fbpx
Wikipedia

Lenape

March 13, 2023

For other uses, see Lenape (disambiguation).
"Delaware Indians" and "Delaware people" redirect here. For other American Indians from present-day Delaware, see Category:Native American tribes in Delaware. For individual people from the state of Delaware, see List of people from Delaware.

The Lenape (English: /ləˈnɑːpi/, /ˈlɛnəpi/, or IPA: [ləˈnɑːpe],[7][8]) also called the Lenni Lenape,[9] and Delaware people,[10] are an Indigenous people of the Northeastern Woodlands, who live in the United States and Canada.[4]

Lenape
Delaware people
Lënapeyok
Lenapehoking, historic Lenape territory.[1] Munsee speakers in the north, Unalachtigo-speakers in the center, and Unami-speakers in the south.[2][3] West/left side geographic limits correspond closely to ridgelines (drainage divides) between the Susquehanna and Delaware river valleys.
Total population
c. 16,000[4]
Regions with significant populations
United States (Oklahoma)11,195 (2010)[5]
United States (Wisconsin)1,565
Canada (Ontario)2,300
Languages
English, Munsee, and formerly Unami[4]
Religion
Christianity, Native American Church,
traditional tribal religion
Related ethnic groups
Other Algonquian peoples
Jennie Bobb and her daughter, Nellie Longhat (both Delaware Nation), Oklahoma, 1915[6]

Today, Lenape people belong to the Delaware Nation and Delaware Tribe of Indians in Oklahoma; the Stockbridge–Munsee Community in Wisconsin; and the Munsee-Delaware Nation, Moravian of the Thames First Nation, and Delaware of Six Nations in Ontario.

Their historical territory included present-day northeastern Delaware, New Jersey, the Lehigh Valley and other regions of eastern Pennsylvania, New York City, western Long Island, and the lower Hudson Valley.[notes 1] During the last decades of the 18th century, most Lenape were displaced from their homelands by white settlers.[11] The divisions and troubles of the American Revolutionary War and United States' independence pushed them farther west. In the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the Eastern United States to the Indian Territory, which is in present-day Oklahoma and surrounding regions, under the Indian removal policy.

Name

The name Lenni Lenape, also Leni Lenape and Lenni Lenapi, comes from their autonym, Lenni, which may mean "genuine, pure, real, original", and Lenape, meaning "real person" or "original person"[12] (cf. Anishinaabe, in which -naabe, cognate with Lenape, means "man" or "male"[citation needed]). Alternately, lënu may be translated as "man".[13]

The Lenape, when first encountered by Europeans, were a loose association of related peoples who spoke similar languages and shared familial bonds in an area known as Lenapehoking,[1] the Lenape traditional territory, which spanned what is now eastern Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Lower New York, and eastern Delaware.

The tribe's common name Delaware is not of Native American origin. English colonists named the Delaware River for the first governor of the Province of Virginia, Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr, whose title was ultimately derived from French. (For etymology of the surname, see Earl De La Warr§Etymology.) The English colonists then began to call the Lenape the "Delaware Indians" because of where they lived. Swedish colonists also settled in the area, and Swedish-language sources listed the Lenape as the Renappi.[14]

Territory

Main article: Lenapehoking
 
Traditional Confederations of Lenape lands, the Lenapehoking, not showing any of the several divisions governed by matriarchies

Traditional Lenape lands, the Lenapehoking, was a large territory that encompassed the Delaware Valley of eastern Pennsylvania and New Jersey from the north bank of the Lehigh River along the west bank of the Delaware then south into Delaware and the Delaware Bay. Their lands also extended west from western Long Island and New York Bay, across the Lower Hudson Valley in New York into the lower Catskills and a sliver of the upper edge of the North Branch Susquehanna River. On the west side, the Lenape lived in numerous small towns along the rivers and streams that fed the waterways, and likely shared the hunting territory of the Schuylkill River watershed with the rival Iroquoian Susquehannock.[citation needed]

Languages

The Unami and Munsee languages belong to the Eastern Algonquian language group and are largely mutually intelligible. Moravian missionary John Heckewelder wrote that Munsee and Unami "came out of one parent language."[15] Today, only a few Delaware First Nation elders in Moraviantown, Ontario, fluently speak Munsee;[16] however, adults and children are learning the languages in various programs.

William Penn, who first met the Lenape in 1682, stated that the Unami used the following words: "mother" was anna, "brother" was isseemus, "friend" was netap. Penn instructed his fellow English colonists: "If one asks them for anything they have not, they will answer, mattá ne hattá, which to translate is, 'not I have,' instead of 'I have not'."[17]

The Lenape languages used to be exclusively a spoken language. However, in 2002, the Delaware Tribe of Indians received grant money to fund The Lenape Talking Dictionary, preserving and digitizing the Southern Unami dialect.[18]

Shelley DePaul of the Lenape Nation of Pennsylvania has researched the language and created classes with Theodore Fernald at Swarthmore College.[19] Research shows that voluntary, locally based language practice and learning is key to restoring and maintaining a fading language.[20] DePaul's approach focuses on a "living language" philosophy.[21]

Society

See also: Lenape mythology

Clans and kinship systems

At the time of European contact, a Lenape person would have identified primarily with his or her immediate family and clan, friends, and/or village unit; then with surrounding and familiar village units. Next with more distant neighbors who spoke the same dialect; and ultimately, with all those in the surrounding area who spoke mutually comprehensible languages, including the Nanticoke people, who lived to their south and west in present western Delaware and eastern Maryland, and the Munsee, who lived to their north.[citation needed] Among many Algonquian peoples along the East Coast, the Lenape were considered the "grandfathers" from whom other Algonquian-speaking peoples originated.[22]

The Lenape had three clans at the end of the 17th century, each of which historically had twelve sub-clans:[23]

  • Big Feet, Mä an'greet
  • Yellow Tree, Wisawhìtkuk[25]
  • Pulling Corn, Pä-sakun'a'-mon
  • Care Enterer, We-yar-nih'kä-to
  • Across the River, Toosh-war-ka'ma
  • Vermillion, O-lum'-a-ne
  • Dog standing by fireside, Pun-ar'-you
  • Long Body, Kwin-eek'cha
  • Digging, Moon-har-tar'ne
  • Pulling up Stream, Non-har'-min
  • Brush Log, Long-ush-har-kar'-to
  • Bringing Along, Maw-soo-toh
  • Turtle, Pùkuwànku[26]
  • Ruler, O-ka-ho'-ki
  • High Bank Shore, Ta-ko-ong'-o-to
  • Drawing Down Hill, See-har-ong'-o-to
  • Elector, Ole-har-kar-me'kar-to
  • Brave, Ma-har-o-luk'-ti
  • Green Leaves, Toosh-ki-pa-kwis-i
  • Smallest Turtle, Tung-ul-ung'-si
  • Little Turtle, We-lung-ung-sil
  • Snapping Turtle, Lee-kwin-a-i'
  • Deer, Kwis-aese-kees'to
  • Big Bird, Mor-har-ä-lä
  • Bird's Cry, Le-le-wa'-you
  • Eye Pain, Moo-kwung-wa-ho'ki
  • Scratch the Path, Moo-har-mo-wi-kar'-nu
  • Opossum Ground, O-ping-ho'-ki
  • Old Shin, Muh-ho-we-kä'-ken
  • Drift Log, Tong-o-nä-o-to
  • Living in Water, Nool-a-mar-lar'-mo
  • Root Digger, Muh-krent-har'-ne
  • Red Face, Mur-karm-huk-se
  • Pine Region, Koo-wä-ho'ke
  • Ground Scratcher, Oo-ckuk'-ham

The Lenape have a matrilineal clan system and historically were matrilocal. Children belong to their mother's clan, from which they gain social status and identity. The mother's eldest brother was more significant as a mentor to the male children than was their father, who was generally of another clan. Hereditary leadership passed through the maternal line,[10] and women elders could remove leaders of whom they disapproved. Agricultural land was managed by women and allotted according to the subsistence needs of their extended families. Newlywed couples would live with the bride's family, where her mother and sisters could also assist her with her growing family.[10]

By 1682, when William Penn arrived to his American commonwealth, the Lenape had been so reduced by disease, famine, and war that the sub-clan mothers had reluctantly resolved to consolidate their families into the main clan family.[10] This is why William Penn and all those after him believed that the Lenape clans had always only had three divisions (Turtle, Turkey, and Wolf) when, in fact, they had over thirty on the eve of European contact.[10]

 
Susie Elkhair (Delaware Tribe of Indians, 1849–1925) wearing ribbonwork shawl, Oklahoma

Members of each clan were found throughout Lenape territory, and while clan mothers controlled the land, the houses, and the families, the clan fathers provided the meat, cleared the fields, built the houses, and protected the clan.[10] Upon reaching adulthood, a Lenape male would marry outside of his clan.[10] The practice effectively prevented inbreeding, even among individuals whose kinship was obscure or unknown.[clarification needed] This means that a male from the Turkey Clan was expected to marry a female from either the Turtle or Wolf clans. His children, however, would not belong to the Turkey Clan, but to the mother's clan. As such, a person's mother's brothers (the person's matrilineal uncles) played a large role in his or her life as they shared the same clan lineage.[10] Within a marriage itself, men and women had relatively separate and equal rights, each controlling their own property and debts, showing further signs of a woman's power in the hierarchical structure.[28]

As in the case of the Iroquois and Susquehannocks, the animosity of differences and competitions spanned many generations, and in general tribes with each of the different language groups became traditional enemies in the areas they'd meet.[citation needed] On the other hand, The New American Book of Indians points out that competition, trade, and wary relations were far more common than outright warfare—but both larger societies had traditions of 'proving' (blooding) new (or young) warriors by 'counting coup' on raids into another tribes territories.[10][a] The two groups were sometimes bitter enemies since before recorded history, but intermarriage occurred — and both groups have an oral history suggesting they jointly came east together and displaced the mound builders culture. In addition, both tribes practiced adopting young captives from warfare into their tribes and assimilating them as full tribal members.[10] Iroquoians adopting Lenape (or other peoples) were known to be part of their religious beliefs, the adopted one taking the place in the clan of one killed in warfare.

Early European observers may have misinterpreted matrilineal Lenape cultural practices. For example, a man's maternal uncle (his mother's brother), and not his father, was usually considered to be his closest male relative, since his uncle belonged to his mother's clan and his father belonged to a different one. The maternal uncle played a more prominent role in the lives of his sister's children than did the father—for example likely being the one responsible for educating a young man in weapons craft, martial arts, hunting, and other life skills.[10]

Hunting, fishing, and farming

Lenape practiced companion planting, in which women cultivated many varieties of the "Three Sisters": maize, beans, and squash. Men hunted, fished, and otherwise harvested seafood. In the 17th century, the Lenape practiced slash and burn agriculture. They used fire to manage land.[29][30][31][32][33][34] Controlled use of fire extended farmlands' productivity. According to Dutch settler Isaac de Rasieres, who observed the Lenape in 1628, the Lenape planted their primary crop, maize, in March. They quickly adopted European metal tools for this task.[citation needed]

The men limited their agricultural labor to clearing the field and breaking the soil. They primarily hunted and fished during the rest of the year: from September to January and from June to July, they mainly hunted deer, but from the month of January to the spring planting in May, they hunted anything from bears and beavers to raccoons and foxes.[28] Dutch settler David de Vries, who stayed in the area from 1634 to 1644, described a Lenape hunt in the valley of the Achinigeu-hach (or "Ackingsah-sack", the Hackensack River), in which one hundred or more men stood in a line many paces from each other, beating thigh bones on their palms to drive animals to the river, where they could be killed easily.[citation needed] Other methods of hunting included lassoing and drowning deer, as well as forming a circle around prey and setting the brush on fire. They also harvested vast quantities of fish and shellfish from the bays of the area,[35] and, in southern New Jersey, harvested clams year-round.[36] One technique used while fishing was to add ground chestnuts to stream water to make fish dizzy and easier to catch.[37]

The success of these methods allowed the tribe to maintain a larger population than other, nomadic hunter-gatherer peoples in North America at the time, could support. Scholars have estimated that at the time of European settlement, around much of the current New York City area alone, there may have been about 15,000 Lenape in approximately 80 settlement sites.[38] In 1524, Lenape in canoes met Giovanni da Verrazzano, the first European explorer to enter New York Harbor.

European settlers and traders from the 17th-century colonies of New Netherland and New Sweden traded with the Lenape for agricultural products, mainly maize, in exchange for iron tools. The Lenape also arranged contacts between the Minquas or Susquehannocks and the Dutch West India Company and Swedish South Company to promote the fur trade. The Lenape were major producers of labor intensive wampum, or shell beads, which they traditionally used for ritual purposes and as ornaments. After the Dutch arrival, they began to exchange wampum for beaver furs provided by Iroquoian-speaking Susquehannock and other Minquas. They exchanged these furs for Dutch and, from the late 1630s, also Swedish imports. Relations between some Lenape and Minqua polities briefly turned sour in the late 1620s and early 1630s, but were relatively peaceful most of the time.[39]

Clothing and adornment

The early European settlers, especially the Dutch and Swedes, were surprised at the Lenape's skill in fashioning clothing from natural materials. In hot weather men and women wore only loin cloth and skirt respectively, while they used beaver pelts or bear skins to serve as winter mantles. Additionally, both sexes might wear buckskin leggings and moccasins in cold weather.[40] Women would wear their hair long, usually below the hip, while men kept only a small "round crest, of about 2 inches in diameter". Deer hair, dyed a deep scarlet, as well as plumes of feathers, were favorite components of headdresses and breast ornaments for males.[41][28] The Lenape also adorned themselves with various ornaments made of stone, shell, animal teeth, and claws. The women often wore headbands of dyed deer hair or wampum. They painted their skin skirts or decorated them with porcupine quills. These skirts were so elaborately appointed that, when seen from a distance, they reminded Dutch settlers of fine European lace.[42] The winter cloaks of the women were striking, fashioned from the iridescent body feathers of wild turkeys.[43]

Leisure

One of the more common activities of leisure for the Lenni Lenape would be the game of pahsaheman: a football-like hybrid, split on gender lines. Over a hundred players were grouped into gendered teams (male and female), and would attempt to get a ball through the other team's goal post. However, men could not carry and pass the ball, only using their feet, while the women could carry, pass, or kick.[28] If the ball was picked up by a woman, she could not be tackled by the men, although men could attempt to dislodge the ball. Women were free to tackle the men.[44] These gender-split rules highlight how a woman's role in Lenape society was harmonious to a man's role, rather than acquiescent.

Another activity common was that of dance, and yet again, gender differences appear: men would dance and leap loudly, often with bear claw accessories, while women, wearing little thimbles or bells, would dance more modestly, stepping "one foot after the other slightly forwards then backwards, yet so as to advance gradually."[28]

Units of measure

A number of linear measures were used. Small units of measure were the distance from the thumb and first finger, and the distance from first finger to pit of elbow. Travel distance was measured in the distance one could comfortably travel from sun-up to sun-down.[45]

Ethnobotany

Lenape herbalists, who have been primarily women, use their extensive knowledge of plant life to help heal their community's ailments, sometimes through ceremony. The Lenape found uses in trees like black walnut which were used to cure ringworm and with persimmons which were used to cure ear problems.[46]

The Lenape carry the nuts of Aesculus glabra in the pocket for rheumatism, and an infusion of ground nuts mixed with sweet oil or mutton tallow for earaches. They also grind the nuts and use them to poison fish in streams.[47] They also apply a poultice of pulverized nuts with sweet oil for earache.[48]

History

European contact

The first recorded European contact with people presumed to have been the Lenape was in 1524. The explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano was greeted by local Lenape who came by canoe, after his ship entered what is now called Lower New York Bay.

Early colonial era

At the time of sustained European contact in the 1600s and 1700s, the Lenape were a powerful Native American nation who inhabited a region on the mid-Atlantic coast spanning the latitudes of southern Massachusetts to the southern extent of Delaware in what anthropologists call the Northeastern Woodlands.[49] Although never politically unified, the confederation of the Lenape roughly encompassed the area around and between the Delaware and lower Hudson rivers, and included the western part of Long Island in present-day New York.[50] Some of their place names, such as Manhattan ("the island of many hills"[51]), Raritan, and Tappan were adopted by Dutch and English colonists to identify the Lenape people that lived there.

17th century

 
Benjamin West's painting (in 1771) of William Penn's 1682 treaty with the Lenape

The Lenape had a culture in which the clan and family controlled property. Europeans often tried to contract for land with the tribal chiefs, confusing their culture with that of neighboring tribes such as the Iroquois. As a further complication in communication and understanding, kinship terms commonly used by European settlers had very different meanings to the Lenape: "fathers" did not have the same direct parental control as in Europe, "brothers" could be a symbol of equality but could also be interpreted as one's parallel cousins, "cousins" were interpreted as only cross-cousins, etc. All of these added complexities in kinship terms made agreements with Europeans all the more difficult.[52] The Lenape would petition for grievances on the basis that not all their families had been recognized in the transaction (not that they wanted to "share" the land).[53] After the Dutch arrival in the 1620s, the Lenape were successful in restricting Dutch settlement until the 1660s to Pavonia in present-day Jersey City along the Hudson. The Dutch finally established a garrison at Bergen, which allowed settlement west of the Hudson within the province of New Netherland. This land was purchased from the Lenape after the fact.[53]

New Amsterdam was founded in 1624 by the Dutch in what would later become New York City. Dutch settlers also founded a colony at present-day Lewes, Delaware, on June 3, 1631 and named it Zwaanendael (Swan Valley).[54] The colony had a short life, as in 1632 a local band of Lenape killed the 32 Dutch settlers after a misunderstanding escalated over Lenape defacement of the insignia of the Dutch West India Company.[55] In 1634, the Iroquoian-speaking Susquehannock went to war with the Lenape over access to trade with the Dutch at New Amsterdam. They defeated the Lenape, and some scholars believe that the Lenape may have become tributaries to the Susquehannock.[56] After the warfare, the Lenape referred to the Susquehannock as "uncles". The Iroquois added the Lenape to the Covenant Chain in 1676; the Lenape were tributary to the Five Nations (later Six) until 1753, shortly before the outbreak of the French and Indian War (a part of the Seven Years' War in Europe).

Based on the historical record of the mid-17th century, it has been estimated that most Lenape polities consisted of several hundred people[57] but it is conceivable that some had been considerably larger prior to close contact, given the wars between the Susquehannocks and the Iroquois,[11] both of whom were armed by the Dutch fur traders, while the Lenape were at odds with the Dutch and so lost that particular arms race.[11]

During the Beaver Wars in the first half of the 17th century, European colonists were careful to keep firearms from the coastally located Lenape,[10] while rival Iroquoian peoples such as the Susquehannocks and Confederation of the Iroquois became comparatively well armed.[10] Subsequently, the Lenape became subjugated and made tributary to first the Susquehannocks, then the Iroquois, even needing their rivals' (superiors') agreement to initiate treaties such as land sales.[10]

Epidemics of newly introduced European infectious diseases, such as smallpox, measles, cholera, influenza, and dysentery,[58] reduced the populations of Lenape. They and other Native peoples had no natural immunity. Recurrent violent conflicts with Europeans also devastated Lenape people.

The Lenape also fought intertribal warfare, particularly with the Haudenosaunee. The Lenape and Susquehannocks fought a war in the middle of the 17th century that left the Lenape a tributary state even as the Susquehannocks had defeated the Province of Maryland between 1642–50s.[59] The Lenape's quick adoption of trade goods, and their desire to trap furs to meet high European demand, resulted in over-harvesting the beaver population in the lower Hudson Valley. With the fur sources exhausted, the Dutch shifted their operations to present-day upstate New York. The Lenape who produced wampum in the vicinity of Manhattan Island temporarily forestalled the negative effects of the decline in trade.[60]

In 1682, William Penn and Quaker colonists created the English colony of Pennsylvania beginning at the lower Delaware River. A peace treaty was negotiated between the newly arriving colonists and Lenape at what is now known as Penn Treaty Park. In the decades immediately following, some 20,000 new colonists arrived in the region, putting pressure on Lenape settlements and hunting grounds. Penn expected his authority and that of the colonial government to take precedence. His new colony effectively displaced many Lenape and forced others to adapt to new cultural demands. Penn gained a reputation for benevolence and tolerance, but his efforts resulted in more effective colonization of the ancestral Lenape homeland than previous ones.[61]

18th century

Further information: Lenape settlements
 
Lenape chief Lappawinsoe painted by Gustavus Hesselius c. 1735

William Penn died in 1718. His heirs, John and Thomas Penn, and their agents were running the colony, and had abandoned many of the elder Penn's practices. Trying to raise money, they contemplated ways to sell Lenape land to colonial settlers. The resulting scheme culminated in the so-called Walking Purchase. In the mid-1730s, colonial administrators produced a draft of a land deed dating to the 1680s. William Penn had approached several leaders of Lenape polities in the lower Delaware to discuss land sales further north. Since the land in question did not belong to their polities, the talks came to nothing. But colonial administrators had prepared the draft that resurfaced in the 1730s. The Penns and their supporters tried to present this draft as a legitimate deed. Lenape leaders in the lower Delaware refused to accept it.

According to historian Steven Harper, what followed was a "convoluted sequence of deception, fraud, and extortion orchestrated by the Pennsylvania government that is commonly known as the Walking Purchase."[62] In the end, all Lenape who still lived on the Delaware were driven off the remnants of their homeland under threats of violence. Some Lenape polities eventually retaliated by attacking Pennsylvania settlements. When they resisted European colonial expansion at the height of the French and Indian War, the British colonial authorities investigated the causes of Lenape resentment. The British asked Sir William Johnson, Superintendent of Indian Affairs, to lead the investigation. Johnson had become wealthy as a trader and acquired thousands of acres of land in the Mohawk River Valley from the Iroquois Mohawk of New York.[62]

Beginning in the 18th century, the Moravian Church established missions among the Lenape.[63] The Moravians required the Christian converts to share their pacifism, as well as to live in a structured and European-style mission village.[64] Moravian pacifism and unwillingness to take loyalty oaths caused conflicts with British colonial authorities, who were seeking aid against the French and their Native American allies during the Seven Years' War. The Moravians' insistence on Christian Lenapes' abandoning traditional warfare practices alienated mission populations from other Lenape and Native American groups, who revered warriors.[citation needed] The Moravians accompanied Lenape relocations to Ohio and Canada, continuing their missionary work. The Moravian Lenape who settled permanently in Ontario after the American Revolutionary War were sometimes referred to as "Christian Munsee", as they mostly spoke the Munsee branch of the Lenape language.

During the French and Indian War, the Lenape initially sided with the French, as they hoped to prevent further European colonial encroachment in their territory. But, such leaders as Teedyuscung in the east and Tamaqua in the vicinity of modern Pittsburgh shifted to building alliances with the British colonial authorities. After the end of the war, however, Anglo-American settlers continued to attack the Lenape, often to such an extent that the historian Amy Schutt writes the dead since the wars outnumbered those killed during the war.[65]

In 1757, the "New Jersey Association for Helping the Indians" wrote a constitution to expel native Munsee Lenape from their home in the Washington Valley of Morris County, New Jersey.[66] Led by Reverend John Brainerd, colonists forcefully relocated 200 people to Indian Mills, then known as Brotherton.[67] It was then an industrial town, known for gristmills and sawmills. This was the first Native American reservation in New Jersey.[68] Reverend John Brainerd abandoned the reservation in 1777.[69][clarification needed]

The Treaty of Easton, signed in 1758 between the Lenape and the Anglo-American colonists, required the Lenape to move westward, out of present-day New York and New Jersey and into Pennsylvania, then Ohio and beyond. Through the 18th century, many Lenape moved west into the relatively depopulated upper Ohio River basin.Sporadically they continued to raid European-American settlers from far outside the area.[citation needed]

In 1763, Bill Hickman, Lenape, warned English colonists in the Juniata River region of an impending attack. Many Lenape joined in Pontiac's War, and were numerous among those Native Americans who besieged Pittsburgh.[65]

In April 1763, Teedyuscung was killed when his home was burned. His son Captain Bull responded by attacking settlers from New England who had migrated to the Wyoming Valley of Pennsylvania. The settlers had been sponsored by the Susquehanna Company.[70]

American Revolutionary War

Main articles: Brodhead's Coshocton expedition, Gnadenhutten massacre, Western theater of the American Revolutionary War, and Northern theater of the American Revolutionary War after Saratoga
Background

After the signing of the Treaty of Easton in 1758, the Lenape were forced to move west out of their original lands into what is today known as Ohio.[71]

During the French and Indian War, Killbuck had assisted the British against the French and their Indian allies. In 1761, Killbuck led a British supply train from Fort Pitt to Fort Sandusky. During the early 1770s, missionaries, including David Zeisberger and John Heckewelder, arrived in the Ohio Country near the Lenape villages. The Moravian Church sent these men to convert the Indigenous peoples to Christianity. The missionaries established several missions, including Gnadenhutten, Lichtenau, and Schoenbrunn. The missionaries pressured Indigenous people to abandon their traditional customs, beliefs, and ways of life, and to replace them with European and Christian ways. Many Lenape did adopt Christianity, but others refused to do so. The Lenape became a divided people during the 1770s, including in Killbuck's family. Killbuck resented his grandfather for allowing the Moravians to remain in the Ohio country. The Moravians believed in pacifism, and Killbuck believed that every convert to the Moravians deprived the Lenape of a warrior to stop further white settlement of their land.[citation needed]

War

When the American Revolutionary War began, Killbuck found the Lenape caught between the British and their Indian allies in the West and the Americans in the East. At the war's beginning, Killbuck and many Lenape claimed to be neutral. In 1778, Killbuck permitted American soldiers to traverse Lenape territory so that the soldiers could attack British-held Fort Detroit. In return, Killbuck requested that the Americans build a fort near the major village of Coshocton, to provide the Lenape with protection from potential attacks by British-allied Indians and Loyalists. The Americans agreed and built Fort Laurens, which they garrisoned.[citation needed]

At the time of the Revolutionary War, the Lenape in Ohio were deeply divided over which side, if any, to take in the war. During this time, the Lenape bands were living in numerous villages around their main village of Coshocton,[72] between the western frontier strongholds of the British and the Patriots. The American colonists had Fort Pitt (present-day Pittsburgh) and the British, along with Indian allies, controlled the area of Fort Detroit (in present-day Michigan).[citation needed]

Other Indian communities, particularly the Wyandot, the Mingo, the Shawnee, and the Wolf Clan of the Lenape, favored the British. They believed that by their proclamation of 1763, restricting Anglo-American settlement to east of the Appalachian Mountains, that the British would help them preserve a Native American territory. The British made plans to attack Fort Laurens in early 1779 and demanded that the neutral Lenape formally side with the British. Killbuck warned the Americans of the planned attack. His actions helped save the fort, but the Americans abandoned it in August 1779. The Lenape had lost their protectors and found themselves without solid allies in the conflict, which compounded their dispossession at the hand of encroaching American pioneers during and after the war.[citation needed]

Some Lenape decided to take up arms against the American settlers and moved to the west, closer to Detroit, where they settled on the Scioto and Sandusky rivers. Those Lenape sympathetic to the United States remained at Coshocton, and Lenape leaders signed the Treaty of Fort Pitt (1778) with the American colonists. Through this treaty, the Lenape hoped to establish the Ohio country as a state inhabited exclusively by Native Americans, as a subset of the new United States. A third group of Lenape, many of them converted Christian Munsees, lived in several mission villages run by Moravians. Like the other bands, they also spoke the Munsee branch of Lenape, an Algonquian language.[citation needed]

White Eyes, the Lenape chief who had negotiated the treaty, died in 1778. Subsequently many Lenape at Coshocton eventually joined the war against the Americans. In response, American military officer Daniel Brodhead led an expedition out of Fort Pitt and on 19 April 1781, and destroyed Coshocton. Surviving residents fled to the north. Colonel Brodhead convinced the militia to leave the Lenape at the Moravian mission villages unmolested, since they were unarmed non-combatants.[citation needed]

Treaties of the late 18th century

The Lenape were the first Indian tribe to enter into a treaty with the new United States government, with the Treaty of Fort Pitt signed in 1778 during the American Revolutionary War. By then living mostly in the Ohio Country,[citation needed] the Lenape supplied the Continental Army with warriors and scouts in exchange for food supplies and security.

In 1780, Munsee-speaking Lenape community leaders native to the Washington Valley that had been forcibly displaced to Brotherton, wrote a community treaty[73][74][75] to oppose selling any more land to white settlers:

Be it known by this, that it has been in our consideration of late about settling of White People on the Indian Lands, And we have concluded that it is a thing which ought not to be, & a thing that will not be allowed by us, that of Renting or giving Leases for said Lands, hereafter, no, not by the proprietors themselves without the consent of the rest much more by those who has no Claim or Rite here ...

We have come upon those resolutions we hope for our better living in friendship among one another, it may be that there is some which does not like white people for their Neighbours, for fear of their not agreeing as they ought to do. it might be about there children or about something they have about them we know not what, Again it may be the white Man may do something either upon Land, Timber or something else which some one of the proprietors would not like & from thence would come great deal of Disquietness, & many other ways which may plainly be seen into, by those that have any sense or reason—

We are exceeding glad when we see we are like to live in Quietness among one another without giving any offence to one another, & this of keeping white people from among us will be a great step towards it, & for this reason we intend to stand by or rather stand Hand in hand against any coming on the Indian Lands.

— Joseph Micty, Bartholomew Calvin, Jacob Skekit, Robert Skikkit, Derrick Quaquiuse, Benjamin Nicholus, Mary Calvin, Hezekiah Calvin

In 1796, the Oneidas of New Stockbridge invited the Munsee Lenape to their reservation. The initial Lenape response was negative; in 1798, Lenape community leaders Bartholomew Calvin, Jason Skekit, and 18 others signed a public statement of refusal to leave "our fine place in Jersey."[76][77] However, the tribe later agreed to relocate to New Stockbridge to join the Oneidas.[67][78] A few Lenape households stayed behind to assimilate in New Jersey.[79]

19th century

In the early 19th century the amateur anthropologist Silas Wood published a book claiming that there were several American Indian tribes that were distinct to Long Island, New York. He collectively called them the Metoac. Modern scientific scholarship has shown that in fact two linguistic groups representing two distinct Algonquian cultural identities lived on the island, not "13 individual tribes" as asserted by Wood. The bands to the west were Lenape. Those to the east were more related culturally to the Algonquian tribes of New England across Long Island Sound, such as the Pequot.[80][81] Wood (and earlier settlers) often misinterpreted the Indian use of place names for autonyms.

Over a period of 176 years, European settlers pushed the Lenape out of the East Coast, through to Ohio and eventually further west. Most members of the Munsee-language branch of the Lenape left the United States after the British were defeated in the American Revolutionary War. Their descendants live on three Indian reserves in Western Ontario, Canada. They are descendants of those Lenape of Ohio Country who sided with the British during the Revolutionary War. The largest reserve is at Moraviantown, Ontario, where the Turtle Phratry settled in 1792 following the war.

Two groups migrated to Oneida County, New York, by 1802, the Brotherton Indians of New Jersey and the Stockbridge-Munsee. In 1822, the Munsee Lenape of Washington Valley who had moved to Stockbridge were forcefully displaced by white colonists again, over 900 miles' travel away,[82] to Green Bay, Wisconsin.[67]

Indiana to Missouri

By the Treaty of St. Mary's, signed October 3, 1818, in St. Mary's, Ohio, the Lenape ceded their lands in Indiana for lands west of the Mississippi and an annuity of $4,000. Over the next few years, the Lenape settled on the James River in Missouri near its confluence with Wilsons Creek, occupying eventually about 40,000 acres (160 km2) of the approximately 2,000,000 acres (8,100 km2) allotted to them.[83] Anderson, Indiana, is named after Chief William Anderson, whose father was Swedish. The Delaware Village in Indiana was called Anderson's Town, while the Delaware Village in Missouri on the James River was often called Anderson's Village. The tribes' cabins and cornfields were spread out along the James River and Wilsons Creek.[84]

Role in western history

Many Lenape participated in the exploration of the western United States, working as trappers with the mountain men, and as guides and hunters for wagon trains. They served as army guides and scouts in events such as the Second Seminole War, Frémont's expeditions, and the conquest of California during the Mexican–American War.[85][86][87] Occasionally, they played surprising roles as Indian allies.[88]

Sagundai accompanied one of Frémont's expeditions as one of his Lenape guides. From California, Fremont needed to communicate with Senator Benton. Sagundai volunteered to carry the message through some 2,200 kilometres (1367 miles) of hostile territory. He took many scalps in this adventure, including that of a Comanche with a particularly fine horse, who had outrun both Sagundai and the other Comanche. Sagundai was thrown when his horse stepped into a prairie-dog hole, but avoided the Comanche's lance, shot the warrior dead, and caught his horse and escaped the other Comanche. When Sagundai returned to his own people in present-day Kansas, they celebrated his exploits with the last war and scalp dances of their history, which were held at Edwardsville, Kansas.[89]

Kansas reservation

 
Lenape farm on the Delaware Indian Reservation in Kansas in 1867

By the terms of the "Treaty of the James Fork" that was signed on September 24, 1829, and ratified by the U.S. Senate in 1830, the Lenape were forced to move further west. They were granted lands in Indian Territory in exchange for lands on the James Fork of the White River in Missouri. These lands, in what is now Kansas, were west of the Missouri and north of the Kansas River. The main reserve consisted of about 1,000,000 acres (4,000 km2) with an additional "outlet" strip 10 miles (16 km) wide extending to the west.[90][91]

In 1854, Congress passed the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which created the Territory of Kansas and opened the area for white settlement. It also authorized negotiation with Indian tribes regarding removal. The Lenape were reluctant to negotiate for yet another relocation, but they feared serious trouble with white settlers, and conflict developed.

As the Lenape were not considered United States citizens, they had no access to the courts and no way to enforce their property rights. The United States Army was to enforce their rights to reservation land after the Indian Agent had both posted a public notice warning trespassers and served written notice on them, a process generally considered onerous. Major B.F. Robinson, the Indian Agent appointed in 1855, did his best, but could not control the hundreds of white trespassers who stole stock, cut timber, and built houses and squatted on Lenape lands. By 1860, the Lenpae had reached consensus to leave Kansas, which was in accord with the government's Indian removal policy.[92]

Oklahoma

The main body of Lenape arrived in Indian Territory in the 1860s.[93] The two federally recognized tribes of Lenape in Oklahoma are the Delaware Nation, headquartered in Anadarko, Oklahoma, and the Delaware Tribe of Indians, headquartered in Bartlesville, Oklahoma.[94]

The Delaware Tribe of Indians were required to purchase land from the reservation of the Cherokee Nation; they made two payments totaling $438,000. A court dispute followed over whether the sale included rights for the Lenape as citizens within the Cherokee Nation. While the dispute was unsettled, the Curtis Act of 1898 dissolved tribal governments and ordered the allotment of communal tribal lands to individual households of members of tribes. After the lands were allotted in 160-acre (650,000 m2) lots to tribal members in 1907, the government sold "surplus" land to non-Indians.

Texas

The Lenape migrated into Texas in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Elements of the Lenape migrated from Missouri into Texas around 1820, settling around the Red River and Sabine River. The Lenape were peaceful and shared their territory in Spanish Texas with the Caddo and other immigrating bands, as well as with the Spanish and ever-increasing American population. This peaceful trend continued after Mexico won their independence from Spain in 1821.[95]
In 1828, Mexican General Manuel de Mier y Terán made an inspection of eastern Mexican Texas and estimated that the region housed between 150 and 200 Lenape families. The Lenape requested Mier y Terán to issue them land grants and send teachers, so they might learn to read and write the Spanish language. The general, impressed with how well they had adapted to the Mexican culture, sent their request to Mexico City, but the authorities never granted the Lenape any legal titles.
The situation changed when the Texas Revolution began in 1835. Texas officials were eager to gain the support of the Texas tribes to their side and offered to recognize their land claims by sending three commissioners to negotiate a treaty. A treaty was agreed upon in February 1836 that mapped the boundaries of Indian lands, but this agreement was never officially ratified by the Texas government.[95]
  • Texas Republic

The Lenape remained friendly after Texas won its independence. Republic of Texas President Sam Houston favored a policy of peaceful relations with all tribes. He sought the services of the friendly Lenape and, in 1837, enlisted several Lenape to protect the frontier from hostile western tribes. Lenape scouts joined with Texas Rangers as they patrolled the western frontier. Houston also tried to get the Lenape land claims recognized, but his efforts were met only by opposition.

The next Texan President, Mirabeau B. Lamar, completely opposed all Indians. He considered them illegal intruders who threatened the settlers' safety and lands and issued an order for their removal from Texas. The Lenape were sent north of the Red River into Indian Territory, although a few scattered Lenape remained in Texas.

In 1841, Houston was reelected to a second term as president and his peaceful Indian policy was then reinstated. A treaty with the remaining Lnape and a few other tribes was negotiated in 1843 at Fort Bird and the Lenape were enlisted to help him make peace with the Comanche. Lenape scouts and their families were allowed to settle along the Brazos and Bosque rivers in order to influence the Comanche to come to the Texas government for a peace conference. The plan was successful and the Lenape helped bring the Comanches to a treaty council in 1844.[95]

  • State of Texas

In 1845, the Republic of Texas agreed to annexation by the US to become an American state. The Lenape continued their peaceful policy with the Americans and served as interpreters, scouts, and diplomats for the US Army and the Indian Bureau. In 1847, John Meusebach was assisted by Jim Shaw (a Lenape), in settling the German communities in the Texas Hill Country. For the remainder of his life, Shaw worked as a military scout in West Texas. In 1848, John Conner (Lenape) guided the Chihuahua-El Paso Expedition and was granted a league of land by a special act of the Texas legislature in 1853. The expeditions of the map maker Randolph B. Marcy through West Texas in 1849, 1852, and 1854 were guided by Black Beaver (Lenape).

In 1854, despite the history of peaceful relations, the last of the Texas Lenape were moved by the American government to the Brazos Indian Reservation near Graham, Texas. In 1859 the US forced the remaining Lenape to remove from Texas to a location on the Washita River in the vicinity of present Anadarko, Oklahoma.[95]

20th century

In 1979, the United States Bureau of Indian Affairs revoked the tribal status of the Lenape living among Cherokee in Oklahoma. They began to count the Lenape as Cherokee. The Lenape had this decision overturned in 1996, when they were recognized by the federal government as a separate tribal nation.[citation needed]

21st century

The Cherokee Nation filed suit to overturn the independent federal recognition of the Lenape. The tribe lost federal recognition in a 2004 court ruling in favor of the Cherokee Nation but regained it on July 28, 2009.[96] After recognition, the tribe reorganized under the Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act. Members approved a constitution and by laws in a May 26, 2009, vote. Jerry Douglas was elected as tribal chief.[94]

In September 2000, the Delaware Nation of Oklahoma received 11.5 acres (4.7 ha) of land in Thornbury Township, Delaware County, Pennsylvania.[97]

In 2004, the Delaware Nation filed suit against Pennsylvania in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania, seeking to reclaim 315 acres (1.27 km2) included in the 1737 Walking Purchase to build a casino. In the suit titled The Delaware Nation v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, the plaintiffs, acting as the successor in interest and political continuation of the Lenni Lenape and of Lenape Chief Moses Tunda Tatamy, claimed aboriginal and fee title to the 315 acres of land located in Forks Township in Northampton County, near the town of Tatamy, Pennsylvania. After the Walking Purchase, Chief Tatamy was granted legal permission for him and his family to remain on this parcel of land, known as "Tatamy's Place". In addition to suing the state, the tribe also sued the township, the county and elected officials, including Gov. Ed Rendell.

Although the Walking Purchase forced the Lenape people to Oklahoma, not every Lenape lives in Oklahoma. Many Lenape continue to live in the Northeast. This community of people are the Munsee Lenape, and are currently in the process of applying for state recognition.[98]

The court held that the justness of the extinguishment of aboriginal title is nonjusticiable, including in the case of fraud. Because the extinguishment occurred prior to the passage of the first Indian Nonintercourse Act in 1790, that Act did not avail the Lenape. As a result, the court granted the Commonwealth's motion to dismiss. In its conclusion the court stated: "... we find that the Delaware Nation's aboriginal rights to Tatamy's Place were extinguished in 1737 and that, later, fee title to the land was granted to Chief Tatamy—not to the tribe as a collectivity."[99]

Contemporary tribes and organizations

U.S. federally recognized tribes

Three Lenape tribes are federally recognized in the United States. They are as follows:

Canadian First Nations

The Lenape who fled United States in the late 18th century settled in what is now Ontario. Canada recognizes three Lenape First Nations with four Indian reserves. They are all located in Southwestern Ontario.

State-recognized and unrecognized groups

Three groups who claim descent from Lenape people are state-recognized tribes.

More than a dozen organizations in Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey, Pennsylvania,[104] Virginia, and elsewhere claim descent from Lenape people and are unrecognized tribes. Organizations in Pennsylvania, Idaho and Kansas have petitioned the United States federal government for recognition.[98][105] One of these includes the Lenape Nation of Pennsylvania based in Easton, Pennsylvania.[106]

Notable historical Lenape people

This includes only Lenape documented in history. Contemporary notable Lenape people are listed in the articles for the appropriate tribe.

See also

Commentary

  1. ^ Description of the Lenape peoples (Delaware nations) historic territories inside the divides of the frequently mountainous landforms flanking the Delaware River's drainage basin. These terrains encompass from South to North and then counter-clockwise:
    • the shores from the east-shore mouth of the river and the sea coast to Western Long Island (all of both colonial New York City and New Jersey), and
    • portions of Western Connecticut up to the latitude of the Massachusetts corner of today's boundaries—making the eastern bounds of their influence, thence their region extended:
    • westerly past the region around Albany, NY to the Susquehanna River side of the Catskills, then
    • southerly through the eastern Poconos outside the rival Susquehannock lands past Eastern Pennsylvania then southerly past the site of Colonial Philadelphia past the west bank mouth of the Delaware and extending south from that point along a stretch of sea coast in northern colonial Delaware.
    The Susquehanna-Delaware watershed divides bound the frequently contested hunting grounds between the rival Susquehannock peoples and the Lenape peoples, whilst the Catskills and Berkshires played a similar boundary role in the northern regions of their original colonial era range.
  1. ^ One big cultural change occurred during the Beaver Wars—instead of honor raids for bragging rights by stealing cattle, food stocks, weapons, or women, the Iroquois (probably having heard of European wars of conquest) began slash and burn campaigns, often raiding in mid-winter to drive out targeted populations and despoiling their productive lands and food stocks.[citation needed] The Iroquois steamrolled[weasel words] a large variety of tribes of both Algonkian and Iroquoian language groups as they established dominance over a large range, and became the major political factor any English and French decision makers had to consider in making any policy for over a hundred years.[10] Iroquois delegations were hosted and honored in London and Paris.[10]

Notes

  1. ^ a b Newman 10
  2. ^ Fariello, Leonardo A. "A Place Called Whippany", Whippanong Library, 2000 (retrieved 19 July 2011)
  3. ^ Kraft, The Lenape-Delaware Indian Heritage,[page needed]
  4. ^ a b c Pritzker 422
  5. ^ "Pocket Pictorial." 2010-04-06 at the Wayback Machine Oklahoma Indian Affairs Commission. 2010: 13. Retrieved 10 June 2010.
  6. ^ "Art on the Prairies: Delaware", All About the Shoes. Retrieved 19 July 2011.
  7. ^ "Definition of Lenape". Merriam Webster. from the original on August 13, 2019. Retrieved July 6, 2017.
  8. ^ "Delaware Indians". Lenape Talking Dictionary. Delaware Tribe of Indians. Retrieved February 24, 2023.
  9. ^ Zeisberger, David (1827). Grammar of the language of the Lenni Lenape or Delaware Indians. Philadelphia: James Kay. ISBN 9780404158033.
  10. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p William, Brandon (1961). Alvin M., Josephy Jr. (ed.). The American Heritage Book of Indians. American Heritage Publishing Co., Inc. pp. 180–211. LCCN 61-14871.
  11. ^ a b c Josephy 188–189
  12. ^ "Online Etymology Dictionary." Retrieved 10 Oct 2019.
  13. ^ "Lenape Talking Dictionary." 2013-12-03 at the Wayback Machine Delaware Tribe of Indians. Retrieved 2 Dec 2013.
  14. ^ Goddard 235
  15. ^ Heckewelder The History, Manners, and Customs of the Indian Nations Who Once Inhabited Pennsylvania and Neighboring States, 52
  16. ^ "Lunaape (Munsee-Delaware)". CBC Indigenous. Original Voices. Retrieved February 24, 2023.
  17. ^ Myers, William Penn's Own Account of the Lenni Lenape or Delaware Indians, 23–24
  18. ^ "About Us". LENAPE TALKING DICTIONARY By English WORD or PHRASE. 2021. Retrieved October 25, 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  19. ^ Harrison, David (2010). The Last Speakers: The Quest to Save the World's Most Endangered Languages. National Geographic. pp. 256–260. ISBN 978-1426204616.
  20. ^ Hornberger, Nancy; De Korne, Haley (2016). "Ways of Talking (and Acting) About Language Reclamation: An Ethnographic Perspective on Learning Lenape in Pennsylvania". Journal of Language, Identity & Education. 15: 44–58. doi:10.1080/15348458.2016.1113135. S2CID 146277852.
  21. ^ Hoffmann, Maureen (May 2009). "Endangered Languages, Linguistics, and Culture: Researching and Reviving the Unami Language of the Lenape". CiteSeerX 10.1.1.499.8475. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  22. ^ "Our Tribal History..." www.nanticoke-lenape.info. Retrieved April 14, 2018.
  23. ^ Carman, Alan E. (September 16, 2013). Footprints in Time: A History and Ethnology of The Lenape-Delaware Indian Culture. Trafford. pp. 88–90. ISBN 978-1466907423.
  24. ^ "The Lenape Talking Dictionary | Search Results of "wolf clan" English to Lenape".
  25. ^ "The Lenape Talking Dictionary | Detailed Entry View – alternate name or group in the Tùkwsit (Wolf) clan (Lit. – Yellow Trees)".
  26. ^ "The Lenape Talking Dictionary | Detailed Entry View – turtle clan".
  27. ^ "The Lenape Talking Dictionary | Detailed Entry View – Fowl (Turkey) clan of the Lenape".
  28. ^ a b c d e Caffrey, Margaret M. (2000). "Complementary Power: Men and Women of the Lenni Lenape". American Indian Quarterly. 24 (1): 44–63. ISSN 0095-182X. JSTOR 1185990.
  29. ^ Stevenson W. Fletcher, Pennsylvania Agriculture and Country Life 1640–1840 (Harrisburg: Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, 1950), 2, 35–37, 63–65, 124.
  30. ^ Day, Gordon M. "The Indian as an Ecological Factor in the Northeastern Forests." Ecology, Vol. 34, #2 (April 1953): 329–346. New England and New York Areas 1580–1800.
  31. ^ Emily W.B. Russell, Vegetational Change in Northern New Jersey Since 1500 A.D.: A Palynological, Vegetational and Historical Synthesis, Ph.D. dissertation (New Brunswick, PA: Rutgers University, 1979).
  32. ^ Russell, Emily W.B. "Indian Set Fires in the Forests of the Northeastern United States." Ecology, Vol. 64, no. 1 (Feb. 1983): 78, 88.
  33. ^ A Brief Description of New York, Formerly Called New Netherlands with the Places Thereunto Adjoining, Likewise a Brief Relation of the Customs of the Indians There, New York, NY: William Gowans. 1670. Reprinted in 1937 by the Facsimile Text Society, Columbia University Press, New York.
  34. ^ Smithsonian Institution—Handbook of North American Indians series: Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 15—Northeast. Bruce G. Trigger (volume editor). Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. 1978 References to Indian burning for the Eastern Algonquians, Virginia Algonquians, Northern Iroquois, Huron, Mahican, and Delaware Tribes and peoples.
  35. ^ Mark Kurlansky, 2006[page needed]
  36. ^ Dreibelbis, 1978 , page 33
  37. ^ Keoke, Emory Dean. Food, Farming and Hunting. p. 103.
  38. ^ Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace, 1999, p.5
  39. ^ Utz, Axel (2011). Cultural exchange, imperialist violence, and pious missions: Local perspectives from Tanjavur and Lenape country, 1720–1760 (Ph.D. thesis). Pennsylvania State University. pp. 140–147. ProQuest 902171220.
  40. ^ Weslager, The Delaware Indians: A History, 54
  41. ^ Kraft, The Lenape-Delaware Indian Heritage, 237–240
  42. ^ Kraft, The Lenape-Delaware Indian Heritage, 239
  43. ^ Weslager 54
  44. ^ "Official Site of the Delaware Tribe of Indians » Pahsahëman — The Lenape Indian Football Game". Retrieved March 24, 2020.
  45. ^ Lenni Lenape Original Settlers, Matawan Journal, June 27, 1957, Page 12
  46. ^ Hill, George (2015). "DELAWARE ETHNOBOTANY" (PDF). Delawaretribe.org.
  47. ^ Tantaquidgeon, Gladys, 1972, Folk Medicine of the Delaware and Related Algonkian Indians, Harrisburg. Pennsylvania Historical Commission Anthropological Papers #3, page 30
  48. ^ Tantaquidgeon, Gladys, 1942, A Study of Delaware Indian Medicine Practice and Folk Beliefs, Harrisburg. Pennsylvania Historical Commission, page 25, 74
  49. ^ Trigger, Bruce C. (1978). Sturtevant, William C. (ed.). Handbook of North American Indians (general ed.). Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution.
  50. ^ Paul Otto, 179 "Intercultural Relations Between Native Americans and Europeans in New Netherland and New York" in Four Centuries of Dutch-American Relations,SUNY Press, 2009
  51. ^ see Mari Minato research on Lenape tribe http://www.mariminato.com/en/insitu/2016/lenapes_4.php#main-info
  52. ^ Carpenter, Roger M. (2007). "From Indian Women to English Children: The Lenni-Lenape and the Attempt to Create a New Diplomatic Identity". Pennsylvania History. 74 (1): 1–20. doi:10.2307/pennhistory.74.1.0001. ISSN 0031-4528. JSTOR 27778759. S2CID 160131350.
  53. ^ a b William Christie MacLeod. "The Family Hunting Territory and Lenape Political Organization," American Anthropologist 24.
  54. ^ Munroe, John A.: Colonial Delaware: A History: Millwood, New York: KTO Press; 1978; pp. 9–12
  55. ^ Cook, Albert Myers. Narratives of Early Pennsylvania, West New Jersey and Delaware 1630–1707. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1912, p. 9
  56. ^ Jennings (2000), p. 117
  57. ^ Goddard 213–216
  58. ^ Snow, Dean R. (1996). "Mohawk demography and the effects of exogenous epidemics on American Indian populations". Journal of Anthropological Archaeology. 15 (2): 160–182. doi:10.1006/jaar.1996.0006.
  59. ^ Editor: Alvin M. Josephy, Jr., by The editors of American Heritage Magazine (1961). pages 188–189, quote page 198 (ed.). The American Heritage Book of Indians. American Heritage Publishing Co., Inc. LCCN 61014871. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |author= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  60. ^ Otto, Paul, 91 The Dutch-Munsee Encounter in America: The Struggle for Sovereignty in the Hudson Valley. New York: Berghahn Press, 2006.
  61. ^ Spady, "Colonialism and the Discursive Antecedents of Penn's Treaty with the Indians," 18–40
  62. ^ a b Harper, Steven Craig (2006). Promised Land: Penn's Holy Experiment, the Walking Purchase, and the dispossession of Delawares, 1600–1763. Bethlehem, PA.
  63. ^ Gray, Elma. Wilderness Christians: Moravian Missions to the Delaware Indians. Ithaca. 1956[page needed]
  64. ^ Olmstead, Earl P. Blackcoats among the Delaware: David Zeisberger on the Ohio frontier. Kent, Ohio. 1991[page needed]
  65. ^ a b Schutt, (2007), p.118
  66. ^ "Collection: New Jersey Association for helping the Indians records | Archives & Manuscripts". archives.tricolib.brynmawr.edu. Retrieved April 21, 2022.
  67. ^ a b c Barbara, Hoskins; Foster, Caroline; Roberts, Dorothea; Foster, Gladys (1960). Washington Valley, an informal history. Edward Brothers. OCLC 28817174.
  68. ^ "The Brotherton Indians of New Jersey, 1780 | Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History". www.gilderlehrman.org. Retrieved April 21, 2022.
  69. ^ "The Brotherton Indians of New Jersey, 1780 | Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History". www.gilderlehrman.org. Retrieved April 21, 2022.
  70. ^ Schutt, (2007), p. 119
  71. ^ Keenan, Encyclopedia of American Indian Wars, 1492–1890, 1999, p. 234; Moore, The Northwest Under Three Flags, 1635–1796, 1900, p. 151.
  72. ^   William Dean Howells, "Gnadenhütten," Three Villages, Boston: James R. Osgood and Co., 1884., accessed 19 Mar 2010
  73. ^ Micty, Joseph (January 6, 1780). "Statement opposing white settlement on Indian land in Brotherton, New Jersey" (PDF). The Gilder Lehrman Collection.
  74. ^ "The Brotherton Indians of New Jersey, 1780 | Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History". www.gilderlehrman.org. Retrieved April 21, 2022.
  75. ^ The Brotherton Indians’ agreement to oppose white settlement, January 6, 1780. (Gilder Lehrman Collection)https://www.gilderlehrman.org/sites/default/files/content-images/00540.01p1.web_.jpg
  76. ^ "The Brotherton Indians of New Jersey, 1780 | Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History". www.gilderlehrman.org. Retrieved April 21, 2022.
  77. ^ "[Brotherton statement of refusal to leave New Jersey] | Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History". www.gilderlehrman.org. Retrieved April 21, 2022.
  78. ^ "New Stockbridge Tribe". collections.dartmouth.edu. Retrieved April 21, 2022.
  79. ^ "The Brotherton Indians of New Jersey, 1780 | Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History". www.gilderlehrman.org. Retrieved April 21, 2022.
  80. ^ Strong, John A. Algonquian Peoples of Long Island Heart of the Lakes Publishing (March 1997). ISBN 978-1-55787-148-0
  81. ^ Bragdon, Kathleen. The Columbia Guide to American Indians of the Northeast,Columbia University Press (2002). ISBN 978-0-231-11452-3.
  82. ^ "Green Bay to Stockbridge". Green Bay to Stockbridge. Retrieved April 21, 2022.
  83. ^ "Removal Era", accessed September 8, 2010
  84. ^ "Delaware Town", Missouri State University, accessed September 8, 2010
  85. ^ Weslager, The Delaware Indians, pp. 375, 378–380
  86. ^ Sides, Hampton, Blood and Thunder: An Epic of the American West, Doubleday (2006), pp. 77–80, 94, 101, hardcover, 462 pages, ISBN 978-0-385-50777-6
  87. ^ Page lv of the introduction by Frank McNitt, Simpson, James H, edited and annotated by Frank McNitt, foreword by Durwood Ball, Navaho Expedition: Journal of a Military Reconnaissance from Santa Fe, New Mexico, to the Navaho Country, Made in 1849, University of Oklahoma Press (1964), trade paperback (2003), 296 pages, ISBN 0-8061-3570-0
  88. ^ Sides, Blood and Thunder, p. 181
  89. ^ William E. Connelley. A Standard History of Kansas and Kansans, Vol. I. Chicago: Lewis Publishing Co., 1918, p. 250.
  90. ^ (PDF). okstate.edu. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 3, 2016. Retrieved April 14, 2018.
  91. ^ (PDF). okstate.edu. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 3, 2016. Retrieved April 14, 2018.
  92. ^ Pages 401 to 409. Weslager, The Delaware Indians
  93. ^ Helen M. Stiefmiller, "Delaware, Eastern.", Oklahoma Historical Society, accessed May 6, 2017
  94. ^ a b "Delaware Tribe regains federal recognition" March 19, 2016, at the Wayback Machine NewsOk. 4 Aug 2009. Retrieved 5 August 2009.
  95. ^ a b c d Carol A. Lipscomb, "DELAWARE INDIANS," 'Handbook of Texas Online [1], accessed July 8, 2012. Published by the Texas State Historical Association.
  96. ^ "Delaware Tribe of Indians' federal recognition restored", Indian Country Today. 7 Aug 2009 (retrieved 11 August 2009)
  97. ^ "Delaware Indians may use land donated by couple as burial ground". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Associated Press. September 19, 2000. p. B-10. Retrieved April 14, 2018.
  98. ^ a b Cooper, Kenny (July 30, 2021). "'We Just Want to be Welcomed Back': The Lenape Seek a Return Home". Retrieved October 30, 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  99. ^ The Delaware Nation v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania 250 (United States Court of Appeals, Third Circuit).Text
  100. ^ a b "Tribal Directory: D". National Congress of American Indians. Retrieved December 28, 2017.
  101. ^ "Tribal Directory". National Congress of American Indians. Retrieved December 28, 2017.
  102. ^ "Removal History of the Delaware Tribe". Delaware Tribe of Indians. Retrieved December 28, 2017.
  103. ^ a b c "Tribal Directory: Lenape". National Congress of American Indians. Retrieved July 14, 2018.
  104. ^ "Lenape Nation of Pennsylvania". lenapenationofpa. Retrieved April 14, 2021.
  105. ^ "Petitions for Federal Recognition." 500 Nations. Retrieved 22 Jan 2012.
  106. ^ "Lenape Nation of Pennsylvania Cultural Center". Sigal Museum. Retrieved February 22, 2023.
  107. ^ S. H. Mitchell (1895)[page needed]
  108. ^ Killbuck, Ohio History Central. July 1, 2005

References

  • Aberg, Alf. The People of New Sweden: Our Colony on the Delaware River, 1638–1655. (Natur & Kultur, 1988). ISBN 91-27-01909-8.
  • Acrelius, Israel. (Translated from Swedish with an introduction and notes by W.M. Reynolds). A History of New Sweden; or, the Settlements on the River Delaware. Ulan Press, 2011. ASIN B009SMVNPW.
  • Bierhorst, John. Mythology of the Lenape: Guide and Texts. University of Arizona Press, 1995. ISBN 978-0-8165-1573-8.
  • Brinton, Daniel G., C.F. Denke, and Albert Anthony. A Lenâpé – English Dictionary. Biblio Bazaar, 2009. ISBN 978-1-103-14922-3.
  • Burrows, Edward G. and Mike. Wallace. Gotham: A History of New York City to 1989. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-19-514049-4.
  • Carman, Alan, E. Footprints in Time: A History and Ethnology of The Lenape-Delaware Indian Culture. Trafford Publishing, 2013. ISBN 978-1-4669-0742-3.
  • Dalton, Anne. The Lenape of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, Delaware, Wisconsin, Oklahoma, and Ontario (The Library of Native Americans). Powerkids Publishing, 2005. ISBN 978-1-4042-2872-6.
  • De Valinger, Leon, Jr. and C.A. Weslager. Indian Land Sales In Delaware: And A Discussion Of The Family Hunting Territory Question In Delaware. Literary Licensing LLC, 2013. ISBN 978-1-258-62207-7.
  • Donehoo, George P. A History of the Indian Villages and Place Names in Pennsylvania. Wennawoods Publishing, 1997. ISBN 978-1-889037-11-0.
  • Dreibelbis, Dana E., "The Use of Microstructural Growth Patterns of Mercenaria Mercenaria to Determine the Prehistoric Seasons of Harvest at Tuckerton Midden, Tuckerton, New Jersey", pp. 33, thesis, Princeton University, 1978.
  • Frantz, Donald G. and Norma Jean Russell. Blackfoot Dictionary of Stems, Roots, and Affixes. University of Toronto Press, 1995. ISBN 978-0-8020-7136-1.
  • Fur, Gunglong. A Nation of Women: Gender and Colonial Encounters Among the Delaware Indians (Early American Studies). University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012. ISBN 978-0-8122-2205-0.
  • Goddard, Ives (1978). "Delaware". In Trigger, Bruce G. (ed.). Handbook of North American Indians. Vol. 15: Northeast. Washington. pp. 213–239.
  • Grumet, Robert S. The Lenapes (Indians of North America). Chelsea House Publishing, 1989. ISBN 978-0-7910-0385-5.
  • Harrington, Mark. A Preliminary Sketch of Lenape Culture. New Era Printing Company, 1913. ASIN B0008C0OBU.
  • Harrington, Mark. Religion and Ceremonies of the Lenape. Forgotten Books, 2012. ASIN B008J7N986.
  • Harrington, Mark R. Vestiges of Material Culture Among the Canadian Delawares. New Era Printing Company, 1908. ASIN B0008AV2JU.
  • Harrington, Mark R. The Indians of New Jersey: Dickon Among the Lenapes. Rutgers University Press, 1963. ISBN 978-0-8135-0425-4.
  • Heckewelder, John G.E. The History, Manners, and Customs of the Indian Nations Who Once Inhabited Pennsylvania and Neighboring States. Uhlan Publishing, 2012. ASIN B009UTU6LK.
  • Heckewelder, John G.E. Names Which the Lenni Lenape or Delaware Indians Gave to Rivers, Streams, and Localities (Classic Reprint). Forgotten Books, 2012. ISBN 978-1-4400-5862-2.
  • Hoffecker, Carol E., Richard Waldron, Lorraine E. Williams, and Barbara E. Benson (editors). New Sweden in America. University of Delaware Press, 1995.
  • Jennings, Francis. Empire of Fortune. W. W. Norton and Company, 1990. ISBN 978-0-393-30640-8.
  • Jennings, Francis. The Ambiguous Iroquois Empire. W. W. Norton and Company, 1990. ISBN 978-0-393-30302-5.
  • Jennings, Francis. The History and Culture of Iroquois Diplomacy: An Interdisciplinary Guide to the Treaties of the Six Nations and Their League. Syracuse University Press, 1995. ISBN 978-0-8156-2650-3.
  • Johnson, Amandus. The Swedish Settlements on the Delaware: Their History and Relation to the Indians, Dutch and English, 1638–1664 : With an Account of the South, the New Sweden Company, and the American Companies, and the Efforts of Sweden to Regain the Colony. University of Pennsylvania, 1911. ASIN B000KJFFCY.
  • Editor: Alvin M. Josephy, Jr., by The editors of American Heritage Magazine (1961). pages 188–189 (ed.). The American Heritage Book of Indians. American Heritage Publishing Co., Inc. LCCN 61014871. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |author= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  • Kalter, Susan (editor). Benjamin Franklin, Pennsylvania, and the First Nations: The Treaties of 1736–62. University of Illinois Press, 2006. ISBN 978-0-252-03035-2.
  • Kraft, Herbert. The Lenape-Delaware Indian Heritage, 10,000 BC to AD 2000. Lenape Books, 2001. ISBN 978-0-935137-03-3.
  • Kurlansky, Mark. The Big Oyster: History on the Half Shell. Random House Trade Paperbacks, 2007. ISBN 978-0-345-47639-5.
  • Lindestrom, Peter. (Transcribed and edited by Amandus Johnson of the Swedish Colonial Society, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania). Geographia Americae: With an Account of the Delaware Indians, Based on Surveys and Notes made in 1654–1656 by Peter Lindestrom. Arno Press, 1979. ISBN 978-0-405-11648-3.
  • Marsh, Dawn G. A Lenape Among the Quakers: The Life of Hannah Freeman. University of Nebraska Press, 2014. ISBN 978-0-8032-4840-3.
  • Middleton, Sam (Chief Mountain, "Neen Ees To-ko). Blackfoot Confederacy, Ancient and Modern. Kainai Chieftainship, 1951.
  • Mitchell, S. H. Internet Archive The Indian Chief, Journeycake. Philadelphia: American Baptist Publication Society, 1895.
  • Myers, Albert Cook. William Penn's Own Account of the Lenni Lenape or Delaware Indians. Middle Atlantic Press, 1981. ISBN 978-0-912608-13-6.
  • Myers, Albert Cook (editor). Narratives of Early Pennsylvania, West New Jersey and Delaware, 1630–1707. Nabu Press, 2012. ISBN 978-1-279-95624-3.
  • Newcomb, William W. The Culture and Acculturation of the Delaware Indians. University of Michigan, 1956. ASIN B0007EFEXW.
  • Newman, Andrew. On Records: Delaware Indians, Colonists, and the Media of History and Memory. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2012. ISBN 978-0-8032-3986-9.
  • Olmstead, Earl P. Blackcoats Among the Delaware: David Zeisberger on the Ohio Frontier. Kent State University Press, 1991. ISBN 978-0-87338-434-6.
  • Pritzker, Barry M. A Native American Encyclopedia: History, Culture, and Peoples. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0-19-513877-1.
  • Repsher, Donald R. "Indian Place Names in Bucks County". As cited in . Retrieved March 15, 2012.
  • Rice, Phillip W. English-Lenape Dictionary. N.P., N.D. See .
  • Schutt, Amy C. Peoples of the River Valleys: The Odyssey of the Delaware Indians (Early American Studies). University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007. ISBN 978-0-8122-2024-7.
  • Soderlund, Jean R. Lenape Country: Delaware Valley Society before William Penn. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2014.
  • Spady, James. "Colonialism and the Discursive Antecedents of Penn's Treaty with the Indians". Daniel K. Richter and William A. Pencak, eds. Friends and Enemies in Penn's Woods: Indians, Colonists, and the Racial Construction of Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania State University Press, 2004: 18–40.
  • Trowbridge, C.C. Delaware Indian Language of 1824 (American Language Reprints Supplement Series; edited by James A. Rementer). Evolution Publications and Manufacturing, 2011. ISBN 978-1-935228-06-6.
  • Van Doren, Carl, and Julian P. Boyd. Indian Treaties Printed by Benjamin Franklin, 1736–1762. Nabu Press, 2011. ISBN 978-1-178-59363-1.
  • Vansina, Jan. Oral Tradition as History. Oxford, 1985. ISBN 0-85255-007-3.
  • Wallace, Paul, A.W. Indians in Pennsylvania (Revised Edition). Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, 2000. ISBN 978-0-89271-017-1.
  • Wallace, Paul, A.W. Indian Paths of Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, 1998. ISBN 978-0-89271-090-4.
  • Weslager, Clinton, Alfred (C.A). A Brief Account of the Indians of Delaware. Literary Licensing, LLC, 2012. ISBN 978-1-258-23895-7.
  • Weslager, C.A. A Man and His Ship: Peter Minuit and the Kalmar Nyckel. Middle Atlantic Press, 1990. ISBN 978-0-9625563-1-9.
  • Weslager, C.A. Delaware's Buried Past: A Story of Archeological Adventure. Rutgers University Press, 1968. ASIN B000KN4Y3G.
  • Weslager, C.A. Delaware's Forgotten Folk: The Story of the Moors and Nanticokes. University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006. ISBN 978-0-8122-1983-8.
  • Weslager, C.A. Delaware's Forgotten River: The Story of the Christina. Hambleton Company, 1947. ASIN B0006D8AEO.
  • Weslager, C.A., and A. R. Dunlap. Dutch Explorers, Traders And Settlers In The Delaware Valley, 1609–1664. Literary Licensing, LLC, 2011. ISBN 978-1-258-17789-8.
  • Weslager, C.A. Magic Medicines of the Indians. Signet, 1974. ASIN B001VIUW08.
  • Weslager, C.A. New Sweden on the Delaware (Middle Atlantic Press, 1988). ISBN 0-912608-65-X.
  • Weslager, C.A. Red Men on the Brandywine (New and Enlarged Edition). Hambleton Company, 1953. ASIN B00EHSFKEC.
  • Weslager, C.A. The Delaware Indians: A History. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1972. ISBN 0-8135-0702-2.
  • Weslager, C.A. The Delaware Indian Westward Migration: With the Texts of Two Manuscripts, 1821–22, Responding to General Lewis Cass's Inquiries about Lenape Culture and Language. Middle Atlantic Press, 1978. ISBN 978-0-912608-06-8.
  • Weslager, C.A. The English on the Delaware: 1610–1682. Rutgers University Press, 1967. ISBN 978-0-8135-0548-0.
  • Weslager, C.A. The Nanticoke Indians: A Refugee Tribal Group of Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, 1948). ASIN B0007ED7Z4.
  • Weslager, C.A. The Swedes and Dutch at New Castle. Middle Atlantic Press, 1990. ISBN 978-0-912608-50-1.
  • Zeisberger, David. A Lenâpé-English Dictionary: From An Anonymous [Manuscript] In The Archives Of The Moravian Church At Bethlehem, [Pennsylvania]. Nabu Press, 2012. ISBN 978-1-278-79951-3.
  • Zeisberger, David. David Zeisberger's History of Northern American Indians (Classic Reprint). Forgotten Books, 2012. ASIN B008HTRBDK.
  • Zeisberger, David. Grammar of the Language of the Lenni Lenape or Delaware Indians. Forgotten Books, 2012. ASIN B008LQRNGO.
  • Zeisberger, David. The Diary of David Zeisberger: A Moravian Missionary Among the Ohio Indians, Volume 1. Ulan Press, 2012. ASIN B00A6PBD82.
  • Zeisberger, David. The Diary of David Zeisberger: A Moravian Missionary Among the Ohio Indians, Volume 2. Ulan Press, 2012. ASIN B009L4SVN4.
  • Zeisberger, David. Zeisberger's Indian Dictionary: English, German, Iroquois—The Onondaga and Algonquin—The Delaware. Harvard University Press, 1887. ISBN 1-104-25351-8. "The Delaware" that Zeisberger translated was Munsee, and not Unami.

Further reading

  • Adams, Richard Calmit, The Delaware Indians, a brief history, Hope Farm Press (Saugerties, NY 1995) [originally published by Government Printing Office, (Washington, DC 1909)]
  • Bierhorst, John. The White Deer and Other Stories Told by the Lenape. New York: W. Morrow, 1995. ISBN 0-688-12900-5
  • Brown, James W. and Rita T. Kohn, eds. Long Journey Home ISBN 978-0-253-34968-2. Indiana University Press (2007).
  • Grumet, Robert Steven (2009). The Munsee Indians: a history. Civilization of the American Indian. Vol. 262. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-4062-9. OCLC 317361732.
  • Kraft, Herbert: The Lenape: Archaeology, History, and Ethnography. New Jersey Historical Society, 1987. ISBN 978-0-911020-14-4.
  • Kraft, Herbert. The Lenape or Delaware Indians: The Original People of New Jersey, Southeastern New York State, Eastern Pennsylvania, northern Delaware and parts of western Connecticut. Lenape Books, 1996. ISBN 978-0-935137-01-9.
  • O'Meara, John, Delaware-English / English-Delaware dictionary, Toronto: University of Toronto Press (1996) ISBN 0-8020-0670-1.
  • Otto, Paul, The Dutch-Munsee Encounter in America: The Struggle for Sovereignty in the Hudson Valley (New York: Berghahn Books, 2006). ISBN 1-57181-672-0
  • Pritchard, Evan T., Native New Yorkers: The Legacy of the Algonquin People of New York. Council Oak Books: San Francisco, 2002, 2007. ISBN 1-57178-107-2.
  • Richter, Conrad, The Light In The Forest. New York: 1953.

External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lenape.
 
Wikisource has the text of a 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article about Lenape.
  • Official website
  • , official website
  • Stockbridge-Munsee Community, official website
  • Lenape Center
  • Museum of Indian Culture
  • Lenape/English dictionary
  • Lenape (Southern Unami) Talking Dictionary
  • "Delaware. One of the most important tribes of Algonquian stock" . New International Encyclopedia. 1905.

March 13, 2023
lenape, other, uses, disambiguation, delaware, indians, delaware, people, redirect, here, other, american, indians, from, present, delaware, category, native, american, tribes, delaware, individual, people, from, state, delaware, list, people, from, delaware, . For other uses see Lenape disambiguation Delaware Indians and Delaware people redirect here For other American Indians from present day Delaware see Category Native American tribes in Delaware For individual people from the state of Delaware see List of people from Delaware This article needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Lenape news newspapers books scholar JSTOR January 2011 Learn how and when to remove this template message The Lenape English l e ˈ n ɑː p i ˈ l ɛ n e p i or IPA leˈnɑːpe 7 8 also called the Lenni Lenape 9 and Delaware people 10 are an Indigenous people of the Northeastern Woodlands who live in the United States and Canada 4 LenapeDelaware peopleLenapeyokLenapehoking historic Lenape territory 1 Munsee speakers in the north Unalachtigo speakers in the center and Unami speakers in the south 2 3 West left side geographic limits correspond closely to ridgelines drainage divides between the Susquehanna and Delaware river valleys Total populationc 16 000 4 Regions with significant populationsUnited States Oklahoma 11 195 2010 5 United States Wisconsin 1 565Canada Ontario 2 300LanguagesEnglish Munsee and formerly Unami 4 ReligionChristianity Native American Church traditional tribal religionRelated ethnic groupsOther Algonquian peoplesJennie Bobb and her daughter Nellie Longhat both Delaware Nation Oklahoma 1915 6 Today Lenape people belong to the Delaware Nation and Delaware Tribe of Indians in Oklahoma the Stockbridge Munsee Community in Wisconsin and the Munsee Delaware Nation Moravian of the Thames First Nation and Delaware of Six Nations in Ontario Their historical territory included present day northeastern Delaware New Jersey the Lehigh Valley and other regions of eastern Pennsylvania New York City western Long Island and the lower Hudson Valley notes 1 During the last decades of the 18th century most Lenape were displaced from their homelands by white settlers 11 The divisions and troubles of the American Revolutionary War and United States independence pushed them farther west In the 1860s the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the Eastern United States to the Indian Territory which is in present day Oklahoma and surrounding regions under the Indian removal policy Contents 1 Name 2 Territory 3 Languages 4 Society 4 1 Clans and kinship systems 4 2 Hunting fishing and farming 4 3 Clothing and adornment 4 4 Leisure 4 5 Units of measure 4 6 Ethnobotany 5 History 5 1 European contact 5 2 Early colonial era 5 3 17th century 5 4 18th century 5 4 1 American Revolutionary War 5 4 1 1 Background 5 4 1 2 War 5 4 2 Treaties of the late 18th century 5 5 19th century 5 5 1 Indiana to Missouri 5 5 2 Role in western history 5 5 3 Kansas reservation 5 5 4 Oklahoma 5 5 5 Texas 5 6 20th century 5 7 21st century 6 Contemporary tribes and organizations 6 1 U S federally recognized tribes 6 2 Canadian First Nations 6 3 State recognized and unrecognized groups 7 Notable historical Lenape people 8 See also 9 Commentary 10 Notes 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External linksName EditThe name Lenni Lenape also Leni Lenape and Lenni Lenapi comes from their autonym Lenni which may mean genuine pure real original and Lenape meaning real person or original person 12 cf Anishinaabe in which naabe cognate with Lenape means man or male citation needed Alternately lenu may be translated as man 13 The Lenape when first encountered by Europeans were a loose association of related peoples who spoke similar languages and shared familial bonds in an area known as Lenapehoking 1 the Lenape traditional territory which spanned what is now eastern Pennsylvania New Jersey Lower New York and eastern Delaware The tribe s common name Delaware is not of Native American origin English colonists named the Delaware River for the first governor of the Province of Virginia Thomas West 3rd Baron De La Warr whose title was ultimately derived from French For etymology of the surname see Earl De La Warr Etymology The English colonists then began to call the Lenape the Delaware Indians because of where they lived Swedish colonists also settled in the area and Swedish language sources listed the Lenape as the Renappi 14 Territory EditMain article Lenapehoking Traditional Confederations of Lenape lands the Lenapehoking not showing any of the several divisions governed by matriarchies Traditional Lenape lands the Lenapehoking was a large territory that encompassed the Delaware Valley of eastern Pennsylvania and New Jersey from the north bank of the Lehigh River along the west bank of the Delaware then south into Delaware and the Delaware Bay Their lands also extended west from western Long Island and New York Bay across the Lower Hudson Valley in New York into the lower Catskills and a sliver of the upper edge of the North Branch Susquehanna River On the west side the Lenape lived in numerous small towns along the rivers and streams that fed the waterways and likely shared the hunting territory of the Schuylkill River watershed with the rival Iroquoian Susquehannock citation needed Languages EditThe Unami and Munsee languages belong to the Eastern Algonquian language group and are largely mutually intelligible Moravian missionary John Heckewelder wrote that Munsee and Unami came out of one parent language 15 Today only a few Delaware First Nation elders in Moraviantown Ontario fluently speak Munsee 16 however adults and children are learning the languages in various programs William Penn who first met the Lenape in 1682 stated that the Unami used the following words mother was anna brother was isseemus friend was netap Penn instructed his fellow English colonists If one asks them for anything they have not they will answer matta ne hatta which to translate is not I have instead of I have not 17 The Lenape languages used to be exclusively a spoken language However in 2002 the Delaware Tribe of Indians received grant money to fund The Lenape Talking Dictionary preserving and digitizing the Southern Unami dialect 18 Shelley DePaul of the Lenape Nation of Pennsylvania has researched the language and created classes with Theodore Fernald at Swarthmore College 19 Research shows that voluntary locally based language practice and learning is key to restoring and maintaining a fading language 20 DePaul s approach focuses on a living language philosophy 21 Society EditSee also Lenape mythology Clans and kinship systems Edit At the time of European contact a Lenape person would have identified primarily with his or her immediate family and clan friends and or village unit then with surrounding and familiar village units Next with more distant neighbors who spoke the same dialect and ultimately with all those in the surrounding area who spoke mutually comprehensible languages including the Nanticoke people who lived to their south and west in present western Delaware and eastern Maryland and the Munsee who lived to their north citation needed Among many Algonquian peoples along the East Coast the Lenape were considered the grandfathers from whom other Algonquian speaking peoples originated 22 The Lenape had three clans at the end of the 17th century each of which historically had twelve sub clans 23 Wolf Tukwsit 24 Big Feet Ma an greet Yellow Tree Wisawhitkuk 25 Pulling Corn Pa sakun a mon Care Enterer We yar nih ka to Across the River Toosh war ka ma Vermillion O lum a ne Dog standing by fireside Pun ar you Long Body Kwin eek cha Digging Moon har tar ne Pulling up Stream Non har min Brush Log Long ush har kar to Bringing Along Maw soo toh Turtle Pukuwanku 26 Ruler O ka ho ki High Bank Shore Ta ko ong o to Drawing Down Hill See har ong o to Elector Ole har kar me kar to Brave Ma har o luk ti Green Leaves Toosh ki pa kwis i Smallest Turtle Tung ul ung si Little Turtle We lung ung sil Snapping Turtle Lee kwin a i Deer Kwis aese kees to Turkey Pele 27 Big Bird Mor har a la Bird s Cry Le le wa you Eye Pain Moo kwung wa ho ki Scratch the Path Moo har mo wi kar nu Opossum Ground O ping ho ki Old Shin Muh ho we ka ken Drift Log Tong o na o to Living in Water Nool a mar lar mo Root Digger Muh krent har ne Red Face Mur karm huk se Pine Region Koo wa ho ke Ground Scratcher Oo ckuk ham The Lenape have a matrilineal clan system and historically were matrilocal Children belong to their mother s clan from which they gain social status and identity The mother s eldest brother was more significant as a mentor to the male children than was their father who was generally of another clan Hereditary leadership passed through the maternal line 10 and women elders could remove leaders of whom they disapproved Agricultural land was managed by women and allotted according to the subsistence needs of their extended families Newlywed couples would live with the bride s family where her mother and sisters could also assist her with her growing family 10 By 1682 when William Penn arrived to his American commonwealth the Lenape had been so reduced by disease famine and war that the sub clan mothers had reluctantly resolved to consolidate their families into the main clan family 10 This is why William Penn and all those after him believed that the Lenape clans had always only had three divisions Turtle Turkey and Wolf when in fact they had over thirty on the eve of European contact 10 Susie Elkhair Delaware Tribe of Indians 1849 1925 wearing ribbonwork shawl Oklahoma Members of each clan were found throughout Lenape territory and while clan mothers controlled the land the houses and the families the clan fathers provided the meat cleared the fields built the houses and protected the clan 10 Upon reaching adulthood a Lenape male would marry outside of his clan 10 The practice effectively prevented inbreeding even among individuals whose kinship was obscure or unknown clarification needed This means that a male from the Turkey Clan was expected to marry a female from either the Turtle or Wolf clans His children however would not belong to the Turkey Clan but to the mother s clan As such a person s mother s brothers the person s matrilineal uncles played a large role in his or her life as they shared the same clan lineage 10 Within a marriage itself men and women had relatively separate and equal rights each controlling their own property and debts showing further signs of a woman s power in the hierarchical structure 28 As in the case of the Iroquois and Susquehannocks the animosity of differences and competitions spanned many generations and in general tribes with each of the different language groups became traditional enemies in the areas they d meet citation needed On the other hand The New American Book of Indians points out that competition trade and wary relations were far more common than outright warfare but both larger societies had traditions of proving blooding new or young warriors by counting coup on raids into another tribes territories 10 a The two groups were sometimes bitter enemies since before recorded history but intermarriage occurred and both groups have an oral history suggesting they jointly came east together and displaced the mound builders culture In addition both tribes practiced adopting young captives from warfare into their tribes and assimilating them as full tribal members 10 Iroquoians adopting Lenape or other peoples were known to be part of their religious beliefs the adopted one taking the place in the clan of one killed in warfare Early European observers may have misinterpreted matrilineal Lenape cultural practices For example a man s maternal uncle his mother s brother and not his father was usually considered to be his closest male relative since his uncle belonged to his mother s clan and his father belonged to a different one The maternal uncle played a more prominent role in the lives of his sister s children than did the father for example likely being the one responsible for educating a young man in weapons craft martial arts hunting and other life skills 10 Hunting fishing and farming Edit Lenape practiced companion planting in which women cultivated many varieties of the Three Sisters maize beans and squash Men hunted fished and otherwise harvested seafood In the 17th century the Lenape practiced slash and burn agriculture They used fire to manage land 29 30 31 32 33 34 Controlled use of fire extended farmlands productivity According to Dutch settler Isaac de Rasieres who observed the Lenape in 1628 the Lenape planted their primary crop maize in March They quickly adopted European metal tools for this task citation needed The men limited their agricultural labor to clearing the field and breaking the soil They primarily hunted and fished during the rest of the year from September to January and from June to July they mainly hunted deer but from the month of January to the spring planting in May they hunted anything from bears and beavers to raccoons and foxes 28 Dutch settler David de Vries who stayed in the area from 1634 to 1644 described a Lenape hunt in the valley of the Achinigeu hach or Ackingsah sack the Hackensack River in which one hundred or more men stood in a line many paces from each other beating thigh bones on their palms to drive animals to the river where they could be killed easily citation needed Other methods of hunting included lassoing and drowning deer as well as forming a circle around prey and setting the brush on fire They also harvested vast quantities of fish and shellfish from the bays of the area 35 and in southern New Jersey harvested clams year round 36 One technique used while fishing was to add ground chestnuts to stream water to make fish dizzy and easier to catch 37 The success of these methods allowed the tribe to maintain a larger population than other nomadic hunter gatherer peoples in North America at the time could support Scholars have estimated that at the time of European settlement around much of the current New York City area alone there may have been about 15 000 Lenape in approximately 80 settlement sites 38 In 1524 Lenape in canoes met Giovanni da Verrazzano the first European explorer to enter New York Harbor European settlers and traders from the 17th century colonies of New Netherland and New Sweden traded with the Lenape for agricultural products mainly maize in exchange for iron tools The Lenape also arranged contacts between the Minquas or Susquehannocks and the Dutch West India Company and Swedish South Company to promote the fur trade The Lenape were major producers of labor intensive wampum or shell beads which they traditionally used for ritual purposes and as ornaments After the Dutch arrival they began to exchange wampum for beaver furs provided by Iroquoian speaking Susquehannock and other Minquas They exchanged these furs for Dutch and from the late 1630s also Swedish imports Relations between some Lenape and Minqua polities briefly turned sour in the late 1620s and early 1630s but were relatively peaceful most of the time 39 Clothing and adornment Edit The early European settlers especially the Dutch and Swedes were surprised at the Lenape s skill in fashioning clothing from natural materials In hot weather men and women wore only loin cloth and skirt respectively while they used beaver pelts or bear skins to serve as winter mantles Additionally both sexes might wear buckskin leggings and moccasins in cold weather 40 Women would wear their hair long usually below the hip while men kept only a small round crest of about 2 inches in diameter Deer hair dyed a deep scarlet as well as plumes of feathers were favorite components of headdresses and breast ornaments for males 41 28 The Lenape also adorned themselves with various ornaments made of stone shell animal teeth and claws The women often wore headbands of dyed deer hair or wampum They painted their skin skirts or decorated them with porcupine quills These skirts were so elaborately appointed that when seen from a distance they reminded Dutch settlers of fine European lace 42 The winter cloaks of the women were striking fashioned from the iridescent body feathers of wild turkeys 43 Leisure Edit One of the more common activities of leisure for the Lenni Lenape would be the game of pahsaheman a football like hybrid split on gender lines Over a hundred players were grouped into gendered teams male and female and would attempt to get a ball through the other team s goal post However men could not carry and pass the ball only using their feet while the women could carry pass or kick 28 If the ball was picked up by a woman she could not be tackled by the men although men could attempt to dislodge the ball Women were free to tackle the men 44 These gender split rules highlight how a woman s role in Lenape society was harmonious to a man s role rather than acquiescent Another activity common was that of dance and yet again gender differences appear men would dance and leap loudly often with bear claw accessories while women wearing little thimbles or bells would dance more modestly stepping one foot after the other slightly forwards then backwards yet so as to advance gradually 28 Units of measure Edit A number of linear measures were used Small units of measure were the distance from the thumb and first finger and the distance from first finger to pit of elbow Travel distance was measured in the distance one could comfortably travel from sun up to sun down 45 Ethnobotany Edit Lenape herbalists who have been primarily women use their extensive knowledge of plant life to help heal their community s ailments sometimes through ceremony The Lenape found uses in trees like black walnut which were used to cure ringworm and with persimmons which were used to cure ear problems 46 The Lenape carry the nuts of Aesculus glabra in the pocket for rheumatism and an infusion of ground nuts mixed with sweet oil or mutton tallow for earaches They also grind the nuts and use them to poison fish in streams 47 They also apply a poultice of pulverized nuts with sweet oil for earache 48 History EditEuropean contact Edit The first recorded European contact with people presumed to have been the Lenape was in 1524 The explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano was greeted by local Lenape who came by canoe after his ship entered what is now called Lower New York Bay Early colonial era Edit At the time of sustained European contact in the 1600s and 1700s the Lenape were a powerful Native American nation who inhabited a region on the mid Atlantic coast spanning the latitudes of southern Massachusetts to the southern extent of Delaware in what anthropologists call the Northeastern Woodlands 49 Although never politically unified the confederation of the Lenape roughly encompassed the area around and between the Delaware and lower Hudson rivers and included the western part of Long Island in present day New York 50 Some of their place names such as Manhattan the island of many hills 51 Raritan and Tappan were adopted by Dutch and English colonists to identify the Lenape people that lived there 17th century Edit Benjamin West s painting in 1771 of William Penn s 1682 treaty with the Lenape The Lenape had a culture in which the clan and family controlled property Europeans often tried to contract for land with the tribal chiefs confusing their culture with that of neighboring tribes such as the Iroquois As a further complication in communication and understanding kinship terms commonly used by European settlers had very different meanings to the Lenape fathers did not have the same direct parental control as in Europe brothers could be a symbol of equality but could also be interpreted as one s parallel cousins cousins were interpreted as only cross cousins etc All of these added complexities in kinship terms made agreements with Europeans all the more difficult 52 The Lenape would petition for grievances on the basis that not all their families had been recognized in the transaction not that they wanted to share the land 53 After the Dutch arrival in the 1620s the Lenape were successful in restricting Dutch settlement until the 1660s to Pavonia in present day Jersey City along the Hudson The Dutch finally established a garrison at Bergen which allowed settlement west of the Hudson within the province of New Netherland This land was purchased from the Lenape after the fact 53 New Amsterdam was founded in 1624 by the Dutch in what would later become New York City Dutch settlers also founded a colony at present day Lewes Delaware on June 3 1631 and named it Zwaanendael Swan Valley 54 The colony had a short life as in 1632 a local band of Lenape killed the 32 Dutch settlers after a misunderstanding escalated over Lenape defacement of the insignia of the Dutch West India Company 55 In 1634 the Iroquoian speaking Susquehannock went to war with the Lenape over access to trade with the Dutch at New Amsterdam They defeated the Lenape and some scholars believe that the Lenape may have become tributaries to the Susquehannock 56 After the warfare the Lenape referred to the Susquehannock as uncles The Iroquois added the Lenape to the Covenant Chain in 1676 the Lenape were tributary to the Five Nations later Six until 1753 shortly before the outbreak of the French and Indian War a part of the Seven Years War in Europe Based on the historical record of the mid 17th century it has been estimated that most Lenape polities consisted of several hundred people 57 but it is conceivable that some had been considerably larger prior to close contact given the wars between the Susquehannocks and the Iroquois 11 both of whom were armed by the Dutch fur traders while the Lenape were at odds with the Dutch and so lost that particular arms race 11 During the Beaver Wars in the first half of the 17th century European colonists were careful to keep firearms from the coastally located Lenape 10 while rival Iroquoian peoples such as the Susquehannocks and Confederation of the Iroquois became comparatively well armed 10 Subsequently the Lenape became subjugated and made tributary to first the Susquehannocks then the Iroquois even needing their rivals superiors agreement to initiate treaties such as land sales 10 Epidemics of newly introduced European infectious diseases such as smallpox measles cholera influenza and dysentery 58 reduced the populations of Lenape They and other Native peoples had no natural immunity Recurrent violent conflicts with Europeans also devastated Lenape people The Lenape also fought intertribal warfare particularly with the Haudenosaunee The Lenape and Susquehannocks fought a war in the middle of the 17th century that left the Lenape a tributary state even as the Susquehannocks had defeated the Province of Maryland between 1642 50s 59 The Lenape s quick adoption of trade goods and their desire to trap furs to meet high European demand resulted in over harvesting the beaver population in the lower Hudson Valley With the fur sources exhausted the Dutch shifted their operations to present day upstate New York The Lenape who produced wampum in the vicinity of Manhattan Island temporarily forestalled the negative effects of the decline in trade 60 In 1682 William Penn and Quaker colonists created the English colony of Pennsylvania beginning at the lower Delaware River A peace treaty was negotiated between the newly arriving colonists and Lenape at what is now known as Penn Treaty Park In the decades immediately following some 20 000 new colonists arrived in the region putting pressure on Lenape settlements and hunting grounds Penn expected his authority and that of the colonial government to take precedence His new colony effectively displaced many Lenape and forced others to adapt to new cultural demands Penn gained a reputation for benevolence and tolerance but his efforts resulted in more effective colonization of the ancestral Lenape homeland than previous ones 61 18th century Edit Further information Lenape settlements Lenape chief Lappawinsoe painted by Gustavus Hesselius c 1735 William Penn died in 1718 His heirs John and Thomas Penn and their agents were running the colony and had abandoned many of the elder Penn s practices Trying to raise money they contemplated ways to sell Lenape land to colonial settlers The resulting scheme culminated in the so called Walking Purchase In the mid 1730s colonial administrators produced a draft of a land deed dating to the 1680s William Penn had approached several leaders of Lenape polities in the lower Delaware to discuss land sales further north Since the land in question did not belong to their polities the talks came to nothing But colonial administrators had prepared the draft that resurfaced in the 1730s The Penns and their supporters tried to present this draft as a legitimate deed Lenape leaders in the lower Delaware refused to accept it According to historian Steven Harper what followed was a convoluted sequence of deception fraud and extortion orchestrated by the Pennsylvania government that is commonly known as the Walking Purchase 62 In the end all Lenape who still lived on the Delaware were driven off the remnants of their homeland under threats of violence Some Lenape polities eventually retaliated by attacking Pennsylvania settlements When they resisted European colonial expansion at the height of the French and Indian War the British colonial authorities investigated the causes of Lenape resentment The British asked Sir William Johnson Superintendent of Indian Affairs to lead the investigation Johnson had become wealthy as a trader and acquired thousands of acres of land in the Mohawk River Valley from the Iroquois Mohawk of New York 62 Beginning in the 18th century the Moravian Church established missions among the Lenape 63 The Moravians required the Christian converts to share their pacifism as well as to live in a structured and European style mission village 64 Moravian pacifism and unwillingness to take loyalty oaths caused conflicts with British colonial authorities who were seeking aid against the French and their Native American allies during the Seven Years War The Moravians insistence on Christian Lenapes abandoning traditional warfare practices alienated mission populations from other Lenape and Native American groups who revered warriors citation needed The Moravians accompanied Lenape relocations to Ohio and Canada continuing their missionary work The Moravian Lenape who settled permanently in Ontario after the American Revolutionary War were sometimes referred to as Christian Munsee as they mostly spoke the Munsee branch of the Lenape language During the French and Indian War the Lenape initially sided with the French as they hoped to prevent further European colonial encroachment in their territory But such leaders as Teedyuscung in the east and Tamaqua in the vicinity of modern Pittsburgh shifted to building alliances with the British colonial authorities After the end of the war however Anglo American settlers continued to attack the Lenape often to such an extent that the historian Amy Schutt writes the dead since the wars outnumbered those killed during the war 65 In 1757 the New Jersey Association for Helping the Indians wrote a constitution to expel native Munsee Lenape from their home in the Washington Valley of Morris County New Jersey 66 Led by Reverend John Brainerd colonists forcefully relocated 200 people to Indian Mills then known as Brotherton 67 It was then an industrial town known for gristmills and sawmills This was the first Native American reservation in New Jersey 68 Reverend John Brainerd abandoned the reservation in 1777 69 clarification needed The Treaty of Easton signed in 1758 between the Lenape and the Anglo American colonists required the Lenape to move westward out of present day New York and New Jersey and into Pennsylvania then Ohio and beyond Through the 18th century many Lenape moved west into the relatively depopulated upper Ohio River basin Sporadically they continued to raid European American settlers from far outside the area citation needed In 1763 Bill Hickman Lenape warned English colonists in the Juniata River region of an impending attack Many Lenape joined in Pontiac s War and were numerous among those Native Americans who besieged Pittsburgh 65 In April 1763 Teedyuscung was killed when his home was burned His son Captain Bull responded by attacking settlers from New England who had migrated to the Wyoming Valley of Pennsylvania The settlers had been sponsored by the Susquehanna Company 70 American Revolutionary War Edit Main articles Brodhead s Coshocton expedition Gnadenhutten massacre Western theater of the American Revolutionary War and Northern theater of the American Revolutionary War after Saratoga Background Edit After the signing of the Treaty of Easton in 1758 the Lenape were forced to move west out of their original lands into what is today known as Ohio 71 During the French and Indian War Killbuck had assisted the British against the French and their Indian allies In 1761 Killbuck led a British supply train from Fort Pitt to Fort Sandusky During the early 1770s missionaries including David Zeisberger and John Heckewelder arrived in the Ohio Country near the Lenape villages The Moravian Church sent these men to convert the Indigenous peoples to Christianity The missionaries established several missions including Gnadenhutten Lichtenau and Schoenbrunn The missionaries pressured Indigenous people to abandon their traditional customs beliefs and ways of life and to replace them with European and Christian ways Many Lenape did adopt Christianity but others refused to do so The Lenape became a divided people during the 1770s including in Killbuck s family Killbuck resented his grandfather for allowing the Moravians to remain in the Ohio country The Moravians believed in pacifism and Killbuck believed that every convert to the Moravians deprived the Lenape of a warrior to stop further white settlement of their land citation needed War Edit When the American Revolutionary War began Killbuck found the Lenape caught between the British and their Indian allies in the West and the Americans in the East At the war s beginning Killbuck and many Lenape claimed to be neutral In 1778 Killbuck permitted American soldiers to traverse Lenape territory so that the soldiers could attack British held Fort Detroit In return Killbuck requested that the Americans build a fort near the major village of Coshocton to provide the Lenape with protection from potential attacks by British allied Indians and Loyalists The Americans agreed and built Fort Laurens which they garrisoned citation needed At the time of the Revolutionary War the Lenape in Ohio were deeply divided over which side if any to take in the war During this time the Lenape bands were living in numerous villages around their main village of Coshocton 72 between the western frontier strongholds of the British and the Patriots The American colonists had Fort Pitt present day Pittsburgh and the British along with Indian allies controlled the area of Fort Detroit in present day Michigan citation needed Other Indian communities particularly the Wyandot the Mingo the Shawnee and the Wolf Clan of the Lenape favored the British They believed that by their proclamation of 1763 restricting Anglo American settlement to east of the Appalachian Mountains that the British would help them preserve a Native American territory The British made plans to attack Fort Laurens in early 1779 and demanded that the neutral Lenape formally side with the British Killbuck warned the Americans of the planned attack His actions helped save the fort but the Americans abandoned it in August 1779 The Lenape had lost their protectors and found themselves without solid allies in the conflict which compounded their dispossession at the hand of encroaching American pioneers during and after the war citation needed Some Lenape decided to take up arms against the American settlers and moved to the west closer to Detroit where they settled on the Scioto and Sandusky rivers Those Lenape sympathetic to the United States remained at Coshocton and Lenape leaders signed the Treaty of Fort Pitt 1778 with the American colonists Through this treaty the Lenape hoped to establish the Ohio country as a state inhabited exclusively by Native Americans as a subset of the new United States A third group of Lenape many of them converted Christian Munsees lived in several mission villages run by Moravians Like the other bands they also spoke the Munsee branch of Lenape an Algonquian language citation needed White Eyes the Lenape chief who had negotiated the treaty died in 1778 Subsequently many Lenape at Coshocton eventually joined the war against the Americans In response American military officer Daniel Brodhead led an expedition out of Fort Pitt and on 19 April 1781 and destroyed Coshocton Surviving residents fled to the north Colonel Brodhead convinced the militia to leave the Lenape at the Moravian mission villages unmolested since they were unarmed non combatants citation needed Treaties of the late 18th century Edit The Lenape were the first Indian tribe to enter into a treaty with the new United States government with the Treaty of Fort Pitt signed in 1778 during the American Revolutionary War By then living mostly in the Ohio Country citation needed the Lenape supplied the Continental Army with warriors and scouts in exchange for food supplies and security In 1780 Munsee speaking Lenape community leaders native to the Washington Valley that had been forcibly displaced to Brotherton wrote a community treaty 73 74 75 to oppose selling any more land to white settlers Be it known by this that it has been in our consideration of late about settling of White People on the Indian Lands And we have concluded that it is a thing which ought not to be amp a thing that will not be allowed by us that of Renting or giving Leases for said Lands hereafter no not by the proprietors themselves without the consent of the rest much more by those who has no Claim or Rite here We have come upon those resolutions we hope for our better living in friendship among one another it may be that there is some which does not like white people for their Neighbours for fear of their not agreeing as they ought to do it might be about there children or about something they have about them we know not what Again it may be the white Man may do something either upon Land Timber or something else which some one of the proprietors would not like amp from thence would come great deal of Disquietness amp many other ways which may plainly be seen into by those that have any sense or reason We are exceeding glad when we see we are like to live in Quietness among one another without giving any offence to one another amp this of keeping white people from among us will be a great step towards it amp for this reason we intend to stand by or rather stand Hand in hand against any coming on the Indian Lands Joseph Micty Bartholomew Calvin Jacob Skekit Robert Skikkit Derrick Quaquiuse Benjamin Nicholus Mary Calvin Hezekiah CalvinIn 1796 the Oneidas of New Stockbridge invited the Munsee Lenape to their reservation The initial Lenape response was negative in 1798 Lenape community leaders Bartholomew Calvin Jason Skekit and 18 others signed a public statement of refusal to leave our fine place in Jersey 76 77 However the tribe later agreed to relocate to New Stockbridge to join the Oneidas 67 78 A few Lenape households stayed behind to assimilate in New Jersey 79 19th century Edit In the early 19th century the amateur anthropologist Silas Wood published a book claiming that there were several American Indian tribes that were distinct to Long Island New York He collectively called them the Metoac Modern scientific scholarship has shown that in fact two linguistic groups representing two distinct Algonquian cultural identities lived on the island not 13 individual tribes as asserted by Wood The bands to the west were Lenape Those to the east were more related culturally to the Algonquian tribes of New England across Long Island Sound such as the Pequot 80 81 Wood and earlier settlers often misinterpreted the Indian use of place names for autonyms Over a period of 176 years European settlers pushed the Lenape out of the East Coast through to Ohio and eventually further west Most members of the Munsee language branch of the Lenape left the United States after the British were defeated in the American Revolutionary War Their descendants live on three Indian reserves in Western Ontario Canada They are descendants of those Lenape of Ohio Country who sided with the British during the Revolutionary War The largest reserve is at Moraviantown Ontario where the Turtle Phratry settled in 1792 following the war Two groups migrated to Oneida County New York by 1802 the Brotherton Indians of New Jersey and the Stockbridge Munsee In 1822 the Munsee Lenape of Washington Valley who had moved to Stockbridge were forcefully displaced by white colonists again over 900 miles travel away 82 to Green Bay Wisconsin 67 Indiana to Missouri Edit By the Treaty of St Mary s signed October 3 1818 in St Mary s Ohio the Lenape ceded their lands in Indiana for lands west of the Mississippi and an annuity of 4 000 Over the next few years the Lenape settled on the James River in Missouri near its confluence with Wilsons Creek occupying eventually about 40 000 acres 160 km2 of the approximately 2 000 000 acres 8 100 km2 allotted to them 83 Anderson Indiana is named after Chief William Anderson whose father was Swedish The Delaware Village in Indiana was called Anderson s Town while the Delaware Village in Missouri on the James River was often called Anderson s Village The tribes cabins and cornfields were spread out along the James River and Wilsons Creek 84 Role in western history Edit Many Lenape participated in the exploration of the western United States working as trappers with the mountain men and as guides and hunters for wagon trains They served as army guides and scouts in events such as the Second Seminole War Fremont s expeditions and the conquest of California during the Mexican American War 85 86 87 Occasionally they played surprising roles as Indian allies 88 Sagundai accompanied one of Fremont s expeditions as one of his Lenape guides From California Fremont needed to communicate with Senator Benton Sagundai volunteered to carry the message through some 2 200 kilometres 1367 miles of hostile territory He took many scalps in this adventure including that of a Comanche with a particularly fine horse who had outrun both Sagundai and the other Comanche Sagundai was thrown when his horse stepped into a prairie dog hole but avoided the Comanche s lance shot the warrior dead and caught his horse and escaped the other Comanche When Sagundai returned to his own people in present day Kansas they celebrated his exploits with the last war and scalp dances of their history which were held at Edwardsville Kansas 89 Kansas reservation Edit Lenape farm on the Delaware Indian Reservation in Kansas in 1867By the terms of the Treaty of the James Fork that was signed on September 24 1829 and ratified by the U S Senate in 1830 the Lenape were forced to move further west They were granted lands in Indian Territory in exchange for lands on the James Fork of the White River in Missouri These lands in what is now Kansas were west of the Missouri and north of the Kansas River The main reserve consisted of about 1 000 000 acres 4 000 km2 with an additional outlet strip 10 miles 16 km wide extending to the west 90 91 In 1854 Congress passed the Kansas Nebraska Act which created the Territory of Kansas and opened the area for white settlement It also authorized negotiation with Indian tribes regarding removal The Lenape were reluctant to negotiate for yet another relocation but they feared serious trouble with white settlers and conflict developed As the Lenape were not considered United States citizens they had no access to the courts and no way to enforce their property rights The United States Army was to enforce their rights to reservation land after the Indian Agent had both posted a public notice warning trespassers and served written notice on them a process generally considered onerous Major B F Robinson the Indian Agent appointed in 1855 did his best but could not control the hundreds of white trespassers who stole stock cut timber and built houses and squatted on Lenape lands By 1860 the Lenpae had reached consensus to leave Kansas which was in accord with the government s Indian removal policy 92 Oklahoma Edit The main body of Lenape arrived in Indian Territory in the 1860s 93 The two federally recognized tribes of Lenape in Oklahoma are the Delaware Nation headquartered in Anadarko Oklahoma and the Delaware Tribe of Indians headquartered in Bartlesville Oklahoma 94 The Delaware Tribe of Indians were required to purchase land from the reservation of the Cherokee Nation they made two payments totaling 438 000 A court dispute followed over whether the sale included rights for the Lenape as citizens within the Cherokee Nation While the dispute was unsettled the Curtis Act of 1898 dissolved tribal governments and ordered the allotment of communal tribal lands to individual households of members of tribes After the lands were allotted in 160 acre 650 000 m2 lots to tribal members in 1907 the government sold surplus land to non Indians Texas Edit Spanish TexasThe Lenape migrated into Texas in the late 18th and early 19th centuries Elements of the Lenape migrated from Missouri into Texas around 1820 settling around the Red River and Sabine River The Lenape were peaceful and shared their territory in Spanish Texas with the Caddo and other immigrating bands as well as with the Spanish and ever increasing American population This peaceful trend continued after Mexico won their independence from Spain in 1821 95 Mexican TexasIn 1828 Mexican General Manuel de Mier y Teran made an inspection of eastern Mexican Texas and estimated that the region housed between 150 and 200 Lenape families The Lenape requested Mier y Teran to issue them land grants and send teachers so they might learn to read and write the Spanish language The general impressed with how well they had adapted to the Mexican culture sent their request to Mexico City but the authorities never granted the Lenape any legal titles The situation changed when the Texas Revolution began in 1835 Texas officials were eager to gain the support of the Texas tribes to their side and offered to recognize their land claims by sending three commissioners to negotiate a treaty A treaty was agreed upon in February 1836 that mapped the boundaries of Indian lands but this agreement was never officially ratified by the Texas government 95 Texas RepublicThe Lenape remained friendly after Texas won its independence Republic of Texas President Sam Houston favored a policy of peaceful relations with all tribes He sought the services of the friendly Lenape and in 1837 enlisted several Lenape to protect the frontier from hostile western tribes Lenape scouts joined with Texas Rangers as they patrolled the western frontier Houston also tried to get the Lenape land claims recognized but his efforts were met only by opposition The next Texan President Mirabeau B Lamar completely opposed all Indians He considered them illegal intruders who threatened the settlers safety and lands and issued an order for their removal from Texas The Lenape were sent north of the Red River into Indian Territory although a few scattered Lenape remained in Texas In 1841 Houston was reelected to a second term as president and his peaceful Indian policy was then reinstated A treaty with the remaining Lnape and a few other tribes was negotiated in 1843 at Fort Bird and the Lenape were enlisted to help him make peace with the Comanche Lenape scouts and their families were allowed to settle along the Brazos and Bosque rivers in order to influence the Comanche to come to the Texas government for a peace conference The plan was successful and the Lenape helped bring the Comanches to a treaty council in 1844 95 State of TexasIn 1845 the Republic of Texas agreed to annexation by the US to become an American state The Lenape continued their peaceful policy with the Americans and served as interpreters scouts and diplomats for the US Army and the Indian Bureau In 1847 John Meusebach was assisted by Jim Shaw a Lenape in settling the German communities in the Texas Hill Country For the remainder of his life Shaw worked as a military scout in West Texas In 1848 John Conner Lenape guided the Chihuahua El Paso Expedition and was granted a league of land by a special act of the Texas legislature in 1853 The expeditions of the map maker Randolph B Marcy through West Texas in 1849 1852 and 1854 were guided by Black Beaver Lenape In 1854 despite the history of peaceful relations the last of the Texas Lenape were moved by the American government to the Brazos Indian Reservation near Graham Texas In 1859 the US forced the remaining Lenape to remove from Texas to a location on the Washita River in the vicinity of present Anadarko Oklahoma 95 20th century Edit In 1979 the United States Bureau of Indian Affairs revoked the tribal status of the Lenape living among Cherokee in Oklahoma They began to count the Lenape as Cherokee The Lenape had this decision overturned in 1996 when they were recognized by the federal government as a separate tribal nation citation needed 21st century Edit The Cherokee Nation filed suit to overturn the independent federal recognition of the Lenape The tribe lost federal recognition in a 2004 court ruling in favor of the Cherokee Nation but regained it on July 28 2009 96 After recognition the tribe reorganized under the Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act Members approved a constitution and by laws in a May 26 2009 vote Jerry Douglas was elected as tribal chief 94 In September 2000 the Delaware Nation of Oklahoma received 11 5 acres 4 7 ha of land in Thornbury Township Delaware County Pennsylvania 97 In 2004 the Delaware Nation filed suit against Pennsylvania in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania seeking to reclaim 315 acres 1 27 km2 included in the 1737 Walking Purchase to build a casino In the suit titled The Delaware Nation v Commonwealth of Pennsylvania the plaintiffs acting as the successor in interest and political continuation of the Lenni Lenape and of Lenape Chief Moses Tunda Tatamy claimed aboriginal and fee title to the 315 acres of land located in Forks Township in Northampton County near the town of Tatamy Pennsylvania After the Walking Purchase Chief Tatamy was granted legal permission for him and his family to remain on this parcel of land known as Tatamy s Place In addition to suing the state the tribe also sued the township the county and elected officials including Gov Ed Rendell Although the Walking Purchase forced the Lenape people to Oklahoma not every Lenape lives in Oklahoma Many Lenape continue to live in the Northeast This community of people are the Munsee Lenape and are currently in the process of applying for state recognition 98 The court held that the justness of the extinguishment of aboriginal title is nonjusticiable including in the case of fraud Because the extinguishment occurred prior to the passage of the first Indian Nonintercourse Act in 1790 that Act did not avail the Lenape As a result the court granted the Commonwealth s motion to dismiss In its conclusion the court stated we find that the Delaware Nation s aboriginal rights to Tatamy s Place were extinguished in 1737 and that later fee title to the land was granted to Chief Tatamy not to the tribe as a collectivity 99 Contemporary tribes and organizations EditU S federally recognized tribes Edit Three Lenape tribes are federally recognized in the United States They are as follows Delaware Nation Anadarko Oklahoma 100 Delaware Tribe of Indians Bartlesville Oklahoma 100 Stockbridge Munsee Community Bowler Wisconsin 101 Canadian First Nations Edit The Lenape who fled United States in the late 18th century settled in what is now Ontario Canada recognizes three Lenape First Nations with four Indian reserves They are all located in Southwestern Ontario Munsee Delaware Nation Canadian reserve near St Thomas Ontario Moravian of the Thames First Nation Canadian reserve near Chatham Kent Delaware of Six Nations at Six Nations of the Grand River two Canadian reserves near Brantford Ontario 102 State recognized and unrecognized groups Edit Three groups who claim descent from Lenape people are state recognized tribes Lenape Indian Tribe of Delaware Delaware 103 Nanticoke Lenni Lenape Tribal Nation New Jersey 103 Ramapough Lenape Nation New Jersey 103 More than a dozen organizations in Delaware Maryland New Jersey Pennsylvania 104 Virginia and elsewhere claim descent from Lenape people and are unrecognized tribes Organizations in Pennsylvania Idaho and Kansas have petitioned the United States federal government for recognition 98 105 One of these includes the Lenape Nation of Pennsylvania based in Easton Pennsylvania 106 Notable historical Lenape people EditThis includes only Lenape documented in history Contemporary notable Lenape people are listed in the articles for the appropriate tribe Richard C Adams 1864 1921 Lenape author of collections of traditional narratives legal advocate for Lenape in Washington D C Black Beaver 1806 1880 trapper trader and scout first inductee into the American Indian Hall of Fame Buckongahelas c 1720 1805 Wolf clan war leader Nora Thompson Dean Delaware Tribe of Indians 1907 1984 linguist Hannah Freeman 1731 1802 purportedly the last surviving Lenape in Chester County Pennsylvania Charles Journeycake 1817 1894 chief of the Wolf clan from 1855 and principal chief from 1861 visited Washington D C 24 times on his tribe s behalf 107 Sachem Killbuck Gelelemend Turtle clan leader 108 Captain Jacobs died 1756 war chief Neolin 18th century Lenape prophet Chief Newcomer Netawatwees c 1686 1776 founder the village of Gekelmukpechunk Newcomerstown Ohio in the 1760s Oratam 16th century sachem of the Hackensack Captain Pipe Hopocan c 1725 c 1818 18th century chief and member of the Wolf Clan Pisquetomen died 1762 chief who assisted Christian Frederick Post in negotiating the Treaty of Easton in 1758 Sassoonan or Allumapees c 1675 1747 18th century chief and member of the Turtle clan Shingas fl 1740 1763 Turkey clan war leader Tamanend c 1625 c 1701 leader reported to have negotiated treaty with William Penn and for whom Tammany Hall was named Tamaqua died c 1770 chief who led peace negotiations following Pontiac s War Teedyuscung 1700 1763 leader of the eastern Lenape Turtleheart chief and warrior who represented the Lenape at the Treaty of Fort Stanwix in 1768 White Eyes c 1730 1778 Turtle clan peace chief who negotiated the Treaty of Fort PittSee also Edit Delaware portalBurial Ridge Esopus people Hell Town Ohio Lenape settlement in Ohio Lenape mythology Lenape settlements Mohicans Munsee Native American tribes in Maryland Okehocking people Ramapough Mountain Indians Shamokin Unalachtigo Lenape Walking Purchase WappingerCommentary EditThis section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Lenape news newspapers books scholar JSTOR March 2021 Learn how and when to remove this template message Description of the Lenape peoples Delaware nations historic territories inside the divides of the frequently mountainous landforms flanking the Delaware River s drainage basin These terrains encompass from South to North and then counter clockwise the shores from the east shore mouth of the river and the sea coast to Western Long Island all of both colonial New York City and New Jersey and portions of Western Connecticut up to the latitude of the Massachusetts corner of today s boundaries making the eastern bounds of their influence thence their region extended westerly past the region around Albany NY to the Susquehanna River side of the Catskills then southerly through the eastern Poconos outside the rival Susquehannock lands past Eastern Pennsylvania then southerly past the site of Colonial Philadelphia past the west bank mouth of the Delaware and extending south from that point along a stretch of sea coast in northern colonial Delaware The Susquehanna Delaware watershed divides bound the frequently contested hunting grounds between the rival Susquehannock peoples and the Lenape peoples whilst the Catskills and Berkshires played a similar boundary role in the northern regions of their original colonial era range One big cultural change occurred during the Beaver Wars instead of honor raids for bragging rights by stealing cattle food stocks weapons or women the Iroquois probably having heard of European wars of conquest began slash and burn campaigns often raiding in mid winter to drive out targeted populations and despoiling their productive lands and food stocks citation needed The Iroquois steamrolled weasel words a large variety of tribes of both Algonkian and Iroquoian language groups as they established dominance over a large range and became the major political factor any English and French decision makers had to consider in making any policy for over a hundred years 10 Iroquois delegations were hosted and honored in London and Paris 10 Notes Edit a b Newman 10 Fariello Leonardo A A Place Called Whippany Whippanong Library 2000 retrieved 19 July 2011 Kraft The Lenape Delaware Indian Heritage page needed a b c Pritzker 422 Pocket Pictorial Archived 2010 04 06 at the Wayback Machine Oklahoma Indian Affairs Commission 2010 13 Retrieved 10 June 2010 Art on the Prairies Delaware All About the Shoes Retrieved 19 July 2011 Definition of Lenape Merriam Webster Archived from the original on August 13 2019 Retrieved July 6 2017 Delaware Indians Lenape Talking Dictionary Delaware Tribe of Indians Retrieved February 24 2023 Zeisberger David 1827 Grammar of the language of the Lenni Lenape or Delaware Indians Philadelphia James Kay ISBN 9780404158033 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p William Brandon 1961 Alvin M Josephy Jr ed The American Heritage Book of Indians American Heritage Publishing Co Inc pp 180 211 LCCN 61 14871 a b c Josephy 188 189 Online Etymology Dictionary Retrieved 10 Oct 2019 Lenape Talking Dictionary Archived 2013 12 03 at the Wayback Machine Delaware Tribe of Indians Retrieved 2 Dec 2013 Goddard 235 Heckewelder The History Manners and Customs of the Indian Nations Who Once Inhabited Pennsylvania and Neighboring States 52 Lunaape Munsee Delaware CBC Indigenous Original Voices Retrieved February 24 2023 Myers William Penn s Own Account of the Lenni Lenape or Delaware Indians 23 24 About Us LENAPE TALKING DICTIONARY By English WORD or PHRASE 2021 Retrieved October 25 2021 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint url status link Harrison David 2010 The Last Speakers The Quest to Save the World s Most Endangered Languages National Geographic pp 256 260 ISBN 978 1426204616 Hornberger Nancy De Korne Haley 2016 Ways of Talking and Acting About Language Reclamation An Ethnographic Perspective on Learning Lenape in Pennsylvania Journal of Language Identity amp Education 15 44 58 doi 10 1080 15348458 2016 1113135 S2CID 146277852 Hoffmann Maureen May 2009 Endangered Languages Linguistics and Culture Researching and Reviving the Unami Language of the Lenape CiteSeerX 10 1 1 499 8475 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Our Tribal History www nanticoke lenape info Retrieved April 14 2018 Carman Alan E September 16 2013 Footprints in Time A History and Ethnology of The Lenape Delaware Indian Culture Trafford pp 88 90 ISBN 978 1466907423 The Lenape Talking Dictionary Search Results of wolf clan English to Lenape The Lenape Talking Dictionary Detailed Entry View alternate name or group in the Tukwsit Wolf clan Lit Yellow Trees The Lenape Talking Dictionary Detailed Entry View turtle clan The Lenape Talking Dictionary Detailed Entry View Fowl Turkey clan of the Lenape a b c d e Caffrey Margaret M 2000 Complementary Power Men and Women of the Lenni Lenape American Indian Quarterly 24 1 44 63 ISSN 0095 182X JSTOR 1185990 Stevenson W Fletcher Pennsylvania Agriculture and Country Life 1640 1840 Harrisburg Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission 1950 2 35 37 63 65 124 Day Gordon M The Indian as an Ecological Factor in the Northeastern Forests Ecology Vol 34 2 April 1953 329 346 New England and New York Areas 1580 1800 Emily W B Russell Vegetational Change in Northern New Jersey Since 1500 A D A Palynological Vegetational and Historical Synthesis Ph D dissertation New Brunswick PA Rutgers University 1979 Russell Emily W B Indian Set Fires in the Forests of the Northeastern United States Ecology Vol 64 no 1 Feb 1983 78 88 A Brief Description of New York Formerly Called New Netherlands with the Places Thereunto Adjoining Likewise a Brief Relation of the Customs of the Indians There New York NY William Gowans 1670 Reprinted in 1937 by the Facsimile Text Society Columbia University Press New York Smithsonian Institution Handbook of North American Indians series Handbook of North American Indians Volume 15 Northeast Bruce G Trigger volume editor Washington DC Smithsonian Institution 1978 References to Indian burning for the Eastern Algonquians Virginia Algonquians Northern Iroquois Huron Mahican and Delaware Tribes and peoples Mark Kurlansky 2006 page needed Dreibelbis 1978 page 33 Keoke Emory Dean Food Farming and Hunting p 103 Edwin G Burrows and Mike Wallace 1999 p 5 Utz Axel 2011 Cultural exchange imperialist violence and pious missions Local perspectives from Tanjavur and Lenape country 1720 1760 Ph D thesis Pennsylvania State University pp 140 147 ProQuest 902171220 Weslager The Delaware Indians A History 54 Kraft The Lenape Delaware Indian Heritage 237 240 Kraft The Lenape Delaware Indian Heritage 239 Weslager 54 Official Site of the Delaware Tribe of Indians Pahsaheman The Lenape Indian Football Game Retrieved March 24 2020 Lenni Lenape Original Settlers Matawan Journal June 27 1957 Page 12 Hill George 2015 DELAWARE ETHNOBOTANY PDF Delawaretribe org Tantaquidgeon Gladys 1972 Folk Medicine of the Delaware and Related Algonkian Indians Harrisburg Pennsylvania Historical Commission Anthropological Papers 3 page 30 Tantaquidgeon Gladys 1942 A Study of Delaware Indian Medicine Practice and Folk Beliefs Harrisburg Pennsylvania Historical Commission page 25 74 Trigger Bruce C 1978 Sturtevant William C ed Handbook of North American Indians general ed Washington DC Smithsonian Institution Paul Otto 179 Intercultural Relations Between Native Americans and Europeans in New Netherland and New York in Four Centuries of Dutch American Relations SUNY Press 2009 see Mari Minato research on Lenape tribe http www mariminato com en insitu 2016 lenapes 4 php main info Carpenter Roger M 2007 From Indian Women to English Children The Lenni Lenape and the Attempt to Create a New Diplomatic Identity Pennsylvania History 74 1 1 20 doi 10 2307 pennhistory 74 1 0001 ISSN 0031 4528 JSTOR 27778759 S2CID 160131350 a b William Christie MacLeod The Family Hunting Territory and Lenape Political Organization American Anthropologist 24 Munroe John A Colonial Delaware A History Millwood New York KTO Press 1978 pp 9 12 Cook Albert Myers Narratives of Early Pennsylvania West New Jersey and Delaware 1630 1707 Charles Scribner s Sons 1912 p 9 Jennings 2000 p 117 Goddard 213 216 Snow Dean R 1996 Mohawk demography and the effects of exogenous epidemics on American Indian populations Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 15 2 160 182 doi 10 1006 jaar 1996 0006 Editor Alvin M Josephy Jr by The editors of American Heritage Magazine 1961 pages 188 189 quote page 198 ed The American Heritage Book of Indians American Heritage Publishing Co Inc LCCN 61014871 a href Template Cite encyclopedia html title Template Cite encyclopedia cite encyclopedia a author has generic name help CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Otto Paul 91 The Dutch Munsee Encounter in America The Struggle for Sovereignty in the Hudson Valley New York Berghahn Press 2006 Spady Colonialism and the Discursive Antecedents of Penn s Treaty with the Indians 18 40 a b Harper Steven Craig 2006 Promised Land Penn s Holy Experiment the Walking Purchase and the dispossession of Delawares 1600 1763 Bethlehem PA Gray Elma Wilderness Christians Moravian Missions to the Delaware Indians Ithaca 1956 page needed Olmstead Earl P Blackcoats among the Delaware David Zeisberger on the Ohio frontier Kent Ohio 1991 page needed a b Schutt 2007 p 118 Collection New Jersey Association for helping the Indians records Archives amp Manuscripts archives tricolib brynmawr edu Retrieved April 21 2022 a b c Barbara Hoskins Foster Caroline Roberts Dorothea Foster Gladys 1960 Washington Valley an informal history Edward Brothers OCLC 28817174 The Brotherton Indians of New Jersey 1780 Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History www gilderlehrman org Retrieved April 21 2022 The Brotherton Indians of New Jersey 1780 Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History www gilderlehrman org Retrieved April 21 2022 Schutt 2007 p 119 Keenan Encyclopedia of American Indian Wars 1492 1890 1999 p 234 Moore The Northwest Under Three Flags 1635 1796 1900 p 151 William Dean Howells Gnadenhutten Three Villages Boston James R Osgood and Co 1884 accessed 19 Mar 2010 Micty Joseph January 6 1780 Statement opposing white settlement on Indian land in Brotherton New Jersey PDF The Gilder Lehrman Collection The Brotherton Indians of New Jersey 1780 Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History www gilderlehrman org Retrieved April 21 2022 The Brotherton Indians agreement to oppose white settlement January 6 1780 Gilder Lehrman Collection https www gilderlehrman org sites default files content images 00540 01p1 web jpg The Brotherton Indians of New Jersey 1780 Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History www gilderlehrman org Retrieved April 21 2022 Brotherton statement of refusal to leave New Jersey Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History www gilderlehrman org Retrieved April 21 2022 New Stockbridge Tribe collections dartmouth edu Retrieved April 21 2022 The Brotherton Indians of New Jersey 1780 Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History www gilderlehrman org Retrieved April 21 2022 Strong John A Algonquian Peoples of Long Island Heart of the Lakes Publishing March 1997 ISBN 978 1 55787 148 0 Bragdon Kathleen The Columbia Guide to American Indians of the Northeast Columbia University Press 2002 ISBN 978 0 231 11452 3 Green Bay to Stockbridge Green Bay to Stockbridge Retrieved April 21 2022 Removal Era accessed September 8 2010 Delaware Town Missouri State University accessed September 8 2010 Weslager The Delaware Indians pp 375 378 380 Sides Hampton Blood and Thunder An Epic of the American West Doubleday 2006 pp 77 80 94 101 hardcover 462 pages ISBN 978 0 385 50777 6 Page lv of the introduction by Frank McNitt Simpson James H edited and annotated by Frank McNitt foreword by Durwood Ball Navaho Expedition Journal of a Military Reconnaissance from Santa Fe New Mexico to the Navaho Country Made in 1849 University of Oklahoma Press 1964 trade paperback 2003 296 pages ISBN 0 8061 3570 0 Sides Blood and Thunder p 181 William E Connelley A Standard History of Kansas and Kansans Vol I Chicago Lewis Publishing Co 1918 p 250 9 Indian Claims Commission 346 PDF okstate edu Archived from the original PDF on March 3 2016 Retrieved April 14 2018 12 Indian Claims Commission 404 PDF okstate edu Archived from the original PDF on March 3 2016 Retrieved April 14 2018 Pages 401 to 409 Weslager The Delaware Indians Helen M Stiefmiller Delaware Eastern Oklahoma Historical Society accessed May 6 2017 a b Delaware Tribe regains federal recognition Archived March 19 2016 at the Wayback Machine NewsOk 4 Aug 2009 Retrieved 5 August 2009 a b c d Carol A Lipscomb DELAWARE INDIANS Handbook of Texas Online 1 accessed July 8 2012 Published by the Texas State Historical Association Delaware Tribe of Indians federal recognition restored Indian Country Today 7 Aug 2009 retrieved 11 August 2009 Delaware Indians may use land donated by couple as burial ground Pittsburgh Post Gazette Associated Press September 19 2000 p B 10 Retrieved April 14 2018 a b Cooper Kenny July 30 2021 We Just Want to be Welcomed Back The Lenape Seek a Return Home Retrieved October 30 2021 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint url status link The Delaware Nation v Commonwealth of Pennsylvania 250 United States Court of Appeals Third Circuit Text a b Tribal Directory D National Congress of American Indians Retrieved December 28 2017 Tribal Directory National Congress of American Indians Retrieved December 28 2017 Removal History of the Delaware Tribe Delaware Tribe of Indians Retrieved December 28 2017 a b c Tribal Directory Lenape National Congress of American Indians Retrieved July 14 2018 Lenape Nation of Pennsylvania lenapenationofpa Retrieved April 14 2021 Petitions for Federal Recognition 500 Nations Retrieved 22 Jan 2012 Lenape Nation of Pennsylvania Cultural Center Sigal Museum Retrieved February 22 2023 S H Mitchell 1895 page needed Killbuck Ohio History Central July 1 2005References EditAberg Alf The People of New Sweden Our Colony on the Delaware River 1638 1655 Natur amp Kultur 1988 ISBN 91 27 01909 8 Acrelius Israel Translated from Swedish with an introduction and notes by W M Reynolds A History of New Sweden or the Settlements on the River Delaware Ulan Press 2011 ASIN B009SMVNPW Bierhorst John Mythology of the Lenape Guide and Texts University of Arizona Press 1995 ISBN 978 0 8165 1573 8 Brinton Daniel G C F Denke and Albert Anthony A Lenape English Dictionary Biblio Bazaar 2009 ISBN 978 1 103 14922 3 Burrows Edward G and Mike Wallace Gotham A History of New York City to 1989 Oxford Oxford University Press 1999 ISBN 0 19 514049 4 Carman Alan E Footprints in Time A History and Ethnology of The Lenape Delaware Indian Culture Trafford Publishing 2013 ISBN 978 1 4669 0742 3 Dalton Anne The Lenape of Pennsylvania New Jersey New York Delaware Wisconsin Oklahoma and Ontario The Library of Native Americans Powerkids Publishing 2005 ISBN 978 1 4042 2872 6 De Valinger Leon Jr and C A Weslager Indian Land Sales In Delaware And A Discussion Of The Family Hunting Territory Question In Delaware Literary Licensing LLC 2013 ISBN 978 1 258 62207 7 Donehoo George P A History of the Indian Villages and Place Names in Pennsylvania Wennawoods Publishing 1997 ISBN 978 1 889037 11 0 Dreibelbis Dana E The Use of Microstructural Growth Patterns of Mercenaria Mercenaria to Determine the Prehistoric Seasons of Harvest at Tuckerton Midden Tuckerton New Jersey pp 33 thesis Princeton University 1978 Frantz Donald G and Norma Jean Russell Blackfoot Dictionary of Stems Roots and Affixes University of Toronto Press 1995 ISBN 978 0 8020 7136 1 Fur Gunglong A Nation of Women Gender and Colonial Encounters Among the Delaware Indians Early American Studies University of Pennsylvania Press 2012 ISBN 978 0 8122 2205 0 Goddard Ives 1978 Delaware In Trigger Bruce G ed Handbook of North American Indians Vol 15 Northeast Washington pp 213 239 Grumet Robert S The Lenapes Indians of North America Chelsea House Publishing 1989 ISBN 978 0 7910 0385 5 Harrington Mark A Preliminary Sketch of Lenape Culture New Era Printing Company 1913 ASIN B0008C0OBU Harrington Mark Religion and Ceremonies of the Lenape Forgotten Books 2012 ASIN B008J7N986 Harrington Mark R Vestiges of Material Culture Among the Canadian Delawares New Era Printing Company 1908 ASIN B0008AV2JU Harrington Mark R The Indians of New Jersey Dickon Among the Lenapes Rutgers University Press 1963 ISBN 978 0 8135 0425 4 Heckewelder John G E The History Manners and Customs of the Indian Nations Who Once Inhabited Pennsylvania and Neighboring States Uhlan Publishing 2012 ASIN B009UTU6LK Heckewelder John G E Names Which the Lenni Lenape or Delaware Indians Gave to Rivers Streams and Localities Classic Reprint Forgotten Books 2012 ISBN 978 1 4400 5862 2 Hoffecker Carol E Richard Waldron Lorraine E Williams and Barbara E Benson editors New Sweden in America University of Delaware Press 1995 Jennings Francis Empire of Fortune W W Norton and Company 1990 ISBN 978 0 393 30640 8 Jennings Francis The Ambiguous Iroquois Empire W W Norton and Company 1990 ISBN 978 0 393 30302 5 Jennings Francis The History and Culture of Iroquois Diplomacy An Interdisciplinary Guide to the Treaties of the Six Nations and Their League Syracuse University Press 1995 ISBN 978 0 8156 2650 3 Johnson Amandus The Swedish Settlements on the Delaware Their History and Relation to the Indians Dutch and English 1638 1664 With an Account of the South the New Sweden Company and the American Companies and the Efforts of Sweden to Regain the Colony University of Pennsylvania 1911 ASIN B000KJFFCY Editor Alvin M Josephy Jr by The editors of American Heritage Magazine 1961 pages 188 189 ed The American Heritage Book of Indians American Heritage Publishing Co Inc LCCN 61014871 a href Template Cite encyclopedia html title Template Cite encyclopedia cite encyclopedia a author has generic name help CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Kalter Susan editor Benjamin Franklin Pennsylvania and the First Nations The Treaties of 1736 62 University of Illinois Press 2006 ISBN 978 0 252 03035 2 Kraft Herbert The Lenape Delaware Indian Heritage 10 000 BC to AD 2000 Lenape Books 2001 ISBN 978 0 935137 03 3 Kurlansky Mark The Big Oyster History on the Half Shell Random House Trade Paperbacks 2007 ISBN 978 0 345 47639 5 Lindestrom Peter Transcribed and edited by Amandus Johnson of the Swedish Colonial Society Philadelphia Pennsylvania Geographia Americae With an Account of the Delaware Indians Based on Surveys and Notes made in 1654 1656 by Peter Lindestrom Arno Press 1979 ISBN 978 0 405 11648 3 Marsh Dawn G A Lenape Among the Quakers The Life of Hannah Freeman University of Nebraska Press 2014 ISBN 978 0 8032 4840 3 Middleton Sam Chief Mountain Neen Ees To ko Blackfoot Confederacy Ancient and Modern Kainai Chieftainship 1951 Mitchell S H Internet Archive The Indian Chief Journeycake Philadelphia American Baptist Publication Society 1895 Myers Albert Cook William Penn s Own Account of the Lenni Lenape or Delaware Indians Middle Atlantic Press 1981 ISBN 978 0 912608 13 6 Myers Albert Cook editor Narratives of Early Pennsylvania West New Jersey and Delaware 1630 1707 Nabu Press 2012 ISBN 978 1 279 95624 3 Newcomb William W The Culture and Acculturation of the Delaware Indians University of Michigan 1956 ASIN B0007EFEXW Newman Andrew On Records Delaware Indians Colonists and the Media of History and Memory Lincoln University of Nebraska Press 2012 ISBN 978 0 8032 3986 9 Olmstead Earl P Blackcoats Among the Delaware David Zeisberger on the Ohio Frontier Kent State University Press 1991 ISBN 978 0 87338 434 6 Pritzker Barry M A Native American Encyclopedia History Culture and Peoples Oxford Oxford University Press 2000 ISBN 978 0 19 513877 1 Repsher Donald R Indian Place Names in Bucks County As cited in https web archive org web 20131203011343 http www lenapenation org main html Retrieved March 15 2012 Rice Phillip W English Lenape Dictionary N P N D See https web archive org web 20131203011343 http www lenapenation org main html Schutt Amy C Peoples of the River Valleys The Odyssey of the Delaware Indians Early American Studies University of Pennsylvania Press 2007 ISBN 978 0 8122 2024 7 Soderlund Jean R Lenape Country Delaware Valley Society before William Penn Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press 2014 Spady James Colonialism and the Discursive Antecedents of Penn s Treaty with the Indians Daniel K Richter and William A Pencak eds Friends and Enemies in Penn s Woods Indians Colonists and the Racial Construction of Pennsylvania Pennsylvania State University Press 2004 18 40 Trowbridge C C Delaware Indian Language of 1824 American Language Reprints Supplement Series edited by James A Rementer Evolution Publications and Manufacturing 2011 ISBN 978 1 935228 06 6 Van Doren Carl and Julian P Boyd Indian Treaties Printed by Benjamin Franklin 1736 1762 Nabu Press 2011 ISBN 978 1 178 59363 1 Vansina Jan Oral Tradition as History Oxford 1985 ISBN 0 85255 007 3 Wallace Paul A W Indians in Pennsylvania Revised Edition Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission 2000 ISBN 978 0 89271 017 1 Wallace Paul A W Indian Paths of Pennsylvania Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission 1998 ISBN 978 0 89271 090 4 Weslager Clinton Alfred C A A Brief Account of the Indians of Delaware Literary Licensing LLC 2012 ISBN 978 1 258 23895 7 Weslager C A A Man and His Ship Peter Minuit and the Kalmar Nyckel Middle Atlantic Press 1990 ISBN 978 0 9625563 1 9 Weslager C A Delaware s Buried Past A Story of Archeological Adventure Rutgers University Press 1968 ASIN B000KN4Y3G Weslager C A Delaware s Forgotten Folk The Story of the Moors and Nanticokes University of Pennsylvania Press 2006 ISBN 978 0 8122 1983 8 Weslager C A Delaware s Forgotten River The Story of the Christina Hambleton Company 1947 ASIN B0006D8AEO Weslager C A and A R Dunlap Dutch Explorers Traders And Settlers In The Delaware Valley 1609 1664 Literary Licensing LLC 2011 ISBN 978 1 258 17789 8 Weslager C A Magic Medicines of the Indians Signet 1974 ASIN B001VIUW08 Weslager C A New Sweden on the Delaware Middle Atlantic Press 1988 ISBN 0 912608 65 X Weslager C A Red Men on the Brandywine New and Enlarged Edition Hambleton Company 1953 ASIN B00EHSFKEC Weslager C A The Delaware Indians A History New Brunswick NJ Rutgers University Press 1972 ISBN 0 8135 0702 2 Weslager C A The Delaware Indian Westward Migration With the Texts of Two Manuscripts 1821 22 Responding to General Lewis Cass s Inquiries about Lenape Culture and Language Middle Atlantic Press 1978 ISBN 978 0 912608 06 8 Weslager C A The English on the Delaware 1610 1682 Rutgers University Press 1967 ISBN 978 0 8135 0548 0 Weslager C A The Nanticoke Indians A Refugee Tribal Group of Pennsylvania Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission 1948 ASIN B0007ED7Z4 Weslager C A The Swedes and Dutch at New Castle Middle Atlantic Press 1990 ISBN 978 0 912608 50 1 Zeisberger David A Lenape English Dictionary From An Anonymous Manuscript In The Archives Of The Moravian Church At Bethlehem Pennsylvania Nabu Press 2012 ISBN 978 1 278 79951 3 Zeisberger David David Zeisberger s History of Northern American Indians Classic Reprint Forgotten Books 2012 ASIN B008HTRBDK Zeisberger David Grammar of the Language of the Lenni Lenape or Delaware Indians Forgotten Books 2012 ASIN B008LQRNGO Zeisberger David The Diary of David Zeisberger A Moravian Missionary Among the Ohio Indians Volume 1 Ulan Press 2012 ASIN B00A6PBD82 Zeisberger David The Diary of David Zeisberger A Moravian Missionary Among the Ohio Indians Volume 2 Ulan Press 2012 ASIN B009L4SVN4 Zeisberger David Zeisberger s Indian Dictionary English German Iroquois The Onondaga and Algonquin The Delaware Harvard University Press 1887 ISBN 1 104 25351 8 The Delaware that Zeisberger translated was Munsee and not Unami Further reading EditAdams Richard Calmit The Delaware Indians a brief history Hope Farm Press Saugerties NY 1995 originally published by Government Printing Office Washington DC 1909 Bierhorst John The White Deer and Other Stories Told by the Lenape New York W Morrow 1995 ISBN 0 688 12900 5 Brown James W and Rita T Kohn eds Long Journey Home ISBN 978 0 253 34968 2 Indiana University Press 2007 Grumet Robert Steven 2009 The Munsee Indians a history Civilization of the American Indian Vol 262 Norman University of Oklahoma Press ISBN 978 0 8061 4062 9 OCLC 317361732 Kraft Herbert The Lenape Archaeology History and Ethnography New Jersey Historical Society 1987 ISBN 978 0 911020 14 4 Kraft Herbert The Lenape or Delaware Indians The Original People of New Jersey Southeastern New York State Eastern Pennsylvania northern Delaware and parts of western Connecticut Lenape Books 1996 ISBN 978 0 935137 01 9 O Meara John Delaware English English Delaware dictionary Toronto University of Toronto Press 1996 ISBN 0 8020 0670 1 Otto Paul The Dutch Munsee Encounter in America The Struggle for Sovereignty in the Hudson Valley New York Berghahn Books 2006 ISBN 1 57181 672 0 Pritchard Evan T Native New Yorkers The Legacy of the Algonquin People of New York Council Oak Books San Francisco 2002 2007 ISBN 1 57178 107 2 Richter Conrad The Light In The Forest New York 1953 External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lenape Wikisource has the text of a 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica article about Lenape Official website Delaware Tribe of Indians official website Stockbridge Munsee Community official website Lenape Center Museum of Indian Culture Lenape English dictionary Lenape Southern Unami Talking Dictionary Delaware One of the most important tribes of Algonquian stock New International Encyclopedia 1905 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Lenape amp oldid 1144428400, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.