimed that God has used Jehovah s Witnesses and the International Bible Students as a modern day prophet en 6 George D Chryssides stated while prediction may be part of a biblical prophet s role the root meaning of prophecy is that of proclaiming God s word He went on to say Jehovah s Witnesses are the recipients of prophecy who regard themselves as invested with the interpretation of biblical writings 321 en 7 With these interpretations Jehovah s Witnesses publications have made various predictions about world events they believe were prophesied in the Bible 322 Some failed predictions had been presented as beyond doubt or approved by God 323 The Watch Tower Society rejects accusations that it is a false prophet 324 saying that its interpretations are not inspired or infallible 325 and that it has not claimed its predictions were the words of Jehovah 324 Chryssides has suggested that with the exception of statements about 1914 1925 and 1975 the changing views and dates of the Jehovah s Witnesses are largely attributable to changed understandings of biblical chronology rather than to failed predictions Chryssides adds it is therefore simplistic and naive to view the Witnesses as a group that continues to set a single end date that fails and then devise a new one as many counter cultists do 326 Sociologist Andrew Holden wrote that since the foundation of the movement around 140 years ago Witnesses have maintained that we are living on the precipice of the end of time 327 Handling of sexual abuse cases Main article Jehovah s Witnesses handling of child sex abuse nbsp Case Study of Jehovah s Witnesses in Australia s Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual AbuseJehovah s Witnesses have been accused of having policies and culture that help to conceal cases of sexual abuse within the organization 328 The group has been criticized for its two witness rule for church discipline based on its application of scriptures in Deuteronomy 19 15 and Matthew 18 15 17 which requires sexual abuse to be substantiated by secondary evidence if the accused person denies any wrongdoing 329 330 In cases where corroboration is lacking the Watch Tower Society s instruction is that the elders will leave the matter in Jehovah s hands 331 A former member of the headquarters staff Barbara Anderson says the policy effectively requires that there be another witness to an act of molestation which is an impossibility Anderson says the policies protect pedophiles rather than protect the children 332 Jehovah s Witnesses maintain that they have a strong policy to protect children adding that the best way to protect children is by educating parents they also say they do not sponsor activities that separate children from parents 333 The group s failure to report abuse allegations to authorities has also been criticized 334 The Watch Tower Society s policy is that elders inform authorities when required by law to do so but otherwise leave that up to the victim and their family 335 William Bowen a former Jehovah s Witness elder who established the Silentlambs organization to assist sex abuse victims in the denomination has claimed Witness leaders discourage followers from reporting incidents of sexual misconduct to authorities and other critics claim the organization is reluctant to alert authorities to protect its crime free reputation 328 336 In court cases in the United Kingdom and the U S the Watch Tower Society has been found negligent in failing to protect children from known sex offenders within the congregation 337 338 The Society has settled other child abuse lawsuits out of court reportedly paying as much as 780 000 to one plaintiff without admitting wrongdoing 332 In 2017 the Charity Commission for England and Wales began an inquiry into Jehovah s Witnesses handling of allegations of child sexual abuse in the United Kingdom 339 340 The Australian Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse found that there was no evidence before the Royal Commission of the Jehovah s Witness organisation having or not having reported to police any of the 1 006 alleged perpetrators of child sexual abuse identified by the organisation since 1950 290 The Royal Commission also found that the Watch Tower Society legal department routinely provided incorrect information to elders based on an incorrect understanding of what constitutes a legal obligation to report crimes in Australia 341 342 In 2021 Jehovah s Witnesses in Australia agreed to join the nation s redress scheme for sexual assault survivors to maintain its charity status there 343 In Japan after the publication of the guideline for Shukyō nisei which aimed at addressing the problem of the Unification Church related to the assassination of Shinzo Abe some lawyers conducted a survey on alleged Jehovah s Witness child abuse According to the press conference almost ninety percent of respondents had experienced various forms of religious abuse including sexual abuse 344 345 346 See alsoBibliography of works on Jehovah s WitnessesExplanatory notes a b The Watch Tower Society provides average and peak figures Regarding the peak figures The Watchtower August 15 2011 states Peak publishers is the highest number reporting for any one month of the service year and may include late reports that were not added to the preceding month s report In this way some publishers may be counted twice For this reason the average figure is used here Based on Isaiah 43 10 12 12 the name was restyled as Jehovah s Witnesses with capital W in the 1970s Raymond Franz In Search of Christian Freedom 2007 p 449 cites various Watch Tower Society publications that stress loyalty and obedience to the organization including Following Faithful Shepherds with Life in View The Watchtower October 1 1967 p 591 Jehovah s Word Is Alive Highlights From Book Five of Psalms The Watchtower September 1 2006 p 15 Your Reminders Are What I Am Fond Of The Watchtower June 15 2006 p 26 Are You Prepared for Survival The Watchtower May 15 2006 p 22 Worship The Only True God Watchtower Bible and Tract Society 2002 p 134 2013 Yearbook of Jehovah s Witnesses p 178 A common example given is a baptized Witness who dates a non Witness see Questions From Readers The Watchtower July 15 1999 p 30 Raymond Franz cites numerous examples In Crisis of Conscience 2002 pg 173 he quotes from They Shall Know That a Prophet Was Among Them The Watchtower April 1 1972 pp 197 200 which states that God had raised Jehovah s Witnesses as a prophet to warn people of dangers and declare things to come He also cites Identifying the Right Kind of Messenger The Watchtower May 1 1997 p 8 which identifies the Witnesses as his true messengers by making the messages he delivers through them come true in contrast to false messengers whose predictions fail In In Search of Christian Freedom 2007 he quotes Commissioned to Speak in the Divine Name Watchtower Bible and Tract Society 1971 pp 70 292 which describes Witnesses as the modern Ezekiel class a genuine prophet within our generation The Watch Tower book noted Concerning the message faithfully delivered by the Ezekiel class Jehovah positively states that it must come true those who wait undecided until it does come true will also have to know that a prophet himself had proved to be in the midst of them He also cites Execution of the Great Harlot Nears The Watchtower October 15 1980 p 17 which claims God gives the Witnesses special knowledge that others do not have advance knowledge about this system s end In Jehovah s Witnesses Continuity and Change Chryssides states after discussing the April 1 1972 Watchtower article that It would be tedious to comment on each passage in which Watch Tower literature explains the Jehovah s Witnesses position on prophecy Some of it may lack the precision that its detractors appear to demand but the Society s position is quite clear Jehovah s Witnesses do not claim to have any new revelation or people who are designated as prophets As cessationists they identify the ability to prophesy as a gift that died out with the first generation of Christians but prophetic utterances remain in the Bible which serves as the key source of authority since the Bible is held to contain predictive prophecy Jehovah s Witnesses claim to see into the future through the Society s interpretation of scripture pg 225 References Historical Dictionary of Jehovah s Witnesses Rowman amp Littlefield 2019 p 164 ISBN 9781538119525 Cobb v Brede California Superior Court San Mateo County February 22 2012 a b Stanley I Kutler ed 2003 Jehovah s Witnesses Dictionary of American History 3rd ed New York Charles Scribner s Sons ISBN 978 0 684 80533 7 Rogerson 1969 p 55 Bergman 1995 p 33 a b c d e 2023 Grand Totals Watchtower Bible and Tract Society 2023 Retrieved January 9 2024 a b Missionaries to the Most Distant Part of the Earth jw org June 1 2021 Retrieved March 22 2024 Currently there are 3 090 field missionaries worldwide These missionaries are assigned to congregations where there is a need in the preaching work Another 1 001 field missionaries serve in the circuit work Sources for descriptors Millenarian Beckford 1975 pp 118 119 151 200 201 Restorationist Stark Rodney Iannaccone Laurence R 1997 Why the Jehovah s Witnesses Grow so Rapidly A Theoretical Application PDF Journal of Contemporary Religion 12 2 133 157 doi 10 1080 13537909708580796 Archived from the original PDF on December 28 2017 Retrieved December 27 2017 Protestant Bergman 1995 pp 33 46 Christian Who is a Christian www religioustolerance org Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance Archived from the original on May 11 2000 Retrieved December 27 2017 Religious Landscape Study Pew Research Center s Religion amp Public Life Project Pew Research Center May 11 2015 Retrieved December 27 2017 World Almanac and Book of Facts New York NY Infobase Learning 2011 pp 704 705 ISBN 978 1 60057 133 6 Denomination Jehovah s Witnesses at a glance BBC September 29 2009 Retrieved December 27 2017 Jehovah s Witness TheFreeDictionary com The American Heritage Dictionary Retrieved December 27 2017 Imprisoned for Their Faith Jehovah s Witnesses in Auschwitz auschwitz org Auschwitz Birkenau State Museum February 5 2004 Retrieved December 27 2017 Jehovah s Witness Britannica Concise Encyclopedia Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc 2007 ISBN 978 1 59339 293 2 Michael Hill ed 1972 The Embryonic State of a Religious Sect s Development The Jehovah s Witnesses Sociological Yearbook of Religion in Britain 5 11 12 Leo P Chall 1978 Sociological Abstracts Sociology of Religion 26 1 3 193 Bearers of the Fear inspiring Name The Watchtower Watch Tower Society November 1 1961 p 654 a b Rogerson 1969 p 55 a b Beckford 1975 p 30 Franz 2007 pp 274 275 Edwards Linda 2001 A Brief Guide to Beliefs Louisville Kentucky Westminster John Knox Press p 438 ISBN 978 0 664 22259 8 Chryssides 2008 p 100 Singelenberg Richard 1989 It Separated the Wheat From the Chaff The 1975 Prophecy and its Impact Among Dutch Jehovah s Witnesses Sociological Analysis 50 Spring 1989 23 40 doi 10 2307 3710916 JSTOR 3710916 Penton 1997 p 280 283 Beckford 1975 p 221 Doctrine has always emanated from the Society s elite in Brooklyn and has never emerged from discussion among or suggestion from rank and file Witnesses a b c Penton 1997 pp 58 61 62 Chryssides George D 1999 Exploring New Religions London Continuum p 5 ISBN 978 0 8264 5959 6 Chryssides 2016 pp 139 140 a b Ransom Heather Monk Rebecca Heim Derek 2021 Grieving the Living The Social Death of Former Jehovah s Witnesses Journal of Religion and Health 61 3 2458 2480 doi 10 1007 s10943 020 01156 8 PMC 9142413 PMID 33469793 a b c d e Grendele Windy Bapir Tardy Savin Flax Maya 2023 Experiencing Religious Shunning Insights into the Journey From Being a Member to Leaving the Jehovah s Witnesses Community Pastoral Pyschology doi 10 1007 s11089 023 01074 y S2CID 259447164 Knox 2018 pp 3 4 Botting 1993 pp 1 13 Rogerson 1969 p 6 a b c Beckford 1975 p 2 Crompton 1996 pp 37 39 Russell Charles 1889 The Time is at Hand Watch Tower Society p 101 Botting amp Botting 1984 p 36 a b Holden 2002 p 18 Prospectus Zion s Watch Tower July 1 1879 p 1 Part 1 United States of America 1975 Yearbook of Jehovah s Witnesses Watch Tower Society 1975 p 38 Chryssides 2008 p xxxiv Vergilius Ture Anselm Ferm 1948 Religion in the Twentieth Century Philosophical Library p 383 Holden 2002 p 19 A Chronology and Glossary of Propaganda in the United States Greenwood Press 1996 p 35 Penton 1997 pp 26 29 W T Ellis October 3 1912 Title unknown The Continent Vol 43 no 40 McCormick Publishing Company p 1354 by Walter H Conser Sumner B Twiss 1997 Religious Diversity and American Religious History University of Georgia Press p 136 The New Schaff Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge Vol 7 1910 p 374 Penton 1997 p 26 Rogerson 1969 p 31 Penton 1997 p 53 Crompton 1996 p 101 Lawson John D 1921 American State Trials Vol 13 Thomas Law Book Company p viii Crompton 1996 pp 84 85 Penton 1997 p 55 Rogerson 1969 p 44 a b Franz 2007 Chapter 4 Franz 2007 p 144 Chryssides George D 2010 How Prophecy Succeeds The Jehovah s Witnesses and Prophetic Expectations International Journal for the Study of New Religions 1 1 27 48 doi 10 1558 ijsnr v1i1 27 ISSN 2041 952X Rogerson 1969 pp 39 52 Herbert H Stroup 1945 The Jehovah s Witnesses New York Columbia University Press pp 14 15 a b Penton 1997 pp 58 61 Gruss Edmond C 2001 Jehovah s Witnesses Their Claims Doctrinal Changes and Prophetic Speculation What Does the Record Show Xulon Press p 218 ISBN 978 1 931232 30 2 Reed David 1993 Whither the Watchtower Christian Research Journal 27 Archived from the original on September 9 2011 Thirty Years a Watchtower Slave William J Schnell Baker Grand Rapids 1956 as cited by Rogerson 1969 p 52 Rogerson notes that it is not clear exactly how many Bible Students left but quotes Rutherford Jehovah 1934 page 277 as saying only a few who left other religions were then in God s organization Gruss Edmond C 1970 Apostles of Denial An Examination and Expose of the History Doctrines and Claims of the Jehovah s Witnesses Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Co p 265 ISBN 978 0 87552 305 7 Beckford 1975 p 31 Penton 1997 pp 71 72 Crompton 1996 pp 109 110 Beckford 1975 p 35 Garbe Detlef 2008 Between Resistance and Martyrdom Jehovah s Witnesses in the Third Reich Madison Wisconsin University of Wisconsin Press p 145 ISBN 978 0 299 20794 6 Beckford 1975 pp 47 52 Beckford 1975 pp 52 55 Penton 1997 pp 89 90 Chryssides 2008 p 19 a b Penton 1997 p 95 Botting amp Botting 1984 p 46 Franz Raymond 2002 1975 The Appropriate Time for God to Act PDF Crisis of Conscience Commentary Press pp 237 253 ISBN 978 0 914675 23 5 Retrieved July 27 2006 Singelenberg Richard 1989 The 1975 Prophecy and Its Impact Among Dutch Jehovah s Witnesses Sociological Analysis 50 1 23 40 doi 10 2307 3710916 JSTOR 3710916 Archived from the original on October 1 2015 Retrieved July 27 2006 Notes a nine percent drop in total publishers door to door preachers and a 38 per cent drop in pioneers full time preachers in the Netherlands a b Stark and Iannoccone 1997 Why the Jehovah s Witnesses Grow So Rapidly A Theoretical Application PDF Journal of Contemporary Religion 142 143 Archived from the original PDF on April 12 2019 Retrieved July 16 2013 Dart John January 30 1982 Defectors Feel Witness Wrath Critics say Baptism Rise Gives False Picture of Growth Los Angeles Times p B4 Cited statistics showing a net increase of publishers worldwide from 1971 to 1981 of 737 241 while baptisms totaled 1 71 million for the same period a b Hesse Hans 2001 Persecution and Resistance of Jehovah s Witnesses During the Nazi Regime Chicago Edition Temmen c o pp 296 298 ISBN 978 3 861 08750 2 Chryssides 2008 pp 32 112 Chryssides 2008 p 64 Ostling Richard Witness Under Prosecution Time Archived from the original on September 30 2007 Retrieved November 13 2023 Milton Henschel 72 Executive Who Led Jehovah s Witnesse The New York Times March 30 2003 Retrieved November 13 2023 Yearbook of American amp Canadian Churches 2009 Volume 2009 by Eileen W Lindner Abingdon Press p 131 McCoy Daniel J 2021 The Popular Handbook of World Religions Harvest House Publishers p 287 Penton 1997 p 317 Joel P Engardio December 18 1995 Apocalypse Later Newsweek Vol 236 no 3146 pp 24 25 Bibcode 2017NewSc 236Q 24L doi 10 1016 S0262 4079 17 31969 3 Jehovah s Witnesses Abandon Key Tenet Doctrine Sect has quietly retreated from prediction that those alive in 1914 would see end of world Los Angeles Times November 4 1995 Timekeepers no more rank and file Jehovah s Witnesses say goodbye to tracking proselytizing hours AP News November 22 2023 Retrieved March 24 2024 Penton 1997 p 211 What Is the Governing Body of Jehovah s Witnesses Official website of Jehovah s Witnesses Watch Tower Society 2007 Yearbook of Jehovah s Witnesses Watch Tower Society pp 4 6 a b Botting amp Botting 1984 p page needed Franz 2007 p 123 How the Governing Body Is Organized The Watchtower May 15 2008 p 29 Seek God s Guidance in All Things The Watchtower April 15 2008 p 11 Franz 2007 p 153 Preaching and Teaching Earth Wide 2009 Grand Totals 2010 Yearbook of Jehovah s Witnesses Watch Tower Society 2010 p 42 Annual Meeting Report Official website of Jehovah s Witnesses Watch Tower Society a b c Penton 1997 pp 174 176 Penton 1997 p 101 233 235 Chryssides 2008 pp 17 18 Penton M James 2015 Apocalypse Delayed The Story of Jehovah s Witnesses 3rd ed University of Toronto Press pp 326 460 461 ISBN 978 1442616059 Botting amp Botting 1984 p 32 Watchtower Society Encyclopedia of American Religion and Politics p 466 a b Gallagher Eugene V Ashcraft W Michael 2006 Introduction to New and Alternative Religions in America vol 2 Westport Connecticut Greenwood Press p 69 ISBN 978 0 275 98712 1 Taylor Elizabeth J 2012 Religion A Clinical Guide for Nurses Springer Publishing Company p 163 ISBN 978 0 8261 0860 9 Case Study 29 Transcript day 147 PDF Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse July 27 2015 p 16 Hoekema 1963 p 291 a b Franz 2007 pp 116 120 Chryssides 2008 p 14 Franz 2007 pp 449 464 Holden 2002 p 32 30 What You Must Do to Live Forever You Can Live Forever in Paradise on Earth Watch Tower Society 1989 p 255 You Can Live Forever in Paradise on Earth But How The Watchtower February 15 1983 p 12 a b Meyers Jim October 2010 Jehovah s Witnesses Publishing Titans PDF Newsmax West Palm Beach FL Newsmax Media Online Bible Official website of Jehovah s Witnesses Watch Tower Society Joe Pompeo September 30 2010 Did You Know The Most Widely Circulated Magazine In The World Is The Monthly Publication Of Jehovah s Witnesses Business Insider At the Top NYC Company Profiles NYC 40 Newsday Archived from the original on November 12 2020 Retrieved July 30 2019 2002 Yearbook of Jehovah s Witnesses Watch Tower Society 2002 p 31 Van Voorst Robert E 2012 RELG World Cengage Learning p 288 ISBN 978 1 1117 2620 1 Beckford 1975 p 119 Penton 1997 pp 165 171 Penton 1997 p 165 Rutherford Joseph 1933 Preparation Watch Tower Society pp 64 67 The Spirit Searches into the Deep Things of God The Watchtower July 15 2010 p 23 a b Do We Need Help to Understand the Bible The Watchtower February 15 1981 p 19 Do You See the Evidence of God s Guidance The Watchtower April 15 2011 pp 3 5 Unity Identifies True Worship The Watchtower September 15 2010 p 13 Overseers of Jehovah s People The Watchtower June 15 1957 pp 369 375 Penton 1997 p 172 Archaeology and the Inspired Record All Scripture is Inspired of God Watch Tower Society 1990 p 336 All Scripture Is Inspired of God and Beneficial All Scripture is Inspired of God Watch Tower Society 1990 p 9 Jehovah s Witnesses Reasoning From The Scriptures Watch Tower Society 1989 pp 199 208 Holden 2002 p 67 a b James A Beverley Crisis of Allegiance Welch Publishing Company Burlington Ontario 1986 ISBN 0 920413 37 4 pages 25 26 101 Beckford 1975 pp 84 89 92 119 120 Questions From Readers The Watchtower April 1 1986 pp 30 31 Holden 2002 p 24 Ringnes Hege Kristin Sodal Helje Kringlebotn eds 2009 Jehovas vitner en flerfaglig studie in Norwegian Oslo Universitetsforlaget p 27 ISBN 978 82 15 01453 1 Holden A 2002 Cavorting With the Devil Jehovah s Witnesses Who Abandon Their Faith PDF Department of Sociology Lancaster University Lancaster LA1 4YL UK p Endnote i Retrieved April 4 2017 Rogerson 1969 p 87 Beckford 1975 p 105 Rogerson 1969 p 90 Hoekema 1963 p 262 Hoekema 1963 pp 276 277 Penton 1997 p 372 After Jesus Resurrection Was His Body Flesh or Spirit Jehovah s Witnesses Official Website jw org Retrieved April 26 2022 Hoekema 1963 p 270 Stay in the City of Refuge and Live The Watchtower November 15 1995 p 19 Penton 1997 pp 188 189 a b Penton 1997 pp 188 190 Hoekema 1963 pp 298 299 Holden 2002 p 25 Identifying the Wild Beast and Its Mark The Watchtower April 1 2004 p 5 Hoekema 1963 pp 322 324 a b Hoekema 1963 pp 265 269 Penton 1997 p 186 Penton 1997 pp 193 194 Chryssides 2022 p 11 Chryssides 2022 p 99 Hoekema 1963 pp 315 319 Hoekema 1963 pp 307 321 Chryssides 2022 p 162 Hoekema 1963 pp 295 296 Rogerson 1969 p 106 God s Kingdom Earth s New Rulership The Watchtower October 15 2000 p 10 Hoekema 1963 p 298 Rogerson 1969 p 105 Chryssides 2022 p 89 Hoekema 1963 p 297 Hoekema 1963 pp 286 Tell Us When Will These Things Be The Watchtower July 15 2013 pp 4 5 Apocalypse When The Watchtower February 15 1986 p 6 Penton 1997 p 180 Penton 1997 pp 17 19 a b Chryssides 2022 p 67 Chryssides 2022 p 68 a b Chryssides 2022 p 13 Sharzer Leonard Jones David Alipour Mehrdad Pacha Kesley 2020 Gender Confirmation Surgery Principles and Techniques for an Emerging Field pp 237 257 ISBN 978 3 030 29093 1 a b Holden 2002 pp 64 69 Highlights of the Past Year Yearbook of Jehovah s Witnesses Watch Tower Society 2010 p 6 Christian Families Keep Ready The Watchtower May 15 2011 p 14 Torres Prunonosa Jose Plaza Navas Miquel Angel Brown Silas 2022 Jehovah s Witnesses adoption of digitally mediated services during Covid 19 pandemic Cogent Social Sciences 8 1 doi 10 1080 23311886 2022 2071034 hdl 10261 268521 S2CID 248581687 Organized to Do Jehovah s Will Watch Tower Society 2015 pp 63 64 Hoekema 1963 p 292 Crompton 1996 p 5 Rogerson 1969 p 1 Whalen William J 1962 Armageddon Around the Corner A Report on Jehovah s Witnesses New York John Day Company pp 15 18 Ringnes amp Sodal 2009 p 43 Botting amp Botting 1984 p 77 Iannaccone Laurence Stark Rodney 2009 Door Knockers Knocked Touchstone A Journal of Mere Christianity 22 3 43 ISSN 0897 327X Botting amp Botting 1984 p 52 Keep the Word of Jehovah Moving Speedily Our Kingdom Ministry October 1 1982 p 1 Smith Peter Timekeepers no more rank and file Jehovah s Witnesses say goodbye to tracking proselytizing hours The Independent Retrieved December 7 2023 Chryssides G D 1999 Exploring New Religions Continuum International Publishing Group p 103 ISBN 978 0 304 33651 7 a b Holden 2002 pp 26 27 173 Penton 1997 pp 152 180 The Bible s Viewpoint What Does It Mean to Be the Head of the House Awake July 8 2004 p 26 Christian Weddings That Bring Joy The Watchtower April 15 1984 p 11 Shepherd the Flock of God Watch Tower Society pp 37 38 124 125 Questions From Readers The Watchtower March 15 1982 p 31 Penton 1997 pp 110 112 Adultery Insight on the Scriptures Vol 1 p 53 Marriage Why Many Walk Out Awake July 8 1993 p 6 When Marital Peace Is Threatened The Watchtower November 1 1988 p 22 Beckford 1975 pp 54 55 Penton 1997 pp 106 108 a b c Muramoto O August 1998 Bioethics of the refusal of blood by Jehovah s Witnesses Part 1 Should bioethical deliberation consider dissidents views Journal of Medical Ethics 24 4 223 230 doi 10 1136 jme 24 4 223 PMC 1377670 PMID 9752623 Questions From Readers The Watchtower January 1 1983 pp 30 31 McIlveney Fiona Pace Nick 2004 Jehovah s Witnesses Anaesthesia amp Intensive Care Medicine 5 2 57 59 doi 10 1383 anes 5 2 57 28690 Franz Raymond Crisis of Conscience p 358 Shepherd the Flock of God PDF Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania INC Brooklyn New York USA 2010 When a Loved One Leaves Jehovah The Watchtower No September 2021 pp 26 31 Archived from the original on August 13 2023 a b c Holden 2002 p 163 Display Christian Loyalty When a Relative Is Disfellowshipped Our Kingdom Ministry August 1 2002 pp 3 4 Disfellowshipping How to View It The Watchtower September 15 1981 p 24 Beckford 1975 p 202 Worship That God Approves What Does The Bible Really Teach p 145 Holden 2002 p 12 Bryan R Wilson 1993 The Persistence of Sects Journal of the British Association for the Study of Religions 1 2 Chryssides 2008 p 47 Ingersoll Wood Carrie S 2022 The Educational Identity Formation of Jehovah s Witnesses Religion amp Education Religion amp Education 49 3 310 338 doi 10 1080 15507394 2022 2102875 S2CID 251542550 Ploeg Luke Lack Of Education Leads To Lost Dreams And Low Income For Many Jehovah s Witnesses NPR Retrieved September 23 2022 What Should Christians Do Today The Watchtower Watch Tower Society May 1 2012 p 7 Questions From Readers The Watchtower November 1 1999 p 28 Why Do Jehovah s Witnesses Maintain Political Neutrality Watch Tower Society Reasoning From The Scriptures Watch Tower Society p 178 Keep Yourselves in God s Love The Watchtower August 15 2009 p 22 Work to Preserve Your Family Into God s New World The Watchtower October 15 1992 p 21 Worship the Only True God Watch Tower Society 2002 p 159 Korea government promises to adopt alternative service system for conscientious objectors Jehovah s Witnesses Official Media Web Site Office of Public Information of Jehovah s Witnesses October 4 2007 Archived from the original on December 24 2009 Education Watch Tower Society 2002 pp 20 23 Owens Gene September 1 1997 Trials of a Jehovah s Witness The Faith of Journalists Nieman Reports Ronald Lawson 1995 Sect state relations Accounting for the differing trajectories of Seventh Day Adventists and Jehovah s Witnesses Sociology of Religion 56 4 351 377 doi 10 2307 3712195 JSTOR 3712195 Penton 1997 p i Holden 2002 p 91 Muramoto O January 6 2001 Bioethical aspects of the recent changes in the policy of refusal of blood by Jehovah s Witnesses BMJ 322 7277 37 39 doi 10 1136 bmj 322 7277 37 PMC 1119307 PMID 11141155 Bowman R M Beisner E C Ehrenborg T 1995 Jehovah s Witnesses Zondervan p 13 ISBN 978 0 310 70411 9 Botting amp Botting 1984 pp 29 30 How Blood Can Save Your Life Watch Tower Society 1990 pp 13 17 Gohel MS Bulbaria RA Slim FJ Poskitt KR Whyman MR 2005 How to approach major surgery where patients refuse blood transfusion including Jehovah s Witnesses Annals of the Royal College of Surgeons of England 87 1 3 14 doi 10 1308 1478708051414 PMC 1963852 PMID 15720900 Sniesinski Chen EP Levy JH Szlam F Tanaka KA et al April 1 2007 Coagulopathy After Cardiopulmonary Bypass in Jehovah s Witness Patients Management of Two Cases Using Fractionated Components and Factor VIIa PDF Anesthesia amp Analgesia 104 4 763 5 doi 10 1213 01 ane 0000250913 45299 f3 PMID 17377078 S2CID 45882634 Archived from the original PDF on December 18 2008 Retrieved December 30 2008 Durable Power of Attorney form Watch Tower Society January 2001 p 1 Examples of permitted fractions are Interferon Immune Serum Globulins Archived January 6 2008 at the Wayback Machine and Factor VIII preparations made from Hemoglobin such as PolyHeme Archived July 23 2008 at the Wayback Machine and Hemopure Examples of permitted procedures involving the medical use of one s own blood include cell salvage Archived July 6 2008 at the Wayback Machine hemodilution Archived September 7 2008 at the Wayback Machine heart lung machine dialysis epidural blood patch Archived September 5 2008 at the Wayback Machine plasmapheresis blood labeling or tagging Archived January 6 2008 at the Wayback Machine and platelet gel Archived January 6 2008 at the Wayback Machine autologous Kim Archer May 15 2007 Jehovah s Witness liaisons help surgeons adapt Tulsa World Smith Stephen Jehovah s Witnesses defend hospital visits that push for bloodless treatment CBC News Retrieved May 19 2023 Question Box Our Kingdom Ministry Watch Tower Society November 1 2003 p 3 Question Box May both parents report the time used for the regular family study Our Kingdom Ministry September 1 2008 p 3 2021 Governing Body Update 10 Watch Tower Society Jehovah s Witnesses Official Media Web Site Our History and Organization Membership Office of Public Information of Jehovah s Witnesses Archived from the original on December 4 2012 U S Religious Landscape Survey Religious Affiliation Diverse and Dynamic Report Pew Forum on Religion amp Public Life February 1 2008 pp 9 30 Groups Religious Profiles US Religion www thearda com Van Biema David February 25 2008 America s Unfaithful Faithful via content time com PEW Forum on Religion and Public Life U S Religious Landscape Survey Religious Affiliation Diverse and Dynamic PDF Archived from the original PDF on April 17 2017 Retrieved June 20 2017 a b A closer look at Jehovah s Witnesses living in the U S Pew Research Center Beckford 1975 pp 92 98 100 Beckford 1975 pp 196 207 Bryan R Wilson 1993 The Persistence of Sects Journal of the British Association for the Study of Religions 1 2 Religious Beliefs and Practices U S Religious Landscape Survey Pew Research Center June 1 2008 Retrieved December 14 2017 Jehovah s Witnesses U S Religious Landscape Survey Pew Research Center Retrieved December 14 2017 Jubber Ken 1977 The Persecution of Jehovah s Witnesses in Southern Africa Social Compass 24 1 121 134 doi 10 1177 003776867702400108 S2CID 143997010 UN investigator Rights of minorities to worship undermined Associated Press November 4 2020 Morton Jason Bakken Keely Omer Mohy Greenwalt Patrick 2020 The Global Persecution of Jehovah s Witnesses PDF United States Commission on International Religious Freedom Peters Shawn Francis 2000 Judging Jehovah s Witnesses Religious Persecution and the Dawn of the Rights Revolution University Press of Kansas p 82 ISBN 978 0 7006 1008 2 Rogerson 1969 p 59 Barbara Grizzuti Harrison 1978 6 Visions of Glory Whalen William J 1962 Armageddon Around the Corner A Report on Jehovah s Witnesses New York John Day Company p 190 Advice for Kingdom Publishers Watch Tower Society 1939 pp 5 6 14 Canadian Wrongs Quebec s Attack on Jehovah s Witnesses University of Toronto Libraries University of Toronto Retrieved July 16 2022 Kaplan 1989 Yaffee Barbara September 9 1984 Witnesses Seek Apology for Wartime Persecution The Globe and Mail p 4 Supreme Court of Canada Saumur v Quebec City of 1953 2 SCR 299 Archived from the original on July 6 2011 Supreme Court of Canada Roncarelli v Duplessis 1959 SCR 121 Archived from the original on January 12 2013 Scott Stephen A February 7 2006 Roncarelli v Duplessis The Canadian Encyclopedia Retrieved April 21 2021 Penton James 2004 Jehovah s Witnesses and the Third Reich University of Toronto Press p 376 ISBN 978 0802086785 Chu Jolene September 1 2004 God s things and Caesar s Jehovah s Witnesses and political neutrality Journal of Genocide Research 6 3 Taylor amp Francis 319 342 doi 10 1080 1462352042000265837 S2CID 71908533 a b Wrobel Johannes S August 2006 Jehovah s Witnesses in National Socialist concentration camps 1933 45 PDF Religion State amp Society 34 2 Taylor amp Francis 89 125 doi 10 1080 09637490600624691 S2CID 145110013 Archived PDF from the original on May 21 2012 Retrieved October 22 2020 Garbe Detlef 2008 Between Resistance and Martyrdom Jehovah s Witnesses in the Third Reich Madison Wisconsin University of Wisconsin Press p 484 ISBN 978 0 299 20794 6 Jehovah s Witnesses Holocaust Education Foundation Berenbaum Michael Persecution and Resistance of Jehovah s Witnesses During the Nazi Regime Laqueur Walter Baumel Judith Tydor 2001 The Holocaust encyclopedia Yale University Press pp 346 50 ISBN 978 0 300 08432 0 Retrieved April 6 2011 Mike Dennis amp Norman LaPorte 2011 Jehovah s Witnesses From Persecution to Survival State and Minorities in Communist East Germany Berghahn Books pp 61 86 ISBN 978 0 85745 196 5 Valerij Pasat Trudnye stranicy istorii Moldovy 1940 1950 Moskva Izd Terra 1994 in Russian Russian court bans Jehovah s Witnesses as extremist Reuters April 20 2017 Retrieved April 20 2017 Botting 1993 p page needed Jehovah s Witnesses Proclaimers of God s Kingdom Watch Tower Society 1993 pp 679 701 Botting 1993 pp 1 14 Shawn Francis Peters 2000 Judging Jehovah s Witnesses University Press of Kansas pp 12 16 Jehovah s Witnesses and civil rights Knocking org Archived from the original on September 1 2012 Retrieved August 16 2012 Botting 1993 pp 15 201 a b Holden 2002 p 22 a b Case Study 29 Jehovah s Witnesses Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse July 27 2015 a b Beckford 1975 pp 89 95 103 120 204 221 Exposing the Devil s Subtle Designs The Watchtower January 15 1983 p 27 Visits from Older Men Benefit God s People The Watchtower February 15 1979 p 20 Building a Firm Foundation in Christ The Watchtower May 1 1964 pp 277 278 Franz 2007 p 358 Rogerson 1969 p 50 Beckford 1975 pp 204 221 Botting amp Botting 1984 p 90 Rogerson 1969 p 178 James A Beverley 1986 Crisis of Allegiance Burlington Ontario Welch Publishing Company pp 25 26 101 ISBN 0 920413 37 4 Holden 2002 p 153 Rogerson 1969 p 2 Franz 2007 Chapter 12 Maintaining our Christian Oneness The Watchtower August 15 1988 pp 28 30 The Routledge History of the Holocaust Routledge 2010 ISBN 9781136870606 Holden 2002 pp x 7 Metzger Bruce July 1 1964 Book Review New World Translation of the Christian Greek Scriptures The Bible Translator 15 3 151 doi 10 1177 000608446401500311 S2CID 220318160 Retrieved October 30 2018 Gilmour MacLean September 1 1966 The Use and Abuse of the Book of Revelation Andover Newton Quarterly 7 1 25 26 Metzger Bruce M April 1 1953 The Jehovah s Witnesses and Jesus Christ Theology Today 10 1 74 Bibcode 1998ThT 55 305G doi 10 1177 004057365301000110 S2CID 170358762 Bruce Metzger July 1 1964 The New World Translation of the Christian Greek Scriptures The Bible Translator McCoy Robert January 1 1963 Jehovah s Witnesses and Their New Testament Andover Newton Quarterly 3 3 15 31 Haas Samuel S December 1955 Book Review New World Translation of the Hebrew Scriptures Vol I by New World Bible Translation Committee Journal of Biblical Literature 74 4 282 283 doi 10 2307 3261681 JSTOR 3261681 See also Owens John Joseph April 1 1956 Book Review New World Translation of the Hebrew Scriptures Review amp Expositor 53 2 253 254 doi 10 1177 003463735605300239 S2CID 147233464 John Ankerberg John Weldon Dillon Burroughs 2008 The Facts on Jehovah s Witnesses Eugene OR Harvest House Publishers pp 43 45 ISBN 978 0 7369 3907 2 See also John Ankerberg and John Weldon 2003 The New World Translation of the Jehovah s Witnesses accessible online Edmond C Gruss Apostles of Denial p 211 Stedman R C The New World Translation of the Christian Greek Scriptures Our Hope 50 34 July 1953 30 as quoted in Edmond C Gruss Apostles of Denial p 209 Martin W Klann N 1974 Jehovah of the Watchtower Minneapolis Bethany p 161 Hoekema 1963 p 208 209 G Hebert ed 2005 Jehovah s Witnesses The New Catholic Encyclopedia Vol 7 Gale p 751 Anthony A Hoekema 1963 The Four Major Cults Christian Science Jehovah s Witnesses Mormonism Seventh day Adventism William B Eerdmans pp 208 209 ISBN 0802831176 Staying Awake with the Faithful and Discreet Slave The Watchtower July 15 1960 p 444 Chryssides 2016 p 224 Beckford 1975 pp 219 221 James A Beverley 1986 Crisis of Allegiance Burlington Ontario Welch Publishing Company pp 86 91 ISBN 0 920413 37 4 a b Why So Many False Alarms Awake March 22 1993 pp 3 4 footnote To Whom Shall We Go but Jesus Christ The Watchtower March 1 1979 p 23 Chryssides 2008 p xiv Holden 2002 p 7 a b Goodstein Laurie August 11 2002 Ousted members say Jehovah s Witnesses policy on abuse hides offenses The New York Times Retrieved October 1 2015 Public Hearing Case Study 29 Day 152 PDF Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse Australia Report pp 67 72 Public Hearing Case Study 29 Day 155 PDF Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse Australia Report pp 44 45 Shepherd the Flock of God Brooklyn New York Watch Tower Society 2010 p 72 a b Lisa Myers Richard Greenberg November 21 2007 New evidence in Jehovah s Witness allegations NBC News New York NY Report of case study no 29 PDF Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse Australia Report pp 9 28 Jones Ciaran June 29 2014 Jehovah s Witnesses destroyed documents showing child abuse allegations against church elder Wales Online Cardiff UK Media Wales Public Hearing Case Study 29 Day 152 PDF Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse Australia Report pp 24 26 Cutrer Corrie March 5 2001 Witness leaders accused of shielding molesters Christianity Today Jane Doe Candace Conti v The Watchtower Bible and Tract Society of New York Inc et al California Court of Appeal First Appellate District Division Three April 13 2015 Text Former Jehovah s Witness Takes on Church Over Sex Abuse Allegations VIDEO New York NY ABC News March 12 2015 Michael Buchanan July 26 2017 Jehovah s Witnesses let sex offender interrogate victims BBC News Retrieved November 20 2017 Decision Manchester New Moston Congregation of Jehovah s Witnesses Charity Commission for England and Wales July 26 2017 Retrieved November 20 2017 Report of Case Study No 29 Report p 62 Case Study 29 Day 153 p 16 41 44 Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse July 2015 Gredley Rebecca Jehovah s Witnesses to join redress scheme 7News Retrieved May 25 2021 エホバでの性被害159件申告 役職者の加害 性行為の告白強制も 159 cases of sexual abuse reported in Jehovah s Witnesses Perpetrators in positions of authority forced confessions of sexual acts etc in Japanese The Asahi Shimbun November 9 2023 Retrieved November 21 2023 まさかこれほど多いとは エホバの証人で多数の二世信者が性被害に 抑圧が逆に性加害を誘発している との指摘も There are so many Numerous Shukyō nisei of Jehovah s Witnesses have been sexually abused and it has been pointed out that repression induces sexual abuse in Japanese Daily Shincho November 16 2023 Retrieved November 21 2023 Lawyers release survey on alleged Jehovah s Witness child abuse NHK November 20 2023 Retrieved November 21 2023 SourcesBeckford James A 1975 The Trumpet of Prophecy A Sociological Study of Jehovah s Witnesses Oxford Basil Blackwell ISBN 978 0 631 16310 7 Bergman Jerry 1995 The Adventist and Jehovah s Witness Branch of Protestantism In Miller Timothy ed America s Alternative Religions Albany NY SUNY Press pp 33 46 ISBN 978 0 7914 2397 4 Archived from the original on July 24 2020 Botting Gary 1993 Fundamental Freedoms and Jehovah s Witnesses University of Calgary Press ISBN 978 1 895176 06 3 Botting Heather Botting Gary 1984 The Orwellian World of Jehovah s Witnesses University of Toronto Press ISBN 978 0 8020 6545 2 Chryssides George D 2008 Historical Dictionary of Jehovah s Witnesses Lanham Md Scarecrow Press ISBN 978 0 8108 6074 2 Chryssides George D 2016 Jehovah s Witnesses Continuity and Change Ashgate new religions Farnham Surrey Ashgate Publishing ISBN 9781409456087 Chryssides George 2022 Jehovah s Witnesses A New Introduction Bloomsbury Academic ISBN 978 1 3501 9089 4 Crompton Robert 1996 Counting the Days to Armageddon Cambridge James Clarke amp Co ISBN 0 227 67939 3 Franz Raymond 2007 In Search of Christian Freedom Commentary Press ISBN 978 0 914675 16 7 ISBN 978 0 914675 17 4 Hoekema Anthony A 1963 The Four Major Cults Grand Rapids Michigan William B Eerdmans ISBN 978 0 8028 3117 0 Holden Andrew 2002 Jehovah s Witnesses Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 26610 9 Kaplan William 1989 State and Salvation Toronto University of Toronto Press ISBN 0 8020 5842 6 Knox Zoe 2018 Jehovah s Witnesses and the Secular World From the 1870s to the Present London Palgrave Macmillan pp 1 281 ISBN 9781137396044 Penton M James 1997 Apocalypse Delayed The Story of Jehovah s Witnesses University of Toronto Press ISBN 978 0 8020 7973 2 Rogerson Alan 1969 Millions Now Living Will Never Die London Constable amp Co ISBN 978 0094559400 Schulz B W 2014 A Separate Identity Organizational Identity Among Readers of Zion s Watch Tower 1870 1887 Fluttering Wings Press ISBN 978 1304969408 External links nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Jehovah s Witnesses Official website BBC Religions Jehovah s Witnesses Jehovah s Witnesses new method BBC News Magazine article Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Jehovah 27s Witnesses amp oldid 1215281899, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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