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Foibe massacres

April 21, 2023

The foibe massacres (Italian: massacri delle foibe; Slovene: poboji v fojbah; Croatian: masakri fojbe), or simply the foibe, refers to mass killings both during and after World War II, mainly committed by Yugoslav Partisans and OZNA in the then-Italian territories[a] of Julian March (Karst Region and Istria), Kvarner and Dalmatia, against the local ethnic Italian population (Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians), as well the ethnic Slovenes, Croats and Istro-Romanians who chose to maintain Italian citizenship,[16] against all anti-communists, associated with fascism, Nazism, and collaboration with the Axis powers,[4][5] and against real, potential or presumed opponents of Titoism.[6] The type of attack was state terrorism,[4][10] reprisal killings[4][11] and ethnic cleansing against Italians.[3][4][7][8][9]

Foibe massacres
Grotta Plutone, one of the places of the massacre, a foiba close to Basovizza, Trieste, Italy, where the Trieste Steffe criminal gang killed 18 in May 1945.[1] It is a deep natural sinkhole with an overhanging entrance, typical of the Karst Region, into which victims were often thrown alive.[2]
Locations of some of the foibe
LocationJulian March, Kvarner, Dalmatia (Italy and Yugoslavia)
Date1943–1945
Target
Attack type
DeathsEstimates range from 3,000 to 5,000 killed;[12][13] according to other sources 11,000[14][15] or 20,000.[4][14]
Perpetrators

The Yugoslav partisans intended to kill whoever could oppose or compromise the future annexation of Italian territories: as a preventive purge of real, potential or presumed opponents of Titoism (Italian, Slovenian and Croatian anti-communists, collaborators, and radical nationalists), the Yugoslav partisans exterminated the native anti-fascist autonomists — including the leadership of Italian anti-fascist partisan organizations and the leaders of Fiume's Autonomist Party, like Mario Blasich and Nevio Skull, who supported local independence from both Italy and Yugoslavia — for example in the city of Fiume, where at least 650 were killed after the entry of the Yugoslav units, without any due trial.[17][18]

The term refers to the victims who were often thrown alive into foibe[2] (from Italian: pronounced ['fɔibe]), or into deep natural sinkholes characteristic of the karst regions (by extension, it also was applied to the use of mine shafts, etc., to hide the bodies). In a wider or symbolic sense, some authors used the term to apply to all disappearances or killings of Italian people in the territories occupied by Yugoslav forces. They excluded possible 'foibe' killings by other parties or forces. Others included deaths resulting from the forced deportation of Italians, or those who died while trying to flee from these contested lands.

The foibe massacres were followed by the Istrian–Dalmatian exodus, which was the post-World War II exodus and departure of local ethnic Italians (Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians) from the Yugoslav territory of Istria, Kvarner, the Julian March, lost by Italy after the Treaty of Paris (1947), as well as Dalmatia,[19] towards Italy, and in smaller numbers, towards the Americas, Australia and South Africa.[20][21] According to various sources, the exodus is estimated to have amounted to between 230,000 and 350,000 Italians (the others being ethnic Slovenes, Croats, and Istro-Romanians, who chose to maintain Italian citizenship)[16] leaving the areas in the aftermath of the conflict.[22][23]

The estimated number of people killed in the foibe is disputed, varying from hundreds to thousands,[24] according to some sources 11,000[14][15] or 20,000.[4] The Italian historian, Raoul Pupo estimates 3,000 to 4,000 total victims, across all areas of former Yugoslavia and Italy from 1943 to 1945,[13] with the primary target being military and repressive forces of the Fascist regime, and civilians associated with the regime, including Slavic collaborators.[25] He places the events in the broader context of "the collapse of a structure of power and oppression: that of the fascist state in 1943, that of the Nazi-fascist state of the Adriatic coast in 1945."[25]

The events were also part of larger reprisals in which tens-of-thousands of Slavic collaborators of Axis forces were killed in the aftermath of WWII, following a brutal war in which some 800,000 Yugoslavs, the vast majority civilians, were killed by Axis occupation forces and collaborators, with Italian forces committing war crimes. Historians also put the events in the context of broader postwar violence in Europe,[26] including in Italy, where the Italian resistance and others killed an estimated 12,000 to 26,000 Italians, usually in extra-judicial executions, the great majority in Northern Italy, just in April and May 1945,[11] while some 12 to 14.5 million ethnic Germans were expelled from Central and Eastern Europe, with a death toll of 500,000[27][28] to 2.5 million.[29][30][31]

Origin and meaning of the term

 
Labin, December 1943: bodies recovered from a foiba by Italian firefighters and German soldiers. Local civilians are trying to identify relatives or friends.[32]

The name was derived from a local geological feature, a type of deep karst sinkhole called foiba.[33] The term includes by extension killings and "burials" in other subterranean formations, such as the Basovizza "foiba", which is a mine shaft.

In Italy the term foibe has, for some authors and scholars,[b] taken on a symbolic meaning; for them it refers in a broader sense to all the disappearances or killings of Italian people in the territories occupied by Yugoslav forces. According to author Raoul Pupo [it]:[25]

It is well known that the majority of the victims didn't end their lives in a Karst cave, but met their deaths on the road to deportation, as well as in jails or in Yugoslav concentration camps.[c]

The terror spread by these disappearances and killings eventually caused the majority of the Italians of Istria, Fiume, and Zara to flee to other parts of Italy or the Free Territory of Trieste. Raoul Pupo wrote:

[...] the horrible death in a cave [...] became the very representation of a barbaric and obscure violence hanging over as a potential doom of an entire community. This is the image that settles in the memory of contemporaries, and become an obsession in moments of political and national uncertainty. This has the power to condition appreciably the choices of the people, such as the one by Istrians that decide to leave their lands assigned to Yugoslav sovereignty [...]

Events

The first claims of people being thrown into foibe date to 1943, after the Wehrmacht took back the area from the Partisans. Other authors claimed the 70 hostages were killed and burned in the Nazi lager of the Risiera of San Sabba, on 4 April 1944.[37][38][39][40][41]

 
4 November 1943: next to the Foiba of Terli are decomposed corpses of Albina Radecchi (A), Catherine Radecchi (B), Fosca Radecchi (C) and Amalia Ardossi (D)

The massacres occurred in two waves, the first taking places in the interlude between the Armistice of Cassibile and the German occupation of Istria in September 1943, and the second after the Yugoslav occupation of the region in May 1945. Victims of the first wave numbered in the hundreds, whereas those of the second wave in the thousands. The first wave of killings is widely regarded as a disorganized, spontaneous series of revenge killings by Slovenes and Croats after twenty years of Fascist oppression, as well as "jacquerie" against Italian landowners and more broadly the Italian elite in the region; these killings targeted members of the Fascist Party, their relatives (as in the famous case of Norma Cossetto), Italian landowners, policemen and civil servants of all ranks, considered as symbols of Italian oppression. The scope and nature of the second wave is much more disputed; Slovene and Croat historians, as well as Communist-leaning Italian historians such as Alessandra Kersevan and Claudia Cernigoi, characterize it as another wave of revenge killings against Fascist collaborators and members of the armed forces of the Italian Social Republic, whereas Italian historians such as Raoul Pupo, Gianni Oliva and Roberto Spazzali argue that this was the result of a deliberate Titoist policy aimed at spreading terror among the Italian population of the region and eliminating anyone who opposed Yugoslav plans of annexing Istria and the Julian March, including anti-Fascists.[12][35] It is to be noted that while the foibe became the symbol of these massacres, only a minority of the victims were killed with this method, largely during the first wave; a far larger part were executed and buried in mass graves or died in Yugoslav prisons and concentration camps.[42][43][12][35][44][45][46]

After the re-occupation of Istria by Axis forces in September 1943, following the first wave of killings, the fire brigade of Pola, under the command of Arnaldo Harzarich, recovered 204 bodies from the foibe of the region. Between 1945 and 1948, Italian authorities recovered a total 369 corpses from foibe in the Italian-controlled part of the Free Territory of Trieste (Zone A), and another 95 were recovered from mass graves in the same area; these included also bodies of German soldiers killed in the closing days of the war and hastily buried in these cavities. Foibe located in the Yugoslav-controlled part of the Free Territory of Trieste, as well as in the rest of Istria, were never searched as this territory was now under Yugolav control.[47]

Great controversy has surrounded the foiba of Basovizza, one of the most famous foibe (and unlikely called as such, as it was not a natural foiba but a disused mine shaft). Newspaper reports from the postwar era claimed anywhere from 18 to 3,000 victims in this foiba alone, but Trieste authorities refused to fully excavate it, citing financial constraints. At the end of the war, local villagers had thrown the bodies of dead German soldiers (killed in a battle fought in the vicinity in the closing days of the war) and horses into the mine shaft, which after the war had also been used as a garbage dump by the authorities of the Free Territory of Trieste.[48] After the war the Basovizza foibe was used by the Italian authorities as a garbage dump. Thus no Italian victims were ever recovered or determined at Basovizza. In 1959 the pit was sealed and a monument erected, which later became the central site for the annual foibe commemorations.[48]

 
Area controlled by the Yugoslav Partisans (in red dots) immediately after the Badoglio Proclamation (8 September 1943)

At the Plutone foibe near Bazovizza, members of the Trieste Steffe criminal gang killed 18 people. For this the leader of the gang, Giovanni Steffe, and three others were arrested by the Yugoslav forces. Steffe and Carlo Mazzoni were killed by the Yugoslav forces while trying to escape. Three members of the gang, all from Trieste, were later convicted by Italian courts to 2 to 5 years in jail for the killings.[1] Altogether some 70 trials were held in Italy from 1946 to 1949 for the killings, some ending in acquittals or amnesties, others with heavy sentences.

In 1947, British envoy W. J. Sullivan wrote of Italians arrested and deported by Yugoslav forces from around Trieste:

there is little doubt, while some of the persons deported may have been innocent, others were undoubtedly active fascists with more than mere party memberships on their conscience. Some of these have returned to Trieste but have kept well out of the Allied authorities, not participating in enquiries about the deportations for fear of arrest and trial 'for their former fascist activities'.

Alongside a large number of Fascists, however, among those killed were also anti-Fascists who opposed the Yugoslav annexation of the region, such as Socialist Licurgo Olivi and Action Party leader Augusto Sverzutti, members of the Committee of National Liberation of Gorizia; in Trieste, the same fate befell Resistance leaders Romano Meneghello (posthumously awarded a Silver Medal of Military Valor for his Resistance activities) and Carlo Dell'Antonio. In Fiume (where at least 652 Italians were killed or disappeared between 3 May 1945 and 31 December 1947, according to a joint Italian-Croat study), Autonomist Party leaders Mario Blasich, Joseph Sincich and Nevio Skull were among those executed by the Yugoslavs soon after the occupation, as was anti-Fascist and Dachau survivor Angelo Adam. Priests were also targeted by the new Yugoslav Communist authorities, as in the case of Francesco Bonifacio. Out of 1,048 people who were arrested and executed by the Yugoslavs in the province of Gorizia in May 1945, according to a list drafted by a joint Italian-Slovene commission in 2006, 470 were members of the military or police forces of the Italian Social Republic, 110 were Slovene civilians accused of collaborationism, and 320 were Italian civilians.[49][12][35][50]

 
Istrian Italians leave Pola in 1947 during the Istrian-Dalmatian exodus

The foibe massacres were state terrorism,[4][10] reprisal killings,[4][11] and ethnic cleansing against Italians.[3][4][7][8][9] The foibe massacres were mainly committed by Yugoslav Partisans and OZNA against the local ethnic Italian population (Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians), as well against anti-communists in general (even Croats and Slovenes), usually associated with Fascism, Nazism and collaboration with Axis,[4][5] and against real, potential or presumed opponents of Tito communism.[6] The events were also part of larger reprisals in which tens-of-thousands of Slavic collaborators of Axis forces were killed in the aftermath of WWII, following a brutal war in which some 800,000 Yugoslavs, the vast majority civilians, were killed by Axis occupation forces and collaborators.

The foibe massacres were followed by the Istrian–Dalmatian exodus, which was the post-World War II expulsion and departure of local ethnic Italians (Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians) from the Yugoslav territory of Istria, Kvarner, the Julian March, lost by Italy after the Treaty of Paris (1947), as well as Dalmatia,[19] towards Italy, and in smaller numbers, towards the Americas, Australia and South Africa.[20][21] According to various sources, the exodus is estimated to have amounted to between 230,000 and 350,000 Italians (the others being ethnic Slovenes, Croats, and Istro-Romanians, who chose to maintain Italian citizenship)[16] leaving the areas in the aftermath of the conflict.[22][23] From 1947, after the war, Italians were subject by Yugoslav authorities to less violent forms of intimidation, such as nationalization, expropriation, and discriminatory taxation,[51] which gave them little option other than emigration.[52][53][54] According to the census organized in Croatia in 2001 and that organized in Slovenia in 2002, the Italians who remained in the former Yugoslavia amounted to 21,894 people (2,258 in Slovenia and 19,636 in Croatia).[55][56]

Number of victims

 
Changes to the Italian eastern border from 1920 to 1975.
  The Austrian Littoral, later renamed Julian March, which was assigned to Italy in 1920 with the Treaty of Rapallo (with adjustments of its border in 1924 after the Treaty of Rome) and which was then ceded to Yugoslavia in 1947 with the Treaty of Paris
  Areas annexed to Italy in 1920 and remained Italian even after 1947
  Areas annexed to Italy in 1920, passed to the Free Territory of Trieste in 1947 with the Paris treaties and definitively assigned to Italy in 1975 with the Treaty of Osimo
  Areas annexed to Italy in 1920, passed to the Free Territory of Trieste in 1947 with the Paris treaties and definitively assigned to Yugoslavia in 1975 with the Osimo treaty

The number of those killed or left in foibe during and after the war is still unknown; it is difficult to establish and a matter of controversy. Estimates range from hundreds to twenty thousand. According to data gathered by a joint Slovene-Italian historical commission established in 1993, "the violence was further manifested in hundreds of summary executions - victims were mostly thrown into the Karst chasms (foibe) - and in the deportation of a great number of soldiers and civilians, who either wasted away or were killed during the deportation".[6]

Historians Raoul Pupo and Roberto Spazzali, have estimated the total number of victims at about 5,000, and note that the targets were not "Italians", but military and repressive forces of the Fascist regime, and civilians associated with the regime.[25] More recently, Pupo has revised the total victims estimates to 3,000 to 4,000.[13] Italian historian Guido Rumici estimated the number of Italians executed, or died in Yugoslav concentration camps, as between 6,000 and 11,000,[14] while Mario Pacor estimated that after the armistice about 400-500 people were killed in the foibe and about 4,000 were deported, many of whom were later executed. Other sources claim 20,000 victims.[4]

It was not possible to extract all the corpses from the foibe, some of which are deeper than several hundred meters; some sources are attempting to compile lists of locations and possible victim numbers.[57] Between October and December 1943, the fire brigade of Pola, helped by mine workers, recovered a total of 159 victims of the first wave of mass killings from the foibe of Vines (84 bodies), Terli (26 bodies), Treghelizza (2 bodies), Pucicchi (11 bodies), Villa Surani (26 bodies), Cregli (8 bodies) and Carnizza d'Arsia (2 bodies); another 44 corpses were recovered in the same period from two bauxite mines in Lindaro and Villa Bassotti.[58][47] More bodies were sighted, but not recovered.[58][47]

The most famous Basovizza foiba, was investigated by English and American forces, starting immediately on 12 June 1945. After 5 months of investigation and digging, all they found in the foiba were the remains of 150 German soldiers and one civilian killed in the final battles for Basovizza on 29–30 April 1945.[59] The Italian mayor, Gianni Bartoli continued with investigations and digging until 1954, with speleologists entering the cave multiple time, yet they found nothing.[59] Between November 1945 and April 1948, firefighters, speleologists and policemen inspected foibe and mine shafts in the "Zone A" of the Free Territory of Trieste (mainly consisting in the surroundings of Trieste), where they recovered 369 corpses; another 95 were recovered from mass graves in the same area. At the time, no inspections were carried out either in the Yugoslav-controlled "Zone B", or in the rest of Istria.[47]

Other foibe and mass graves were investigated in more recently in Istria and elsewhere in Slovenia and Croatia; for instance, human remains were discovered in the Idrijski Log foiba near Idrija, Slovenia, in 1998; four skeletons were found in the foiba of Plahuti near Opatija in 2002; in the same year, a mass grave containing the remains of 52 Italians and 15 Germans, most likely all military, was discovered in Slovenia, not far from Gorizia; in 2005, the remains of about 130 people killed between the 1940s and the 1950s were recovered from four foibe located in northeastern Istria.[60][61][62][63][64]

Background

Main articles: Istria, History of Dalmatia, Italianization, Fascist Legacy, Italian war crimes, Julian March, Istrian Italians, and Dalmatian Italians
 
Map of Dalmatia and Istria with the boundaries set by the Treaty of London (1915) (red line) and those actually obtained from Italy (green line). The black line marks the border of the Governorate of Dalmatia (1941-1943). The ancient domains of the Republic of Venice are indicated in fuchsia (dashed diagonally, the territories that belonged occasionally)

Early history

Via conquests, the Republic of Venice, between the 9th century and 1797, extended its dominion to coastal parts of Istria and Dalmatia.[65] Thus Venice invaded and attacked Zadar multiple times, especially devastating the city in 1202 when Venice used the crusaders, on their Fourth Crusade, to lay siege, then ransack, demolish and rob the city,[66] the population fleeing into countryside. Pope Innocent III excommunicated the Venetians and crusaders for attacking a Catholic city.[66] The Venetians used the same Crusade to attack the Dubrovnik Republic, and force it to pay tribute, then continued to sack Christian Orthodox Constantinople where they looted, terrorized, and vandalized the city, killing 2.000 civilians, raping nuns and destroying Christian Churches, with Venice receiving a big portion of the plundered treasures.

 
A portrait painting the fall of the Republic of Venice (1797): the abdication of the last Doge, Ludovico Manin

The coastal areas and cities of Istria came under Venetian Influence in the 9th century. In 1145, the cities of Pula, Koper and Izola rose against the Republic of Venice but were defeated, and were since further controlled by Venice.[67] On 15 February 1267, Poreč was formally incorporated with the Venetian state.[68] Other coastal towns followed shortly thereafter. The Republic of Venice gradually dominated the whole coastal area of western Istria and the area to Plomin on the eastern part of the peninsula.[67] Dalmatia was first and finally sold to the Republic of Venice in 1409 but Venetian Dalmatia wasn't fully consolidated from 1420.[69]

From the Early Middle Ages onwards numbers of Slavic people near and on the Adriatic coast were ever increasing, due to their expanding population and due to pressure from the Ottomans pushing them from the south and east.[70][71] This led to Italic people becoming ever more confined to urban areas, while the countryside was populated by Slavs, with certain isolated exceptions.[72] In particular, the population was divided into urban-coastal communities (mainly Romance speakers) and rural communities (mainly Slavic speakers), with small minorities of Morlachs and Istro-Romanians.[73]

Republic of Venice influenced the neolatins of Istria and Dalmatia until 1797, when it was conquered by Napoleon: Koper and Pula were important centers of art and culture during the Italian Renaissance.[74] From the Middle Ages to the 19th century, Italian and Slavic communities in Istria and Dalmatia had lived peacefully side by side because they did not know the national identification, given that they generically defined themselves as "Istrians" and "Dalmatians", of "Romance" or "Slavic" culture.[75]

Austrian Empire

Further information: Italian irredentism in Dalmatia and Italian irredentism in Istria

The French victory of 1809 compelled Austria to cede a portion of its South Slav lands to France, Napoleon combined Carniola, western Carinthia, Gorica (Gorizia), Istria, and parts of Croatia, Dalmatia, and Dubrovnik to form the Illyrian Provinces.[76] The Code Napoléon was introduced, and roads and schools were constructed. Local citizens were given administrative posts, and native languages were used to conduct official business.[76] This sparked the Illyrian Movement for the cultural and linguistic unification of South Slavic lands.[76]

After the fall of Napoleon (1814), Istria, Kvarner and Dalmatia were annexed to the Austrian Empire.[77] Many Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians looked with sympathy towards the Risorgimento movement that fought for the unification of Italy.[78] However, after the Third Italian War of Independence (1866), when the Veneto and Friuli regions were ceded by the Austrians to the newly formed Kingdom Italy, Istria and Dalmatia remained part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, together with other Italian-speaking areas on the eastern Adriatic. This triggered the gradual rise of Italian irredentism among many Italians in Istria, Kvarner and Dalmatia, who demanded the unification of the Julian March, Kvarner and Dalmatia with Italy. The Italians in Istria, Kvarner and Dalmatia supported the Italian Risorgimento: as a consequence, the Austrians saw the Italians as enemies and favored the Slav communities of Istria, Kvarner and Dalmatia,[79]

 
Austrian linguistic map from 1896. In green the areas where Slavs were the majority of the population, in orange the areas where Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians were the majority of the population. The boundaries of Venetian Dalmatia in 1797 are delimited with blue dots.

During the meeting of the Council of Ministers of 12 November 1866, Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria outlined a wide-ranging project aimed at the Germanization or Slavization of the areas of the empire with an Italian presence:[80]

Her Majesty expressed the precise order that action be taken decisively against the influence of the Italian elements still present in some regions of the Crown and, appropriately occupying the posts of public, judicial, masters employees as well as with the influence of the press, work in South Tyrol, Dalmatia and Littoral for the Germanization and Slavization of these territories according to the circumstances, with energy and without any regard. His Majesty calls the central offices to the strong duty to proceed in this way to what has been established.

— Franz Joseph I of Austria, Council of the Crown of 12 November 1866[79][81]

Istrian Italians were more than 50% of the total population for centuries,[82] while making up about a third of the population in 1900.[83] Dalmatia, especially its maritime cities, once had a substantial local ethnic Italian population (Dalmatian Italians), making up 33% of the total population of Dalmatia in 1803,[84][85] but this was reduced to 20% in 1816.[86] In the 1910 Austro-Hungarian census, Istria had a population of 57.8% Slavic-speakers (Croat and Slovene), and 38.1% Italian speakers.[87] For the Austrian Kingdom of Dalmatia, (i.e. Dalmatia), the 1910 numbers were 96.2% Slavic speakers and 2.8% Italian speakers,[87] compared to 12.5% Italian speakers in the first Austro-Hungarian census of 1865.[88] Many of these Italian speakers were local Slavs who became Italianized due to Italian long being the only official language, and later returned to Slavic languages.[88] In 1909 the Italian language lost its status as the official language of Dalmatia in favor of Croatian only (previously both languages were recognized): thus Italian could no longer be used in the public and administrative sphere.[89]

Historians note that while Slavs made up 80-95% of the Dalmatia populace,[90] only Italian language schools existed until 1848,[91] and due to restrictive voting laws, which allowed only wealthy property owners to vote, the Italian-speaking aristocratic minority retained political control of Dalmatia.[92] They fought to keep Italian as the only official language, and opposed granting official languages rights to the Croatian language, spoken by the great majority of inhabitants. Only after Austria liberalized elections in 1870, allowing more majority Slavs to vote, did Croatian parties gain control. Croatian finally became an official language in Dalmatia in 1883, along with Italian.[93] Yet minority Italian-speakers continued to wield strong influence, since Austria favored Italians for government work, thus in the Austrian capital of Dalmatia, Zara, the proportion of Italians continued to grow, making it the only Dalmatian city with an Italian majority.[94]

When Italy took over the Veneto region, it sought to repress the language of the local Slovene minority.[6] In 1911, complaining of local Italian efforts to falsely count Slovenes as Italians, the Trieste Slovene newspaper Edinost wrote: “We are here, we want to stay here and enjoy our rights! We throw the ruling clique the glove a duel, and we will not give up until artificial Trieste Italianism is crushed in dust, lying under our feet.”[95] Due to these complaints, Austria carried a census recount, and the number of Slovenes increased by 50-60% in Trieste and Gorizia, proving Slovenes were initially falsely counted as Italians.[96]

After World War I

Although a member of the Central Powers, Italy remained neutral at the start of WWI, and soon launched secret negotiations with the Triple Entente, bargaining to participate in the war on its side, in exchange for significant territorial gains.[97] To get Italy to join the war, in the secret 1915 Treaty of London the Entente promised Italy Istria and parts of Dalmatia, German-speaking South Tyrol, the Greek Dodecanese Islands, parts of Albania and Turkey, plus more territory for Italy's North Africa colonies.

 
 
On the left, a map of the Kingdom of Italy before the First World War, on the right, a map of the Kingdom of Italy after the First World War.

After World War I, the whole of the former Austrian Julian March, including Istria, and Zadar in Dalmatia were annexed by Italy, while Dalmatia (except Zadar) was annexed by the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. Contrary to the Treaty of London, in 1919 Gabrielle D’Annunzio led an army of 2,600 Italian war veterans to seize the city of Fiume (Rijeka). D’Annunzio created the Italian Regency of Carnaro, with him as its dictator, or Comandante, and a constitution foreshadowing the Fascist system. After D’Annuzio's removal, Fiume briefly become a Free State, but local Fascists in 1922 carried out a coup, and in 1924 Italy annexed Fiume.

As a result, 480,000 Slavic-speakers came under Italian rule, while 12,000 Italian speakers were left in Yugoslavia, mostly in Dalmatia. Italy began a policy of forced Italianization.[98] which intensified under Fascist rule from 1922 to 1943. Italy forbade Slavic languages in public institutions and schools, moved 500 Slovene teachers to the interior of Italy, replacing them with Italian ones. All Slavic newspapers and publications were banned, while Slavic libraries were closed. The Italian government forcefully changed people’s names to Italian ones. All Slavic cultural, sporting, professional, business and political associations were likewise banned; minorities in Italy were left without any representation. Slavs were restricted from public sector empolyment. As a result, 100,000 Slavic speakers left Italian-annexed areas in an exodus, moving mostly to Yugoslavia.[99] In Fiume alone, the Slavic population declined by 66% by 1925, compared to pre-WWI levels.[100] The remnants of the Italian community in Dalmatia (which had started a slow but steady emigration to Istria and Venice during the 19th century) left their cities toward Zadar and the Italian mainland.

During the early 1920s, nationalistic violence was directed both against the Slovene and Croat minorities in Istria (by Italian nationalists and Fascists) and the Italian minority in Dalmatia (by Slovene and Croat nationalists). In Dalmatia hostilities arose when in 1918 Italy occupied by force several cities, like Šibenik, with large majority Slav populations, while armed Italian nationalist irregulars commanded by Dalmatian Italian Count Fanfogna proceeded further south to Split. This led to the 1918–20 unrest in Split, when members of the Italian minority and their properties were assaulted by Croatian nationalists (and two Italian Navy personnel and a Croatian civilian were later killed during riots). In 1920 Italian nationalists and fascists burned the Trieste National Hall, the main center of the Slovene minority in Trieste. During D’Annunzio’s armed 1919-1920 occupation of Fiume, hundreds of mostly non-Italians were arrested, including many leaders of the Slavic community, and thousands of Slavs started to flee the city, with additional anti-Slav violence during the 1922 Fascist coup,.[100]

 
The Trieste National Hall, the main center of the Slovene minority in Trieste, after the fire (1920)

In a 1920 speech in Pola (Istria), Benito Mussolini proclaimed an expansionist policy, based on the fascist concept of spazio vitale, similar to the Nazi lebensraum policy:[101]

Towards expansion in the Mediterranean and in the East, Italy is driven by demographic factors. But to realize the Mediterranean dream, the Adriatic, which is our gulf, must be in our hands. When dealing with such a race as Slavic - inferior and barbaric - we must not pursue the carrot, but the stick policy. We should not be afraid of new victims. The Italian border should run across the Brenner Pass, Monte Nevoso and the Dinaric Alps. I would say we can easily sacrifice 500,000 barbaric Slavs for 50,000 Italians.

— Benito Mussolini, speech held in Pula, 20 September 1920

With Fascist Italy’s imperialistic policy of spanning the Mediterranean, Italy in 1927 signed an agreement with the Croatian fascist, terrorist Ustaše organization, under which contingent on their seizing power, the Ustaše agreed to cede to Italy additional territory in Dalmatia and the Bay of Kotor, while also renouncing all Croatian claims to Istria, Fiume (Rijeka), Zadar and the Adriatic Islands, which Italy annexed after WWI.[102] The Ustaše became a tool of Italy.[103] They embarked on a terrorist campaign of placing bombs on international trains bound for Yugoslavia, and instigated an armed uprising in Lika, then part of Yugoslavia. In 1934 in Marseille, the Italy-supported Ustaše assassinated King Alexander I of Yugoslavia, while simultaneously killing the French Foreign Minister.[104]

World War II

See also: Italian war crimes in Yugoslavia
 
Map of areas Italy annexed after the invasion of Yugoslavia during the World War II - Province of Ljubljana, Governate of Dalmatia and the area merged with the province of Fiume. Italy further occupied half of the Independent State of Croatia (below grey line), plus Montenegro and parts of Kosovo, Serbia and Macedonia (the latter annexed to Italy-occupied Albania)

Seeking to create an Imperial Italy, Mussolini started expansionist wars in the Mediterranean, with Fascist Italy invading and occupying Albania in 1939, and in 1940 France, Greece, Egypt, and the Malta. In April 1941, Italy and its Nazi Germany ally, attacked Yugoslavia. They carved up Yugoslavia, with Italy occupying large portions of Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia, Montenegro, Serbia and Macedonia, directly annexing to Italy Ljubljana Province, Gorski Kotar and Central Dalmatia, along with most Croatian islands, with the creation of the Governatorate of Dalmatia. Italy proceeded to Italianize the annexed areas of Dalmatia.[105] Place names were Italianized, and Italian was made the official language in all schools, churches and government administration.[105] All Croatian cultural societies were banned, while Italians took control of all key mineral, industrial and business establishments.[105]

Italian policies prompted resistance by Dalmatians, many joined the Partisans.[106] In response, the Italians adopted tactics of summary executions, internments, property confiscations, and the burning of villages."[107] The Italian government sent tens of thousands of civilians, among them many women and children, to Italian concentration camps, such as Rab, Gonars, Monigo, Renicci, Molat, Zlarin, Mamula, etc. Altogether, some 80,000 Dalmatians, 12% of the population, passed through Italian concentration camps.[108] Thousands died in the camps, including hundreds of children.[109] Italian forces executed thousands of additional civilians as hostages and conducted massacres, such as the Podhum massacre in 1942. On their own, or with their Nazi and collaborationist allies, the Italian army undertook brutal anti-Partisan offensives, during which tens-of-thousands of Partisans were killed, along with many civilians, plus thousands more civilians executed or sent to concentration camps after the campaigns.

No Italians were ever brought to trial for war crimes committed in Yugoslavia or elsewhere.[110][111][112] In 1944, near the end of a war in which Nazis, Fascists and their allies killed over 800,000 Yugoslavs, Croat poet Vladimir Nazor wrote: "We will wipe away from our territory the ruins of the destroyed enemy tower, and we will throw them in the deep sea of oblivion. In the place of a destroyed Zara, a new Zadar will be reborn, and this will be our revenge in the Adriatic"[36] (Zara had been under Fascist rule for 22 years, and was in ruins because of heavy Allied bombing).

Investigations

 
Recovery of a body from a foiba in Istria

After the war, inspector Umberto de Giorgi, who was State Police marshal under fascist and Nazi rule, led the Foibe Exploration Team. Between 1945 and 1948 they investigated 71 foibe locations on the Italian side of the border. 23 of these were empty, in the rest they discovered some 464 corpses. These included soldiers killed during the last battles of the war. Among the 246 identified corpses, more than 200 were military (German, Italian, other), and some 40 were civilians, of the latter, 30 killed after the war.[113]

Due to claims of hundreds having been killed and tossed into the Basovizza mineshaft, in August–October 1945 British military authorities investigated the shaft, ultimately recovering 9 German soldiers, 1 civilian and a few horse cadavers.[114] Based on these results the British suspended excavations. Afterwards the city of Trieste used the mineshaft as a garbage dump. Despite repeat demands from various right-wing groups to further excavate the shaft,[115] the government of Trieste, led by the Christian Democratic mayor Gianni Bartoli, declined to do so, claiming among other reasons, lack of financial resources.[115] In 1959 the shaft was sealed and a monument erected, thus becoming the center of the annual foibe commemorations.

Only a few trials were held, including that of the Trieste Zoll-Steffe criminal gang, for the killing of 18 people in the Plutone foibe in May 1945. Afterwards, Yugoslav authorities arrested the gang members and took them to Ljubljana, with two killed along the way while trying to escape, and the others convicted before a military tribunal.[116][117] Additional members of the gang were brought before an Italian court in Trieste 1947, and were convicted and sentenced to prison for 2–3 years for their role in the Plutone killings.[117]

 
Memorial stone in memory of the Italian victims of Foibe and Yugoslav deportations, Padua.

In 1949 a trial was held in Trieste for those accused of killing Mario Fabian, a torturer in the "Collotti gang", a fascist squad that during the war killed and tortured Slovene and Italian antifascists, and Jews.[118][119] Fabian was taken from his home on 4 May 1945, then shot and tossed into the Basovizza shaft. He is the only known Italian victim of Basovizza. His executioners were at first condemned, but later acquitted. The historian Pirjevec notes that the head of the gang, Gaetano Collotti, was awarded a medal by the Italian government in 1954, for fighting Slovene partisans in 1943, despite the fact that Collotti and his gang had committed many crimes while working for the Gestapo, and was killed by Italian partisans near Treviso in 1945.[118]

In 1993 a study titled Pola Istria Fiume 1943-1945[120] by Gaetano La Perna provided a detailed list of the victims of Yugoslav occupation (in September–October 1943 and from 1944 to the very end of the Italian presence in its former provinces) in the area. La Perna gave a list of 6,335 names (2,493 military, 3,842 civilians). The author considered this list "not complete".[121]

A 2002 joint report by Rome's Society of Fiuman studies (Società di Studi Fiumani) and Zagreb's Croatian Institute of History (Hrvatski institut za povijest) concluded that from Fiume and the surrounding area "no less than 500 persons of Italian nationality lost their lives between 3 May 1945 and 31 December 1947. To these we should add an unknown number of 'missing' (not less than a hundred) relegated into anonymity due to missing inventory in the Municipal Registries together with the relevant number of victims having ... Croatian nationality (who were often, at least between 1940 and 1943, Italian citizens) determined after the end of war by the Yugoslav communist regime."[122]

In March 2006, the border municipality of Nova Gorica in Slovenia released a list of names of 1,048 citizens of the Italian city of Gorizia (the two cities belonged until the Treaty of Paris of 1947 to the same administrative body) who disappeared in May 1945 after being arrested by the Partisan 9th Corps.[123] According to the Slovene government, "the list contains the names of persons arrested in May 1945 and whose destiny cannot be determined with certainty or whose death cannot be confirmed".[124]

Alleged motives

 
The discovery of the entrance to a mass grave in Friuli after World War II
 
The foiba of Basovizza, near Trieste

It has been alleged that the killings were part of a purge aimed at eliminating potential enemies of communist Yugoslav rule, which would have included members of German and Italian fascist units, Italian officers and civil servants, parts of the Italian elite who opposed both communism and fascism (including the leadership of Italian anti-fascist partisan organizations and the leaders of Fiume's Autonomist Party, including Mario Blasich and Nevio Skull), Slovenian and Croatian anti-communists, collaborators, and radical nationalists.[18]

Pupo claims that he primary targets of the purges were repressive forces of the Fascist regime, and civilians associated with the regime, including Slavic collaborators, thus:

With regard to the civilian population of Venezia Giulia the Yugoslav troops did not behave at all like an army occupying enemy territory: nothing in their actions recalls the indiscriminate violence of Red Army soldiers in Germany, on the contrary, their discipline seems in some ways superior even to that of the Anglo-American units.[d]

Since Yugoslav troops did not behave like an occupying army,[e] this partly contradicts the numerous academic authors and institutional figures — both in Italy and abroad — who recognized an ethnic cleansing against Italians,[3][4][7][8][9] and against ethnic Slovenes, Croats and Istro-Romanians who chose to maintain Italian citizenship.[16]

Another reason for the killings was retribution for the years of Italian repression, forced Italianization, suppression of Slavic sentiments and killings performed by Italian authorities during the war, not just in the concentration camps (such as Rab and Gonars), but also in reprisals often undertaken by the fascists.[125]

According to Fogar and Miccoli there is

the need to put the episodes in 1943 and 1945 within [the context of] a longer history of abuse and violence, which began with Fascism and with its policy of oppression of the minority Slovenes and Croats and continued with the Italian aggression on Yugoslavia, which culminated with the horrors of the Nazi-Fascist repression against the Partisan movement.[f]

Gaia Baracetti notes that some representations of foibe, such as a miniseries on Italian television, are replete with historical inaccuracies and stereotypes, portraying Slavs as “merciless assassins”, similar to fascist propaganda, while “largely ignoring the issue of Italian war crimes”[43] Others, including members of Italy's Jewish community, have objected to Italian right-wing efforts to equate the foibe with the Holocaust, via historical distortions which include exaggerated foibe victim claims, in an attempt to turn Italy from a perpetrator in the Holocaust, to a victim.[126] Other authors assert that the post-war pursuit of the 'truth' of the foibe, as a means of transcending Fascist/Anti-Fascist oppositions and promoting popular patriotism, has not been the preserve of right-wing or neo-Fascist groups. Evocations of the 'Slav other' and of the terrors of the foibe made by state institutions, academics, amateur historians, journalists, and the memorial landscape of everyday life were the backdrop to the post-war renegotiation of Italian national identity.[127]

Pamela Ballinger in her book, History in Exile: Memory and Identity at the Borders of the Balkans, wrote:[128]

I heard exiles' accounts of "Slavic barbarity" and "ethnic cleansing," suffered in Istria between 1943 and 1954, as well as Slovene and Croat narratives of the persecution experienced under the fascist state and at the hands of neofascists in the postwar period. Admittedly, I could not forget--as many exiles seemed to do--that the exodus from Istria followed on twenty years of the fascistization and Italianization of Istria, as well as a bloody Italian military campaign in Yugoslavia between 1941 and 1943. Nor could I countenance some exiles' frequent expressions of anti-Slav chauvinism. At the same time, however, I could not accept at face value the claim by some that the violence the Slavs suffered under fascism justified subsequent events in Istria or that all those who left Istria were compromised by fascism. Similarly, I came to reject the argument that ethno-national antagonism had not entered into the equation, as well as the counterview that the exodus represented simply an act of "ethnic cleansing".

An Italian-Slovene commission, namely the Slovenian-Italian historical-cultural commission (Slovene: Slovensko-italijanske zgodovinsko-kulturne komisije), wrote in its 2000 report that the Italian exodus had multiple causes.[6]

The report by the mixed Italian-Slovenian commission describes the circumstances of the 1945 killings as follows:[6]

14. These events were triggered by the atmosphere of settling accounts with the fascist violence; but, as it seems, they mostly proceeded from a preliminary plan which included several tendencies: endeavours to remove persons and structures who were in one way or another (regardless of their personal responsibility) linked with Fascism, with Nazi supremacy, with collaboration and with the Italian state, and endeavours to carry out preventive cleansing of real, potential or only alleged opponents of the communist regime, and the annexation of the Julian March to the new Yugoslavia. The initial impulse was instigated by the revolutionary movement which was changed into a political regime, and transformed the charge of national and ideological intolerance between the partisans into violence at national level.

Following the war the Yugoslav government pursued a policy of “Slav-Italian brotherhood” and Italian workers came to Yugoslavia to help with rebuilding. Relations worsened in 1948 when Yugoslavia broke with Stalin, while the Italian Communist Party supported the Soviet Union. Border disputes, postwar economic deprivations and the initial totalitarian nature of the Yugoslav government, made life difficult for all. All this led to what was until then a limited exodus, to much broader exodus following 1950.[6] The commission was re-established in 2007 with the official name of Mixed Italian-Slovene Commission for the Maintenance of the State Border.[129]

Post-War

The foibe have been a neglected subject in mainstream political debate in Italy, Yugoslavia and former-Yugoslav nations, only recently garnering attention with the publication of several books and historical studies. It is thought that after World War II, while Yugoslav politicians rejected any alleged crime, Italian politicians wanted to direct the country's attention toward the future and away from the idea that Italy was, in fact, a defeated nation.[130]

So, the Italian government tactically "exchanged" the impunity of the Italians accused by Yugoslavia for the renunciation to investigate the foibe massacres.[131] Italy never extradited or prosecuted some 1,200 Italian Army officers, government officials or former Fascist Party members accused of war crimes by Yugoslavia, Ethiopia, Greece and other occupied countries and remitted to the United Nations War Crimes Commission.[132] On the other hand, Belgrade didn't insist overmuch on requesting the prosecution of alleged Italian war criminals.[133]

Re-emergence of the issue

Further information: National Memorial Day of the Exiles and Foibe
 
Rome, Giuliano-Dalmata district: monument to the victims of foibe
 
Concert at the Quirinal Palace in the presence of the President of the Italian Republic Sergio Mattarella on the occasion of the National Memorial Day of the Exiles and Foibe in 2015

For several Italian historians these killings were the beginning of organized ethnic cleansing.[7] Silvio Berlusconi's coalition government brought the issue back into open discussion. The Italian Parliament (with the support of the vast majority of the represented parties) made February 10 National Memorial Day of the Exiles and Foibe, first celebrated in 2005 with exhibitions and observances throughout Italy (especially in Trieste). The occasion is held in memory of innocents killed and forced to leave their homes, with little support from their home country. In Carlo Azeglio Ciampi's words: "Time has come for thoughtful remembrance to take the place of bitter resentment." Moreover, for the first time, leaders from the Italian left, such as Walter Veltroni, visited the Basovizza foiba and admitted the culpability of the Left in covering up the subject for decades.

Nowadays, a large part of the Italian left acknowledges the nature of the foibe massacres, as attested by some declarations of Luigi Malabarba, senator for the Communist Refoundation Party, during the parliamentary debate on the institution of the National Memorial Day:[134]

In 1945 there was a ruthless policy of exterminating opponents. Here, one must again recall Stalinism to understand what Tito's well-organized troops did. ... Yugoslav Communism had deeply assimilated a return to nationalism that was inherent to the idea of 'Socialism in One Country'. ... The war, which had begun as anti-fascist, became anti-German and anti-Italian.

Italian president Giorgio Napolitano took an official speech during celebration of the "Memorial Day of Foibe Massacres and Istrian-Dalmatian exodus" in which he stated:[135]

... already in the unleashing of the first wave of blind and extreme violence in those lands, in the autumn of 1943, summary and tumultuous justicialism, nationalist paroxysm, social retaliation and a plan to eradicate Italian presence intertwined in what was, and ceased to be, the Julian March. There was therefore a movement of hate and bloodthirsty fury, and a Slavic annexationist design, which prevailed above all in the peace treaty of 1947, and assumed the sinister shape of "ethnic cleansing". What we can say for sure is that what was achieved - in the most evident way through the inhuman ferocity of the foibe – was one of the barbarities of the past century.

— Italian president Giorgio Napolitano, Rome, 10 February 2007[8]

The Croatian President Stipe Mesić immediately responded in writing, stating that:

It was impossible not to see overt elements of racism, historical revisionism and a desire for political revenge in Napolitano's words. ... Modern Europe was built on foundations ... of which anti-fascism was one of the most important.

— Croatian president Stjepan Mesić, Zagreb, 11 February 2007.[136][137]

The incident was resolved in a few days after diplomatic contacts between the two presidents at the Italian foreign ministry. On February 14, the Office of the President of Croatia issued a press statement:

The Croatian representative was assured that president Napolitano's speech on the occasion of the remembrance day for Italian WWII victims was in no way intended to cause a controversy regarding Croatia, nor to question the 1947 peace treaties or the Osimo and Rome Accords, nor was it inspired by revanchism or historical revisionism. ... The explanations were accepted with understanding and they have contributed to overcoming misunderstandings caused by the speech.

— Press statement by the Office of the President of Croatia, Zagreb, 14 February 2007.[138]

In Italy, Law 92 of 30 March 2004[139] declared February 10 as a Day of Remembrance dedicated to the memory of the victims of Foibe and the Istrian-Dalmatian exodus. The same law created a special medal to be awarded to relatives of the victims:

  Medal of Day of Remembrance to relatives of victims of foibe killings

In February 2012, a photo of Italian troops killing Slovene civilians was shown on public Italian TV as if being the other way round. When historian Alessandra Kersevan, who was a guest, pointed out to the television host Bruno Vespa that the photo depicted the killings of some Slovenes rather than Italians, the host did not apologize. A diplomatic protest followed.[140][141]

In the media

  • Il Cuore nel Pozzo, a 2005 TV movie focusing on the escape of a group of children from Tito's partisans.
  • Red Land (Rosso Istria) [it], a 2018 film directed by Maximiliano Hernando Bruno and starring Geraldine Chaplin, Sandra Ceccarelli, and Franco Nero.
  • Warlight, a book by Michael Ondaatje. ISBN 978-0-525-52119-8

Note: Many books have been written about the foibe, and results, interpretations and estimates of victims can in some cases vary largely according to the point of view of the author. Since most of the foibe currently lie outside Italian territory, no formal and complete investigation could be carried out during the years of the Cold war, and books could be of a speculative or anecdotal nature. For a complete list, see § Bibliography and § Further reading.

See also

Notes and references

Notes

  1. ^ Successively lost by Italy to Yugoslavia after the Treaty of Peace (1947).
  2. ^ See Raoul Pupo,[12][34][25] Gianni Oliva,[35] Arrigo Petacco[36] et alia.
  3. ^ Italian: È noto infatti che la maggior parte delle vittime non finì i suoi giorni sul fondo delle cavità carsiche, ma incontrò la morte lungo la strada verso la deportazione, ovvero nelle carceri o nei campi di concentramento jugoslavi.[25]
  4. ^ English: With regard to the civilian population of Venezia Giulia the Yugoslav troops did not behave at all like an army occupying enemy territory: nothing in their actions recalls the indiscriminate violence of Red Army soldiers in Germany, on the contrary, their discipline seems in some ways superior even to that of the Anglo-American units.[25]
  5. ^ English: With regard to the civilian population of Venezia Giulia the Yugoslav troops did not behave at all like an army occupying enemy territory: nothing in their actions recalls the indiscriminate violence of Red Army soldiers in Germany, on the contrary, their discipline seems in some ways superior even to that of the Anglo-American units.[25]
  6. ^ Italian: ... la necessità di inserire gli episodi del 1943 e del 1945 all'interno di una più lunga storia di sopraffazioni e di violenze, iniziata con il fascismo e con la sua politica di oppressione della minoranza slovena e croata proseguita con l'aggressione italiana alla Jugoslavia e culminata con gli orrori della repressione nazifascista contro il movimento partigiano.[25]

References

  1. ^ a b Cernigoi, Claudia (2018). "Operazione Plutone": le inchieste sulle foibe triestine (in Italian). Kappa Vu. ISBN 978-88-32153-01-9.
  2. ^ a b "Foibe, oggi è il Giorno del Ricordo: cos'è e perché si chiama così". La Repubblica (in Italian). GEDI Gruppo Editoriale. 10 February 2021. Retrieved 19 October 2021. La ricorrenza istituita nel 2004 nell'anniversario dei trattati di Parigi, che assegnavano l'Istria alla Jugoslavia. Si ricordano gli italiani vittime dei massacri messi in atto dai partigiani e dai Servizi jugoslavi. [The anniversary [was] established in 2004 on the anniversary of the Paris treaties, which assigned Istria to Yugoslavia. We remember the Italians victims of the massacres carried out by the partisans and the Yugoslav services.]
  3. ^ a b c d e Bloxham & Dirk Moses 2011.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Konrád, Barth & Mrňka 2021.
  5. ^ a b c Rumici 2002, p. 350.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h Italian-Slovene commission.
  7. ^ a b c d e Ferreto Clementi.
  8. ^ a b c d e (in Italian) «... già nello scatenarsi della prima ondata di cieca violenza in quelle terre, nell'autunno del 1943, si intrecciarono giustizialismo sommario e tumultuoso, parossismo nazionalista, rivalse sociali e un disegno di sradicamento della presenza italiana da quella che era, e cessò di essere, la Venezia Giulia. Vi fu dunque un moto di odio e di furia sanguinaria, e un disegno annessionistico slavo, che prevalse innanzitutto nel Trattato di pace del 1947, e che assunse i sinistri contorni di una "pulizia etnica". Quel che si può dire di certo è che si consumò - nel modo più evidente con la disumana ferocia delle foibe - una delle barbarie del secolo scorso.» from the official website of The Presidency of the Italian Republic, Giorgio Napolitano, official speech for the celebration of "Giorno del Ricordo" Quirinal, Rome, 10 February 2007.
  9. ^ a b c d "Il giorno del Ricordo - Croce Rossa Italiana" (in Italian).{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  10. ^ a b c Il tempo e la storia: Le Foibe, Rai tv, Raoul Pupo
  11. ^ a b c d Lowe 2012.
  12. ^ a b c d e Pupo & Spazzali 2003.
  13. ^ a b c Boscarol, Francesco (10 February 2019). "'Foibe, fascisti e comunisti: vi spiego il Giorno del ricordo': parla lo storico Raoul Pupo [Interviste]". TPI The Post Internazionale (in Italian). Retrieved 19 October 2021.
  14. ^ a b c d Rumici 2002.
  15. ^ a b Micol Sarfatti (11 February 2013). "Perché quasi nessuno ricorda le foibe?". huffingtonpost.it (in Italian).
  16. ^ a b c d Tobagi 2014.
  17. ^ Società di Studi Fiumani-Roma, Hrvatski Institut za Povijest-Zagreb Le vittime di nazionalità italiana a Fiume e dintorni (1939-1947) October 31, 2008, at the Wayback Machine, Ministero per i beni e le attività culturali - Direzione Generale per gli Archivi, Roma 2002. ISBN 88-7125-239-X, p. 597.
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  26. ^ Konrád, Barth & Mrňka 2021, p. 20.
  27. ^ Ingo Haar, "Herausforderung Bevölkerung: zu Entwicklungen des modernen Denkens über die Bevölkerung vor, im und nach dem Dritten Reich". "Bevölkerungsbilanzen" und "Vertreibungsverluste". Zur Wissenschaftsgeschichte der deutschen Opferangaben aus Flucht und Vertreibung, Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften 2007; ISBN 978-3-531-15556-2, p. 278 (in German)
  28. ^ The German Historical Museum puts the figure at 600,000, maintaining that the figure of 2 million deaths in the previous government studies cannot be supported.Die Flucht der deutschen Bevölkerung 1944/45, dhm.de; accessed 6 December 2014.(in German)
  29. ^ Kammerer, Willi. (PDF). Berlin Dienststelle 2005. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 June 2017. Retrieved 28 October 2017.the foreword to the book was written by German President Horst Köhler and the German interior minister Otto Schily
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  31. ^ "Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, Die Vertreibung der Deutschen aus den Gebieten jenseits von Oder und Neiße", bpb.de; accessed 6 December 2014.(in German)
  32. ^ Other photos from the footage can be see in Giorgio Pisanò, Storia della Guerra Civile in Italia 1943-1945, Milan, FPE, 1965
  33. ^ Pizzi 2002.
  34. ^ Pupo 2005.
  35. ^ a b c d Oliva 2003.
  36. ^ a b Petacco 1999.
  37. ^ "StudioArgento - Risiera di San Sabba".
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  43. ^ a b Baracetti, Gaia (2009). "Foibe: Nationalism, Revenge and Ideology in Venezia Giulia and Istria, I943-5". Journal of Contemporary History. 44 (4): 657–674. doi:10.1177/0022009409339344. ISSN 0022-0094. JSTOR 40542981. S2CID 159919208.
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  46. ^ Katia Pizzi, 'Silentes Loquimur': 'Foibe' and Border Anxiety in Post-War Literature from Trieste 14 April 2020 at the Wayback Machine
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  61. ^ Monte Maggiore, quattro infoibati I resti appartengono a persone decedute poco più di cinquant’anni fa
  62. ^ Slovenia, da una fossa comune spuntano i resti di 52 italiani
  63. ^ Esplora il significato del termine: Cosi’ ho fatto scoprire la foiba dimenticata Cosi' ho fatto scoprire la foiba dimenticata
  64. ^ Alla foiba di Montenero d’Idria
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Bibliography

  • Bloxham, Donald; Dirk Moses, Anthony (2011). "Genocide and ethnic cleansing". In Bloxham, Donald; Gerwarth, Robert (eds.). Political Violence in Twentieth-Century Europe. Cambridge University Press. p. 125. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511793271.004. ISBN 9781107005037.
  • Ferreto Clementi, Silvia. "La pulizia etnica e il manuale Cubrilovic". Foibe ed esodo: una storia negata a tre generazioni di italiani (PDF) (in Italian). Retrieved 5 November 2022.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
  • Konrád, Ota; Barth, Boris; Mrňka, Jaromír, eds. (2021). Collective Identities and Post-War Violence in Europe, 1944–48. Springer International Publishing. p. 20. ISBN 9783030783860. Retrieved 5 November 2022.
  • Lowe, Keith (2012). Savage continent. London. ISBN 9780241962220.
  • Oliva, Gianni (2003). Foibe. Le stragi negate degli italiani della Venezia Giulia e dell'Istria [Foibe. The denied massacres of the Italians of Venezia Giulia and Istria] (in Italian). Oscar Mondadori. pp. 4-25-36-71-72-148. ISBN 88-04-51584-8.
  • Peričić, Šime (19 September 2003). "O broju Talijana/talijanaša u Dalmaciji XIX. stoljeća" [About the number of Italians in Dalmatia, XIX century]. Radovi Zavoda Za Povijesne Znanosti HAZU U Zadru (in Croatian) (45): 327–355. ISSN 1330-0474.
  • Petacco, Arrigo (1999). L'esodo: la tragedia negata degli italiani d'Istria, Dalmazia e Venezia Giulia (in Italian). Milano: Mondadori. ISBN 88-04-45897-6.
    • English edition: Petacco, Arrigo (2005). A tragedy revealed: the story of Italians of Istria, Dalmatia, and Venezia Giulia, 1943-1956. Translated by Eisenbichler, Konrad. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-3921-9.
  • Pizzi, Katia (1 February 2002). A City in Search of an Author. A&C Black. p. 91. ISBN 9780567244970.
  • Pupo, Raoul; Spazzali, Roberto (2003). Foibe (in Italian). Bruno Mondadori. pp. 4-5-29-30-35-39-110-126-127-162-219-366. ISBN 88-424-9015-6.
  • Pupo, Raoul (2005). Il lungo esodo. Istria: le persecuzioni, le foibe, l'esilio (in Italian). Rizzoli. ISBN 88-17-00562-2.
  • Pupo, Raoul (April 1996). . L'Impegno, A. XVI, N. 1 (in Italian). Istituto per la storia della Resistenza e della società contemporanea nel Biellese, nel Vercellese e in Valsesia. Archived from the original on 15 May 2021.
  • Rumici, Guido (2002). Infoibati (1943-1945). I Nomi, I Luoghi, I Testimoni, I Documenti (in Italian). Ugo Mursia. ISBN 978-88-425-2999-6.
  • Tobagi, Benedetta (2014). . Treccani, il portale del sapere (in Italian). Treccani. Archived from the original on 14 June 2017. Retrieved 5 November 2022.
  • Tomasevich, Jozo (October 2002). War and Revolution in Yugoslavia, 1941-1945: Occupation and Collaboration. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-7924-1.
  • (in English) Pamela Ballinger, History in Exile: Memory and Identity at the Borders of the Balkans, Princeton University Press, 2002, ISBN 0-691-08697-4.
  • (in English) Benjamin David Lieberman, Terrible Fate: Ethnic Cleansing in the Making of Modern Europe, Ivan R. Dee, 2006 - Original from the University of Michigan 9 Jun 2008, ISBN 1-56663-646-9.
  • (in English) Glenda Sluga, The Problem of Trieste and the Italo-Yugoslav Border: Difference, Identity, and Sovereignty in Twentieth-century Europe, SUNY Press, 2001 ISBN 0-7914-4823-1.
  • (in Italian) Joze Pirjevec, Foibe: una storia d'Italia, Turin: Giulio Einaudi Editore, 2009, ISBN 978-88-06-19804-6.
  • (in Italian) Gianni Bartoli, Il martirologio delle genti adriatiche
  • (in Italian) Claudia Cernigoi, Operazione Foibe—Tra storia e mito, Kappa Vu, Udine, 2005, ISBN 978-88-89808-57-3. (The first edition of the book, published in 1997 as Operazione foibe a Trieste and limited in scope to the Trieste territory, is available online)
  • (in Italian) Vincenzo Maria De Luca, Foibe. Una tragedia annunciata. Il lungo addio italiano alla Venezia Giulia, Settimo sigillo, Roma, 2000.
  • (in Italian) Luigi Papo, L'Istria e le sue foibe, Settimo sigillo, Roma, 1999.
  • (in Italian) Luigi Papo, L'ultima bandiera.
  • (in Italian) Marco Pirina, Dalle foibe all'esodo 1943-1956.
  • (in Italian) Franco Razzi, Lager e foibe in Slovenia.
  • (in Italian) Giorgio Rustia, Contro operazione foibe a Trieste, 2000.
  • (in Italian) Carlo Sgorlon, La foiba grande, Mondadori, 2005, ISBN 88-04-38002-0.
  • (in Italian) Pol Vice, La foiba dei miracoli, Kappa Vu, Udine, 2008.
  • (in Italian) Atti del convegno di Sesto San Giovanni 2008, "Foibe. Revisionismo di Stato e amnesie della Repubblica", Kappa Vu, Udine, 2008.
  • (in Italian) Gaetano La Perna, Pola Istria Fiume 1943-1945, Mursia, Milan, 1993.
  • (in Italian) Marco Girardo Sopravvissuti e dimenticati: il dramma delle foibe e l'esodo dei giuliano-dalmati Paoline, 2006.
  • (in Italian and Croatian) Amleto Ballerini, Mihael Sobolevski, Le vittime di nazionalità italiana a Fiume e dintorni (1939–1947) - Žrtve talijanske nacionalnosti u Rijeci i okolici (1939.-1947.), Società Di Studi Fiumani - Hrvatski Institut Za Povijest, Roma Zagreb, Ministero per i beni e le attività culturali Direzione generale per gli archivi, Pubblicazioni degli Archivi Di Stato, Sussidi 12, ISBN 88-7125-239-X.
An Italian-Croatian joint research carried out by the Italian "Society of Fiuman studies" and the "Croatian Institute of History", containing an alphabetic list of recognized victims. As foot note, on each of the two lingual forewords, a warning states that Società di Studi Fiumani do not judge completed the present work, because the lack of funds, could not achieve to the finalization that was in intentions and goals of the initial project.

Further reading

  • Pamela Ballinger, History in Exile: Memory and Identity at the Borders of the Balkans, princeton.edu; accessed 14 December 2015.
  • "In Trieste, Investigation of Brutal Era Is Blocked", nytimes.com, 20 April 1997.

Report of the Italian-Slovene historical-cultural commission (in three languages):

  • . Slovene-Italian Relations 1880-1956. Koper-Capodistria. 25 July 2000. Archived from on 23 February 2020.
  • . Relazioni italo-slovene 1880-1956 (in Italian). Archived from on 12 November 2020.
  • . Slovensko-italijanski odnosi 1880-1956 (in Slovenian). Archived from on 7 November 2020.

External links

  • Claudia Cernigoi, (in Italian)
  • Le foibe (in Italian)
  • Gian Luigi Falabrino, Il punto sulle foibe e sulle deportazioni nelle regioni orientali (1943-45) (in Italian)
  • Marco Ottanelli, (in Italian)
  • Istituto regionale per la storia della Resistenza e dell’Età contemporanea nel Friuli Venezia Giulia, "Vademecum per il giorno del ricordo" (in Italian)
Videos
  • 1948 Italian newsreel

Coordinates: 45°37′54″N 13°51′45″E / 45.63167°N 13.86250°E / 45.63167; 13.86250

April 21, 2023
foibe, massacres, foibe, massacres, italian, massacri, delle, foibe, slovene, poboji, fojbah, croatian, masakri, fojbe, simply, foibe, refers, mass, killings, both, during, after, world, mainly, committed, yugoslav, partisans, ozna, then, italian, territories,. The foibe massacres Italian massacri delle foibe Slovene poboji v fojbah Croatian masakri fojbe or simply the foibe refers to mass killings both during and after World War II mainly committed by Yugoslav Partisans and OZNA in the then Italian territories a of Julian March Karst Region and Istria Kvarner and Dalmatia against the local ethnic Italian population Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians as well the ethnic Slovenes Croats and Istro Romanians who chose to maintain Italian citizenship 16 against all anti communists associated with fascism Nazism and collaboration with the Axis powers 4 5 and against real potential or presumed opponents of Titoism 6 The type of attack was state terrorism 4 10 reprisal killings 4 11 and ethnic cleansing against Italians 3 4 7 8 9 Foibe massacresGrotta Plutone one of the places of the massacre a foiba close to Basovizza Trieste Italy where the Trieste Steffe criminal gang killed 18 in May 1945 1 It is a deep natural sinkhole with an overhanging entrance typical of the Karst Region into which victims were often thrown alive 2 Locations of some of the foibeLocationJulian March Kvarner Dalmatia Italy and Yugoslavia Date1943 1945TargetEthnic Italians Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians 3 4 Italian German Croat and Slovene anti communists usually associated with fascism Nazism and collaboration with Axis 4 5 Preventive purge of real potential or presumed opponents of Titoism 6 Attack typeEthnic cleansing against Italians 3 4 7 8 9 State terrorism 4 10 Reprisal killings 4 11 DeathsEstimates range from 3 000 to 5 000 killed 12 13 according to other sources 11 000 14 15 or 20 000 4 14 PerpetratorsYugoslav Partisans OZNAThe Yugoslav partisans intended to kill whoever could oppose or compromise the future annexation of Italian territories as a preventive purge of real potential or presumed opponents of Titoism Italian Slovenian and Croatian anti communists collaborators and radical nationalists the Yugoslav partisans exterminated the native anti fascist autonomists including the leadership of Italian anti fascist partisan organizations and the leaders of Fiume s Autonomist Party like Mario Blasich and Nevio Skull who supported local independence from both Italy and Yugoslavia for example in the city of Fiume where at least 650 were killed after the entry of the Yugoslav units without any due trial 17 18 The term refers to the victims who were often thrown alive into foibe 2 from Italian pronounced fɔibe or into deep natural sinkholes characteristic of the karst regions by extension it also was applied to the use of mine shafts etc to hide the bodies In a wider or symbolic sense some authors used the term to apply to all disappearances or killings of Italian people in the territories occupied by Yugoslav forces They excluded possible foibe killings by other parties or forces Others included deaths resulting from the forced deportation of Italians or those who died while trying to flee from these contested lands The foibe massacres were followed by the Istrian Dalmatian exodus which was the post World War II exodus and departure of local ethnic Italians Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians from the Yugoslav territory of Istria Kvarner the Julian March lost by Italy after the Treaty of Paris 1947 as well as Dalmatia 19 towards Italy and in smaller numbers towards the Americas Australia and South Africa 20 21 According to various sources the exodus is estimated to have amounted to between 230 000 and 350 000 Italians the others being ethnic Slovenes Croats and Istro Romanians who chose to maintain Italian citizenship 16 leaving the areas in the aftermath of the conflict 22 23 The estimated number of people killed in the foibe is disputed varying from hundreds to thousands 24 according to some sources 11 000 14 15 or 20 000 4 The Italian historian Raoul Pupo estimates 3 000 to 4 000 total victims across all areas of former Yugoslavia and Italy from 1943 to 1945 13 with the primary target being military and repressive forces of the Fascist regime and civilians associated with the regime including Slavic collaborators 25 He places the events in the broader context of the collapse of a structure of power and oppression that of the fascist state in 1943 that of the Nazi fascist state of the Adriatic coast in 1945 25 The events were also part of larger reprisals in which tens of thousands of Slavic collaborators of Axis forces were killed in the aftermath of WWII following a brutal war in which some 800 000 Yugoslavs the vast majority civilians were killed by Axis occupation forces and collaborators with Italian forces committing war crimes Historians also put the events in the context of broader postwar violence in Europe 26 including in Italy where the Italian resistance and others killed an estimated 12 000 to 26 000 Italians usually in extra judicial executions the great majority in Northern Italy just in April and May 1945 11 while some 12 to 14 5 million ethnic Germans were expelled from Central and Eastern Europe with a death toll of 500 000 27 28 to 2 5 million 29 30 31 Contents 1 Origin and meaning of the term 2 Events 3 Number of victims 4 Background 4 1 Early history 4 2 Austrian Empire 4 3 After World War I 4 4 World War II 5 Investigations 6 Alleged motives 7 Post War 8 Re emergence of the issue 9 In the media 10 See also 11 Notes and references 11 1 Notes 11 2 References 11 3 Bibliography 12 Further reading 13 External linksOrigin and meaning of the term Edit Labin December 1943 bodies recovered from a foiba by Italian firefighters and German soldiers Local civilians are trying to identify relatives or friends 32 The name was derived from a local geological feature a type of deep karst sinkhole called foiba 33 The term includes by extension killings and burials in other subterranean formations such as the Basovizza foiba which is a mine shaft In Italy the term foibe has for some authors and scholars b taken on a symbolic meaning for them it refers in a broader sense to all the disappearances or killings of Italian people in the territories occupied by Yugoslav forces According to author Raoul Pupo it 25 It is well known that the majority of the victims didn t end their lives in a Karst cave but met their deaths on the road to deportation as well as in jails or in Yugoslav concentration camps c The terror spread by these disappearances and killings eventually caused the majority of the Italians of Istria Fiume and Zara to flee to other parts of Italy or the Free Territory of Trieste Raoul Pupo wrote the horrible death in a cave became the very representation of a barbaric and obscure violence hanging over as a potential doom of an entire community This is the image that settles in the memory of contemporaries and become an obsession in moments of political and national uncertainty This has the power to condition appreciably the choices of the people such as the one by Istrians that decide to leave their lands assigned to Yugoslav sovereignty Events EditThe first claims of people being thrown into foibe date to 1943 after the Wehrmacht took back the area from the Partisans Other authors claimed the 70 hostages were killed and burned in the Nazi lager of the Risiera of San Sabba on 4 April 1944 37 38 39 40 41 4 November 1943 next to the Foiba of Terli are decomposed corpses of Albina Radecchi A Catherine Radecchi B Fosca Radecchi C and Amalia Ardossi D The massacres occurred in two waves the first taking places in the interlude between the Armistice of Cassibile and the German occupation of Istria in September 1943 and the second after the Yugoslav occupation of the region in May 1945 Victims of the first wave numbered in the hundreds whereas those of the second wave in the thousands The first wave of killings is widely regarded as a disorganized spontaneous series of revenge killings by Slovenes and Croats after twenty years of Fascist oppression as well as jacquerie against Italian landowners and more broadly the Italian elite in the region these killings targeted members of the Fascist Party their relatives as in the famous case of Norma Cossetto Italian landowners policemen and civil servants of all ranks considered as symbols of Italian oppression The scope and nature of the second wave is much more disputed Slovene and Croat historians as well as Communist leaning Italian historians such as Alessandra Kersevan and Claudia Cernigoi characterize it as another wave of revenge killings against Fascist collaborators and members of the armed forces of the Italian Social Republic whereas Italian historians such as Raoul Pupo Gianni Oliva and Roberto Spazzali argue that this was the result of a deliberate Titoist policy aimed at spreading terror among the Italian population of the region and eliminating anyone who opposed Yugoslav plans of annexing Istria and the Julian March including anti Fascists 12 35 It is to be noted that while the foibe became the symbol of these massacres only a minority of the victims were killed with this method largely during the first wave a far larger part were executed and buried in mass graves or died in Yugoslav prisons and concentration camps 42 43 12 35 44 45 46 After the re occupation of Istria by Axis forces in September 1943 following the first wave of killings the fire brigade of Pola under the command of Arnaldo Harzarich recovered 204 bodies from the foibe of the region Between 1945 and 1948 Italian authorities recovered a total 369 corpses from foibe in the Italian controlled part of the Free Territory of Trieste Zone A and another 95 were recovered from mass graves in the same area these included also bodies of German soldiers killed in the closing days of the war and hastily buried in these cavities Foibe located in the Yugoslav controlled part of the Free Territory of Trieste as well as in the rest of Istria were never searched as this territory was now under Yugolav control 47 Great controversy has surrounded the foiba of Basovizza one of the most famous foibe and unlikely called as such as it was not a natural foiba but a disused mine shaft Newspaper reports from the postwar era claimed anywhere from 18 to 3 000 victims in this foiba alone but Trieste authorities refused to fully excavate it citing financial constraints At the end of the war local villagers had thrown the bodies of dead German soldiers killed in a battle fought in the vicinity in the closing days of the war and horses into the mine shaft which after the war had also been used as a garbage dump by the authorities of the Free Territory of Trieste 48 After the war the Basovizza foibe was used by the Italian authorities as a garbage dump Thus no Italian victims were ever recovered or determined at Basovizza In 1959 the pit was sealed and a monument erected which later became the central site for the annual foibe commemorations 48 Area controlled by the Yugoslav Partisans in red dots immediately after the Badoglio Proclamation 8 September 1943 At the Plutone foibe near Bazovizza members of the Trieste Steffe criminal gang killed 18 people For this the leader of the gang Giovanni Steffe and three others were arrested by the Yugoslav forces Steffe and Carlo Mazzoni were killed by the Yugoslav forces while trying to escape Three members of the gang all from Trieste were later convicted by Italian courts to 2 to 5 years in jail for the killings 1 Altogether some 70 trials were held in Italy from 1946 to 1949 for the killings some ending in acquittals or amnesties others with heavy sentences In 1947 British envoy W J Sullivan wrote of Italians arrested and deported by Yugoslav forces from around Trieste there is little doubt while some of the persons deported may have been innocent others were undoubtedly active fascists with more than mere party memberships on their conscience Some of these have returned to Trieste but have kept well out of the Allied authorities not participating in enquiries about the deportations for fear of arrest and trial for their former fascist activities Alongside a large number of Fascists however among those killed were also anti Fascists who opposed the Yugoslav annexation of the region such as Socialist Licurgo Olivi and Action Party leader Augusto Sverzutti members of the Committee of National Liberation of Gorizia in Trieste the same fate befell Resistance leaders Romano Meneghello posthumously awarded a Silver Medal of Military Valor for his Resistance activities and Carlo Dell Antonio In Fiume where at least 652 Italians were killed or disappeared between 3 May 1945 and 31 December 1947 according to a joint Italian Croat study Autonomist Party leaders Mario Blasich Joseph Sincich and Nevio Skull were among those executed by the Yugoslavs soon after the occupation as was anti Fascist and Dachau survivor Angelo Adam Priests were also targeted by the new Yugoslav Communist authorities as in the case of Francesco Bonifacio Out of 1 048 people who were arrested and executed by the Yugoslavs in the province of Gorizia in May 1945 according to a list drafted by a joint Italian Slovene commission in 2006 470 were members of the military or police forces of the Italian Social Republic 110 were Slovene civilians accused of collaborationism and 320 were Italian civilians 49 12 35 50 Istrian Italians leave Pola in 1947 during the Istrian Dalmatian exodus The foibe massacres were state terrorism 4 10 reprisal killings 4 11 and ethnic cleansing against Italians 3 4 7 8 9 The foibe massacres were mainly committed by Yugoslav Partisans and OZNA against the local ethnic Italian population Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians as well against anti communists in general even Croats and Slovenes usually associated with Fascism Nazism and collaboration with Axis 4 5 and against real potential or presumed opponents of Tito communism 6 The events were also part of larger reprisals in which tens of thousands of Slavic collaborators of Axis forces were killed in the aftermath of WWII following a brutal war in which some 800 000 Yugoslavs the vast majority civilians were killed by Axis occupation forces and collaborators The foibe massacres were followed by the Istrian Dalmatian exodus which was the post World War II expulsion and departure of local ethnic Italians Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians from the Yugoslav territory of Istria Kvarner the Julian March lost by Italy after the Treaty of Paris 1947 as well as Dalmatia 19 towards Italy and in smaller numbers towards the Americas Australia and South Africa 20 21 According to various sources the exodus is estimated to have amounted to between 230 000 and 350 000 Italians the others being ethnic Slovenes Croats and Istro Romanians who chose to maintain Italian citizenship 16 leaving the areas in the aftermath of the conflict 22 23 From 1947 after the war Italians were subject by Yugoslav authorities to less violent forms of intimidation such as nationalization expropriation and discriminatory taxation 51 which gave them little option other than emigration 52 53 54 According to the census organized in Croatia in 2001 and that organized in Slovenia in 2002 the Italians who remained in the former Yugoslavia amounted to 21 894 people 2 258 in Slovenia and 19 636 in Croatia 55 56 Number of victims Edit Changes to the Italian eastern border from 1920 to 1975 The Austrian Littoral later renamed Julian March which was assigned to Italy in 1920 with the Treaty of Rapallo with adjustments of its border in 1924 after the Treaty of Rome and which was then ceded to Yugoslavia in 1947 with the Treaty of Paris Areas annexed to Italy in 1920 and remained Italian even after 1947 Areas annexed to Italy in 1920 passed to the Free Territory of Trieste in 1947 with the Paris treaties and definitively assigned to Italy in 1975 with the Treaty of Osimo Areas annexed to Italy in 1920 passed to the Free Territory of Trieste in 1947 with the Paris treaties and definitively assigned to Yugoslavia in 1975 with the Osimo treaty The number of those killed or left in foibe during and after the war is still unknown it is difficult to establish and a matter of controversy Estimates range from hundreds to twenty thousand According to data gathered by a joint Slovene Italian historical commission established in 1993 the violence was further manifested in hundreds of summary executions victims were mostly thrown into the Karst chasms foibe and in the deportation of a great number of soldiers and civilians who either wasted away or were killed during the deportation 6 Historians Raoul Pupo and Roberto Spazzali have estimated the total number of victims at about 5 000 and note that the targets were not Italians but military and repressive forces of the Fascist regime and civilians associated with the regime 25 More recently Pupo has revised the total victims estimates to 3 000 to 4 000 13 Italian historian Guido Rumici estimated the number of Italians executed or died in Yugoslav concentration camps as between 6 000 and 11 000 14 while Mario Pacor estimated that after the armistice about 400 500 people were killed in the foibe and about 4 000 were deported many of whom were later executed Other sources claim 20 000 victims 4 It was not possible to extract all the corpses from the foibe some of which are deeper than several hundred meters some sources are attempting to compile lists of locations and possible victim numbers 57 Between October and December 1943 the fire brigade of Pola helped by mine workers recovered a total of 159 victims of the first wave of mass killings from the foibe of Vines 84 bodies Terli 26 bodies Treghelizza 2 bodies Pucicchi 11 bodies Villa Surani 26 bodies Cregli 8 bodies and Carnizza d Arsia 2 bodies another 44 corpses were recovered in the same period from two bauxite mines in Lindaro and Villa Bassotti 58 47 More bodies were sighted but not recovered 58 47 The most famous Basovizza foiba was investigated by English and American forces starting immediately on 12 June 1945 After 5 months of investigation and digging all they found in the foiba were the remains of 150 German soldiers and one civilian killed in the final battles for Basovizza on 29 30 April 1945 59 The Italian mayor Gianni Bartoli continued with investigations and digging until 1954 with speleologists entering the cave multiple time yet they found nothing 59 Between November 1945 and April 1948 firefighters speleologists and policemen inspected foibe and mine shafts in the Zone A of the Free Territory of Trieste mainly consisting in the surroundings of Trieste where they recovered 369 corpses another 95 were recovered from mass graves in the same area At the time no inspections were carried out either in the Yugoslav controlled Zone B or in the rest of Istria 47 Other foibe and mass graves were investigated in more recently in Istria and elsewhere in Slovenia and Croatia for instance human remains were discovered in the Idrijski Log foiba near Idrija Slovenia in 1998 four skeletons were found in the foiba of Plahuti near Opatija in 2002 in the same year a mass grave containing the remains of 52 Italians and 15 Germans most likely all military was discovered in Slovenia not far from Gorizia in 2005 the remains of about 130 people killed between the 1940s and the 1950s were recovered from four foibe located in northeastern Istria 60 61 62 63 64 Background EditMain articles Istria History of Dalmatia Italianization Fascist Legacy Italian war crimes Julian March Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians Map of Dalmatia and Istria with the boundaries set by the Treaty of London 1915 red line and those actually obtained from Italy green line The black line marks the border of the Governorate of Dalmatia 1941 1943 The ancient domains of the Republic of Venice are indicated in fuchsia dashed diagonally the territories that belonged occasionally Early history Edit Via conquests the Republic of Venice between the 9th century and 1797 extended its dominion to coastal parts of Istria and Dalmatia 65 Thus Venice invaded and attacked Zadar multiple times especially devastating the city in 1202 when Venice used the crusaders on their Fourth Crusade to lay siege then ransack demolish and rob the city 66 the population fleeing into countryside Pope Innocent III excommunicated the Venetians and crusaders for attacking a Catholic city 66 The Venetians used the same Crusade to attack the Dubrovnik Republic and force it to pay tribute then continued to sack Christian Orthodox Constantinople where they looted terrorized and vandalized the city killing 2 000 civilians raping nuns and destroying Christian Churches with Venice receiving a big portion of the plundered treasures A portrait painting the fall of the Republic of Venice 1797 the abdication of the last Doge Ludovico Manin The coastal areas and cities of Istria came under Venetian Influence in the 9th century In 1145 the cities of Pula Koper and Izola rose against the Republic of Venice but were defeated and were since further controlled by Venice 67 On 15 February 1267 Porec was formally incorporated with the Venetian state 68 Other coastal towns followed shortly thereafter The Republic of Venice gradually dominated the whole coastal area of western Istria and the area to Plomin on the eastern part of the peninsula 67 Dalmatia was first and finally sold to the Republic of Venice in 1409 but Venetian Dalmatia wasn t fully consolidated from 1420 69 From the Early Middle Ages onwards numbers of Slavic people near and on the Adriatic coast were ever increasing due to their expanding population and due to pressure from the Ottomans pushing them from the south and east 70 71 This led to Italic people becoming ever more confined to urban areas while the countryside was populated by Slavs with certain isolated exceptions 72 In particular the population was divided into urban coastal communities mainly Romance speakers and rural communities mainly Slavic speakers with small minorities of Morlachs and Istro Romanians 73 Republic of Venice influenced the neolatins of Istria and Dalmatia until 1797 when it was conquered by Napoleon Koper and Pula were important centers of art and culture during the Italian Renaissance 74 From the Middle Ages to the 19th century Italian and Slavic communities in Istria and Dalmatia had lived peacefully side by side because they did not know the national identification given that they generically defined themselves as Istrians and Dalmatians of Romance or Slavic culture 75 Austrian Empire Edit Further information Italian irredentism in Dalmatia and Italian irredentism in Istria The French victory of 1809 compelled Austria to cede a portion of its South Slav lands to France Napoleon combined Carniola western Carinthia Gorica Gorizia Istria and parts of Croatia Dalmatia and Dubrovnik to form the Illyrian Provinces 76 The Code Napoleon was introduced and roads and schools were constructed Local citizens were given administrative posts and native languages were used to conduct official business 76 This sparked the Illyrian Movement for the cultural and linguistic unification of South Slavic lands 76 After the fall of Napoleon 1814 Istria Kvarner and Dalmatia were annexed to the Austrian Empire 77 Many Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians looked with sympathy towards the Risorgimento movement that fought for the unification of Italy 78 However after the Third Italian War of Independence 1866 when the Veneto and Friuli regions were ceded by the Austrians to the newly formed Kingdom Italy Istria and Dalmatia remained part of the Austro Hungarian Empire together with other Italian speaking areas on the eastern Adriatic This triggered the gradual rise of Italian irredentism among many Italians in Istria Kvarner and Dalmatia who demanded the unification of the Julian March Kvarner and Dalmatia with Italy The Italians in Istria Kvarner and Dalmatia supported the Italian Risorgimento as a consequence the Austrians saw the Italians as enemies and favored the Slav communities of Istria Kvarner and Dalmatia 79 Austrian linguistic map from 1896 In green the areas where Slavs were the majority of the population in orange the areas where Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians were the majority of the population The boundaries of Venetian Dalmatia in 1797 are delimited with blue dots During the meeting of the Council of Ministers of 12 November 1866 Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria outlined a wide ranging project aimed at the Germanization or Slavization of the areas of the empire with an Italian presence 80 Her Majesty expressed the precise order that action be taken decisively against the influence of the Italian elements still present in some regions of the Crown and appropriately occupying the posts of public judicial masters employees as well as with the influence of the press work in South Tyrol Dalmatia and Littoral for the Germanization and Slavization of these territories according to the circumstances with energy and without any regard His Majesty calls the central offices to the strong duty to proceed in this way to what has been established Franz Joseph I of Austria Council of the Crown of 12 November 1866 79 81 Istrian Italians were more than 50 of the total population for centuries 82 while making up about a third of the population in 1900 83 Dalmatia especially its maritime cities once had a substantial local ethnic Italian population Dalmatian Italians making up 33 of the total population of Dalmatia in 1803 84 85 but this was reduced to 20 in 1816 86 In the 1910 Austro Hungarian census Istria had a population of 57 8 Slavic speakers Croat and Slovene and 38 1 Italian speakers 87 For the Austrian Kingdom of Dalmatia i e Dalmatia the 1910 numbers were 96 2 Slavic speakers and 2 8 Italian speakers 87 compared to 12 5 Italian speakers in the first Austro Hungarian census of 1865 88 Many of these Italian speakers were local Slavs who became Italianized due to Italian long being the only official language and later returned to Slavic languages 88 In 1909 the Italian language lost its status as the official language of Dalmatia in favor of Croatian only previously both languages were recognized thus Italian could no longer be used in the public and administrative sphere 89 Historians note that while Slavs made up 80 95 of the Dalmatia populace 90 only Italian language schools existed until 1848 91 and due to restrictive voting laws which allowed only wealthy property owners to vote the Italian speaking aristocratic minority retained political control of Dalmatia 92 They fought to keep Italian as the only official language and opposed granting official languages rights to the Croatian language spoken by the great majority of inhabitants Only after Austria liberalized elections in 1870 allowing more majority Slavs to vote did Croatian parties gain control Croatian finally became an official language in Dalmatia in 1883 along with Italian 93 Yet minority Italian speakers continued to wield strong influence since Austria favored Italians for government work thus in the Austrian capital of Dalmatia Zara the proportion of Italians continued to grow making it the only Dalmatian city with an Italian majority 94 When Italy took over the Veneto region it sought to repress the language of the local Slovene minority 6 In 1911 complaining of local Italian efforts to falsely count Slovenes as Italians the Trieste Slovene newspaper Edinost wrote We are here we want to stay here and enjoy our rights We throw the ruling clique the glove a duel and we will not give up until artificial Trieste Italianism is crushed in dust lying under our feet 95 Due to these complaints Austria carried a census recount and the number of Slovenes increased by 50 60 in Trieste and Gorizia proving Slovenes were initially falsely counted as Italians 96 After World War I Edit Although a member of the Central Powers Italy remained neutral at the start of WWI and soon launched secret negotiations with the Triple Entente bargaining to participate in the war on its side in exchange for significant territorial gains 97 To get Italy to join the war in the secret 1915 Treaty of London the Entente promised Italy Istria and parts of Dalmatia German speaking South Tyrol the Greek Dodecanese Islands parts of Albania and Turkey plus more territory for Italy s North Africa colonies On the left a map of the Kingdom of Italy before the First World War on the right a map of the Kingdom of Italy after the First World War After World War I the whole of the former Austrian Julian March including Istria and Zadar in Dalmatia were annexed by Italy while Dalmatia except Zadar was annexed by the Kingdom of Yugoslavia Contrary to the Treaty of London in 1919 Gabrielle D Annunzio led an army of 2 600 Italian war veterans to seize the city of Fiume Rijeka D Annunzio created the Italian Regency of Carnaro with him as its dictator or Comandante and a constitution foreshadowing the Fascist system After D Annuzio s removal Fiume briefly become a Free State but local Fascists in 1922 carried out a coup and in 1924 Italy annexed Fiume As a result 480 000 Slavic speakers came under Italian rule while 12 000 Italian speakers were left in Yugoslavia mostly in Dalmatia Italy began a policy of forced Italianization 98 which intensified under Fascist rule from 1922 to 1943 Italy forbade Slavic languages in public institutions and schools moved 500 Slovene teachers to the interior of Italy replacing them with Italian ones All Slavic newspapers and publications were banned while Slavic libraries were closed The Italian government forcefully changed people s names to Italian ones All Slavic cultural sporting professional business and political associations were likewise banned minorities in Italy were left without any representation Slavs were restricted from public sector empolyment As a result 100 000 Slavic speakers left Italian annexed areas in an exodus moving mostly to Yugoslavia 99 In Fiume alone the Slavic population declined by 66 by 1925 compared to pre WWI levels 100 The remnants of the Italian community in Dalmatia which had started a slow but steady emigration to Istria and Venice during the 19th century left their cities toward Zadar and the Italian mainland During the early 1920s nationalistic violence was directed both against the Slovene and Croat minorities in Istria by Italian nationalists and Fascists and the Italian minority in Dalmatia by Slovene and Croat nationalists In Dalmatia hostilities arose when in 1918 Italy occupied by force several cities like Sibenik with large majority Slav populations while armed Italian nationalist irregulars commanded by Dalmatian Italian Count Fanfogna proceeded further south to Split This led to the 1918 20 unrest in Split when members of the Italian minority and their properties were assaulted by Croatian nationalists and two Italian Navy personnel and a Croatian civilian were later killed during riots In 1920 Italian nationalists and fascists burned the Trieste National Hall the main center of the Slovene minority in Trieste During D Annunzio s armed 1919 1920 occupation of Fiume hundreds of mostly non Italians were arrested including many leaders of the Slavic community and thousands of Slavs started to flee the city with additional anti Slav violence during the 1922 Fascist coup 100 The Trieste National Hall the main center of the Slovene minority in Trieste after the fire 1920 In a 1920 speech in Pola Istria Benito Mussolini proclaimed an expansionist policy based on the fascist concept of spazio vitale similar to the Nazi lebensraum policy 101 Towards expansion in the Mediterranean and in the East Italy is driven by demographic factors But to realize the Mediterranean dream the Adriatic which is our gulf must be in our hands When dealing with such a race as Slavic inferior and barbaric we must not pursue the carrot but the stick policy We should not be afraid of new victims The Italian border should run across the Brenner Pass Monte Nevoso and the Dinaric Alps I would say we can easily sacrifice 500 000 barbaric Slavs for 50 000 Italians Benito Mussolini speech held in Pula 20 September 1920 With Fascist Italy s imperialistic policy of spanning the Mediterranean Italy in 1927 signed an agreement with the Croatian fascist terrorist Ustase organization under which contingent on their seizing power the Ustase agreed to cede to Italy additional territory in Dalmatia and the Bay of Kotor while also renouncing all Croatian claims to Istria Fiume Rijeka Zadar and the Adriatic Islands which Italy annexed after WWI 102 The Ustase became a tool of Italy 103 They embarked on a terrorist campaign of placing bombs on international trains bound for Yugoslavia and instigated an armed uprising in Lika then part of Yugoslavia In 1934 in Marseille the Italy supported Ustase assassinated King Alexander I of Yugoslavia while simultaneously killing the French Foreign Minister 104 World War II Edit See also Italian war crimes in Yugoslavia Map of areas Italy annexed after the invasion of Yugoslavia during the World War II Province of Ljubljana Governate of Dalmatia and the area merged with the province of Fiume Italy further occupied half of the Independent State of Croatia below grey line plus Montenegro and parts of Kosovo Serbia and Macedonia the latter annexed to Italy occupied Albania Seeking to create an Imperial Italy Mussolini started expansionist wars in the Mediterranean with Fascist Italy invading and occupying Albania in 1939 and in 1940 France Greece Egypt and the Malta In April 1941 Italy and its Nazi Germany ally attacked Yugoslavia They carved up Yugoslavia with Italy occupying large portions of Slovenia Croatia Bosnia Montenegro Serbia and Macedonia directly annexing to Italy Ljubljana Province Gorski Kotar and Central Dalmatia along with most Croatian islands with the creation of the Governatorate of Dalmatia Italy proceeded to Italianize the annexed areas of Dalmatia 105 Place names were Italianized and Italian was made the official language in all schools churches and government administration 105 All Croatian cultural societies were banned while Italians took control of all key mineral industrial and business establishments 105 Italian policies prompted resistance by Dalmatians many joined the Partisans 106 In response the Italians adopted tactics of summary executions internments property confiscations and the burning of villages 107 The Italian government sent tens of thousands of civilians among them many women and children to Italian concentration camps such as Rab Gonars Monigo Renicci Molat Zlarin Mamula etc Altogether some 80 000 Dalmatians 12 of the population passed through Italian concentration camps 108 Thousands died in the camps including hundreds of children 109 Italian forces executed thousands of additional civilians as hostages and conducted massacres such as the Podhum massacre in 1942 On their own or with their Nazi and collaborationist allies the Italian army undertook brutal anti Partisan offensives during which tens of thousands of Partisans were killed along with many civilians plus thousands more civilians executed or sent to concentration camps after the campaigns No Italians were ever brought to trial for war crimes committed in Yugoslavia or elsewhere 110 111 112 In 1944 near the end of a war in which Nazis Fascists and their allies killed over 800 000 Yugoslavs Croat poet Vladimir Nazor wrote We will wipe away from our territory the ruins of the destroyed enemy tower and we will throw them in the deep sea of oblivion In the place of a destroyed Zara a new Zadar will be reborn and this will be our revenge in the Adriatic 36 Zara had been under Fascist rule for 22 years and was in ruins because of heavy Allied bombing Investigations Edit Recovery of a body from a foiba in Istria After the war inspector Umberto de Giorgi who was State Police marshal under fascist and Nazi rule led the Foibe Exploration Team Between 1945 and 1948 they investigated 71 foibe locations on the Italian side of the border 23 of these were empty in the rest they discovered some 464 corpses These included soldiers killed during the last battles of the war Among the 246 identified corpses more than 200 were military German Italian other and some 40 were civilians of the latter 30 killed after the war 113 Due to claims of hundreds having been killed and tossed into the Basovizza mineshaft in August October 1945 British military authorities investigated the shaft ultimately recovering 9 German soldiers 1 civilian and a few horse cadavers 114 Based on these results the British suspended excavations Afterwards the city of Trieste used the mineshaft as a garbage dump Despite repeat demands from various right wing groups to further excavate the shaft 115 the government of Trieste led by the Christian Democratic mayor Gianni Bartoli declined to do so claiming among other reasons lack of financial resources 115 In 1959 the shaft was sealed and a monument erected thus becoming the center of the annual foibe commemorations Only a few trials were held including that of the Trieste Zoll Steffe criminal gang for the killing of 18 people in the Plutone foibe in May 1945 Afterwards Yugoslav authorities arrested the gang members and took them to Ljubljana with two killed along the way while trying to escape and the others convicted before a military tribunal 116 117 Additional members of the gang were brought before an Italian court in Trieste 1947 and were convicted and sentenced to prison for 2 3 years for their role in the Plutone killings 117 Memorial stone in memory of the Italian victims of Foibe and Yugoslav deportations Padua In 1949 a trial was held in Trieste for those accused of killing Mario Fabian a torturer in the Collotti gang a fascist squad that during the war killed and tortured Slovene and Italian antifascists and Jews 118 119 Fabian was taken from his home on 4 May 1945 then shot and tossed into the Basovizza shaft He is the only known Italian victim of Basovizza His executioners were at first condemned but later acquitted The historian Pirjevec notes that the head of the gang Gaetano Collotti was awarded a medal by the Italian government in 1954 for fighting Slovene partisans in 1943 despite the fact that Collotti and his gang had committed many crimes while working for the Gestapo and was killed by Italian partisans near Treviso in 1945 118 In 1993 a study titled Pola Istria Fiume 1943 1945 120 by Gaetano La Perna provided a detailed list of the victims of Yugoslav occupation in September October 1943 and from 1944 to the very end of the Italian presence in its former provinces in the area La Perna gave a list of 6 335 names 2 493 military 3 842 civilians The author considered this list not complete 121 A 2002 joint report by Rome s Society of Fiuman studies Societa di Studi Fiumani and Zagreb s Croatian Institute of History Hrvatski institut za povijest concluded that from Fiume and the surrounding area no less than 500 persons of Italian nationality lost their lives between 3 May 1945 and 31 December 1947 To these we should add an unknown number of missing not less than a hundred relegated into anonymity due to missing inventory in the Municipal Registries together with the relevant number of victims having Croatian nationality who were often at least between 1940 and 1943 Italian citizens determined after the end of war by the Yugoslav communist regime 122 In March 2006 the border municipality of Nova Gorica in Slovenia released a list of names of 1 048 citizens of the Italian city of Gorizia the two cities belonged until the Treaty of Paris of 1947 to the same administrative body who disappeared in May 1945 after being arrested by the Partisan 9th Corps 123 According to the Slovene government the list contains the names of persons arrested in May 1945 and whose destiny cannot be determined with certainty or whose death cannot be confirmed 124 Alleged motives Edit The discovery of the entrance to a mass grave in Friuli after World War II The foiba of Basovizza near Trieste It has been alleged that the killings were part of a purge aimed at eliminating potential enemies of communist Yugoslav rule which would have included members of German and Italian fascist units Italian officers and civil servants parts of the Italian elite who opposed both communism and fascism including the leadership of Italian anti fascist partisan organizations and the leaders of Fiume s Autonomist Party including Mario Blasich and Nevio Skull Slovenian and Croatian anti communists collaborators and radical nationalists 18 Pupo claims that he primary targets of the purges were repressive forces of the Fascist regime and civilians associated with the regime including Slavic collaborators thus With regard to the civilian population of Venezia Giulia the Yugoslav troops did not behave at all like an army occupying enemy territory nothing in their actions recalls the indiscriminate violence of Red Army soldiers in Germany on the contrary their discipline seems in some ways superior even to that of the Anglo American units d Since Yugoslav troops did not behave like an occupying army e this partly contradicts the numerous academic authors and institutional figures both in Italy and abroad who recognized an ethnic cleansing against Italians 3 4 7 8 9 and against ethnic Slovenes Croats and Istro Romanians who chose to maintain Italian citizenship 16 Another reason for the killings was retribution for the years of Italian repression forced Italianization suppression of Slavic sentiments and killings performed by Italian authorities during the war not just in the concentration camps such as Rab and Gonars but also in reprisals often undertaken by the fascists 125 According to Fogar and Miccoli there isthe need to put the episodes in 1943 and 1945 within the context of a longer history of abuse and violence which began with Fascism and with its policy of oppression of the minority Slovenes and Croats and continued with the Italian aggression on Yugoslavia which culminated with the horrors of the Nazi Fascist repression against the Partisan movement f Gaia Baracetti notes that some representations of foibe such as a miniseries on Italian television are replete with historical inaccuracies and stereotypes portraying Slavs as merciless assassins similar to fascist propaganda while largely ignoring the issue of Italian war crimes 43 Others including members of Italy s Jewish community have objected to Italian right wing efforts to equate the foibe with the Holocaust via historical distortions which include exaggerated foibe victim claims in an attempt to turn Italy from a perpetrator in the Holocaust to a victim 126 Other authors assert that the post war pursuit of the truth of the foibe as a means of transcending Fascist Anti Fascist oppositions and promoting popular patriotism has not been the preserve of right wing or neo Fascist groups Evocations of the Slav other and of the terrors of the foibe made by state institutions academics amateur historians journalists and the memorial landscape of everyday life were the backdrop to the post war renegotiation of Italian national identity 127 Pamela Ballinger in her book History in Exile Memory and Identity at the Borders of the Balkans wrote 128 I heard exiles accounts of Slavic barbarity and ethnic cleansing suffered in Istria between 1943 and 1954 as well as Slovene and Croat narratives of the persecution experienced under the fascist state and at the hands of neofascists in the postwar period Admittedly I could not forget as many exiles seemed to do that the exodus from Istria followed on twenty years of the fascistization and Italianization of Istria as well as a bloody Italian military campaign in Yugoslavia between 1941 and 1943 Nor could I countenance some exiles frequent expressions of anti Slav chauvinism At the same time however I could not accept at face value the claim by some that the violence the Slavs suffered under fascism justified subsequent events in Istria or that all those who left Istria were compromised by fascism Similarly I came to reject the argument that ethno national antagonism had not entered into the equation as well as the counterview that the exodus represented simply an act of ethnic cleansing An Italian Slovene commission namely the Slovenian Italian historical cultural commission Slovene Slovensko italijanske zgodovinsko kulturne komisije wrote in its 2000 report that the Italian exodus had multiple causes 6 The report by the mixed Italian Slovenian commission describes the circumstances of the 1945 killings as follows 6 14 These events were triggered by the atmosphere of settling accounts with the fascist violence but as it seems they mostly proceeded from a preliminary plan which included several tendencies endeavours to remove persons and structures who were in one way or another regardless of their personal responsibility linked with Fascism with Nazi supremacy with collaboration and with the Italian state and endeavours to carry out preventive cleansing of real potential or only alleged opponents of the communist regime and the annexation of the Julian March to the new Yugoslavia The initial impulse was instigated by the revolutionary movement which was changed into a political regime and transformed the charge of national and ideological intolerance between the partisans into violence at national level Following the war the Yugoslav government pursued a policy of Slav Italian brotherhood and Italian workers came to Yugoslavia to help with rebuilding Relations worsened in 1948 when Yugoslavia broke with Stalin while the Italian Communist Party supported the Soviet Union Border disputes postwar economic deprivations and the initial totalitarian nature of the Yugoslav government made life difficult for all All this led to what was until then a limited exodus to much broader exodus following 1950 6 The commission was re established in 2007 with the official name of Mixed Italian Slovene Commission for the Maintenance of the State Border 129 Post War EditThe foibe have been a neglected subject in mainstream political debate in Italy Yugoslavia and former Yugoslav nations only recently garnering attention with the publication of several books and historical studies It is thought that after World War II while Yugoslav politicians rejected any alleged crime Italian politicians wanted to direct the country s attention toward the future and away from the idea that Italy was in fact a defeated nation 130 So the Italian government tactically exchanged the impunity of the Italians accused by Yugoslavia for the renunciation to investigate the foibe massacres 131 Italy never extradited or prosecuted some 1 200 Italian Army officers government officials or former Fascist Party members accused of war crimes by Yugoslavia Ethiopia Greece and other occupied countries and remitted to the United Nations War Crimes Commission 132 On the other hand Belgrade didn t insist overmuch on requesting the prosecution of alleged Italian war criminals 133 Re emergence of the issue EditFurther information National Memorial Day of the Exiles and Foibe Rome Giuliano Dalmata district monument to the victims of foibe The President of the Italian Republic Giorgio Napolitano during his speech for the National Memorial Day of the Exiles and Foibe in 2007 Concert at the Quirinal Palace in the presence of the President of the Italian Republic Sergio Mattarella on the occasion of the National Memorial Day of the Exiles and Foibe in 2015 For several Italian historians these killings were the beginning of organized ethnic cleansing 7 Silvio Berlusconi s coalition government brought the issue back into open discussion The Italian Parliament with the support of the vast majority of the represented parties made February 10 National Memorial Day of the Exiles and Foibe first celebrated in 2005 with exhibitions and observances throughout Italy especially in Trieste The occasion is held in memory of innocents killed and forced to leave their homes with little support from their home country In Carlo Azeglio Ciampi s words Time has come for thoughtful remembrance to take the place of bitter resentment Moreover for the first time leaders from the Italian left such as Walter Veltroni visited the Basovizza foiba and admitted the culpability of the Left in covering up the subject for decades Nowadays a large part of the Italian left acknowledges the nature of the foibe massacres as attested by some declarations of Luigi Malabarba senator for the Communist Refoundation Party during the parliamentary debate on the institution of the National Memorial Day 134 In 1945 there was a ruthless policy of exterminating opponents Here one must again recall Stalinism to understand what Tito s well organized troops did Yugoslav Communism had deeply assimilated a return to nationalism that was inherent to the idea of Socialism in One Country The war which had begun as anti fascist became anti German and anti Italian Italian president Giorgio Napolitano took an official speech during celebration of the Memorial Day of Foibe Massacres and Istrian Dalmatian exodus in which he stated 135 already in the unleashing of the first wave of blind and extreme violence in those lands in the autumn of 1943 summary and tumultuous justicialism nationalist paroxysm social retaliation and a plan to eradicate Italian presence intertwined in what was and ceased to be the Julian March There was therefore a movement of hate and bloodthirsty fury and a Slavic annexationist design which prevailed above all in the peace treaty of 1947 and assumed the sinister shape of ethnic cleansing What we can say for sure is that what was achieved in the most evident way through the inhuman ferocity of the foibe was one of the barbarities of the past century Italian president Giorgio Napolitano Rome 10 February 2007 8 The Croatian President Stipe Mesic immediately responded in writing stating that It was impossible not to see overt elements of racism historical revisionism and a desire for political revenge in Napolitano s words Modern Europe was built on foundations of which anti fascism was one of the most important Croatian president Stjepan Mesic Zagreb 11 February 2007 136 137 The incident was resolved in a few days after diplomatic contacts between the two presidents at the Italian foreign ministry On February 14 the Office of the President of Croatia issued a press statement The Croatian representative was assured that president Napolitano s speech on the occasion of the remembrance day for Italian WWII victims was in no way intended to cause a controversy regarding Croatia nor to question the 1947 peace treaties or the Osimo and Rome Accords nor was it inspired by revanchism or historical revisionism The explanations were accepted with understanding and they have contributed to overcoming misunderstandings caused by the speech Press statement by the Office of the President of Croatia Zagreb 14 February 2007 138 In Italy Law 92 of 30 March 2004 139 declared February 10 as a Day of Remembrance dedicated to the memory of the victims of Foibe and the Istrian Dalmatian exodus The same law created a special medal to be awarded to relatives of the victims Medal of Day of Remembrance to relatives of victims of foibe killingsIn February 2012 a photo of Italian troops killing Slovene civilians was shown on public Italian TV as if being the other way round When historian Alessandra Kersevan who was a guest pointed out to the television host Bruno Vespa that the photo depicted the killings of some Slovenes rather than Italians the host did not apologize A diplomatic protest followed 140 141 In the media EditIl Cuore nel Pozzo a 2005 TV movie focusing on the escape of a group of children from Tito s partisans Red Land Rosso Istria it a 2018 film directed by Maximiliano Hernando Bruno and starring Geraldine Chaplin Sandra Ceccarelli and Franco Nero Warlight a book by Michael Ondaatje ISBN 978 0 525 52119 8Note Many books have been written about the foibe and results interpretations and estimates of victims can in some cases vary largely according to the point of view of the author Since most of the foibe currently lie outside Italian territory no formal and complete investigation could be carried out during the years of the Cold war and books could be of a speculative or anecdotal nature For a complete list see Bibliography and Further reading See also EditIstrian Dalmatian exodus National Memorial Day of the Exiles and Foibe World War II in Yugoslavia List of mass executions and massacres in Yugoslavia during World War II Carso Norma Cossetto Francesco Bonifacio Mass killings under communist regimesNotes and references EditNotes Edit Successively lost by Italy to Yugoslavia after the Treaty of Peace 1947 See Raoul Pupo 12 34 25 Gianni Oliva 35 Arrigo Petacco 36 et alia Italian E noto infatti che la maggior parte delle vittime non fini i suoi giorni sul fondo delle cavita carsiche ma incontro la morte lungo la strada verso la deportazione ovvero nelle carceri o nei campi di concentramento jugoslavi 25 English With regard to the civilian population of Venezia Giulia the Yugoslav troops did not behave at all like an army occupying enemy territory nothing in their actions recalls the indiscriminate violence of Red Army soldiers in Germany on the contrary their discipline seems in some ways superior even to that of the Anglo American units 25 English With regard to the civilian population of Venezia Giulia the Yugoslav troops did not behave at all like an army occupying enemy territory nothing in their actions recalls the indiscriminate violence of Red Army soldiers in Germany on the contrary their discipline seems in some ways superior even to that of the Anglo American units 25 Italian la necessita di inserire gli episodi del 1943 e del 1945 all interno di una piu lunga storia di sopraffazioni e di violenze iniziata con il fascismo e con la sua politica di oppressione della minoranza slovena e croata proseguita con l aggressione italiana alla Jugoslavia e culminata con gli orrori della repressione nazifascista contro il movimento partigiano 25 References Edit a b Cernigoi Claudia 2018 Operazione Plutone le inchieste sulle foibe triestine in Italian Kappa Vu ISBN 978 88 32153 01 9 a b Foibe oggi e il Giorno del Ricordo cos e e perche si chiama cosi La Repubblica in Italian GEDI Gruppo Editoriale 10 February 2021 Retrieved 19 October 2021 La ricorrenza istituita nel 2004 nell anniversario dei trattati di Parigi che assegnavano l Istria alla Jugoslavia Si ricordano gli italiani vittime dei massacri messi in atto dai partigiani e dai Servizi jugoslavi The anniversary was established in 2004 on the anniversary of the Paris treaties which assigned Istria to Yugoslavia We remember the Italians victims of the massacres carried out by the partisans and the Yugoslav services a b c d e Bloxham amp Dirk Moses 2011 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Konrad Barth amp Mrnka 2021 a b c Rumici 2002 p 350 a b c d e f g h Italian Slovene commission a b c d e Ferreto Clementi a b c d e in Italian gia nello scatenarsi della prima ondata di cieca violenza in quelle terre nell autunno del 1943 si intrecciarono giustizialismo sommario e tumultuoso parossismo nazionalista rivalse sociali e un disegno di sradicamento della presenza italiana da quella che era e cesso di essere la Venezia Giulia Vi fu dunque un moto di odio e di furia sanguinaria e un disegno annessionistico slavo che prevalse innanzitutto nel Trattato di pace del 1947 e che assunse i sinistri contorni di una pulizia etnica Quel che si puo dire di certo e che si consumo nel modo piu evidente con la disumana ferocia delle foibe una delle barbarie del secolo scorso from the official website of The Presidency of the Italian Republic Giorgio Napolitano official speech for the celebration of Giorno del Ricordo Quirinal Rome 10 February 2007 a b c d Il giorno del Ricordo Croce Rossa Italiana in Italian a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint url status link a b c Il tempo e la storia Le Foibe Rai tv Raoul Pupo a b c d Lowe 2012 a b c d e Pupo amp Spazzali 2003 a b c Boscarol Francesco 10 February 2019 Foibe fascisti e comunisti vi spiego il Giorno del ricordo parla lo storico Raoul Pupo Interviste TPI The Post Internazionale in Italian Retrieved 19 October 2021 a b c d Rumici 2002 a b Micol Sarfatti 11 February 2013 Perche quasi nessuno ricorda le foibe huffingtonpost it in Italian a b c d Tobagi 2014 Societa di Studi Fiumani Roma Hrvatski Institut za Povijest Zagreb Le vittime di nazionalita italiana a Fiume e dintorni 1939 1947 Archived October 31 2008 at the Wayback Machine Ministero per i beni e le attivita culturali Direzione Generale per gli Archivi Roma 2002 ISBN 88 7125 239 X p 597 a b Le foibe e il confine orientale PDF in Italian Retrieved 12 May 2021 a b Georg G Iggers 2007 Franz L Fillafer Georg G Iggers Q Edward Wang eds The Many Faces of Clio cross cultural Approaches to Historiography Essays in Honor of Georg G Iggers Berghahn Books p 430 ISBN 9781845452704 a b Il Giorno del Ricordo in Italian Retrieved 16 October 2021 a b L esodo giuliano dalmata e quegli italiani in fuga che nacquero due volte in Italian 5 February 2019 Retrieved 24 January 2023 a b Thammy Evans amp Rudolf Abraham 2013 Istria p 11 ISBN 9781841624457 a b James M Markham 6 June 1987 Election Opens Old Wounds in Trieste The New York Times Retrieved 9 June 2016 Hedges Chris 20 April 1997 In Trieste Investigation of Brutal Era Is Blocked The New York Times Section 1 Page 6 Retrieved 19 October 2021 a b c d e f g h i Pupo 1996 Konrad Barth amp Mrnka 2021 p 20 Ingo Haar Herausforderung Bevolkerung zu Entwicklungen des modernen Denkens uber die Bevolkerung vor im und nach dem Dritten Reich Bevolkerungsbilanzen und Vertreibungsverluste Zur Wissenschaftsgeschichte der deutschen Opferangaben aus Flucht und Vertreibung Verlag fur Sozialwissenschaften 2007 ISBN 978 3 531 15556 2 p 278 in German The German Historical Museum puts the figure at 600 000 maintaining that the figure of 2 million deaths in the previous government studies cannot be supported Die Flucht der deutschen Bevolkerung 1944 45 dhm de accessed 6 December 2014 in German Kammerer Willi Narben bleiben die Arbeit der Suchdienste 60 Jahre nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg PDF Berlin Dienststelle 2005 Archived from the original PDF on 11 June 2017 Retrieved 28 October 2017 the foreword to the book was written by German President Horst Kohler and the German interior minister Otto Schily Christoph Bergner Secretary of State in Germany s Bureau for Inner Affairs outlines the stance of the respective governmental institutions in Deutschlandfunk on 29 November 2006 1 Bundeszentrale fur politische Bildung Die Vertreibung der Deutschen aus den Gebieten jenseits von Oder und Neisse bpb de accessed 6 December 2014 in German Other photos from the footage can be see in Giorgio Pisano Storia della Guerra Civile in Italia 1943 1945 Milan FPE 1965 Pizzi 2002 Pupo 2005 a b c d Oliva 2003 a b Petacco 1999 StudioArgento Risiera di San Sabba Deportazione Campi bibliolab it accessed 17 March 2016 TRIESTE SAN SABBA DELLA RISIERA LE SS FECERO UN CAMPO DI MORTE in Italian Archived from the original on 26 July 2011 Retrieved 30 August 2022 Risiera Archived from the original on 8 June 2015 Retrieved 10 May 2009 Romanelli Sergio 23 24 January 2003 I luoghi Il recupero la conservazione e la valorizzazione dei luoghi in cui sono sorti i Lager nazisti Places The recovery conservation and enhancement of the places where the Nazi concentration camps arose PDF Convegno Internazionale Deportazione in Italian and German Bolzano Lager e Deportazione org Citta di Nova Milanese Stadt Bozen Archived from the original on 27 July 2011 Retrieved 17 March 2016 Link to PDF Radosevic Milan 10 June 2010 Pregled izvjestaja pulskog dnevnika Corriere Istriano listopad prosinac 1943 o stradalima u istarskim fojbama i boksitnim jamama nakon kapitulacije Italije 8 rujna 1943 godine Problemi Sjevernog Jadrana Problemi Sjevernog Jadrana in Croatian 10 10 89 107 ISSN 0351 8825 a b Baracetti Gaia 2009 Foibe Nationalism Revenge and Ideology in Venezia Giulia and Istria I943 5 Journal of Contemporary History 44 4 657 674 doi 10 1177 0022009409339344 ISSN 0022 0094 JSTOR 40542981 S2CID 159919208 Documento riassuntivo dell Associazione Nazionale Venezia Giulia e Dalmazia ANVGD PDF in Italian Archived from the original PDF on 13 March 2013 Retrieved 28 August 2021 Mellace Giuseppina 6 February 2014 Una grande tragedia dimenticata di Giuseppina Mellace in Italian ISBN 9788854153226 Retrieved 28 August 2021 Katia Pizzi Silentes Loquimur Foibe and Border Anxiety in Post War Literature from Trieste Archived 14 April 2020 at the Wayback Machine a b c d Foibe bilancio e rilettura nonluoghi info February 2015 accessed 17 March 2016 a b Knittel Susanne C 15 December 2014 The Historical Uncanny Disability Ethnicity and the Politics of Holocaust Memory Fordham Univ Press ISBN 978 0 8232 6279 3 Il Piccolo Le vittime di nazionalita italiana a Fiume e dintorni 1939 1947 Pamela Ballinger 7 April 2009 Genocide Truth Memory and Representation p 295 ISBN 978 0822392361 Retrieved 30 December 2015 Tesser Lynn 2013 Ethnic Cleansing and the European Union p 136 ISBN 9781137308771 Ballinger Pamela 2003 History in Exile Memory and Identity at the Borders of the Balkans Princeton University Press p 103 ISBN 0691086974 Anna C Bramwell 1988 Refugees in the Age of Total War Oxford University of Oxford Press pp 139 143 ISBN 9780044451945 Drzavni Zavod za Statistiku in Croatian Retrieved 10 June 2017 Popis 2002 Retrieved 10 June 2017 Elenco delle foibe note in Italian Digilander libero it Retrieved 5 August 2009 a b Foibe revisionismo di Stato e amnesie della Repubblica a b Joze Pirjevec Dobri divjaki so postali nevarni barbari Dnevnik Retrieved 8 April 2020 Sono 130 i corpi riemersi da quattro foibe istriane gelocal it accessed 17 March 2016 in Italian Monte Maggiore quattro infoibati I resti appartengono a persone decedute poco piu di cinquant anni fa Slovenia da una fossa comune spuntano i resti di 52 italiani Esplora il significato del termine Cosi ho fatto scoprire la foiba dimenticata Cosi ho fatto scoprire la foiba dimenticata Alla foiba di Montenero d Idria Alvise Zorzi La Repubblica del Leone Storia di Venezia Milano Bompiani 2001 ISBN 978 88 452 9136 4 pp 53 55 in italian a b Sethre Janet 2003 The Souls of Venice pp 54 55 ISBN 0 7864 1573 8 a b Historic overview more details Istra Istria hr Istria County Retrieved 19 December 2018 John Mason Neale Notes Ecclesiological 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Retrieved 10 May 2021 a b c Illyrian Provinces historical region Europe Britannica www britannica com Retrieved 11 July 2022 L ottocento austriaco in Italian 7 March 2016 Retrieved 11 May 2021 Trieste Istria Fiume e Dalmazia una terra contesa in Italian Retrieved 2 June 2021 a b Die Protokolle des Osterreichischen Ministerrates 1848 1867 V Abteilung Die Ministerien Rainer und Mensdorff VI Abteilung Das Ministerium Belcredi Wien Osterreichischer Bundesverlag fur Unterricht Wissenschaft und Kunst 1971 Die Protokolle des Osterreichischen Ministerrates 1848 1867 V Abteilung Die Ministerien Rainer und Mensdorff VI Abteilung Das Ministerium Belcredi Wien Osterreichischer Bundesverlag fur Unterricht Wissenschaft und Kunst 1971 vol 2 p 297 Citazione completa della fonte e traduzione in Luciano Monzali Italiani di Dalmazia Dal Risorgimento alla Grande Guerra Le Lettere Firenze 2004 p 69 Jurgen Baurmann Hartmut Gunther Ulrich Knoop 1993 Homo scribens Perspektiven der Schriftlichkeitsforschung in German p 279 ISBN 3484311347 Istrian Spring Retrieved 24 October 2022 Istria Encyclopaedia Britannica Vol 14 11th ed 1911 pp 886 887 Bartoli Matteo 1919 Le parlate italiane della Venezia Giulia e della Dalmazia in Italian Tipografia italo orientale p 16 ISBN unspecified Seton Watson Christopher 1967 Italy from Liberalism to Fascism 1870 1925 Methuen p 107 ISBN 9780416189407 Dalmazia Dizionario enciclopedico italiano in Italian vol III Treccani 1970 p 729 a b Spezialortsrepertorium der osterreichischen Lander I XII Wien 1915 1919 in German Archived from the original on 29 May 2013 a b Pericic 2003 Dalmazia Dizionario enciclopedico italiano in Italian vol III Treccani 1970 p 730 Pericic 2003 p 339 340 Pericic 2003 p 350 Pericic 2003 p 338 Bec kao magnet mojahrvatska vecernji hr in Croatian Retrieved 14 November 2021 Pericic 2003 p 343 dLib si Edinost glasilo slovenskega politicnega drustva trzaske okolice www dlib si Retrieved 8 June 2020 Zgodovinski pogledi na zadnje drzavno ljudsko stetje v Avstrijskem primorju 1910 Zgodovinski institut Milka Kosa in Slovenian 21 June 2017 Retrieved 27 July 2020 Cattaruzza Marina 2011 The Making and Remaking of a Boundary the Redrafting of the Eastern Border of Italy after the two World Wars Journal of Modern European History Zeitschrift fur moderne europaische Geschichte Revue d histoire europeenne contemporaine 9 1 66 86 doi 10 17104 1611 8944 2011 1 66 ISSN 1611 8944 JSTOR 26265925 S2CID 145685085 Miklavci Alessandra Diverse minorities in the Italo Slovene borderland historical and new minorities meet at the market PDF Retrieved 25 October 2015 dLib si Izseljevanje iz Primorske med obema vojnama www dlib si Retrieved 17 April 2020 a b Patafta Daniel 2 July 2004 Promjene u nacionalnoj strukturi stanovnistva grada Rijeke od 1918 do 1924 godine Casopis Za Suvremenu Povijest in Croatian 36 2 683 700 ISSN 0590 9597 Verginella Marta 2011 Antislavismo razzismo di frontiera Aut aut in Italian ISBN 9788865761069 Tomasevich 2002 pp 30 31 Tomasevich 2002 p 33 Tomasevich 2002 pp 33 34 a b c Tomasevich 2002 pp 132 133 Tomasevich 2002 p 133 134 General Roatta s War against the Partisans in Yugoslavia 1942 IngentaConnect Dizdar Zdravko 15 December 2005 Italian Policies Toward Croatians In Occupied Territories During The Second World War Review of Croatian History I 1 207 ISSN 1845 4380 Oltre il filo Trailer archived from the original on 15 December 2021 retrieved 9 April 2020 Italy s bloody secret Archived by WebCite written by Rory Carroll Education The Guardian June 2001 Effie Pedaliu 2004 Britain and the Hand over of Italian War Criminals to Yugoslavia 1945 48 Journal of Contemporary History Vol 39 No 4 Special Issue Collective Memory pp 503 529 JSTOR 4141408 Oliva Gianni 2006 Si ammazza troppo poco I crimini di guerra italiani 1940 43 Mondadori ISBN 88 04 55129 1 diecifebbraio1 IL RAPPORTO DELL ISPETTORE DE GIORGI SULLE FOIBE 10 febbraio 1947 dieci febbraio in Italian Retrieved 22 November 2021 Pirjevec Joze Bajc Gorazd 2009 Foibe una storia d Italia in Italian G Einaudi p 125 ISBN 978 88 06 19804 6 a b Dato Gaetano 2013 Foiba of Basovizza the Pit the Monument the Memory and the Unknown Victim 1945 1965 Casopis za povijest Zapadne Hrvatske 8 45 49 ISSN 1846 3223 Pirjevec amp Bajc 2009 p 263 a b Cernigoi Claudia 2018 Operazione Plutone le inchieste sulle foibe triestine in Italian Kappa Vu pp 45 48 ISBN 978 88 32153 01 9 a b Pirjevec amp Bajc 2009 p 147 La regina di Villa Triste L ebrea sopravvissuta alle torture Inchieste la Repubblica Retrieved 25 November 2021 Gaetano La Perna Pola Istria Fiume 1943 1945 Mursia 1993 Gaetano La Perna Pola Istria Fiume 1943 1945 Mursia 1993 p 452 p 95 Si puo comunque affermare con assoluta certezza che a Fiume per mano di militari e della polizia segreta OZNA prima e UDBA poi non meno di 500 persone di nazionalita italiana persero la vita fra il 3 maggio 1945 e il 31 dicembre 1947 A questi dovremmo aggiungere un numero imprecisato di di scomparsi non meno di un centinaio che il mancato controllo nominativo nell anagrafe storica comunale ci costringe a relegare nell anonimato insieme al consistente numero di vittime di nazionalita croata che spesso ebbero almeno tra il 1940 e il 1943 anche la cittadinanza italiana determinate a guerra finita dal regime comunista jugoslavo Pubblicazioni Degli Archivi Di Stat O Sussidi 12 Archived 2008 10 31 at the Wayback Machine Le vittime di nazionalita italiana a Fiume e dintorni 1939 1947 Zrtve talijanske nacionalnosti u Rijeci i okolici 1939 1947 L Elenco Dei Mille Deportati In Slovenia Nel 1945 marzo 2006 libero it March 2006 Clarification of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Slovenia relating to the names of deportees in 1945 mzz gov si Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Slovenia 8 March 2006 Retrieved 15 February 2015 Gian Luigi Falabrino Il punto sulle foibe e sulle deportazioni nelle regioni orientali 1943 45 in Italian Retrieved 7 June 2006 Ghiglione Giorgio Mussolini s Heirs Equate World War II Killings of Italians With the Holocaust Foreign Policy Retrieved 12 November 2021 Bosworth R J B Patrizia Dogliani 1999 Italian fascism history memory and representation Palgrave Macmillan pp 185 86 ISBN 0 312 21717 X Ballinger Pamela History in Exile Memory and Identity at the Borders of the Balkans Press princeton edu Retrieved 5 August 2009 Mesana slovensko italijanska komisija za vzdrzevanje drzavne meje GOV SI Portal GOV SI in Slovenian 2007 Retrieved 10 April 2023 Articolo su un sito dell A N P I Archived from the original on 29 September 2007 Retrieved 12 May 2021 Marco Ottanelli La verita sulle foibe in Italian Archived from the original on 17 December 2007 Retrieved 3 June 2006 Crimini di Guerra La mancata estradizione e l impunita dei presunti criminali di guerra italiani accusati per stragi in Africa e in Europa in Italian Archived from the original on 2 September 2006 Retrieved 26 September 2015 La questione dei crimini di guerra italiani nei Balcani in Italian 10 January 2014 Retrieved 12 May 2021 Luigi Malabarba 11 March 2004 Declaration of Vote Transcript of the 561st Session of the Italian Senate in Italian p 15 Archived from the original PDF on 10 October 2007 Retrieved 5 June 2006 Presidenza della Repubblica Giorgio Napolitano official speech for the celebration of Giorno del Ricordo Quirinal on 10 February 2007 integral text from official website of the Italian President Bureau Fraser Christian 14 February 2007 Italy Croatia WWII massacre spat BBC News Retrieved 5 August 2009 Article International Herald Tribune 13 February 2007 Retrieved 5 August 2009 Article la Repubblica 17 February 2007 Retrieved 22 August 2009 LEGGE 30 marzo 2004 n 92 in Italian Retrieved 30 August 2022 Article RTV Slovenia 15 February 2012 Retrieved 9 March 2012 Il giorno del ricordo Porta a Porta from Rai website accessed 26 September 2015 Bibliography Edit Bloxham Donald Dirk Moses Anthony 2011 Genocide and ethnic cleansing In Bloxham Donald Gerwarth Robert eds Political Violence in Twentieth Century Europe Cambridge University Press p 125 doi 10 1017 CBO9780511793271 004 ISBN 9781107005037 Ferreto Clementi Silvia La pulizia etnica e il manuale Cubrilovic Foibe ed esodo una storia negata a tre generazioni di italiani PDF in Italian Retrieved 5 November 2022 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint ref duplicates default link Konrad Ota Barth Boris Mrnka Jaromir eds 2021 Collective Identities and Post War Violence in Europe 1944 48 Springer International Publishing p 20 ISBN 9783030783860 Retrieved 5 November 2022 Lowe Keith 2012 Savage continent London ISBN 9780241962220 Oliva Gianni 2003 Foibe Le stragi negate degli italiani della Venezia Giulia e dell Istria Foibe The denied massacres of the Italians of Venezia Giulia and Istria in Italian Oscar Mondadori pp 4 25 36 71 72 148 ISBN 88 04 51584 8 Pericic Sime 19 September 2003 O broju Talijana talijanasa u Dalmaciji XIX stoljeca About the number of Italians in Dalmatia XIX century Radovi Zavoda Za Povijesne Znanosti HAZU U Zadru in Croatian 45 327 355 ISSN 1330 0474 Petacco Arrigo 1999 L esodo la tragedia negata degli italiani d Istria Dalmazia e Venezia Giulia in Italian Milano Mondadori ISBN 88 04 45897 6 English edition Petacco Arrigo 2005 A tragedy revealed the story of Italians of Istria Dalmatia and Venezia Giulia 1943 1956 Translated by Eisenbichler Konrad University of Toronto Press ISBN 0 8020 3921 9 Pizzi Katia 1 February 2002 A City in Search of an Author A amp C Black p 91 ISBN 9780567244970 Pupo Raoul Spazzali Roberto 2003 Foibe in Italian Bruno Mondadori pp 4 5 29 30 35 39 110 126 127 162 219 366 ISBN 88 424 9015 6 Pupo Raoul 2005 Il lungo esodo Istria le persecuzioni le foibe l esilio in Italian Rizzoli ISBN 88 17 00562 2 Pupo Raoul April 1996 Le foibe giuliane 1943 45 L Impegno A XVI N 1 in Italian Istituto per la storia della Resistenza e della societa contemporanea nel Biellese nel Vercellese e in Valsesia Archived from the original on 15 May 2021 Rumici Guido 2002 Infoibati 1943 1945 I Nomi I Luoghi I Testimoni I Documenti in Italian Ugo Mursia ISBN 978 88 425 2999 6 Tobagi Benedetta 2014 La Repubblica italiana Treccani il portale del sapere in Italian Treccani Archived from the original on 14 June 2017 Retrieved 5 November 2022 Tomasevich Jozo October 2002 War and Revolution in Yugoslavia 1941 1945 Occupation and Collaboration Stanford University Press ISBN 978 0 8047 7924 1 in English Pamela Ballinger History in Exile Memory and Identity at the Borders of the Balkans Princeton University Press 2002 ISBN 0 691 08697 4 in English Benjamin David Lieberman Terrible Fate Ethnic Cleansing in the Making of Modern Europe Ivan R Dee 2006 Original from the University of Michigan 9 Jun 2008 ISBN 1 56663 646 9 in English Glenda Sluga The Problem of Trieste and the Italo Yugoslav Border Difference Identity and Sovereignty in Twentieth century Europe SUNY Press 2001 ISBN 0 7914 4823 1 in Italian Joze Pirjevec Foibe una storia d Italia Turin Giulio Einaudi Editore 2009 ISBN 978 88 06 19804 6 in Italian Gianni Bartoli Il martirologio delle genti adriatiche in Italian Claudia Cernigoi Operazione Foibe Tra storia e mito Kappa Vu Udine 2005 ISBN 978 88 89808 57 3 The first edition of the book published in 1997 as Operazione foibe a Trieste and limited in scope to the Trieste territory is available online in Italian Vincenzo Maria De Luca Foibe Una tragedia annunciata Il lungo addio italiano alla Venezia Giulia Settimo sigillo Roma 2000 in Italian Luigi Papo L Istria e le sue foibe Settimo sigillo Roma 1999 in Italian Luigi Papo L ultima bandiera in Italian Marco Pirina Dalle foibe all esodo 1943 1956 in Italian Franco Razzi Lager e foibe in Slovenia in Italian Giorgio Rustia Contro operazione foibe a Trieste 2000 in Italian Carlo Sgorlon La foiba grande Mondadori 2005 ISBN 88 04 38002 0 in Italian Pol Vice La foiba dei miracoli Kappa Vu Udine 2008 in Italian Atti del convegno di Sesto San Giovanni 2008 Foibe Revisionismo di Stato e amnesie della Repubblica Kappa Vu Udine 2008 in Italian Gaetano La Perna Pola Istria Fiume 1943 1945 Mursia Milan 1993 in Italian Marco Girardo Sopravvissuti e dimenticati il dramma delle foibe e l esodo dei giuliano dalmati Paoline 2006 in Italian and Croatian Amleto Ballerini Mihael Sobolevski Le vittime di nazionalita italiana a Fiume e dintorni 1939 1947 Zrtve talijanske nacionalnosti u Rijeci i okolici 1939 1947 Societa Di Studi Fiumani Hrvatski Institut Za Povijest Roma Zagreb Ministero per i beni e le attivita culturali Direzione generale per gli archivi Pubblicazioni degli Archivi Di Stato Sussidi 12 ISBN 88 7125 239 X An Italian Croatian joint research carried out by the Italian Society of Fiuman studies and the Croatian Institute of History containing an alphabetic list of recognized victims As foot note on each of the two lingual forewords a warning states that Societa di Studi Fiumani do not judge completed the present work because the lack of funds could not achieve to the finalization that was in intentions and goals of the initial project dd Further reading EditPamela Ballinger History in Exile Memory and Identity at the Borders of the Balkans princeton edu accessed 14 December 2015 In Trieste Investigation of Brutal Era Is Blocked nytimes com 20 April 1997 Report of the Italian Slovene historical cultural commission in three languages Period 1941 1945 Slovene Italian Relations 1880 1956 Koper Capodistria 25 July 2000 Archived from the original on 23 February 2020 Periodo 1941 1945 Relazioni italo slovene 1880 1956 in Italian Archived from the original on 12 November 2020 Obdobje 1941 1945 Slovensko italijanski odnosi 1880 1956 in Slovenian Archived from the original on 7 November 2020 External links EditClaudia Cernigoi Operazione foibe a Trieste by Claudia Cernigoi in Italian Le foibe in Italian Gian Luigi Falabrino Il punto sulle foibe e sulle deportazioni nelle regioni orientali 1943 45 in Italian Marco Ottanelli The truth about the foibe in Italian Istituto regionale per la storia della Resistenza e dell Eta contemporanea nel Friuli Venezia Giulia Vademecum per il giorno del ricordo in Italian Videos1948 Italian newsreelCoordinates 45 37 54 N 13 51 45 E 45 63167 N 13 86250 E 45 63167 13 86250 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Foibe massacres amp oldid 1150933088, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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