Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands include Native Americantribes and First Nationbands residing in or originating from a cultural area encompassing the northeastern and Midwest United States and southeastern Canada.[1] It is part of a broader grouping known as the Eastern Woodlands.[2] The Northeastern Woodlands is divided into three major areas: the Coastal, Saint Lawrence Lowlands, and Great Lakes-Riverine zones.[3]
The Great Lakes region is sometimes considered a distinct cultural region, due to the large concentration of tribes in the area. The Northeastern Woodlands region is bound by the Subarctic to the north, the Great Plains to the west, and the Southeastern Woodlands to the south.[5]
Around 200 B.C the Hopewell culture began to develop across the Midwest of what is now the United States, with its epicenter in Ohio. The Hopewell culture was defined by its extensive trading system that connected communities throughout the Eastern region, from the Great Lakes to Florida. A sophisticated artwork style developed for its goods, depicting a multitude of animals such as deer, bear, and birds.[23] The Hopewell culture is also noted for its impressive ceremonial sites, which typically contain a burial mound and geometric earthworks. The most notable of these sites is in the Scioto River Valley (from Columbus to Portsmouth, Ohio) and adjacent Paint Creek, centered on Chillicothe, Ohio.[24] The Hopewell culture began to decline from around 400 A.D. for reasons which remain unclear.[23]
The five nations of the Iroquois League developed a powerful confederacy about the 15th century that controlled territory throughout present-day New York, into Pennsylvania and around the Great Lakes.[28] The Iroquois confederacy or Haudenosaunee became the most powerful political grouping in the Northeastern woodlands, and still exists today. The confederacy consists of the Mohawk, Cayuga, Oneida, Onondaga, Seneca and Tuscarora tribes.
The area that is now the states of New Jersey and Delaware was inhabited by the Lenni-Lenape or Delaware, who were also an Algonquian people.[29] Most Lenape were pushed out of their homeland in the 18th century by expanding European colonies, and now the majority of them live in Oklahoma.
The characteristics of the Northeastern woodlands cultural area include the use of wigwams and longhouses for shelter and of wampum as a means of exchange.[30] Wampum consisted of small beads made from quahog shells.
The birchbarkcanoe was first used by the Algonquin Indians and its use later spread to other tribes and to early French explorers, missionaries and fur traders. The canoes were used for carrying goods, and for hunting, fishing, and warfare, and varied in length from about 4.5 metres (15 feet) to about 30 metres (100 feet) in length for some large war canoes.[31]
The main agricultural crops of the region were the Three Sisters : winter squash, maize (corn), and climbing beans (usually tepary beans or common beans). Originating in Mesoamerica, these three crops were carried northward over centuries to many parts of North America. The three crops were normally planted together using a technique known as companion planting on flat-topped mounds of soil.[32] The three crops were planted in this way as each benefits from the proximity of the others.[33] The tall maize plants provide a structure for the beans to climb, while the beans provide nitrogen to the soil that benefits the other plants. Meanwhile, the squash spreads along the ground, blocking the sunlight to prevent weeds from growing and retaining moisture in the soil.
Prior to contact Native groups in the Northeast generally lived in villages of a few hundred people, living close to their crops. Generally men did the planting and harvesting, while women processed the crops. However, some settlements could be much bigger, such as Hochelaga (modern-day Montreal), which had a population of several thousand people,[34] and Cahokia, which may have housed 20,000 residents between 1050 and 1150 CE.[35]
For many tribes, the fundamental social group was a clan, which was often named after an animal such as turtle, bear, wolf or hawk.[36] The totem animal concerned was considered sacred and had a special relationship with the members of the clan.
The spiritual beliefs of the Algonquians center around the concept of Manitou (/ˈmænɪtuː/), which is the spiritual and fundamental life force that is omnipresent.[37] Manitou also manifest itself as the Great Spirit or Gitche Manitou, who is the creator and giver of all life. The Haudenosaunee equivalent of Manitou is orenda.
^Bain, Angela Goebel; Manring, Lynne; and Mathews, Barbara. Native Peoples in New England. Retrieved July 21, 2010, from Pocumtuck Valley Memorial Association.
^Toensing, Gale Courey. "Sacred fire lights the Wabanaki Confederacy", Indian Country Today (June 27, 2008), ICT Media Network
^Horatio Gates Spafford, LL.D. A Gazetteer of the State of New-York, Embracing an Ample Survey and Description of Its Counties, Towns, Cities, Villages, Canals, Mountains, Lakes, Rivers, Creeks and Natural Topography. Arranged in One Series, Alphabetically: With an Appendix… (1824), at Schenectady Digital History Archives, selected extracts, accessed December 28, 2014
^"Native People of New Jersey". ALHN New Jersey. Retrieved March 14, 2019.
^Northeast American Indian Facts Native American Indian Facts Retrieved March 7, 2019.
^"Canoe". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved March 26, 2019.
^Mount Pleasant, Jane (2006). "The science behind the Three Sisters mound system: An agronomic assessment of an indigenous agricultural system in the northeast". In Staller, John E.; Tykot, Robert H.; Benz, Bruce F. (eds.). Histories of Maize: Multidisciplinary Approaches to the Prehistory, Linguistics, Biogeography, Domestication, and Evolution of Maize. Amsterdam: Academic Press. pp. 529–537. ISBN978-1-5987-4496-5.
^Hill, Christina Gish (November 20, 2020). "Returning the 'three sisters' – corn, beans and squash – to Native American farms nourishes people, land and cultures". The Conversation. Retrieved January 8, 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
^Northeast Indian Culture Khan Academy. Retrieved March 7, 2019
^"Cahokia Mounds State Historic Site". UNESCO. Retrieved April 20, 2021.
^Northeast Indian Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved March 7, 2019
^Bragdon, Kathleen J. (2001). The Columbia Guide to American Indians of the Northeast. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 18.
Trigger, Bruce, volume ed. Sturtevant, William C., general ed. Handbook of North American Indians. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1978.
March 03, 2023
indigenous, peoples, northeastern, woodlands, include, native, american, tribes, first, nation, bands, residing, originating, from, cultural, area, encompassing, northeastern, midwest, united, states, southeastern, canada, part, broader, grouping, known, easte. Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands include Native American tribes and First Nation bands residing in or originating from a cultural area encompassing the northeastern and Midwest United States and southeastern Canada 1 It is part of a broader grouping known as the Eastern Woodlands 2 The Northeastern Woodlands is divided into three major areas the Coastal Saint Lawrence Lowlands and Great Lakes Riverine zones 3 Joseph Brant a Mohawk depicted in a portrait by Charles Bird King circa 1835 Three Lenape people depicted in a painting by George Catlin from the 1860s The Coastal area includes the Atlantic Provinces in Canada the Atlantic seaboard of the United States south until North Carolina The Saint Lawrence Lowlands area includes parts of Southern Ontario upstate New York much of the Saint Lawrence River area and Susquehanna Valley 3 The Great Lakes Riverine area includes the remaining inland areas of the northeast home to Central Algonquian and Siouan speakers 4 The Great Lakes region is sometimes considered a distinct cultural region due to the large concentration of tribes in the area The Northeastern Woodlands region is bound by the Subarctic to the north the Great Plains to the west and the Southeastern Woodlands to the south 5 Contents 1 List of peoples 2 First Nations in Canada 3 United States Federally Recognized tribes 4 History 5 Culture 6 See also 7 Notes 8 ReferencesList of peoples EditAbenaki Tarrantine Quebec Maine New Brunswick historically Vermont and New Hampshire Eastern Abenaki Quebec Maine and historically New Hampshire 6 Kennebec Caniba Maine Western Abenaki Quebec Massachusetts historically New Hampshire and Vermont Anishinaabeg Anishinabe Neshnabe Nishnaabe see also Subarctic Plains Algonquin 7 Quebec Ontario Nipissing 7 Ontario 6 Ojibwe Chippewa Ojibwa Ontario Michigan Minnesota and Wisconsin 6 Mississaugas Ontario Saulteaux Nakawe Ontario Odawa people Ottawa Indiana Michigan Ohio Ontario also currently Oklahoma 6 later Oklahoma Potawatomi Illinois Indiana Michigan 6 Ontario Wisconsin also currently Kansas and Oklahoma Assateague formerly Maryland 8 Attawandaron Neutral Ontario 6 Beothuk formerly Newfoundland 6 Chowanoke formerly North Carolina Choptank people formerly Maryland 8 Conoy Virginia 8 Maryland Erie formerly Pennsylvania New York 6 Etchemin Maine Ho Chunk Winnebago southern Wisconsin northern Illinois 6 later Iowa and Nebraska Honniasont formerly Pennsylvania Ohio West Virginia Hopewell tradition formerly Ohio Illinois and Kentucky and Black River region 200 BCE 500 CE Housatonic formerly Massachusetts New York 9 Illinois Confederacy Illiniwek Illinois Iowa and Missouri 6 descendants in Oklahoma Cahokia Illinois Iowa Missouri Arkansas descendants in Oklahoma Kaskaskia formerly Wisconsin descendants in Oklahoma Miami Illinois Indiana and Michigan 6 now Oklahoma Iroquois Confederacy 7 Haudenosaunee Ontario Quebec and New York 6 Cayuga New York 6 Oklahoma Mohawk New York 6 Ontario and Quebec Oneida New York 6 and Wisconsin Onondaga New York 6 Seneca New York 6 Oklahoma Mingo Pennsylvania Ohio West Virginia Tuscarora formerly North Carolina now New York Kickapoo Michigan 6 Illinois Missouri now Kansas Oklahoma Texas Mexico Laurentian St Lawrence Iroquoians formerly New York Ontario and Quebec 14th century 1580 CE Lenni Lenape Delaware Pennsylvania Delaware New Jersey now Ontario and Oklahoma Munsee speaking subgroups formerly Long Island and southeastern New York 10 Canarsie Canarsee formerly Long Island New York 11 Esopus formerly New York 10 later Ontario and Wisconsin Hackensack formerly New York 10 Haverstraw Rumachenanck New York 12 Kitchawank Kichtawanks Kichtawank New York 12 Minisink formerly New York 10 Navasink 12 formerly to the east along the north shore of New Jersey Raritan formerly Westchester County New York 12 Sinsink Sintsink formerly Westchester County New York 12 Siwanoy formerly Massachusetts 12 Tappan formerly New York 13 Waoranecks 14 Wappinger Wecquaesgeek Nochpeem formerly New York 15 9 Warranawankongs 14 Wiechquaeskeck formerly New York 10 Unami speaking subgroups Acquackanonk formerly Passaic River in northern New Jersey Okehocking formerly southeast Pennsylvania 14 Unalachtigo Delaware New Jersey Mahican Stockbridge Mahican 7 Connecticut Massachusetts New York and Vermont 6 Manahoac Virginia 16 Mascouten formerly Michigan 6 Massachusett formerly Massachusetts 7 17 Ponkapoag formerly Massachusetts Meherrin Virginia 18 North Carolina Menominee Wisconsin 6 Meskwaki Fox Michigan 6 now Iowa Mi kmaq Micmac New Brunswick Newfoundland and Labrador Nova Scotia Prince Edward Island Quebec 6 and Maine Mitchigamea formerly Illinois Moingona formerly Illinois Peoria Illinois now Oklahoma Tamaroa formerly Illinois Wea formerly Indiana descendants in Oklahoma Mohegan 7 Connecticut Monacan Virginia 19 Montaukett Montauk 7 New York Monyton Monetons Monekot Moheton Siouan West Virginia and Virginia Nansemond Virginia Nanticoke Delaware and Maryland 6 Accohannock Narragansett Rhode Island 7 Niantic coastal Connecticut 7 17 Nipmuc Nipmuck Connecticut Massachusetts and Rhode Island 17 Nottaway Virginia 18 Occaneechi Occaneechee Virginia 18 20 21 Pamplico North Carolina Passamaquoddy New Brunswick Nova Scotia Quebec and Maine 6 Patuxent Maryland 8 Paugussett Connecticut 7 Potatuck New York 17 Pawtucket Massachusetts New Hampshire Naumkeag Massachusetts Penobscot Maine Pennacook Massachusetts New Hampshire Pequot Connecticut 7 Petun Tionontate Ontario 6 Piscataway Maryland 8 Pocumtuc western Massachusetts 17 Podunk New York 17 eastern Hartford County Connecticut Powhatan Confederacy Virginia 8 Appomattoc Virginia Arrohateck Virginia Chesapeake Virginia Chesepian Virginia Chickahominy Virginia 18 Kiskiack Virginia Mattaponi Virginia Nansemond Virginia 18 Pamunkey Virginia 18 Paspahegh Virginia Powhatan Virginia Quinnipiac Connecticut 7 eastern New York northern New Jersey Rappahannock Virginia Sauk Sac Michigan 6 now Iowa Oklahoma Schaghticoke western Connecticut 7 Secotan Outerbanks North Carolina Croatoan Dasamongueponke Roanoke people Shawnee formerly Ohio 6 Virginia West Virginia Pennsylvania Kentucky currently Oklahoma Shinnecock 7 Long Island New York 17 Stegarake Virginia 16 Stuckanox Stukanox Virginia 18 Conestoga Susquehannock Maryland Pennsylvania New York West Virginia 6 Tauxenent Doeg Virginia 22 Tunxis Connecticut 7 Tuscarora formerly North Carolina Virginia currently New York Tutelo Nahyssan Virginia 18 20 Unquachog Poospatuck Long Island New York 17 Wabanaki Maine New Brunswick Nova Scotia Quebec 7 Wampanoag Massachusetts 7 Nauset Massachusetts Patuxet Massachusetts Pokanoket Massachusetts Rhode Island 17 Wangunk Mattabeset Connecticut 7 Wenro New York 6 7 Wicocomico Maryland Virginia Wolastoqiyik Maliseet Maine New Brunswick Nova Scotia and Quebec 6 Wyachtonok Connecticut New York 9 Wyandot Huron Ontario south of Georgian Bay now Oklahoma Kansas Michigan and Wendake QuebecFirst Nations in Canada EditFurther information First Nations in Atlantic Canada and List of First Nations governmentsUnited States Federally Recognized tribes EditAbsentee Shawnee Tribe of Indians of Oklahoma Bad River Band of the Lake Superior Tribe of Chippewa Indians of the Bad River Reservation Wisconsin Bay Mills Indian Community Michigan Cayuga Nation of New York Chickahominy people Virginia Chippewa Cree Indians of the Rocky Boy s Reservation Montana Citizen Potawatomi Nation Oklahoma Delaware Nation Oklahoma Delaware Tribe of Indians Oklahoma Eastern Chickahominy Virginia Eastern Shawnee Tribe of Oklahoma Forest County Potawatomi Community Wisconsin Grand Traverse Band of Ottawa and Chippewa Indians Michigan Hannahville Indian Community Michigan Ho Chunk Nation of Wisconsin Minnesota Wisconsin Houlton Band of Maliseet Indians of Maine Iowa Tribe of Kansas and Nebraska also considered a Great Plains tribe Iowa Tribe of Oklahoma also considered a Great Plains tribe Keweenaw Bay Indian Community Michigan Kickapoo Traditional Tribe of Texas Kickapoo Tribe of Indians of the Kickapoo Reservation in Kansas Kickapoo Tribe of Oklahoma Lac Courte Oreilles Band of Lake Superior Chippewa Indians of Wisconsin Lac du Flambeau Band of Lake Superior Chippewa Indians of the Lac du Flambeau Reservation of Wisconsin Lac Vieux Desert Band of Lake Superior Chippewa Indians Michigan Little River Band of Ottawa Indians Michigan Little Traverse Bay Bands of Odawa Indians Michigan Mashantucket Pequot Tribe of Connecticut Mashpee Wampanoag Tribe Massachusetts Match e be nash she wish Band of Pottawatomi Indians of Michigan Menominee Indian Tribe of Wisconsin Miami Tribe of Oklahoma Mi kmaq Nation Maine Minnesota Chippewa Tribe MinnesotaSix component reservations Bois Forte Band Nett Lake Fond du Lac Band Minnesota Wisconsin Grand Portage Band Leech Lake Band Mille Lacs Band White Earth Band Mohegan Indian Tribe of Connecticut Monacan Virginia Nansemond Virginia Narragansett Indian Tribe of Rhode Island Nottawaseppi Huron Band of the Potawatomi Michigan Oneida Nation of New York Oneida Tribe of Indians of Wisconsin Onondaga Nation of New York Ottawa Tribe of Oklahoma Pamunkey Virginia Passamaquoddy Tribe of Maine Penobscot Tribe of Maine Peoria Tribe of Indians of Oklahoma Pokagon Band of Potawatomi Indians Michigan Indiana Prairie Band of Potawatomi Nation Kansas Prairie Island Indian Community in the State of Minnesota Rappahannock Virginia Red Cliff Band of Lake Superior Chippewa Indians of Wisconsin Red Lake Band of Chippewa Indians Minnesota Sac and Fox Nation Oklahoma Sac and Fox Nation of Missouri in Kansas and Nebraska Saginaw Chippewa Indian Tribe of Michigan St Croix Chippewa Indians of Wisconsin Saint Regis Mohawk Tribe New York Sault Ste Marie Tribe of Chippewa Indians of Michigan Seneca Cayuga Tribe of Oklahoma Seneca Nation of New York Shawnee Tribe Oklahoma Shinnecock Nation New York Sokaogon Chippewa Community Wisconsin Stockbridge Munsee Community Wisconsin Tonawanda Band of Seneca Indians of New York Turtle Mountain Band of Chippewa Indians of North Dakota Montana North Dakota Tuscarora Nation of New York Wampanoag Tribe of Gay Head Aquinnah of Massachusetts Winnebago Tribe of NebraskaHistory Edit Map of the Northeastern United States showing the demarcation between Iroquoian purple and Algonquian pink Indian tribes in present day New Jersey Pennsylvania and New York state Around 200 B C the Hopewell culture began to develop across the Midwest of what is now the United States with its epicenter in Ohio The Hopewell culture was defined by its extensive trading system that connected communities throughout the Eastern region from the Great Lakes to Florida A sophisticated artwork style developed for its goods depicting a multitude of animals such as deer bear and birds 23 The Hopewell culture is also noted for its impressive ceremonial sites which typically contain a burial mound and geometric earthworks The most notable of these sites is in the Scioto River Valley from Columbus to Portsmouth Ohio and adjacent Paint Creek centered on Chillicothe Ohio 24 The Hopewell culture began to decline from around 400 A D for reasons which remain unclear 23 By around 1100 the distinct Iroquoian speaking and Algonquian speaking cultures had developed in what would become New York State and New England 25 Prominent Algonquian tribes included the Abenakis Mi kmaq Penobscot Pequots Mohegans Narragansetts Pocumtucks and Wampanoag 26 The Mi kmaq Maliseet Passamaquoddy Abenaki and Penobscot tribes formed the Wabanaki Confederacy in the seventeenth century The Confederacy covered roughly most of present day Maine in the United States and New Brunswick mainland Nova Scotia Cape Breton Island Prince Edward Island and some of Quebec south of the St Lawrence River in Canada The Western Abenaki live on lands in New Hampshire Vermont and Massachusetts of the United States 27 The five nations of the Iroquois League developed a powerful confederacy about the 15th century that controlled territory throughout present day New York into Pennsylvania and around the Great Lakes 28 The Iroquois confederacy or Haudenosaunee became the most powerful political grouping in the Northeastern woodlands and still exists today The confederacy consists of the Mohawk Cayuga Oneida Onondaga Seneca and Tuscarora tribes The area that is now the states of New Jersey and Delaware was inhabited by the Lenni Lenape or Delaware who were also an Algonquian people 29 Most Lenape were pushed out of their homeland in the 18th century by expanding European colonies and now the majority of them live in Oklahoma Culture EditSee also Eastern Agricultural Complex The characteristics of the Northeastern woodlands cultural area include the use of wigwams and longhouses for shelter and of wampum as a means of exchange 30 Wampum consisted of small beads made from quahog shells The birchbark canoe was first used by the Algonquin Indians and its use later spread to other tribes and to early French explorers missionaries and fur traders The canoes were used for carrying goods and for hunting fishing and warfare and varied in length from about 4 5 metres 15 feet to about 30 metres 100 feet in length for some large war canoes 31 The main agricultural crops of the region were the Three Sisters winter squash maize corn and climbing beans usually tepary beans or common beans Originating in Mesoamerica these three crops were carried northward over centuries to many parts of North America The three crops were normally planted together using a technique known as companion planting on flat topped mounds of soil 32 The three crops were planted in this way as each benefits from the proximity of the others 33 The tall maize plants provide a structure for the beans to climb while the beans provide nitrogen to the soil that benefits the other plants Meanwhile the squash spreads along the ground blocking the sunlight to prevent weeds from growing and retaining moisture in the soil Prior to contact Native groups in the Northeast generally lived in villages of a few hundred people living close to their crops Generally men did the planting and harvesting while women processed the crops However some settlements could be much bigger such as Hochelaga modern day Montreal which had a population of several thousand people 34 and Cahokia which may have housed 20 000 residents between 1050 and 1150 CE 35 For many tribes the fundamental social group was a clan which was often named after an animal such as turtle bear wolf or hawk 36 The totem animal concerned was considered sacred and had a special relationship with the members of the clan The spiritual beliefs of the Algonquians center around the concept of Manitou ˈ m ae n ɪ t uː which is the spiritual and fundamental life force that is omnipresent 37 Manitou also manifest itself as the Great Spirit or Gitche Manitou who is the creator and giver of all life The Haudenosaunee equivalent of Manitou is orenda See also EditClassification of indigenous peoples of the Americas Hopewell tradition Native American tribes in Massachusetts Southern New England Algonquian cuisine Three Sisters agriculture War of 1812Notes Edit Trigger Introduction 1 Mir Tamim Ansary 2001 Eastern Woodlands Indians Capstone Classroom p 4 ISBN 9781588104519 a b Trigger Introduction 2 Trigger Introduction 3 History of Pre colonial North America Essential Humanities Retrieved July 13 2013 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae Sturtevant and Trigger ix a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Cultural Thesaurus Archived June 24 2010 at the Wayback Machine National Museum of the American Indian Accessed April 8 2014 a b c d e f Sturtevant and Trigger 241 a b c Sturtevant and Trigger 198 a b c d e Goddard 72 Goddard 72 and 237 a b c d e f Goddard 237 Goddard 72 237 238 a b c Goddard 238 Goddard 72 and 238 a b Sturtevant and Fogelson 290 a b c d e f g h i Sturtevant and Trigger 161 a b c d e f g h Sturtevant and Fogelson 293 Fogelson and Sturtevant 81 a b Sturtevant and Fogelson 291 Sturtevant and Trigger 96 Sturtevant and Trigger 255 a b Hopewell Culture Ohio History Central Retrieved March 14 2019 m7 98 Encyclopedia of North American Prehistory M Archived from the original on October 20 2009 Retrieved September 11 2008 Klein Milton M ed and the New York State Historical Association The Empire State A History of New York Cornell University Press Ithaca New York 2001 ISBN 0 8014 3866 7 Bain Angela Goebel Manring Lynne and Mathews Barbara Native Peoples in New England Retrieved July 21 2010 from Pocumtuck Valley Memorial Association Toensing Gale Courey Sacred fire lights the Wabanaki Confederacy Indian Country Today June 27 2008 ICT Media Network Horatio Gates Spafford LL D A Gazetteer of the State of New York Embracing an Ample Survey and Description of Its Counties Towns Cities Villages Canals Mountains Lakes Rivers Creeks and Natural Topography Arranged in One Series Alphabetically With an Appendix 1824 at Schenectady Digital History Archives selected extracts accessed December 28 2014 Native People of New Jersey ALHN New Jersey Retrieved March 14 2019 Northeast American Indian Facts Native American Indian Facts Retrieved March 7 2019 Canoe Encyclopedia Britannica Retrieved March 26 2019 Mount Pleasant Jane 2006 The science behind the Three Sisters mound system An agronomic assessment of an indigenous agricultural system in the northeast In Staller John E Tykot Robert H Benz Bruce F eds Histories of Maize Multidisciplinary Approaches to the Prehistory Linguistics Biogeography Domestication and Evolution of Maize Amsterdam Academic Press pp 529 537 ISBN 978 1 5987 4496 5 Hill Christina Gish November 20 2020 Returning the three sisters corn beans and squash to Native American farms nourishes people land and cultures The Conversation Retrieved January 8 2021 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint url status link Northeast Indian Culture Khan Academy Retrieved March 7 2019 Cahokia Mounds State Historic Site UNESCO Retrieved April 20 2021 Northeast Indian Encyclopedia Britannica Retrieved March 7 2019 Bragdon Kathleen J 2001 The Columbia Guide to American Indians of the Northeast New York Columbia University Press p 18 References EditTrigger Bruce C Introduction William C Sturtevant general ed Handbook of North American Indians Washington DC Smithsonian Institution 1978 Trigger Bruce volume ed Sturtevant William C general ed Handbook of North American Indians Washington DC Smithsonian Institution 1978 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands amp oldid 1140984946, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,
