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History of Portugal (1415–1578)

The history of the Kingdom of Portugal from the Illustrious Generation of the early 15th century to the fall of the House of Aviz in the late 16th century has been named the "Portuguese golden age" (Portuguese: Século de Ouro; "golden century") and the "Portuguese Renaissance".[1][2] During this period, Portugal was the first European power to begin building a colonial empire as Portuguese sailors and explorers discovered an eastern route to India (that rounded the Cape of Good Hope) as well as several Atlantic archipelagos (like the Azores, Madeira, and Cape Verde) and colonized the African coast and Brazil. They also explored the Indian Ocean and established trading routes throughout most of southern Asia, sending the first direct European maritime trade and diplomatic missions to Ming China and to Japan, at the same time installing trading posts and the most important colony: Portuguese Macau (Only in East Asia).[3] The Portuguese Renaissance produced a plethora of poets, historians, critics, theologians, and moralists. The Cancioneiro Geral by Garcia de Resende (printed 1516) is taken to mark the transition from Old Portuguese to the modern Portuguese language.

Kingdom of
Portugal and the Algarves
Reyno de Portugal et dos Algarues (Old Modern Portuguese)
1415–1580
Flag (1485-1495)
CapitalLisbon
Common languagesGalician-Portuguese, Old Modern Portuguese
Religion
Roman Catholic
Demonym(s)Portuguese
GovernmentAbsolute Monarchy
Monarch 
• 1415–1433
João I (first)
• 1578–1580
Henrique I (last)
History 
14 August 1415
4 August 1578
31 January 1580
CurrencyPortuguese dinheiro, Portuguese real
ISO 3166 codePT
Preceded by
Succeeded by

John I edit

John I of Portugal acceded in 1390 and ruled in peace, pursuing the economic development of his realm. The only significant military action was the siege and conquest of the city of Ceuta in 1415. By this step he aimed to control navigation of the African coast. But in the broader perspective, this was the first step opening the Arab world to medieval Europe, which in fact led to the Age of Discovery with Portuguese explorers sailing across the whole world.

Contemporaneous writers describe John as a man of wit, very keen on concentrating power on himself, but at the same time with a benevolent and kind personality. His love for knowledge and culture was passed to his sons, often collectively referred to by Portuguese historians as the "illustrious generation" (Ínclita Geração): Edward, the future king, was a poet and a writer; Peter, the Duke of Coimbra, was one of the most learned princes of his time; and Prince Henry the Navigator, the duke of Viseu, invested heavily in science and the development of nautical pursuits. In 1430, John's only surviving daughter, Isabella, married Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, and enjoyed an extremely refined court culture in his lands; she was the mother of Charles the Bold.

Edward edit

 
Prince Henry, the Navigator

Under king Edward, the colony at Ceuta rapidly became a drain on the Portuguese treasury, and it was realised that without the city of Tangier, possession of Ceuta was worthless. In 1437, Duarte's brothers Henry and Ferdinand persuaded him to launch an attack on the Marinid sultanate of Morocco. The expedition was not unanimously supported: Infante Peter, Duke of Coimbra, and the Infante John were both against the initiative; they preferred to avoid conflict with the king of Morocco. Their instincts proved to be justified. The resulting attack on Tangier, led by Henry, was a debacle. Failing to take the city in a series of assaults, the Portuguese siege camp was soon itself surrounded and starved into submission by a Moroccan relief army. In the resulting treaty, Henry promised to deliver Ceuta back to the Marinids in return for allowing the Portuguese army to depart unmolested. Duarte's youngest brother, Ferdinand, was handed over to the Marinids as a hostage for the final handover of the city.

Afonso V edit

Treaty of Tordesillas edit

Meanwhile, colonization progressed in the Azores and Madeira, where sugar and wine were now produced; above all, the gold brought home from Guinea stimulated the commercial energy of the Portuguese. It had become clear that, apart from their religious and scientific aspects, these voyages of discovery were highly profitable. Under Afonso V (1443–1481), surnamed the African, the Gulf of Guinea was explored as far as Cape St Catherine (Cabo Santa Catarina),[4][5][6] and three expeditions (1458, 1461 and 1471) were sent to Morocco; in 1471 Arzila and Tangier were captured from the Moors. Under John II (1481–1495) the fortress of São Jorge da Mina, the modern Elmina, was founded for the protection of the Guinea trade. Diogo Cão, discovered the Congo in 1482 and reached Cape Cross in 1486; Bartolomeu Dias doubled the Cape of Good Hope in 1488, thus proving that the Indian Ocean was accessible by sea.

 
Conquest of Tangier in 1471, from the Pastrana series of tapestries

After 1492 the arrival of Christopher Columbus in the West Indies rendered desirable a delimitation of the Spanish and Portuguese spheres of exploration. This was accomplished by the Treaty of Tordesillas (June 7, 1494), which modified the delimitation authorized by Pope Alexander VI in two bulls issued on May 4, 1493. The treaty gave to Portugal all lands that might be discovered east of a straight line drawn from the Arctic Pole to the Antarctic, at a distance of 370 leagues west of Cape Verde. Spain received the lands discovered west of this line. The known means of measuring longitude were so inexact, however, that the line of demarcation could not in practice be determined (see J. de Andrade Corvo in Journal das Ciências Matemáticas, xxxi.147–176, Lisbon, 1881), so the treaty was subject to very diverse interpretations. On its provisions were based both the Portuguese claim to Brazil and the Spanish claim to the Moluccas (see History of East Indies). The treaty was chiefly valuable to the Portuguese as a recognition of the prestige they had acquired. That prestige was enormously enhanced when, in 1497–1499, Vasco da Gama completed the voyage to India.

The tendency to secrecy and falsification of dates casts doubts about the authenticity of many primary sources. Several historians have hypothesized that John II may have known of the existence of Brazil and North America as early as 1480, thus explaining his wish in 1494 at the signing of the Treaty of Tordesillas to push the line of influence further west. Many historians suspect that the real documents would have been placed in the Library of Lisbon. Unfortunately, due to the fire following the earthquake of 1755, nearly all of the library's records were destroyed,[citation needed] but an extra copy available in Goa was transferred to Lisbon Tower of Tombo during the following 100 years. The Corpo Cronológico (Chronological Corpus), a collection of manuscripts on the Portuguese explorations and discoveries in Africa, Asia and Latin America, was inscribed on UNESCO’s Memory of the World Register in 2007 in recognition of its historical value "for acquiring knowledge of the political, diplomatic, military, economic and religious history of numerous countries at the time of the Portuguese Discoveries."[7]

Afonsine Ordinances edit

 
King Afonso V of Portugal

While the Crown was thus acquiring new possessions, its authority in Portugal was temporarily overshadowed by the growth of aristocratic privilege. After the death of Edward, further attempts to curb the power of the nobles were made by his brother, D. Pedro, duke of Coimbra, who acted as regent during the minority of Afonso V of Portugal (1439–1448). The head of the aristocratic opposition was the Duke of Braganza, who contrived to secure the sympathy of the king and the dismissal of the regent. The quarrel led to civil war, and on 20 May 1449, D. Pedro was defeated and killed at the Battle of Alfarrobeira. Thenceforward the grants made by John I were renewed and extended on so lavish a scale that the Braganza estates alone comprised about a third of the whole kingdom.

An unwise foreign policy simultaneously injured the royal prestige, for Afonso married his own niece, Joanna, daughter of Henry IV of Castile, and claimed the kingdom of Castile in her name. At the Battle of Toro, in 1476, he fought an indecisive battle that made him realize that his claims to the Castilian throne were not achievable. However, Portugal defeated Castile in the naval war (1475–79) of the same conflict (War of the Castilian Succession), capturing a large Castilian fleet -full of gold- in the Battle of Guinea (1478).

In 1479 Ferdinand and Isabella and Afonso signed the Treaty of Alcáçovas, by which Joanna was relegated to a convent and Portugal won the hegemony in the Atlantic Ocean.

His successor, John II (1481–1495), reverted to the policy of matrimonial alliances with Castile and friendship with England. Finding, as he said, that the liberality of former kings had left the Crown "no estates except the high roads of Portugal," he determined to crush the feudal nobility and seize its territories. The Portuguese Cortes held at Évora (1481) empowered judges nominated by the Crown to administer justice in all feudal domains. The nobles resisted this infringement of their rights, but their leader, Fernando II, Duke of Braganza, was beheaded for high treason in 1483; in 1484 the king stabbed to death his own brother-in-law, Diogo, Duke of Viseu; and eighty other members of the aristocracy were executed afterwards. Thus John "the Perfect," as he was called, assured the supremacy of the Crown. He was succeeded in 1495 by Manuel I, who was named "the Great" or "the Fortunate," because in his reign the sea route to India was discovered and a Portuguese Empire founded.

Imperial expansion (1481–1557) edit

 
King John II in Chronica d'El-Rei D. João II; Rui de Pina, c. 1497–1504.

John II (r. 1481–1495) famously restored the policies of Atlantic exploration, reviving the work of his great-uncle, Henry the Navigator. The Portuguese explorations were his main priority in government, pushing south the known coast of Africa with the purpose of discovering the maritime route to India and breaking into the spice trade. Manuel I (r. 1495–1521) proved a worthy successor to his cousin John II, supporting Portuguese exploration of the Atlantic Ocean and the development of Portuguese commerce.

Under John III (r. 1521–1557), Portuguese possessions were extended in Asia and in the New World through the Portuguese colonization of Brazil. John III's policy of reinforcing Portugal's bases in India (such as Goa) secured Portugal's monopoly over the spice trade of cloves and nutmeg from the Maluku Islands. As a result, John III has been called the "Grocer King". On the eve of his death in 1557, the Portuguese empire spanned almost 1 billion acres (about 4 million square kilometers). During his reign, the Portuguese became the first Europeans to make contact with both China, under the Ming Dynasty, and Japan, during the Muromachi period (see Nanban trade). John III abandoned Muslim territories in North Africa in favor of trade with India and investment in Brazil. In Europe, he improved relations with the Baltic region and the Rhineland, hoping that this would bolster Portuguese trade.

Sebastian I edit

Sebastian of Portugal was the penultimate Portuguese monarch of the House of Aviz. He was the son of John Manuel, Prince of Portugal, and his wife, Joanna of Austria. Sebastian succeeded to the throne at the age of three, on the death of King John III, his paternal grandfather. Soon after his birth, his mother Joanna of Spain left her infant son to serve as Regent of Spain for her father, Emperor Charles V. After his abdication in 1556, she served in the same capacity for her brother Philip II of Spain. Joanna remained in Spain until her death in 1573, never to see her son again. Since Sebastian was still a child, the regency was handled first by his paternal grandmother, Catherine of Austria, and then by his great-uncle, Cardinal Henry of Évora. During this period Portugal continued colonial expansion in Angola, Mozambique, and Malacca, as well as the annexation of Macau in 1557.

 
D. Sebastião I. R. de Portugal XVI.

During Sebastian's short personal reign, he strengthened ties with the Holy Roman Empire, England and France through diplomatic efforts. He also restructured much of the administrative, judicial and military life in his kingdom. In 1568, Sebastian created scholarships to provide financial assistance to students who wished to study medicine or pharmacy at the University of Coimbra. In 1569, Sebastian ordered Duarte Nunes de Leão to compile all the laws and legal documents of the kingdom in a collection of Leis Extravagantes known as Código Sebastiânico (Sebastian's code).

During the great plague of Lisbon in 1569, Sebastian sent for doctors from Seville to help the Portuguese doctors fight the plague. He created two hospitals in Lisbon to take care of the afflicted. In his concern for the widows and orphans of those killed by the plague, he created several Recolhimentos (shelters), known as the Recolhimento de Santa Marta (shelter of Santa Marta) and the Recolhimento dos Meninos (shelter of the children), and provided wet nurses to take care of the babies.

Sebastian created laws for the military, the Lei das Armas, that would become a military organization model. In 1570 Goa was attacked by the Indian army, but the Portuguese were successful in repulsing the assault. Also in 1570, Sebastian ordered that Brazilian Indians should not be used as slaves and ordered the release of those held in captivity.

The Celeiros Comuns (Communal Granaries) were inaugurated in 1576 on Sebastian's orders. These were lending institutions intended to help to poor farmers when farm production decreased, giving credit, lending seeds and commodities to the needy, and allowing them to pay back with farm products when they recovered from losses.

In 1577 Sebastian's ordinance Da nova ordem do juízo, sobre o abreviar das demandas, e execução dellas decreased the time for handling legal actions, regulated the action of lawyers, scribes and other court officials, and created fines for delays.

Sebastian disappeared (and was presumably killed in action) in the battle of Alcácer Quibir in 1578, after the brief reign of King Henry triggering the Portuguese succession crisis.

Dynastic crisis and union with Spain edit

Following the Portuguese crisis of succession, a dynastic union joined the crowns of Castile, Portugal and Aragon along with their respective colonial possessions, under the rule of the Habsburg dynasty

The unification of the peninsula had long been a goal of the region's monarchs with the intent of restoring the Visigothic monarchy.[8]

The history of Portugal from the dynastic crisis in 1578 to the first Braganza Dynasty monarchs was a period of transition. The Portuguese Empire's spice trade was peaking at the start of this period. It continued to enjoy widespread influence after Vasco da Gama had finally reached the East by sailing around Africa in 1497–98.

Explorations edit

Reasons for exploration edit

Portugal's long shoreline, with its many harbours and rivers flowing westward to the Atlantic ocean was the ideal environment to raise generations of adventurous seamen. As a seafaring people in the south-westernmost region of Europe, the Portuguese became natural leaders of exploration during the Middle Ages. Faced with the options of either accessing other European markets by sea (by exploiting its seafaring prowess) or by land (and facing the task of crossing Castile and Aragon territory) it is not surprising that goods were sent via the sea to England, Flanders, Italy and the Hanseatic league towns.

 
The Padrão dos Descobrimentos ("Monument to the Discoveries") in Lisbon

Having fought to achieve and to retain independence, the nation's leadership had also a desire for fresh conquests. Added to this was a long struggle to expel the Moors that was religiously sanctioned and influenced by foreign crusaders with a desire for martial fame. Making war on Islam seemed to the Portuguese both their natural destiny and their duty as Christians.

One important reason was the need to overcome the expensive eastern trade routes, dominated first by the republics of Venice and Genoa in the Mediterranean, and then controlled by the Ottoman Empire after the conquest of Constantinople in 1453, barring European access, and going through North Africa and the historically important combined-land-sea routes via the Red Sea. Both spice and silk were big businesses of the day, and arguably, spices which were used as medicine, drugs and preservatives was something of a necessity—at least to those Europeans of better than modest means.

The Portuguese economy had benefited from its connections with neighbouring Muslim states. A money economy was well enough established for 15th century workers in the countryside as well as in the towns to be paid in currency. The agriculture of the countryside had diversified to the point where grain was imported from Morocco (a symptom of an economy dependent upon Portugal's), while specialised crops occupied former grain-growing areas: vineyards, olives, or the sugar factories of the Algarve, later to be reproduced in Brazil (Braudel 1985). Most of all, the Aviz dynasty that had come to power in 1385 marked the semi-eclipse of the conservative land-oriented aristocracy (See The Consolidation of the Monarchy in Portugal.) A constant exchange of cultural ideals made Portugal a centre of knowledge and technological development. Due to these connections with Islamic kingdoms, many mathematicians and experts in naval technology appeared in Portugal. The Portuguese government impelled this even further by taking full advantage of this and by creating several important research centres in Portugal, where Portuguese and foreign experts made several breakthroughs in the fields of mathematics, cartography and naval technology. Sagres and Lagos in the Algarve become famous as such places.

Portuguese nautical science edit

The successive expeditions and experience of the pilots led to a fairly rapid evolution of Portuguese nautical science, creating an elite of astronomers, navigators, mathematicians and cartographers, among them stood Pedro Nunes with studies on how to determine the latitudes by the stars and João de Castro.

Ships edit

 
A modern replica of a Portuguese caravel

Until the 15th century, the Portuguese were limited to coastal cabotage navigation using barques and barinels (ancient cargo vessels used in the Mediterranean). These boats were small and fragile, with only one mast with a fixed quadrangular sail and did not have the capabilities to overcome the navigational difficulties associated with Southward oceanic exploration, as the strong winds, shoals and strong ocean currents easily overwhelmed their abilities. They are associated with the earliest discoveries, such as the Madeira Islands, the Azores, the Canaries, and to the early exploration of the north west African coast as far south as Arguim in the current Mauritania.

The ship that truly launched the first phase of the Portuguese discoveries along the African coast was the caravel, a development based on existing fishing boats. They were agile and easier to navigate, with a tonnage of 50 to 160 tons and 1 to 3 masts, with lateen triangular sails allowing luffing. The caravel benefited from a greater capacity to tack. The limited capacity for cargo and crew were their main drawbacks, but did not hinder its success. Limited crew and cargo space was acceptable, initially, because as exploratory ships, their "cargo" was what was in the explorer's feedback of a new territory, which only took up the space of one person.[9] Among the famous caravels are Berrio and Caravela Annunciation.

With the start of long oceanic sailing also large ships developed. "Nau" was the Portuguese archaic synonym for any large ship, primarily merchant ships. Due to the piracy that plagued the coasts, they began to be used in the navy and were provided with cannon windows, which led to the classification of "naus" according to the power of its artillery. They were also adapted to the increasing maritime trade: from 200 tons capacity in the 15th century to 500, they become impressive in the 16th century, having usually two decks, stern castles fore and aft, two to four masts with overlapping sails. In India travels in the sixteenth century there were also used carracks, large merchant ships with a high edge and three masts with square sails, that reached 2000 tons.

Celestial navigation edit

 
Ephemeris by Abraham Zacuto in Almanach Perpetuum, 1496

In the thirteenth century celestial navigation was already known, guided by the sun position. For celestial navigation the Portuguese, like other Europeans, used Arab navigation tools, like the astrolabe and quadrant, which they made easier and simpler. They also created the cross-staff, or cane of Jacob, for measuring at sea the height of the sun and other stars. The Southern Cross become a reference upon arrival at the Southern hemisphere by João de Santarém and Pedro Escobar in 1471, starting the celestial navigation on this constellation. But the results varied throughout the year, which required corrections.

To this the Portuguese used the astronomical tables (Ephemeris), precious tools for oceanic navigation, which have experienced a remarkable diffusion in the fifteenth century. These tables revolutionized navigation, allowing to calculate latitude. The tables of the Almanach Perpetuum, by astronomer Abraham Zacuto, published in Leiria in 1496, were used along with its improved astrolabe, by Vasco da Gama and Pedro Álvares Cabral.

Sailing techniques edit

 
Map of the five major oceanic gyres

Besides coastal exploration, Portuguese also made trips off in the ocean to gather meteorological and oceanographic information (in these were discovered the archipelagos of Madeira and the Azores, and Sargasso Sea). The knowledge of wind patterns and currents, the trade winds and the oceanic gyres in the Atlantic, and the determination of latitude led to the discovery of the best ocean route back from Africa: crossing the Central Atlantic to the latitude of the Azores, using the permanent favorable winds and currents that spin clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere because of atmospheric circulation and the effect of Coriolis, facilitating the way to Lisbon and thus enabling the Portuguese venturing increasingly farther from shore, the maneuver that became known as the "volta do mar" (English: return of the sea).

Cartography edit

 
Pre-mercator navigation chart of the Coast of Africa (1571), by Fernão Vaz Dourado (Torre do Tombo, Lisbon)

It is thought that Jehuda Cresques, son of the Catalan cartographer Abraham Cresques have been one of the notable cartographers at the service of Prince Henry. However the oldest signed Portuguese sea chart is a Portolan made by Pedro Reinel in 1485 representing the Western Europe and parts of Africa, reflecting the explorations made by Diogo Cão. Reinel was also author of the first nautical chart known with an indication of latitudes in 1504 and the first representation of a Wind rose.

With his son, cartographer Jorge Reinel and Lopo Homem, they participated in the making of the atlas known as "Lopo Homem-Reinés Atlas" or "Miller Atlas", in 1519. They were considered the best cartographers of their time, with Emperor Charles V wanting them to work for him. In 1517 King Manuel I of Portugal handed Lopo Homem a charter giving him the privilege to certify and amend all compass needles in vessels.

In the third phase of the former Portuguese nautical cartography, characterized by the abandonment of the influence of Ptolemy's representation of the East and more accuracy in the representation of lands and continents, stands out Fernão Vaz Dourado (Goa ~ 1520 – ~ 1580), whose work has extraordinary quality and beauty, giving him a reputation as one of the best cartographers of the time. Many of his charts are large scale.

Henry the Navigator edit

It was the genius of Prince Henry the Navigator that coordinated and utilized all these tendencies towards expansion. Prince Henry placed at the disposal of his captains the vast resources of the Order of Christ, of which he was the head, and the best information and most accurate instruments and maps that could be obtained. He sought to effect a meeting with the half-fabulous Christian Empire of "Prester John" by way of the "Western Nile" (the Sénégal River), and, in alliance with that potentate, to crush the Turks and liberate the Holy Land. The concept of an ocean route to India appears to have originated after his death. On land he again defeated the Moors, who attempted to retake Ceuta in 1418; but in an expedition to Tangier, undertaken in 1437 by King Edward (1433–1438), the Portuguese army was defeated, and could only escape destruction by surrendering as a hostage Prince Ferdinand, the king's youngest brother. Ferdinand, known as "the Constant", from the fortitude with which he endured captivity, died unransomed in 1443. By sea Prince Henry's captains continued their exploration of Africa and the Atlantic Ocean. In 1433 Cape Bojador was rounded; in 1434 the first consignment of slaves was brought to Lisbon; and slave trading soon became the most profitable branch of Portuguese commerce, until India was reached. The Senegal was reached in 1445, Cape Verde was passed in the same year, and in 1446 Álvaro Fernandes pushed on almost as far as Sierra Leone. This was probably the farthest point reached before the Navigator died in 1460. Another vector of the discoveries were the voyages westward, during which the Portuguese discovered the Sargasso Sea and possibly sighted the shores of Nova Scotia well before 1492.

Portuguese in Asia edit

The effort to colonize and maintain territories scattered around the entire coast of Africa and its surrounding islands, Brazil, India and Indic territories such as in Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Japan, China, Indonesia and Timor was a challenge for a population of only one million. Combined with constant competition from the Spanish this led to a desire for secrecy about every trade route and every colony. As a consequence, many documents that could reach other European countries were in fact fake documents with fake dates and faked facts, to mislead any other nation's possible efforts.

Portuguese discoveries and explorations (1415–1543) edit

 
Portuguese discoveries and explorations: first arrival places and dates; main Portuguese spice trade routes in the Indian Ocean (blue); territories of the Portuguese empire under King John III rule (1521–1557) (green)

Chronology of the Portuguese discoveries edit

(missing data on Ormuz – from Socotra to Basra, including Muscat, Bahrain, islands in Strait of Hormuz, etc.)

See also edit

References edit

Citations edit

  1. ^ Abreu-Ferreira, Darlene (March 9, 2016). Women, Crime, and Forgiveness in Early Modern Portugal. Routledge. ISBN 9781134777587.
  2. ^ Alves-Calhoun, Donna (July 27, 2009). Portuguese Community of San Diego. Arcadia. ISBN 9781439638163.
  3. ^ Cartwright, Mark. "Portuguese Macao". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved October 7, 2022.
  4. ^ Collins, Robert O.; Burns, James M. (2007). "Part II, Chapter 12: The arrival of Europeans in sub-Saharan Africa". A History of Sub-Saharan Africa. Cambridge University Press. p. 179. ISBN 978-0-521-86746-7. in 1475 when his contract expired Rui de Sequeira had reached Cabo Santa Caterina (Cape Saint Catherine) south of the equator and the Gabon River.
  5. ^ Arthur Percival, Newton (1970) [1932]. "Vasco da Gama and The Indies". The Great Age of Discovery. Ayer Publishing. p. 48. ISBN 0-8337-2523-8. and about the same time Lopo Gonçalves crossed the Equator, while Ruy de Sequeira went on to Cape St. Catherine, two degrees south of the line.
  6. ^ Koch, Peter O. (2003). "Following the Dream of Prince Henry". To the Ends of the Earth: The Age of the European Explorers. McFarland & Company. p. 62. ISBN 0-7864-1565-7. Gomes was obligated to pledge a small percentage of his profits to the royal treasury. Starting from Sierra Leone in 1469, this monetarily motivated entrepreneurial explorer spent the next five years extending Portugal's claims even further than he had been required, reaching as far south as Cape St. Catherine before his contract came up for renewal.
  7. ^ . UNESCO Memory of the World Programme. May 16, 2008. Archived from the original on September 18, 2008. Retrieved December 14, 2009.
  8. ^ DEBATE SOBRE LA IDENTIDAD DE ESPAÑA. El Mundo
  9. ^ Roger Smith, "Vanguard of the Empire", Oxford University Press, 1993, p.30
  10. ^ B. W. Diffie, Foundations of the Portuguese Empire, 1415 -1580, Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, p. 28.
  11. ^   This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domainWood, James, ed. (1907). "Almeida". The Nuttall Encyclopædia. London and New York: Frederick Warne.
  12. ^ Donald Frederick Lach, Edwin J. Van Kley, Asia in the Making of Europe, p.520-521, University of Chicago Press, 1994, ISBN 978-0-226-46731-3
  13. ^ José Nicolau da Fonseca, Historical and Archaeological Sketch of the City of Goa, Bombay : Thacker, 1878, pp. 47–48. Reprinted 1986, Asian Educational Services, ISBN 81-206-0207-2.

Sources edit

history, portugal, 1415, 1578, history, kingdom, portugal, from, illustrious, generation, early, 15th, century, fall, house, aviz, late, 16th, century, been, named, portuguese, golden, portuguese, século, ouro, golden, century, portuguese, renaissance, during,. The history of the Kingdom of Portugal from the Illustrious Generation of the early 15th century to the fall of the House of Aviz in the late 16th century has been named the Portuguese golden age Portuguese Seculo de Ouro golden century and the Portuguese Renaissance 1 2 During this period Portugal was the first European power to begin building a colonial empire as Portuguese sailors and explorers discovered an eastern route to India that rounded the Cape of Good Hope as well as several Atlantic archipelagos like the Azores Madeira and Cape Verde and colonized the African coast and Brazil They also explored the Indian Ocean and established trading routes throughout most of southern Asia sending the first direct European maritime trade and diplomatic missions to Ming China and to Japan at the same time installing trading posts and the most important colony Portuguese Macau Only in East Asia 3 The Portuguese Renaissance produced a plethora of poets historians critics theologians and moralists The Cancioneiro Geral by Garcia de Resende printed 1516 is taken to mark the transition from Old Portuguese to the modern Portuguese language Kingdom ofPortugal and the AlgarvesReyno de Portugal et dos Algarues Old Modern Portuguese 1415 1580Flag 1485 1495 CapitalLisbonCommon languagesGalician Portuguese Old Modern PortugueseReligionRoman CatholicDemonym s PortugueseGovernmentAbsolute MonarchyMonarch 1415 1433Joao I first 1578 1580Henrique I last History Conquest of Ceuta14 August 1415 Battle of Alcacer Quibir4 August 1578 Death of Henrique I31 January 1580CurrencyPortuguese dinheiro Portuguese realISO 3166 codePTPreceded by Succeeded byPortugal in the Middle Ages Iberian Union Contents 1 John I 2 Edward 3 Afonso V 3 1 Treaty of Tordesillas 3 2 Afonsine Ordinances 4 Imperial expansion 1481 1557 5 Sebastian I 6 Dynastic crisis and union with Spain 7 Explorations 7 1 Reasons for exploration 7 2 Portuguese nautical science 7 2 1 Ships 7 2 2 Celestial navigation 7 2 3 Sailing techniques 7 2 4 Cartography 7 3 Henry the Navigator 7 4 Portuguese in Asia 7 5 Portuguese discoveries and explorations 1415 1543 7 6 Chronology of the Portuguese discoveries 8 See also 9 References 9 1 Citations 9 2 SourcesJohn I editJohn I of Portugal acceded in 1390 and ruled in peace pursuing the economic development of his realm The only significant military action was the siege and conquest of the city of Ceuta in 1415 By this step he aimed to control navigation of the African coast But in the broader perspective this was the first step opening the Arab world to medieval Europe which in fact led to the Age of Discovery with Portuguese explorers sailing across the whole world Contemporaneous writers describe John as a man of wit very keen on concentrating power on himself but at the same time with a benevolent and kind personality His love for knowledge and culture was passed to his sons often collectively referred to by Portuguese historians as the illustrious generation Inclita Geracao Edward the future king was a poet and a writer Peter the Duke of Coimbra was one of the most learned princes of his time and Prince Henry the Navigator the duke of Viseu invested heavily in science and the development of nautical pursuits In 1430 John s only surviving daughter Isabella married Philip the Good Duke of Burgundy and enjoyed an extremely refined court culture in his lands she was the mother of Charles the Bold Edward edit nbsp Prince Henry the NavigatorUnder king Edward the colony at Ceuta rapidly became a drain on the Portuguese treasury and it was realised that without the city of Tangier possession of Ceuta was worthless In 1437 Duarte s brothers Henry and Ferdinand persuaded him to launch an attack on the Marinid sultanate of Morocco The expedition was not unanimously supported Infante Peter Duke of Coimbra and the Infante John were both against the initiative they preferred to avoid conflict with the king of Morocco Their instincts proved to be justified The resulting attack on Tangier led by Henry was a debacle Failing to take the city in a series of assaults the Portuguese siege camp was soon itself surrounded and starved into submission by a Moroccan relief army In the resulting treaty Henry promised to deliver Ceuta back to the Marinids in return for allowing the Portuguese army to depart unmolested Duarte s youngest brother Ferdinand was handed over to the Marinids as a hostage for the final handover of the city Afonso V editTreaty of Tordesillas edit Main article Treaty of Tordesillas Meanwhile colonization progressed in the Azores and Madeira where sugar and wine were now produced above all the gold brought home from Guinea stimulated the commercial energy of the Portuguese It had become clear that apart from their religious and scientific aspects these voyages of discovery were highly profitable Under Afonso V 1443 1481 surnamed the African the Gulf of Guinea was explored as far as Cape St Catherine Cabo Santa Catarina 4 5 6 and three expeditions 1458 1461 and 1471 were sent to Morocco in 1471 Arzila and Tangier were captured from the Moors Under John II 1481 1495 the fortress of Sao Jorge da Mina the modern Elmina was founded for the protection of the Guinea trade Diogo Cao discovered the Congo in 1482 and reached Cape Cross in 1486 Bartolomeu Dias doubled the Cape of Good Hope in 1488 thus proving that the Indian Ocean was accessible by sea nbsp Conquest of Tangier in 1471 from the Pastrana series of tapestriesAfter 1492 the arrival of Christopher Columbus in the West Indies rendered desirable a delimitation of the Spanish and Portuguese spheres of exploration This was accomplished by the Treaty of Tordesillas June 7 1494 which modified the delimitation authorized by Pope Alexander VI in two bulls issued on May 4 1493 The treaty gave to Portugal all lands that might be discovered east of a straight line drawn from the Arctic Pole to the Antarctic at a distance of 370 leagues west of Cape Verde Spain received the lands discovered west of this line The known means of measuring longitude were so inexact however that the line of demarcation could not in practice be determined see J de Andrade Corvo in Journal das Ciencias Matematicas xxxi 147 176 Lisbon 1881 so the treaty was subject to very diverse interpretations On its provisions were based both the Portuguese claim to Brazil and the Spanish claim to the Moluccas see History of East Indies The treaty was chiefly valuable to the Portuguese as a recognition of the prestige they had acquired That prestige was enormously enhanced when in 1497 1499 Vasco da Gama completed the voyage to India The tendency to secrecy and falsification of dates casts doubts about the authenticity of many primary sources Several historians have hypothesized that John II may have known of the existence of Brazil and North America as early as 1480 thus explaining his wish in 1494 at the signing of the Treaty of Tordesillas to push the line of influence further west Many historians suspect that the real documents would have been placed in the Library of Lisbon Unfortunately due to the fire following the earthquake of 1755 nearly all of the library s records were destroyed citation needed but an extra copy available in Goa was transferred to Lisbon Tower of Tombo during the following 100 years The Corpo Cronologico Chronological Corpus a collection of manuscripts on the Portuguese explorations and discoveries in Africa Asia and Latin America was inscribed on UNESCO s Memory of the World Register in 2007 in recognition of its historical value for acquiring knowledge of the political diplomatic military economic and religious history of numerous countries at the time of the Portuguese Discoveries 7 Afonsine Ordinances edit nbsp King Afonso V of PortugalWhile the Crown was thus acquiring new possessions its authority in Portugal was temporarily overshadowed by the growth of aristocratic privilege After the death of Edward further attempts to curb the power of the nobles were made by his brother D Pedro duke of Coimbra who acted as regent during the minority of Afonso V of Portugal 1439 1448 The head of the aristocratic opposition was the Duke of Braganza who contrived to secure the sympathy of the king and the dismissal of the regent The quarrel led to civil war and on 20 May 1449 D Pedro was defeated and killed at the Battle of Alfarrobeira Thenceforward the grants made by John I were renewed and extended on so lavish a scale that the Braganza estates alone comprised about a third of the whole kingdom An unwise foreign policy simultaneously injured the royal prestige for Afonso married his own niece Joanna daughter of Henry IV of Castile and claimed the kingdom of Castile in her name At the Battle of Toro in 1476 he fought an indecisive battle that made him realize that his claims to the Castilian throne were not achievable However Portugal defeated Castile in the naval war 1475 79 of the same conflict War of the Castilian Succession capturing a large Castilian fleet full of gold in the Battle of Guinea 1478 In 1479 Ferdinand and Isabella and Afonso signed the Treaty of Alcacovas by which Joanna was relegated to a convent and Portugal won the hegemony in the Atlantic Ocean His successor John II 1481 1495 reverted to the policy of matrimonial alliances with Castile and friendship with England Finding as he said that the liberality of former kings had left the Crown no estates except the high roads of Portugal he determined to crush the feudal nobility and seize its territories The Portuguese Cortes held at Evora 1481 empowered judges nominated by the Crown to administer justice in all feudal domains The nobles resisted this infringement of their rights but their leader Fernando II Duke of Braganza was beheaded for high treason in 1483 in 1484 the king stabbed to death his own brother in law Diogo Duke of Viseu and eighty other members of the aristocracy were executed afterwards Thus John the Perfect as he was called assured the supremacy of the Crown He was succeeded in 1495 by Manuel I who was named the Great or the Fortunate because in his reign the sea route to India was discovered and a Portuguese Empire founded Imperial expansion 1481 1557 edit nbsp King John II in Chronica d El Rei D Joao II Rui de Pina c 1497 1504 John II r 1481 1495 famously restored the policies of Atlantic exploration reviving the work of his great uncle Henry the Navigator The Portuguese explorations were his main priority in government pushing south the known coast of Africa with the purpose of discovering the maritime route to India and breaking into the spice trade Manuel I r 1495 1521 proved a worthy successor to his cousin John II supporting Portuguese exploration of the Atlantic Ocean and the development of Portuguese commerce Under John III r 1521 1557 Portuguese possessions were extended in Asia and in the New World through the Portuguese colonization of Brazil John III s policy of reinforcing Portugal s bases in India such as Goa secured Portugal s monopoly over the spice trade of cloves and nutmeg from the Maluku Islands As a result John III has been called the Grocer King On the eve of his death in 1557 the Portuguese empire spanned almost 1 billion acres about 4 million square kilometers During his reign the Portuguese became the first Europeans to make contact with both China under the Ming Dynasty and Japan during the Muromachi period see Nanban trade John III abandoned Muslim territories in North Africa in favor of trade with India and investment in Brazil In Europe he improved relations with the Baltic region and the Rhineland hoping that this would bolster Portuguese trade Sebastian I editSebastian of Portugal was the penultimate Portuguese monarch of the House of Aviz He was the son of John Manuel Prince of Portugal and his wife Joanna of Austria Sebastian succeeded to the throne at the age of three on the death of King John III his paternal grandfather Soon after his birth his mother Joanna of Spain left her infant son to serve as Regent of Spain for her father Emperor Charles V After his abdication in 1556 she served in the same capacity for her brother Philip II of Spain Joanna remained in Spain until her death in 1573 never to see her son again Since Sebastian was still a child the regency was handled first by his paternal grandmother Catherine of Austria and then by his great uncle Cardinal Henry of Evora During this period Portugal continued colonial expansion in Angola Mozambique and Malacca as well as the annexation of Macau in 1557 nbsp D Sebastiao I R de Portugal XVI During Sebastian s short personal reign he strengthened ties with the Holy Roman Empire England and France through diplomatic efforts He also restructured much of the administrative judicial and military life in his kingdom In 1568 Sebastian created scholarships to provide financial assistance to students who wished to study medicine or pharmacy at the University of Coimbra In 1569 Sebastian ordered Duarte Nunes de Leao to compile all the laws and legal documents of the kingdom in a collection of Leis Extravagantes known as Codigo Sebastianico Sebastian s code During the great plague of Lisbon in 1569 Sebastian sent for doctors from Seville to help the Portuguese doctors fight the plague He created two hospitals in Lisbon to take care of the afflicted In his concern for the widows and orphans of those killed by the plague he created several Recolhimentos shelters known as the Recolhimento de Santa Marta shelter of Santa Marta and the Recolhimento dos Meninos shelter of the children and provided wet nurses to take care of the babies Sebastian created laws for the military the Lei das Armas that would become a military organization model In 1570 Goa was attacked by the Indian army but the Portuguese were successful in repulsing the assault Also in 1570 Sebastian ordered that Brazilian Indians should not be used as slaves and ordered the release of those held in captivity The Celeiros Comuns Communal Granaries were inaugurated in 1576 on Sebastian s orders These were lending institutions intended to help to poor farmers when farm production decreased giving credit lending seeds and commodities to the needy and allowing them to pay back with farm products when they recovered from losses In 1577 Sebastian s ordinance Da nova ordem do juizo sobre o abreviar das demandas e execucao dellas decreased the time for handling legal actions regulated the action of lawyers scribes and other court officials and created fines for delays Sebastian disappeared and was presumably killed in action in the battle of Alcacer Quibir in 1578 after the brief reign of King Henry triggering the Portuguese succession crisis Dynastic crisis and union with Spain editMain articles 1580 Portuguese succession crisis War of the Portuguese Succession Battle of Ksar El Kebir and Iberian Union Following the Portuguese crisis of succession a dynastic union joined the crowns of Castile Portugal and Aragon along with their respective colonial possessions under the rule of the Habsburg dynastyThe unification of the peninsula had long been a goal of the region s monarchs with the intent of restoring the Visigothic monarchy 8 The history of Portugal from the dynastic crisis in 1578 to the first Braganza Dynasty monarchs was a period of transition The Portuguese Empire s spice trade was peaking at the start of this period It continued to enjoy widespread influence after Vasco da Gama had finally reached the East by sailing around Africa in 1497 98 Explorations editThis section may contain material not related to the topic of the article Please help improve this section or discuss this issue on the talk page July 2017 Learn how and when to remove this template message Main articles Age of Discovery and Portuguese discoveries Reasons for exploration edit Portugal s long shoreline with its many harbours and rivers flowing westward to the Atlantic ocean was the ideal environment to raise generations of adventurous seamen As a seafaring people in the south westernmost region of Europe the Portuguese became natural leaders of exploration during the Middle Ages Faced with the options of either accessing other European markets by sea by exploiting its seafaring prowess or by land and facing the task of crossing Castile and Aragon territory it is not surprising that goods were sent via the sea to England Flanders Italy and the Hanseatic league towns nbsp The Padrao dos Descobrimentos Monument to the Discoveries in LisbonHaving fought to achieve and to retain independence the nation s leadership had also a desire for fresh conquests Added to this was a long struggle to expel the Moors that was religiously sanctioned and influenced by foreign crusaders with a desire for martial fame Making war on Islam seemed to the Portuguese both their natural destiny and their duty as Christians One important reason was the need to overcome the expensive eastern trade routes dominated first by the republics of Venice and Genoa in the Mediterranean and then controlled by the Ottoman Empire after the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 barring European access and going through North Africa and the historically important combined land sea routes via the Red Sea Both spice and silk were big businesses of the day and arguably spices which were used as medicine drugs and preservatives was something of a necessity at least to those Europeans of better than modest means The Portuguese economy had benefited from its connections with neighbouring Muslim states A money economy was well enough established for 15th century workers in the countryside as well as in the towns to be paid in currency The agriculture of the countryside had diversified to the point where grain was imported from Morocco a symptom of an economy dependent upon Portugal s while specialised crops occupied former grain growing areas vineyards olives or the sugar factories of the Algarve later to be reproduced in Brazil Braudel 1985 Most of all the Aviz dynasty that had come to power in 1385 marked the semi eclipse of the conservative land oriented aristocracy See The Consolidation of the Monarchy in Portugal A constant exchange of cultural ideals made Portugal a centre of knowledge and technological development Due to these connections with Islamic kingdoms many mathematicians and experts in naval technology appeared in Portugal The Portuguese government impelled this even further by taking full advantage of this and by creating several important research centres in Portugal where Portuguese and foreign experts made several breakthroughs in the fields of mathematics cartography and naval technology Sagres and Lagos in the Algarve become famous as such places Portuguese nautical science edit Further information Portuguese Renaissance The successive expeditions and experience of the pilots led to a fairly rapid evolution of Portuguese nautical science creating an elite of astronomers navigators mathematicians and cartographers among them stood Pedro Nunes with studies on how to determine the latitudes by the stars and Joao de Castro Ships edit nbsp A modern replica of a Portuguese caravelUntil the 15th century the Portuguese were limited to coastal cabotage navigation using barques and barinels ancient cargo vessels used in the Mediterranean These boats were small and fragile with only one mast with a fixed quadrangular sail and did not have the capabilities to overcome the navigational difficulties associated with Southward oceanic exploration as the strong winds shoals and strong ocean currents easily overwhelmed their abilities They are associated with the earliest discoveries such as the Madeira Islands the Azores the Canaries and to the early exploration of the north west African coast as far south as Arguim in the current Mauritania The ship that truly launched the first phase of the Portuguese discoveries along the African coast was the caravel a development based on existing fishing boats They were agile and easier to navigate with a tonnage of 50 to 160 tons and 1 to 3 masts with lateen triangular sails allowing luffing The caravel benefited from a greater capacity to tack The limited capacity for cargo and crew were their main drawbacks but did not hinder its success Limited crew and cargo space was acceptable initially because as exploratory ships their cargo was what was in the explorer s feedback of a new territory which only took up the space of one person 9 Among the famous caravels are Berrio and Caravela Annunciation With the start of long oceanic sailing also large ships developed Nau was the Portuguese archaic synonym for any large ship primarily merchant ships Due to the piracy that plagued the coasts they began to be used in the navy and were provided with cannon windows which led to the classification of naus according to the power of its artillery They were also adapted to the increasing maritime trade from 200 tons capacity in the 15th century to 500 they become impressive in the 16th century having usually two decks stern castles fore and aft two to four masts with overlapping sails In India travels in the sixteenth century there were also used carracks large merchant ships with a high edge and three masts with square sails that reached 2000 tons Celestial navigation edit nbsp Ephemeris by Abraham Zacuto in Almanach Perpetuum 1496In the thirteenth century celestial navigation was already known guided by the sun position For celestial navigation the Portuguese like other Europeans used Arab navigation tools like the astrolabe and quadrant which they made easier and simpler They also created the cross staff or cane of Jacob for measuring at sea the height of the sun and other stars The Southern Cross become a reference upon arrival at the Southern hemisphere by Joao de Santarem and Pedro Escobar in 1471 starting the celestial navigation on this constellation But the results varied throughout the year which required corrections To this the Portuguese used the astronomical tables Ephemeris precious tools for oceanic navigation which have experienced a remarkable diffusion in the fifteenth century These tables revolutionized navigation allowing to calculate latitude The tables of the Almanach Perpetuum by astronomer Abraham Zacuto published in Leiria in 1496 were used along with its improved astrolabe by Vasco da Gama and Pedro Alvares Cabral Sailing techniques edit nbsp Map of the five major oceanic gyresBesides coastal exploration Portuguese also made trips off in the ocean to gather meteorological and oceanographic information in these were discovered the archipelagos of Madeira and the Azores and Sargasso Sea The knowledge of wind patterns and currents the trade winds and the oceanic gyres in the Atlantic and the determination of latitude led to the discovery of the best ocean route back from Africa crossing the Central Atlantic to the latitude of the Azores using the permanent favorable winds and currents that spin clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere because of atmospheric circulation and the effect of Coriolis facilitating the way to Lisbon and thus enabling the Portuguese venturing increasingly farther from shore the maneuver that became known as the volta do mar English return of the sea Cartography edit nbsp Pre mercator navigation chart of the Coast of Africa 1571 by Fernao Vaz Dourado Torre do Tombo Lisbon It is thought that Jehuda Cresques son of the Catalan cartographer Abraham Cresques have been one of the notable cartographers at the service of Prince Henry However the oldest signed Portuguese sea chart is a Portolan made by Pedro Reinel in 1485 representing the Western Europe and parts of Africa reflecting the explorations made by Diogo Cao Reinel was also author of the first nautical chart known with an indication of latitudes in 1504 and the first representation of a Wind rose With his son cartographer Jorge Reinel and Lopo Homem they participated in the making of the atlas known as Lopo Homem Reines Atlas or Miller Atlas in 1519 They were considered the best cartographers of their time with Emperor Charles V wanting them to work for him In 1517 King Manuel I of Portugal handed Lopo Homem a charter giving him the privilege to certify and amend all compass needles in vessels In the third phase of the former Portuguese nautical cartography characterized by the abandonment of the influence of Ptolemy s representation of the East and more accuracy in the representation of lands and continents stands out Fernao Vaz Dourado Goa 1520 1580 whose work has extraordinary quality and beauty giving him a reputation as one of the best cartographers of the time Many of his charts are large scale Henry the Navigator edit It was the genius of Prince Henry the Navigator that coordinated and utilized all these tendencies towards expansion Prince Henry placed at the disposal of his captains the vast resources of the Order of Christ of which he was the head and the best information and most accurate instruments and maps that could be obtained He sought to effect a meeting with the half fabulous Christian Empire of Prester John by way of the Western Nile the Senegal River and in alliance with that potentate to crush the Turks and liberate the Holy Land The concept of an ocean route to India appears to have originated after his death On land he again defeated the Moors who attempted to retake Ceuta in 1418 but in an expedition to Tangier undertaken in 1437 by King Edward 1433 1438 the Portuguese army was defeated and could only escape destruction by surrendering as a hostage Prince Ferdinand the king s youngest brother Ferdinand known as the Constant from the fortitude with which he endured captivity died unransomed in 1443 By sea Prince Henry s captains continued their exploration of Africa and the Atlantic Ocean In 1433 Cape Bojador was rounded in 1434 the first consignment of slaves was brought to Lisbon and slave trading soon became the most profitable branch of Portuguese commerce until India was reached The Senegal was reached in 1445 Cape Verde was passed in the same year and in 1446 Alvaro Fernandes pushed on almost as far as Sierra Leone This was probably the farthest point reached before the Navigator died in 1460 Another vector of the discoveries were the voyages westward during which the Portuguese discovered the Sargasso Sea and possibly sighted the shores of Nova Scotia well before 1492 Portuguese in Asia edit The effort to colonize and maintain territories scattered around the entire coast of Africa and its surrounding islands Brazil India and Indic territories such as in Sri Lanka Malaysia Japan China Indonesia and Timor was a challenge for a population of only one million Combined with constant competition from the Spanish this led to a desire for secrecy about every trade route and every colony As a consequence many documents that could reach other European countries were in fact fake documents with fake dates and faked facts to mislead any other nation s possible efforts Portuguese discoveries and explorations 1415 1543 edit Main article Portuguese discoveries nbsp Portuguese discoveries and explorations first arrival places and dates main Portuguese spice trade routes in the Indian Ocean blue territories of the Portuguese empire under King John III rule 1521 1557 green Chronology of the Portuguese discoveries edit 1336 Possible first expedition to the Canary Islands with additional expeditions in 1340 and 1341 though this is disputed 10 1412 Prince Henry the Navigator orders the first expeditions to the African Coast and Canary Islands 1419 Joao Goncalves Zarco and Tristao Vaz Teixeira discovered Porto Santo island in the Madeira group 1420 The same sailors and Bartolomeu Perestrelo discovered the island of Madeira which at once began to be colonized 1422 Cape Nao the limit of Moorish navigation is passed as the African Coast is mapped 1427 Diogo de Silves discovered the Azores which was colonized in 1431 by Goncalo Velho Cabral 1434 Gil Eanes sailed round Cape Bojador thus destroying the legends of the Dark Sea 1434 the 32 point compass card replaces the 12 points used until then 1435 Gil Eanes and Afonso Goncalves Baldaia discovered Garnet Bay Angra dos Ruivos and the latter reached the Gold River Rio de Ouro 1441 Nuno Tristao reached Cape White 1443 Nuno Tristao penetrated the Arguim Gulf Prince Pedro granted Henry the Navigator the monopoly of navigation war and trade in the lands south of Cape Bojador 1444 Dinis Dias reached Cape Green Cabo Verde 1445 Alvaro Fernandes sailed beyond Cabo Verde and reached Cabo dos Mastros Cape Red 1446 Alvaro Fernandes reached the northern Part of Portuguese Guinea 1452 Diogo de Teive discovers the Islands of Flores and Corvo 1458 Alvise Cadamosto discovers the first Cape Verde Islands 1460 Death of Prince Henry the Navigator His systematic mapping of the Atlantic reached 8 N on the African Coast and 40 W in the Atlantic Sargasso Sea in his lifetime 1461 Diogo Gomes and Antonio Noli discovered more of the Cape Verde Islands 1461 Diogo Afonso discovered the western islands of the Cape Verde group 1471 Joao de Santarem and Pedro Escobar crossed the Equator The southern hemisphere was discovered and the sailors began to be guided by a new constellation the Southern Cross The discovery of the islands of Sao Tome and Principe is also attributed to these same sailors 1479 Treaty of Alcacovas establishes Portuguese control of the Azores Guinea ElMina Madeira and Cape Verde Islands and Castilian control of the Canary Islands 1482 Diogo Cao reached the estuary of the Zaire Congo and placed a landmark there Explored 150 km upriver to the Yellala Falls 1484 Diogo Cao reached Walvis Bay south of Namibia 1487 Afonso de Paiva and Pero da Covilha traveled overland from Lisbon in search of the Kingdom of Prester John Ethiopia 1488 Bartolomeu Dias crowning 50 years of effort and methodical expeditions rounded the Cape of Good Hope and entered the Indian Ocean They had found the Flat Mountain of Ptolemy s Geography 1489 92 South Atlantic Voyages to map the winds 1490 Columbus leaves for Spain after his father in law s death 1492 First exploration of the Indian Ocean 1494 The Treaty of Tordesillas between Portugal and Spain divided the world into two parts Spain claiming all non Christian lands west of a north south line 370 leagues west of the Azores Portugal claiming all non Christian lands east of that line 1495 Voyage of Joao Fernandes the Farmer and Pedro Barcelos to Greenland During their voyage they discovered the land to which they gave the name of Labrador lavrador farmer 1494 First boats fitted with cannon doors and topsails 1498 Vasco da Gama led the first fleet around Africa to India arriving in Calicut 1498 Duarte Pacheco Pereira explores the South Atlantic and the South American Coast North of the Amazon River 1500 Pedro Alvares Cabral discovered Brazil on his way to India 1500 Gaspar Corte Real made his first voyage to Newfoundland formerly known as Terras Corte Real citation needed 1500 Diogo Dias discovered an island they named after St Lawrence after the saint on whose feast day they had first sighted the island later known as Madagascar 1502 Returning from India Vasco da Gama discovers the Amirante Islands Seychelles 1502 Miguel Corte Real set out for New England in search of his brother Gaspar Joao da Nova discovered Saint Helena Fernao de Noronha discovered the island which still bears his name 1503 On his return from the East Estevao da Gama discovered Ascension Island 1505 Goncalo Alvares in the fleet of the first viceroy sailed south in the Atlantic to were water and even wine froze discovering an island named after him modern Gough Island 1505 Lourenco de Almeida made the first Portuguese voyage to Ceylon Sri Lanka and established a settlement there 11 1506 Tristao da Cunha discovered the island that bears his name Portuguese sailors become the first Europeans to reach Madagascar 1509 The Bay of Bengal crossed by Diogo Lopes de Sequeira On the crossing he also reached Malacca 1511 Duarte Fernandes is the first European to visit the Kingdom of Siam Thailand sent by Afonso de Albuquerque after the conquest of Malaca 12 1512 Antonio de Abreu discovered Timor island and reached Banda Islands Ambon Island and Seram Francisco Serrao reached the Moluccas 1512 Pedro Mascarenhas discovered the island of Diego Garcia he also encountered the Mauritius although he may not have been the first to do so expeditions by Diogo Dias and Afonso de Albuquerque in 1507 may have encountered the islands In 1528 Diogo Rodrigues named the islands of Reunion Mauritius and Rodrigues the Mascarene Islands after Mascarenhas 1512 Joao de Lisboa and Estevao Frois reached the La Plata estuary or even perhaps the Gulf of San Matias in 42 S in modern Argentina between 1511 and 1514 1512 according to the manuscript Newen Zeytung auss Pressilandt in the Fugger archives of the time Christopher de Haro the financier of the expedition bears witness to the trip to La Plata Rio da Prata and the news of the White King to the interior and west the Inca emperor and the axe of silver obtained from the natives and offered to the king Manuel I 1513 The first trading ship to touch the coasts of China under Jorge Alvares and Rafael Perestrello later in the same year 1517 Fernao Pires de Andrade and Tome Pires were chosen by Manuel I of Portugal to sail to China to formally open relations between the Portuguese Empire and the Ming Dynasty during the reign of the Zhengde Emperor 1525 Aleixo Garcia explored the Rio de la Plata in service to Spain as a member of the expedition of Juan Diaz de Solis and later from Santa Catarina Brazil leading an expedition of some Europeans and 2 000 Guarani Indians explored Paraguay and Bolivia Aleixo Garcia was the first European to cross the Chaco and even managed to penetrate the outer defenses of the Inca Empire on the hills of the Andes near Sucre in present day Bolivia He was the first European to do so accomplishing this eight years before Francisco Pizarro 1526 Discovery of New Guinea by Jorge de Meneses 1528 Diogo Rodrigues explores the Mascarene islands that he names after his countryman Pedro Mascarenhas he explored and named the islands of Reunion Mauritius and Rodrigues 13 1529 Treaty of Saragossa divides the eastern hemisphere between Spain and Portugal stipulating that the dividing line should lie 297 5 leagues or 17 east of the Moluccas 1536 Pedro A Campos discovers Barbados and finds it uninhabitable 1542 The coast of California explored by Joao Rodrigues Cabrilho 1543 Antonio Mota Francisco Zeimoto and possibly Fernao Mendes Pinto became the first Europeans to reach Japan 1557 Macau given to Portugal by the Emperor of China as a reward for services rendered against the pirates who infested the China Sea missing data on Ormuz from Socotra to Basra including Muscat Bahrain islands in Strait of Hormuz etc See also editCatholic Church and the Age of Discovery Naval history List of Portuguese people Lusitania Portugal Portuguese colonization of the Americas Portuguese Empire 1415 2002 Portuguese peopleReferences editCitations edit Abreu Ferreira Darlene March 9 2016 Women Crime and Forgiveness in Early Modern Portugal Routledge ISBN 9781134777587 Alves Calhoun Donna July 27 2009 Portuguese Community of San Diego Arcadia ISBN 9781439638163 Cartwright Mark Portuguese Macao World History Encyclopedia Retrieved October 7 2022 Collins Robert O Burns James M 2007 Part II Chapter 12 The arrival of Europeans in sub Saharan Africa A History of Sub Saharan Africa Cambridge University Press p 179 ISBN 978 0 521 86746 7 in 1475 when his contract expired Rui de Sequeira had reached Cabo Santa Caterina Cape Saint Catherine south of the equator and the Gabon River Arthur Percival Newton 1970 1932 Vasco da Gama and The Indies The Great Age of Discovery Ayer Publishing p 48 ISBN 0 8337 2523 8 and about the same time Lopo Goncalves crossed the Equator while Ruy de Sequeira went on to Cape St Catherine two degrees south of the line Koch Peter O 2003 Following the Dream of Prince Henry To the Ends of the Earth The Age of the European Explorers McFarland amp Company p 62 ISBN 0 7864 1565 7 Gomes was obligated to pledge a small percentage of his profits to the royal treasury Starting from Sierra Leone in 1469 this monetarily motivated entrepreneurial explorer spent the next five years extending Portugal s claims even further than he had been required reaching as far south as Cape St Catherine before his contract came up for renewal Corpo Cronologico Collection of Manuscripts on the Portuguese Discoveries UNESCO Memory of the World Programme May 16 2008 Archived from the original on September 18 2008 Retrieved December 14 2009 DEBATE SOBRE LA IDENTIDAD DE ESPANA El Mundo Roger Smith Vanguard of the Empire Oxford University Press 1993 p 30 B W Diffie Foundations of the Portuguese Empire 1415 1580 Minneapolis University of Minnesota Press p 28 nbsp This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain Wood James ed 1907 Almeida The Nuttall Encyclopaedia London and New York Frederick Warne Donald Frederick Lach Edwin J Van Kley Asia in the Making of Europe p 520 521 University of Chicago Press 1994 ISBN 978 0 226 46731 3 Jose Nicolau da Fonseca Historical and Archaeological Sketch of the City of Goa Bombay Thacker 1878 pp 47 48 Reprinted 1986 Asian Educational Services ISBN 81 206 0207 2 Sources edit Braudel Fernand The Perspective of the World 1985 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title History of Portugal 1415 1578 amp oldid 1184259466, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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