fbpx
Wikipedia

Cluster munition

May 12, 2023

A cluster munition is a form of air-dropped or ground-launched explosive weapon that releases or ejects smaller submunitions. Commonly, this is a cluster bomb that ejects explosive bomblets that are designed to kill personnel and destroy vehicles. Other cluster munitions are designed to destroy runways or electric power transmission lines, disperse chemical or biological weapons, or to scatter land mines. Some submunition-based weapons can disperse non-munitions, such as leaflets.

U.S. Honest John missile warhead cutaway around 1960, showing M134 bomblets filled with Sarin
Half of a surface-to-air missile site in North Vietnam blanketed in exploding bomblets dispersed by a U.S. cluster munition, Vietnam War
A cluster bomb is being dropped at the Nightmare Range in South Korea

Because cluster bombs release many small bomblets over a wide area, they pose risks to civilians both during attacks and afterwards. Unexploded bomblets can kill or maim civilians and/or unintended targets long after a conflict has ended, and are costly to locate and remove.

Cluster munitions are prohibited for those nations that ratified the Convention on Cluster Munitions, adopted in Dublin, Ireland, in May 2008. The Convention entered into force and became binding international law upon ratifying states on 1 August 2010, six months after being ratified by 30 states.[1] As of 10 February 2022, a total of 123 states have joined the Convention, as 110 states parties and 13 signatories.[2]

Development

 
SD2 Butterfly Bomb circa 1940. Wings rotate as bomb falls, unscrewing the arming spindle connected to the fuze.

The first significantly operationally used[3] cluster bomb was the German SD-2 or Sprengbombe Dickwandig 2 kg, commonly referred to as the Butterfly Bomb.[4] It was used in World War II to attack both civilian and military targets. The technology was developed independently by the United States, Russia and Italy (see Thermos bomb). The US used the 20-lb M41 fragmentation bomb wired together in clusters of 6 or 25 with highly sensitive or proximity fuzes.

From the 1970s to the 1990s cluster bombs became standard air-dropped munitions for many nations, in a wide variety of types. They have been produced by 34 countries and used in at least 23.[5]

Artillery shells that employ similar principles have existed for decades. They are typically referred to as ICM (Improved Conventional Munitions) shells. The US military slang terms for them are "firecracker" or "popcorn" shells, for the many small explosions they cause in the target area.

Types

 
A US Vietnam era BLU-3 cluster bomblet

A basic cluster bomb consists of a hollow shell and then two to more than 2,000 submunitions or bomblets contained within it. Some types are dispensers that are designed to be retained by the aircraft after releasing their munitions. The submunitions themselves may be fitted with small parachute retarders or streamers to slow their descent (allowing the aircraft to escape the blast area in low-altitude attacks).[6][3]

Modern cluster bombs and submunition dispensers can be multiple-purpose weapons containing a combination of anti-armor, anti-personnel, and anti-materiel munitions. The submunitions themselves may also be multi-purpose, such as combining a shaped charge, to attack armour, with a fragmenting case, to attack infantry, material, and light vehicles. They may also have an incendiary function.

Since the 1990s submunition-based weapons have been designed that deploy smart submunitions, using thermal and visual sensors to locate and attack particular targets, usually armored vehicles. Weapons of this type include the US CBU-97 sensor-fuzed weapon, first used in combat during Operation Iraqi Freedom, the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Some munitions specifically intended for anti-tank use can be set to self-destruct if they reach the ground without locating a target, theoretically reducing the risk of unintended civilian deaths and injuries. Although smart submunition weapons are much more expensive than standard cluster bombs, fewer smart submunitions are required to defeat dispersed and mobile targets, partly offsetting their cost. Because they are designed to prevent indiscriminate area effects and unexploded ordnance risks, some smart munitions are excluded from coverage by the Convention on Cluster Munitions.[7][8]

Incendiary

 
During the Winter War of 1939–1940, the Soviet Union dropped RRAB-3, nicknamed Molotov bread baskets, which scattered incendiary bomblets, on Finland.

Incendiary cluster bombs are intended to start fires, just like conventional incendiary bombs (firebombs). They contain submunitions of white phosphorus or napalm, and can be combined anti-personnel and anti-tank submunitions to hamper firefighting efforts.[3] In urban areas they have been preceded by the use of conventional explosive bombs to fracture the roofs and walls of buildings to expose their flammable contents. One of the earliest examples is the so-called Molotov bread basket used by the Soviet Union in the Winter War of 1939–40. Incendiary clusters were extensively used by both sides in the strategic bombings of World War II. They caused firestorms and conflagrations in the bombing of Dresden in World War II and the firebombing of Tokyo. Some modern bomb submunitions deliver a highly combustible thermobaric aerosol that results in a high pressure explosion when ignited.[citation needed]

Anti-personnel

Anti-personnel cluster bombs use explosive fragmentation to kill troops and destroy soft (unarmored) targets. Along with incendiary cluster bombs, these were among the first types of cluster bombs produced by Nazi Germany during World War II. They were used during the Blitz with delay and booby-trap fusing to hamper firefighting and other damage-control efforts in the target areas. They were also used with a contact fuze when attacking entrenchments. These weapons were widely used during the Vietnam War when many thousands of tons of submunitions were dropped on Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam.[9]

Anti-tank

Most anti-armor munitions contain shaped charge warheads to pierce the armor of tanks and armored fighting vehicles. In some cases, guidance is used to increase the likelihood of successfully hitting a vehicle. Modern guided submunitions, such as those found in the U.S. CBU-97, can use either a shaped charge or an explosively formed penetrator. Unguided shaped-charge submunitions are designed to be effective against entrenchments that incorporate overhead cover. To simplify supply and increase battlefield effectiveness by allowing a single type of round to be used against nearly any target, submunitions that incorporate both fragmentation and shaped-charge effects are produced.[10]

Mine-laying

Submunition-based mines do not detonate immediately, but behave like conventional land mines that detonate later. These submunitions usually include a combination of anti-personnel and anti-tank mines. Since such mines lie exposed on surfaces, the anti-personnel forms, such as the US Area Denial Artillery Munition normally deploy tripwires automatically after landing to make clearing the minefield more difficult. In order to avoid accumulating large areas of impassable battlefield, and to minimize the amount of mine-clearing needed after a conflict, scatterable mines used by the United States are designed to self-destruct after a period of time from 4 to 48 hours. The internationally agreed definition of cluster munitions being negotiated in the Oslo Process may not include this type of weapon, since landmines are already covered by other international treaties.

Chemical weapons

During the 1950s and 1960s, the United States and Soviet Union developed cluster weapons designed to deliver chemical weapons. The Chemical Weapons Convention of 1993 banned their use. Six member nations declared themselves in possession of chemical weapons. The US and Russia are still in the process of destroying their stockpiles, having received extensions of the time limit for full destruction. They were unable to complete the destruction of their chemical weapons stockpiles by 2007, as the Treaty originally required.

Anti-electrical

An anti-electrical weapon, the CBU-94/B, was first used by the U.S. in the Kosovo War in 1999. These consist of a TMD (Tactical Munitions Dispenser) filled with 202 BLU-114/B "Soft-Bomb" submunitions. Each submunition contains a small explosive charge that disperses 147 reels of fine conductive fiber of either carbon or aluminum-coated glass. Their purpose is to disrupt and damage electric power transmission systems by producing short circuits in high-voltage power lines and electrical substations. On the initial attack, these knocked out 70% of the electrical power supply in Serbia.

Leaflet dispensing

The LBU-30 is designed for dropping large quantities of propaganda leaflets from aircraft. Enclosing the leaflets within the bomblets ensures that the leaflets will fall on the intended area without being dispersed excessively by the wind. The LBU-30 consists of SUU-30 dispensers that have been adapted to leaflet dispersal. The dispensers are essentially recycled units from old bombs. The LBU-30 was tested at Eglin Air Force Base in 2000, by an F-16 flying at 20,000 feet (6,100 m).[11]

History of use

 
A U.S. Navy Grumman A-6E Intruder drops CBU-59 cluster bombs over Iranian targets in 1988

Vietnam War

During the Vietnam War, the US used cluster bombs in air strikes against targets in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia.[12] According to The Guardian, of the 260 million cluster bomblets that rained down on Laos between 1964 and 1973, particularly on Xieng Khouang province, 80 million failed to explode.[13] The GlobalPost reports that as of 2009 about 7,000 people have been injured or killed by explosives left from the Vietnam War era in the Vietnamese Quang Tri Province alone.[14]

South Lebanon conflict, 1978

During the South Lebanon conflict in 1978, the IDF used cluster bombs provided by the United States. According to U.S. President Jimmy Carter, this use of the cluster bombs violated the legal agreement between Israel and the U.S. because the weapons had been provided for defensive purposes against an attack on Israel.[15] Israel also transferred American weapons to Saad Haddad's Lebanese militia, a violation of American law.[15] Carter's administration prepared to notify Congress that American weapons were being used illegally, which would have resulted in military aid to Israel being cut off.[15] The American consul in Jerusalem informed the Israeli government of their plans and, according to Carter, Prime Minister Begin said that the operation was over.[15]

Western Sahara war, 1975–1991

During the 16-year-long conflict on the territory of Western Sahara, the Royal Moroccan Army (RMA) dropped cluster bombs.

The RMA used both artillery-fired and air-dropped cluster munitions. BLU-63, M42 and MK118 submunitions were used at multiple locations in Bir Lahlou, Tifarity, Mehaires, Mijek and Awganit.

More than 300 cluster strike areas have been recorded in the MINURSO Mine Action Coordination Center database.

Soviet–Afghan War, 1979–1989

During the Soviet-Afghan War, the Soviets dealt harshly with Mujaheddin rebels and those who supported them, including leveling entire villages to deny safe havens to their enemy and the usage of cluster bombs.[16][page needed]

Falklands War

Sea Harriers of the Royal Navy dropped BL755 cluster bombs on Argentinian positions during the Falklands War of 1982.[17]

Grenada 1983

The United States dropped 21 Rockeye cluster bombs during its invasion of Grenada.[18]

Nagorno Karabakh War, 1992–1994, 2016, 2020

The armed conflict between Azerbaijan and Armenia in Nagorno Karabakh in 1992–1994 led to the use of cluster munitions against military and civilian targets in the region.[19] As of 2010, 93 km2 (36 sq mi) remain off-limits due to contamination with unexploded cluster ordnance. HALO Trust has made major contributions to the cleanup effort.[20][21]

During renewed hostilities in April 2016, HALO Trust reported the use of cluster bombs by Azerbaijan, having found cluster munitions in the villages of Nerkin Horatagh and Kiçik Qarabəy.[22] Azerbaijan reported that the Armenian forces had used cluster munition against Azerbaijani civilians in the given period.[23]

According to the Cluster Munition Monitor report in 2010, neither Armenia nor Azerbaijan not acceded to become a member of the Convention on Cluster Munitions.[24]

Further use of cluster munition was reported during the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war.[25][26][27] The Armenian-populated city of Stepanakert came under bombardment throughout the war, beginning on the first day. Human Rights Watch reported that residential neighborhoods in Stepanakert which lacked any identifiable military targets were hit by the Azerbaijani Army with cluster munitions. Human Rights Watch also identified Azerbaijani usage of cluster munitions in Hadrut.[28] Human Rights Watch also reported the use of cluster munitions by the Armenian forces during the months-long bombardment of Tartar, missile attacks on Barda and on Goranboy.[29] Amnesty International also confirmed that the Armenian forces had used cluster munitions in Barda,[30] which resulted in the deaths of 25 Azerbaijani civilians, according to Azerbaijan.[31]

First Chechen War, 1995

Yugoslavia, 1999

See also: Niš cluster bombing
  • Used by the US, the UK and Netherlands.

About 2,000 cluster bombs containing 380,000 sub-munitions were dropped on Yugoslavia during the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia, in 1999, of which the Royal Air Force dropped 531 RBL755 cluster bombs.[32][33]

On 7 May 1999, between the time of 11:30 and 11:40, a NATO attack was carried out with two containers of cluster bombs and fell in the central part of the city:

  • The Pathology building next to the Medical Center of Nis in the south of the city,
  • Next to the building of "Banovina" including the main market, bus station next to the Niš Fortress and "12th February" Health Centre
  • Parking of "Niš Express" near river Nišava River.

Reports claimed that 15 civilians were killed, 8 civilians were seriously injured, 11 civilians had sustained minor injuries, 120 housing units were damaged and 47 were destroyed and that 15 cars were damaged.

Overall during the operation, at least 23 Serb civilians were killed by cluster munitions. At least six Serbs, including three children were killed by bomblets after the operation ended, and up to 23 square kilometres in six areas remain "cluster contaminated", according to Serbian government, including on Mt. Kopaonik near the slopes of the ski resort. The UK contributed £86,000 to the Serbian Mine Action Centre.[32]

Afghanistan, 2001–2002

  • United States and other NATO countries used large numbers of cluster munitions during the initial stage of the operation. 1,228 cluster bombs containing 248,056 bomblets were used by the Coalition.[34][35]

Iraq, 1991, 2003–2006

 
A US Navy F/A-18C Hornet launches from USS Nimitz to a mission in Southern Iraq. Among other weapons, the plane carries CBU-100 "Rockeye" cluster bombs.
  • Used by the United States and the United Kingdom

1991: United States, France, and the United Kingdom dropped 61,000 cluster bombs, containing 20 million submunitions, on Iraq, according to the HRW.[36]

2003–2006: United States and allies attacked Iraq with 13,000 cluster munitions, containing two million submunitions during Operation Iraqi Freedom, according to the HRW.[37] At multiple times, coalition forces used cluster munitions in residential areas, and the country remains among the most contaminated to this day, bomblets posing a threat to both US military personnel in the area, and local civilians.[38]

When these weapons were fired on Baghdad on 7 April 2003 many of the bomblets failed to explode on impact. Afterward, some of them exploded when touched by civilians. USA Today reported that "the Pentagon presented a misleading picture during the war of the extent to which cluster weapons were being used and of the civilian casualties they were causing." On 26 April, General Richard Myers, chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, said that the US had caused only one civilian casualty.[39]

Lebanon, 1978, 1982 and 2006

During the Israeli-Lebanese conflict in 1982, Israel used cluster munitions, many of them American-made, on targets in southern Lebanon. Israel also used cluster bombs in the 2006 Lebanon War.[40][41][42]

Two types of cluster munitions were transferred to Israel from the U.S. The first was the CBU-58 which uses the BLU-63 bomblet. This cluster bomb is no longer in production. The second was the MK-20 Rockeye, produced by Honeywell Incorporated in Minneapolis.[citation needed] The CBU-58 was used by Israel in Lebanon in both 1978 and 1982.[40] The Israeli Defense company Israel Military Industries also manufactures the more up-to-date M-85 cluster bomb.

Hezbollah fired Chinese-manufactured cluster munitions against Israeli civilian targets, using 122-mm rocket launchers during the 2006 war, hitting Kiryat Motzkin, Nahariya, Karmiel, Maghar, and Safsufa. A total of 113 rockets and 4,407 submunitions were fired into Israel during the war.[43][44]

According to the United Nations Mine Action Service, Israel dropped up to four million submunitions on Lebanese soil, of which one million remain unexploded.[45] According to a report prepared by Lionel Beehner for the Council on Foreign Relations, the United States restocked Israel's arsenal of cluster bombs, triggering a State Department investigation to determine whether Israel had violated secret agreements it had signed with the United States on their use.[45]

As Haaretz reported in November 2006, the Israel Defense Forces Chief of Staff Dan Halutz wanted to launch an investigation into the use of cluster bombs during the Lebanon war.[46] Halutz claimed that some cluster bombs had been fired against his direct order, which stated that cluster bombs should be used with extreme caution and not be fired into populated areas. The IDF apparently disobeyed this order.[46]

Human Rights Watch said there was evidence that Israel had used cluster bombs very close to civilian areas and described them as "unacceptably inaccurate and unreliable weapons when used around civilians" and that "they should never be used in populated areas".[47] Human Rights Watch has accused Israel of using cluster munitions in an attack on Bilda, a Lebanese village, on 19 July[48] which killed 1 civilian and injured 12, including seven children. The Israeli "army defended ... the use of cluster munitions in its offensive with Lebanon, saying that using such munitions was 'legal under international law' and the army employed them 'in accordance with international standards'".[49] Foreign Ministry Spokesman Mark Regev added, "[I]f NATO countries stock these weapons and have used them in recent conflicts – in FR Yugoslavia, Afghanistan and Iraq – the world has no reason to point a finger at Israel."[50]

Georgia, 2008

Georgia admitted using cluster bombs during the war, according to Human Rights Watch but stressed they were only used against military targets.[51] The Georgian army used LAR-160 multiple rocket launchers to fire MK4 LAR 160 type rockets (with M-85 bomblets) with a range of 45 kilometers the Georgian Minister of Defense (MoD) said.[52]

Human Rights Watch accused the Russian Air Force of using RBK-250 cluster bombs during the conflict.[53] A high-ranking Russian military official denied use of cluster bombs.[54] The Dutch government, after investigating the death of a Dutch citizen, claimed that a cluster munition was propelled by an 9K720 Iskander tactical missile (used by Russia at the time of conflict, and not used by Georgia).[55]

Libya, 2011

It was reported in April 2011 that Colonel Gaddafi's forces had used cluster bombs in the conflict between government forces and rebel forces trying to overthrow Gaddafi's government, during the battle of Misrata[56] These reports were denied by the government, and the Secretary of State of the US,[57] Hillary Clinton said she was "not aware" of the specific use of cluster or other indiscriminate weapons in Misurata even though a New York Times investigation refuted those claims.[58] An ejection canister for a Type 314 A AV submunition, manufactured in France was found in Libya despite the fact that France is a party to the international convention that bans cluster munitions.[59]

Syria, 2012

During the Syrian uprising, a few videos of cluster bombs first appeared in 2011, but escalated in frequency near the end of 2012.[60][61] As Human Rights Watch reported on 13 October 2012, "Eliot Higgins, who blogs on military hardware and tactics used in Syria under the pseudonym 'Brown Moses', compiled a list of the videos showing cluster munition remnants in Syria's various governorates."[60][61] The type of bombs have been reported to be RBK-250 cluster bombs with AO-1 SCH bomblets (of Soviet design).[61] Designed by the Soviet Union for use on tank and troop formations, PTAB-2.5M bomblets were used on civilian targets in Mare' in December 2012 by the Syrian government.[62] According to the seventh annual Cluster Munition Report, there is ″compelling evidence″ that Russia has used cluster munitions during their involvement in Syria.[63]

South Sudan, 2013

Cluster bombs remnants were discovered by a UN de-mining team in February 2014 on a section of road near the Jonglei state capital, Bor. The strategic town was the scene of heavy fighting, changing hands several times during the South Sudanese Civil War, which erupted in the capital Juba on 15 December 2013 before spreading to other parts of the country. According to the United Nations Mine Action Service (UNMAS), the site was contaminated with the remnants of up to eight cluster bombs and an unknown quantity of bomblets.[64]

Ukraine, 2014

Human Rights Watch reported that "Ukrainian government forces used cluster munitions in populated areas in Donetsk city in early October 2014." Also "circumstances indicate that anti-government forces might also have been responsible for the use of cluster munitions".[65]

Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen, 2015–2022

See also: Human rights violations during the Yemeni Civil War (2015–present)

British-supplied[66] and U.S.-supplied cluster bombs[67] have been used by Saudi Arabian-led military coalition against Houthi militias in Yemen, according to Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International.[68][69][70][71][72]

Saudi Arabia is not signatory to the Convention on Cluster Munitions.[73]

Ethiopia, 2021

The New York Times journalist Christiaan Triebert revealed that the Ethiopian Air Force bombings of Samre during the Tigray War are evidenced by multiple photos of the tails of Soviet-era cluster bombs, likely RBK-250.[74]

Ethiopia is not signatory to the Convention on Cluster Munitions.[75]

Russian invasion of Ukraine, 2022

See also: War crimes in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine and Attacks on civilians in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine
 
Iskander-M ballistic missile with cluster warhead wreckage that was shot down over Kramatorsk by the Ukrainian air defenses.

Human Rights Watch reported the use of cluster munitions by the Russian Armed Forces during the 2022 invasion of Ukraine. HRMMU reported 16 credible allegations that Russian armed forces used cluster munitions in populated areas, causing in civilian casualties and other damage.[76]

On 24 February 2022, a Russian 9M79-series Tochka ballistic missile with a 9N123 cluster munition warhead containing 50 9N24 fragmentation submunitions impacted outside a hospital in Vuhledar in Donetsk Oblast, Ukraine. The attack killed four civilians and wounded ten.[77] Further use of cluster munitions, such as the Uragan 9M27K and BM-30 Smerch 9M55K cluster rockets, is being investigated by Bellingcat through a public appeal for evidence on Twitter.[78] According to HRW and Amnesty International, Russian troops used cluster munition during an attack on the city of Okhtyrka on the morning of 25 February 2022.[76] A 220mm Uragan rocket dropped cluster munitions on a kindergarten in the town. As a result of that, people were killed, including a child.[79] The same day, non-precision guided missiles bearing cluster munitions were deployed against Kharkiv, killing at least nine civilians and injuring 37.[76][80]

The United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights announced on 30 March 2022 that they had credible reports indicating that Russian armed forces had used cluster munitions in populated areas of Ukraine at least 24 times since the start of the conflict on 24 February.[81][76]

Ukrainian forces reportedly also fired cluster munition rockets on one occasion.[82] According to representatives of the self-proclaimed Donetsk People's Republic and the Russian Federation, Ukrainian armed forces launched a Tochka-U missile around 11 a.m. on 14 March 2022, equipped with cluster sub-munitions. They said it was intercepted over the centre of Donetsk and several of its cluster sub-munitions killed 20 civilians and injured 33 to 37. HRMMU confirmed at least 15 civilian deaths, and 36 injured in this incident, and at the time of its report was working to corroborate other alleged casualties and whether they were caused by cluster sub-munitions.[76]

On 7 December it was revealed that Ukraine is seeking access to US stockpiles of cluster munitions, due to a shortage of ammunition for HIMARS type and 155 mm artillery systems. The US has stockpiled its cluster munitions and the US is considering the Ukrainian request. Ukraine claims it will give them an edge over Russian artillery, as well as preventing depletion of other US and Western stocks.[83]

Threat to civilians

 
Monument to victims of the Niš cluster bombing

While all weapons are dangerous, cluster bombs pose a particular threat to civilians for two reasons: they have a wide area of effect, and they consistently leave behind a large number of unexploded bomblets. The unexploded bomblets can remain dangerous for decades after the end of a conflict. For example, while the United States cluster bombing of Laos stopped in 1973, cluster bombs and other unexploded munitions continued to cause over 100 casualties per year to Laotian civilians as of 2009.[84][85]

Cluster munitions are opposed by many individuals and hundreds of groups, such as the Red Cross,[86] the Cluster Munition Coalition and the United Nations, because of the high number of civilians that have fallen victim to the weapon. Since February 2005, Handicap International called for cluster munitions to be prohibited and collected hundreds of thousands of signatures to support its call.[87] 98% of 13,306 recorded cluster munitions casualties that are registered with Handicap International are civilians, while 27% are children.[88]

The area affected by a single cluster munition, known as its footprint, can be very large; a single unguided M26 MLRS rocket can effectively cover an area of 0.23 km2 (57 acres).[89] In US and most allied services, the M26 has been replaced by the M30 guided missile fired from the MLRS. The M30 has greater range and accuracy but a smaller area of coverage. It is worth noting that for reasons including both danger to civilians and changing tactical requirements, the non-cluster unitary warhead XM31 missile is, in many cases, replacing even the M30.

Because of the weapon's broad area of effect, they have often been documented as striking both civilian and military objects in the target area. This characteristic of the weapon is particularly problematic for civilians when cluster munitions are used in or near populated areas and has been documented by research reports from groups such as Human Rights Watch,[90] Landmine Action, Mines Action Canada and Handicap International. In some cases, like the Zagreb rocket attack, civilians were deliberately targeted by such weapons.[91]

Unexploded ordnance

 
Unexploded cluster sub-munition, probably a BLU-26 type. Plain of Jars, Laos.

The other serious problem, also common to explosive weapons is unexploded ordnance (UXO) of cluster bomblets left behind after a strike. These bomblets may be duds or in some cases the weapons are designed to detonate at a later stage. In both cases, the surviving bomblets are live and can explode when handled, making them a serious threat to civilians and military personnel entering the area. In effect, the UXOs can function like land mines.

Even though cluster bombs are designed to explode prior to or on impact, there are always some individual submunitions that do not explode on impact. The US-made MLRS with M26 warhead and M77 submunitions are supposed to have a 5% dud rate but studies have shown that some have a much higher rate.[92] The rate in acceptance tests prior to the Gulf War for this type ranged from 2% to a high of 23% for rockets cooled to −25 °F (−32 °C) before testing.[93] The M483A1 DPICM artillery-delivered cluster bombs have a reported dud rate of 14%.[94]

Given that each cluster bomb can contain hundreds of bomblets and be fired in volleys, even a small failure rate can lead each strike to leave behind hundreds or thousands of UXOs scattered randomly across the strike area. For example, after the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict, UN experts have estimated that as many as one million unexploded bomblets may contaminate the hundreds of cluster munition strike sites in Lebanon.[95]

 
M77 submunition of type fired against Lebanon in 1986. Each MLRS rocket has 644 M77 packed in the warhead.

In addition, some cluster bomblets, such as the BLU-97/B used in the CBU-87, are brightly colored to increase their visibility and warn off civilians. However, the yellow color, coupled with their small and nonthreatening appearance, is attractive to young children who wrongly believe them to be toys. This problem was exacerbated in the War in Afghanistan (2001–present), when US forces dropped humanitarian rations from airplanes with similar yellow-colored packaging as the BLU-97/B, yellow being the NATO standard colour for high explosive filler in air weapons. The rations packaging was later changed first to blue and then to clear in the hope of avoiding such hazardous confusion.

The US military is developing new cluster bombs that it claims could have a much lower (less than 1%) dud rate.[96] Sensor-fused weapons that contain a limited number of submunitions that are capable of autonomously engaging armored targets may provide a viable, if costly, alternative to cluster munitions that will allow multiple target engagement with one shell or bomb while avoiding the civilian deaths and injuries consistently documented from the use of cluster munitions. Certain such weapons may be allowed under the recently adopted Convention on Cluster Munitions, provided they do not have the indiscriminate area effects or pose the unexploded ordnance risks of cluster munitions.

In the 1980s the Spanish firm Esperanza y Cia developed a 120mm caliber mortar bomb which contained 21 anti-armor submunitions. What made the 120mm "Espin" unique was the electrical impact fusing system which totally eliminated dangerous duds. The system operates on a capacitor in each submunition which is charged by a wind generator in the nose of the projectile after being fired. If for what ever reason the electrical fuse fails to function on impact, approximately 5 minutes later the capacitor bleeds out, therefore neutralizing the submunition's electronic fuse system.[97] Later a similar mortar round was offered in the 81mm caliber and equipped some Spanish Marines units. On signing the Wellington Declaration on Cluster Munitions, Spain withdrew both the 81mm and 120mm "Espin" rounds from its military units.

Civilian deaths

  • In Vietnam, people are still being killed as a result of cluster bombs and other objects left by the US and Vietnamese military forces. Hundreds of people are killed or injured annually by unexploded ordnance.[98]
  • Some 270 million cluster submunitions were dropped on Laos in the 1960s and 1970s; approximately one third of these submunitions failed to explode and continue to pose a threat today.[99]
  • Within the first year after the end of the Kosovo War, more than 100 civilians died from unexploded bombs and mines. During the war, NATO planes dropped nearly 1,400 cluster bombs in Kosovo. Cluster bombs make up to 40% of mines and unexploded bombs in Kosovo.[100]
  • Israel used cluster bombs in Lebanon in 1978 and in the 1980s. Those weapons used more than two decades ago by Israel continue to affect Lebanon.[101] During the 2006 war in Lebanon, Israel fired large numbers of cluster bombs in Lebanon, containing an estimated more than 4 million cluster submunitions. In the first month following the ceasefire, unexploded cluster munitions killed or injured an average of 3–4 people per day.[102]

Locations

 
Ban Advocates from Afghanistan and Ethiopia demonstrating outside of the Dublin conference

Countries and disputed territories (listed in italic) that have been affected by cluster munitions as of August 2019 include:[103]

As of August 2019, it is unclear, whether Colombia and Georgia are contaminated.[103] Albania, the Republic of the Congo, Grenada, Guinea-Bissau, Mauritania, Mozambique, Norway, Zambia, Uganda, and Thailand completed clearance of areas contaminated by cluster munition remnants in previous years.[103]

International legislation

 
Erik Thorstvedt leads a Norwegian parade celebrating the effectuation of the Convention on Cluster Munitions, 31 July 2010. (Photo: Norsk Folkehjelp)

Cluster bombs fall under the general rules of international humanitarian law, but were not specifically covered by any currently binding international legal instrument until the signature of the Convention on Cluster Munitions in December 2008. This international treaty stemmed from an initiative by Stoltenberg's Second Cabinet known as the Oslo Process which was launched in February 2007 to prohibit cluster munitions.[106] More than 100 countries agreed to the text of the resulting Convention on Cluster Munitions in May 2008 which sets out a comprehensive ban on these weapons. This treaty was signed by 94 states in Oslo on 3–4 December 2008. The Oslo Process was launched largely in response to the failure of the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons (CCW) where five years of discussions failed to find an adequate response to these weapons.[107] The Cluster Munition Coalition (CMC) is campaigning for the widespread accession to and ratification of the Convention on Cluster Munitions.

A number of sections of the Protocol on explosive remnants of war (Protocol V to the 1980 Convention), 28 November 2003[108] occasionally address some of the problems associated with the use of cluster munitions, in particular Article 9, which mandates States Parties to "take generic preventive measures aimed at minimising the occurrence of explosive remnants of war". In June 2006, Belgium was the first country to issue a ban on the use (carrying), transportation, export, stockpiling, trade and production of cluster munitions,[109] and Austria followed suit on 7 December 2007.[5]

There has been legislative activity on cluster munitions in several countries, including Austria, Australia, Denmark, France, Germany, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom and United States. In some of these countries, ongoing discussions concerning draft legislation banning cluster munitions, along the lines of the legislation adopted in Belgium and Austria will now turn to ratification of the global ban treaty. Norway and Ireland have national legislation prohibiting cluster munitions and were able to deposit their instruments of ratification to the Convention on Cluster Munitions immediately after signing it in Oslo on 3 December 2008.

International treaties

 
Nations subscribing to the Wellington Declaration, which led to the Convention on Cluster Munitions

Other weapons, such as land mines, have been banned in many countries under specific legal instruments for several years, notably the Ottawa Treaty to ban land mines, and some of the Protocols in the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons that also help clearing the lands contaminated by left munitions after the end of conflicts and provides international assistance to the affected populations. However, until the recent adoption of the Convention on Cluster Munitions in Dublin in May 2008 cluster bombs were not banned by any international treaty and were considered legitimate weapons by some governments.

To increase pressure for governments to come to an international treaty on 13 November 2003, the Cluster Munition Coalition (CMC) was established with the goal of addressing the impact of cluster munitions on civilians. At the launch, organised by Pax Christi Netherlands, the then Minister of Foreign Affairs, the later Secretary General of NATO, Jaap de Hoop Scheffer, addressed the crowd of gathered government, NGO, and press representatives.

International governmental deliberations in the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons turned on the broader problem of explosive remnants of war, a problem to which cluster munitions have contributed in a significant way. There were consistent calls from the Cluster Munition Coalition, the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) and a number of UN agencies, joined by approximately 30 governments, for international governmental negotiations to develop specific measures that would address the humanitarian problems cluster munitions pose. This did not prove possible in the conventional multilateral forum. After a reversal in the US position, in 2007 deliberations did begin on cluster munitions within the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons. There was a concerted effort led by the US to develop a new protocol to the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons, but this proposal was rejected by over 50 states, together with civil society, ICRC and UN agencies.[110] The discussions ended with no result in November 2011, leaving the 2008 Convention on Cluster Munitions as the single international standard on the weapons.[111]

In February 2006, Belgium announced its decision to ban the weapon by law. Then Norway announced a national moratorium in June and Austria announced its decision in July to work for an international instrument on the weapon. The international controversy over the use and impact of cluster munitions during the war between Lebanon and Israel in July and August 2006 added weight to the global campaign for a ban treaty.[112]

 
Ugandan demonstrator at the May 2008 Dublin conference for the Convention on Cluster Munitions

Against this background, a new flexible multilateral process similar to the process that led to the ban on anti-personnel land mines in 1997 (the Ottawa Treaty) began with an announcement in November 2006[113] in Geneva as well at the same time by the Government of Norway that it would convene an international meeting in early 2007 in Oslo to work towards a new treaty prohibiting cluster munitions. Forty-nine governments attended the meeting in Oslo 22–23 February 2007 in order to reaffirm their commitment to a new international ban on the weapon. During the meeting Austria announced an immediate moratorium on the use, production and transfer of cluster munitions until a new international treaty banning the weapons is in place.

A follow-up meeting in this process was held in Lima in May where around 70 states discussed the outline of a new treaty, Hungary became the latest country to announce a moratorium and Peru launched an initiative to make Latin America a cluster munition free zone.[114]

In addition, the ICRC held an experts meeting on cluster munitions in April 2007 which helped clarify technical, legal, military and humanitarian aspects of the weapon with a view to developing an international response.[115]

Further meetings took place in Vienna on 4–7 December 2007, and in Wellington on 18–22 February 2008 where a declaration in favor of negotiations on a draft convention was adopted by more than 80 countries. In May 2008 after around 120 countries had subscribed to the Wellington Declaration and participated in the Dublin Diplomatic Conference from 19 to 30 May 2008. At the end of this conference, 107 countries agreed to adopt the Convention on Cluster Munitions, that bans cluster munitions and was opened for signature in Oslo on 3–4 December 2008 where it was signed by 94 countries.[116][117][118]

In July 2008, United States Defense Secretary Robert M. Gates implemented a policy to eliminate by 2018 all cluster bombs that do not meet new safety standards.[119]

In November 2008, ahead of the signing Conference in Oslo,[120] the European Parliament passed a resolution calling on all European Union governments to sign and ratify the Convention.[121]

On 16 February 2010 Burkina Faso became the 30th state to deposit its instrument of ratification for the Convention on Cluster Munitions. This means that the number of States required for the Convention to enter into force had been reached. The treaty's obligations became legally binding on the 30 ratifying States on 1 August 2010 and subsequently for other ratifying States.[122]

Convention on Cluster Munitions

Main article: Convention on Cluster Munitions

Taking effect on 1 August 2010, the Convention on Cluster Munitions[123] bans the stockpiling, use and transfer of virtually all existing cluster bombs and provides for the clearing up of unexploded munitions. It had been signed by 108 countries, of which 38 had ratified it by the affected date, but many of the world's major military powers including the United States, Russia, Brazil and China are not signatories to the treaty.[124][125][126][127]

Ratifiers and signatories

The Convention on Cluster Munitions entered into force on 1 August 2010, six months after it was ratified by 30 states. As of 26 September 2018, a total of 120 states have joined the Convention, as 104 States parties and 16 signatories.[128]

For an updated list of countries, see Convention on Cluster Munitions#State parties

United States policy

 
USAF B-1 Lancer dropping CBU cluster bombs

According to the US State Department, the U.S. suspended operational use of cluster munitions in 2003.[129]

U.S. arguments favoring the use of cluster munitions are that their use reduces the number of aircraft and artillery systems needed to support military operations and if they were eliminated, significantly more money would have to be spent on new weapons, ammunition, and logistical resources. Also, militaries would need to increase their use of massed artillery and rocket barrages to get the same coverage, which would destroy or damage more key infrastructures.[129]

The U.S. was initially against any CCW limitation negotiations, but dropped its opposition in June 2007. Cluster munitions have been determined as needed for ensuring the country's national security interests, but measures were taken to address humanitarian concerns of their use, as well as pursuing their original suggested alternative to a total ban of pursuing technological fixes to make the weapons no longer viable after the end of a conflict.[129]

In May 2008, then-Acting Assistant Secretary of State for Political-Military Affairs Stephen Mull stated that the U.S. military relies upon cluster munitions as an important part of their war strategy.[130] Mull emphasized that "U.S. forces simply cannot fight by design or by doctrine without holding out at least the possibility of using cluster munitions."

The U.S. Army ceased procurement of GMLRS cluster rockets in December 2008 because of a submunition dud rate as high as five percent. Pentagon policy was to have all cluster munitions used after 2018 to have a submunition unexploded ordnance rate of less than one percent. To achieve this, the Army undertook the Alternative Warhead Program (AWP) to assess and recommend technologies to reduce or eliminate cluster munition failures, as some 80 percent of U.S. military cluster weapons reside in Army artillery stockpiles.[129] In July 2012, the U.S. fired at a target area with 36 Guided Multiple Launch Rocket System (GMLRS) unitary warhead rockets. Analysis indicated that capability gaps existed as cluster munitions require approval by the Combatant Commander which reduced the advantage of responsive precision fire. The same effect could have been made by four Alternative Warhead (AW) GMLRS rockets under development by the AWP to engage the same target set as cluster munitions. Without access to the AW, the operation required using nine times as many rockets, cost nine times as much ($3.6 million compared to $400,000), and took 40 times as long (more than 20 minutes compared to less than 30 seconds) to execute.[131]

Starting with the Omnibus Appropriations Act, 2009 (P.L. 111-8) annual Consolidated Appropriations Act legislation has placed export moratorium language on cluster weapons since then. On 19 May 2011 the Defense Security Cooperation Agency issued a memorandum prohibiting the sale of all but the CBU-97B CBU-105 Sensor Fuzed Weapon because the others have been demonstrated to have a unexploded ordnance rate of greater than 1%.[132][133]

On 30 November 2017, the Pentagon put off indefinitely their planned ban on using cluster bombs after 2018, as they had been unable to produce submunitions with failure rates of 1% or less. Since it is unclear how long it might take to achieve that standard, a months-long policy review concluded the deadline should be postponed; deployment of existing cluster weapons is left to commanders' discretion to authorize their use when deemed necessary "until sufficient quantities" of safer versions are developed and fielded.[134][135]

Users

Countries

At least 25 countries have used cluster munitions in recent history (since the creation of the United Nations). Countries listed in bold have signed and ratified the Convention on Cluster Munitions, agreeing in principle to ban cluster bombs. Countries listed in italic have signed, but not yet ratified the Convention on Cluster Munitions.

In addition, at least two countries that no longer exist (the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia)[18] have used cluster bombs. In some cases, the responsibility or even the use of cluster munition is denied by the local government.

Non-state armed groups

Very few violent non-state actors have used cluster munitions and their delivery systems due to the complexity.[164] As of August 2019, cluster munitions have been used in conflicts by non-state actors in at least six countries.[164]

Producers

At least 31 nations have produced cluster munitions in recent history (since the creation of the United Nations). Many of these nations still have stocks of these munitions.[165][166] Most (but not all) of them are involved in recent wars or long unsolved international conflicts; however most of them did not use the munitions they produced. Countries listed in bold have signed and ratified the Convention on Cluster Munitions, agreeing in principle to ban cluster bombs. As of September 2018, countries marked with an Asterisk (*) officially ceased production of cluster munitions.

Countries with stocks

As of September 2018, at least 57 countries have stockpiles of cluster munitions.[165][166] Countries listed in bold have signed and ratified the Convention on Cluster Munitions, agreeing in principle that their stockpiles should be destroyed. Countries listed in italic have signed, but not yet ratified the Convention on Cluster Munitions; countries marked with an Asterisk (*) are in the process of destroying their stockpiles.

Financiers

According to BankTrack, an international network of NGOs specializing in control of financial institutions, many major banks and other financial corporations either directly financed, or provided financial services to companies producing cluster munition in 2005–2012. Among other, BankTrack 2012 report[216] names ABN AMRO, Bank of America, Bank of China, Bank of Tokyo Mitsubishi UFJ, Barclays, BBVA, BNP Paribas, Citigroup, Commerzbank AG, Commonwealth Bank of Australia, Crédit Agricole, Credit Suisse Group, Deutsche Bank, Goldman Sachs, HSBC, Industrial Bank of China, ING Group, JPMorgan Chase, Korea Development Bank, Lloyds TSB, Merrill Lynch, Morgan Stanley, Royal Bank of Canada, Royal Bank of Scotland, Sberbank, Société Générale, UBS, Wells Fargo.

Many of these financial companies are connected to such producers of cluster munitions as Alliant Techsystems, China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation, Hanwha, Norinco, Singapore Technologies Engineering, Textron, and others.[217]

According to Pax Christi, a Netherlands-based NGO, in 2009, around 137 financial institutions financed cluster munition production.[218] Out of 137 institutions, 63 were based in the US, another 18 in the EU (the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy etc.), 16 were based in China, 4 in Singapore, 3 in each of: Canada, Japan, Taiwan, 2 in Switzerland, and 4 other countries had 1 financial institution involved.[219]

See also

References

Citations

  1. ^ "Treaty status – The Treaty – CMC". www.stopclustermunitions.org. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
  2. ^ "Convention on Cluster Munition Website". The Convention on Cluster Munition. Geneva (Switzerland). February 10, 2022. from the original on 2008-06-12. Retrieved March 1, 2022.
  3. ^ a b c A Guide to Cluster Munitions (PDF). Geneva: GICHD. November 2007. p. 28. ISBN 978-2-940369-07-2.
  4. ^ Rogers, James I. (2013-06-21). "Remembering the terror the Luftwaffe's butterfly bombs brought to the North". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2017-02-09.
  5. ^ a b Austria bans cluster munitions, International Herald Tribune, 7 Dec 2007
  6. ^ "How Cluster Bombs Work". HI. Retrieved 2021-02-03.
  7. ^ "Twelve Facts and Fallacies about the Convention on Cluster Munitions". Human Rights Watch. 14 April 2009. Retrieved 29 April 2021.
  8. ^ (PDF). clusterconvention.org. May 30, 2008. p. 2, Art. 2 Nr. 2. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 27, 2021. Retrieved February 3, 2021.
  9. ^ Cluster Weapons; Convenience or necessity? October 4, 2006, at the Wayback Machine
  10. ^ "Anti Tank submunitions shaped-charge effects are produced - Cluster Bomb | Development History | - YTread". youtuberead.com. Retrieved 2023-04-05.
  11. ^ Global Security.org LBU-30
  12. ^ Loy, Irwin (7 December 2010). "Vietnam's Cluster Bomb Shadow". GlobalPost. Tokyo. Retrieved 29 July 2012.
  13. ^ MacKinnon, Ian (3 December 2008). "Forty years on, Laos reaps bitter harvest of the secret war". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 29 July 2012.
  14. ^ Eaton, Daysha (6 June 2010). "In Vietnam, cluster bombs still plague countryside". GlobalPost. Boston, MA. Retrieved 29 July 2012.
  15. ^ a b c d Jimmy Carter (1993). The blood of Abraham: insights into the Middle East. University of Arkansas Press. pp. 92–93. ISBN 978-1-55728-862-2.
  16. ^ As reported by Human Rights Watch, Afghanistan: The Forgotten War: Human Rights Abuses and Violations of the Laws of War Since the Soviet Withdrawal, 1 February 1991
  17. ^ "United Kingdom". Landmine & Cluster Munition Monitor. Retrieved 26 May 2021.
  18. ^ a b "Meeting the Challenge – I. The Technological Evolution and Early Proliferation and Use of Cluster Munitions". Human Rights Watch. 22 November 2010. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  19. ^ Safikhanov, Hafiz (March 2008). "Cluster Munitions Monitoring and Information Campaign in Azerbaijan". Journal of Conventional Weapons Destruction. 12 (2): 1–2. Retrieved 4 October 2020.
  20. ^ . Archived from the original on 2012-12-26. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
  21. ^ . Landmine and Cluster Munition Monitor. Archived from the original on 16 June 2015. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
  22. ^ "HALO begins emergency clearance in Nagorno Karabakh". Mine Free NK. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
  23. ^ "Azerbaijani MFA: Armenian use of cluster munition serves only committing mass destruction among civilians". REPORT.AZ. Retrieved 4 October 2020.
  24. ^ "Cluster Munition Monitor 2010" (PDF). Landmine & Cluster Munition Monitor. pp. 193–194. Retrieved 4 October 2020.
  25. ^ Beaumont, Peter; Safi, Michael (8 October 2020). "Nagorno-Karabakh conflict: both sides accused of using cluster bombs". The Guardian.
  26. ^ "Azerbaijan says Armenian forces shell second city of Ganja". The Jerusalem Post | Jpost.com. Reuters. Retrieved 4 October 2020.
  27. ^ "Hikmat Hajiyev: Dropping banned bombs on populated areas once again shows that Armenia is a terrorist state". AZERTAC. 4 October 2020. Retrieved 4 October 2020.
  28. ^ "Azerbaijan: Cluster Munitions Used in Nagorno-Karabakh". Human Rights Watch. 2020-10-23.
  29. ^ "Armenia: Unlawful Rocket, Missile Strikes on Azerbaijan". Human Rights Watch. 11 December 2020. Retrieved 11 December 2020.
  30. ^ "Armenia/Azerbaijan: First confirmed use of cluster munitions by Armenia 'cruel and reckless'". Amnesty International. 29 October 2020. Retrieved 29 October 2020.
  31. ^ "Azerbaijan says Armenia used cluster bombs in deadly Barda attack". aljazeera.com. Al Jazeera. 28 October 2020. Wednesday's strike marked the deadliest reported attack on civilians in a month of fighting over Nagorno-Karabakh.
  32. ^ a b Brady, Brian (2007-09-16). . The Independent. London. Archived from the original on December 27, 2009. Retrieved 2011-04-16.
  33. ^ SRBIJI NE PRETE SAMO KASETNE BOMBE 2011-07-22 at the Wayback Machine, (in Serbian only)
  34. ^ Martin, Scott. "Obama moves to legalize cluster munitions". Retrieved 15 May 2018.
  35. ^ "Cluster bombs remain in 69 nations". Retrieved 15 May 2018.
  36. ^ "Iraq: Cluster Treaty Approval Should Inspire Neighbors to Join". 9 December 2009. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
  37. ^ "Estados Unidos – Cientos de muertes de civiles en Irak pudieron prevenirse". 11 December 2003. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
  38. ^ Wiseman, Paul (16 December 2003). "Cluster bombs kill in Iraq, even after shooting ends". USA Today.
  39. ^ Wiseman, Paul (16 December 2003). "Cluster bombs kill in Iraq, even after shooting ends". USA Today.
  40. ^ a b MCC | Cluster Bombs November 21, 2006, at the Wayback Machine
  41. ^ "Use of Cluster Bombs Is Confirmed by Israel". The New York Times. 1982-06-28. Retrieved 2010-03-27.
  42. ^ "President Reagan News Conferences & Interviews on the Middle East/Israel (1982)". www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
  43. ^ "Lebanon/Israel: Hezbollah Hit Israel with Cluster Munitions During Conflict". 18 October 2006. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
  44. ^ . Ynet. 30 August 2007. Archived from the original on 2 June 2008. Retrieved 13 July 2008.
  45. ^ a b Beehner, Lionel (2006-11-21). "The Campaign to Ban Cluster Bombs". cfr.org. Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved 2020-02-17.
  46. ^ a b Hasson, Nir; Rapoport, Meron (2006-11-20). "Halutz Orders Probe Into Use of Cluster Bombs in Lebanon". Haaretz. Tel Aviv. Retrieved 2020-02-17.
  47. ^ . HRW. 2006-07-24. Archived from the original on 2008-11-13. Retrieved 2016-12-04.
  48. ^ "Middle East: Rice Calls For A 'New Middle East'". Radio Free Europe. 2006-07-25.
  49. ^ "EXTRA: Israel defends use of cluster munitions". Deutsche Presse-Agentur. 25 July 2006. LexisNexis Academic.
  50. ^ Friedman, Ina. "Deadly Remnants". The Jerusalem Report. 13 November 2006: 20–22
  51. ^ Georgia, Civil. "Civil.Ge -". www.civil.ge. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
  52. ^ Georgia, Civil. "Civil.Ge – MoD Says it Used Cluster Bombs, but not in Populated Areas". www.civil.ge. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
  53. ^ . www.hrw.org. 15 August 2008. Archived from the original on 19 July 2020. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
  54. ^ Russia "used cluster bombs" in Georgia – rights group, Reuters, August 15, 2008
  55. ^ Dutch government report on Storimans death concludes cluster bomb propelled by Russian SS-26 (pdf) June 9, 2010, at the Wayback Machine
  56. ^ Taylor, Jerome These indiscriminate killers leave their deadly legacy from Libya to Lebanon The Independent, 16 August 2011, Retrieved 17 August 2011
  57. ^ Chivers, C. J. (15 April 2011). "Qaddafi Troops Fire Cluster Bombs into Civilian Areas". New York Times. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
  58. ^ Chivers, C.J. "Down the Rabbit Hole: Qaddafi's Cluster Munitions and the Age of Internet Claims". The New York Times, June 23, 2011. Retrieved: July 13, 2011.
  59. ^ Chivers, C. J. (2012-10-10). "French Cluster Munitions in Libya, and a Call for Help". At War Blog. Retrieved 2021-02-03.
  60. ^ a b . Human Rights Watch. October 13, 2012. Archived from the original on October 14, 2012. Retrieved October 13, 2012.
  61. ^ a b c "Cluster Bomb Usage Rises Significantly Across Syria". Brown Moses Blog. October 13, 2012. Retrieved October 13, 2012.
  62. ^ C. J. Chivers (December 20, 2012). "Syria Unleashes Cluster Bombs on Town, Punishing Civilians". The New York Times. Retrieved December 21, 2012.
  63. ^ Sewell Chan (September 1, 2016). "Report Finds Ban Hasn't Halted Use of Cluster Bombs in Syria or Yemen". The New York Times. Retrieved June 12, 2019.
  64. ^ "Ugandan army won't take part in cluster bomb investigation: spokesperson" 2014-05-20 at the Wayback Machine, Sudan Tribune, 19 Feb 2014
  65. ^ "Ukraine: Widespread Use of Cluster Munitions". Human Rights Watch. 2014-10-20. Retrieved 2023-05-06.
  66. ^ "Saudi Arabia admits it used UK-made cluster bombs in Yemen". The Guardian. 19 December 2016.
  67. ^ "Yemen: Saudi Arabia used cluster bombs, rights groups says". BBC News. 3 May 2015.
  68. ^ "Saudis 'used cluster bombs' in Yemen". BBC News. 3 May 2015. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
  69. ^ Fahim, Kareem (3 May 2015). "Saudi-Led Group Said to Use Cluster Bombs in Yemen". The New York Times. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
  70. ^ "Saudi Arabia uses terrorism as an excuse for human rights abuses". Al Jazeera America. December 3, 2015.
  71. ^ "Yemen: Cluster Munitions Wound Children". Human Rights Watch. 17 March 2017.
  72. ^ "Yemen Denounces Saudi-Led Coalition's Use of Cluster Bombs in Sana'a (+Video)". Tasnim News Agency. 9 February 2022.
  73. ^ "Cluster Munition Coalition – Take Action – CMC". www.stopclustermunitions.org. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
  74. ^ Nyssen, J., 2021: Cluster bombing on Tigray by the Ethiopian army - more than 500 homesteads destroyed in Gijet.
  75. ^ "Cluster Munition Coalition – Take Action – CMC". www.stopclustermunitions.org. Retrieved 20 October 2021.
  76. ^ a b c d e HRMMU Update on the human rights situation in Ukraine, 24 February – 26 March 2022 (PDF) (Report). UN Human Rights Monitoring Mission in Ukraine. 28 March 2022.
  77. ^ "Ukraine: Russian Cluster Munition Hits Hospital". Human Rights Watch. 25 February 2022. Retrieved 27 February 2022.
  78. ^ @bellingcat (February 26, 2022). "We are seeking images of Uragan 9M27K and Smerch 9M55K cluster rocket and their submunitions from the current fighting in Ukraine, as well as videos of suspected cluster munition attacks" (Tweet). Retrieved February 27, 2022 – via Twitter.
  79. ^ "Ukraine: Cluster munitions kill child and two other civilians taking shelter at a preschool". Amnesty International. 27 February 2022. Retrieved 28 February 2022.
  80. ^ Cheetham, Josh; Devlin, Kayleen; Goodman, Jack; Korenyuk, Maria (3 March 2022). "Anatomy of an attack: Is Russia using cluster bombs in Ukraine?". BBC News.
  81. ^ "Ukraine war: Russia used cluster weapons at least 24 times, says UN's Bachelet," UN News
  82. ^ Bostock, Bill (19 April 2022). "Ukraine used cluster munitions — which many countries have banned — to force Russian troops out of a village, report says". Yahoo! News. Retrieved 20 April 2022.
  83. ^ Natasha Bertrand, Alex Marquardt and Zachary Cohen (7 December 2022). "Exclusive: Biden administration weighs Ukrainian requests for access to US stockpile of controversial cluster munitions". CNN. Retrieved 8 December 2022.
  84. ^ "Cluster Bomb Fact Sheet". Legacies of War. from the original on 2019-11-01. Retrieved 2019-11-05.
  85. ^ Lance, Rachel. "The Enduring Danger of Cluster Bombs". Wired. ISSN 1059-1028. Retrieved 2 April 2022.
  86. ^ "International Committee of the Red Cross". 3 October 2013. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
  87. ^ . www.clusterbombs.org. Archived from the original on 2013-07-24. Retrieved 2022-03-04.
  88. ^ . en.handicapinternational.be. Archived from the original on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
  89. ^ "M26 Multiple Launch Rocket System (MLRS)". Retrieved 15 May 2018.
  90. ^ "Off Target: The Conduct of the War and Civilian Casualties in Iraq" (PDF). Human Rights Watch. December 2003. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 24, 2006. Retrieved 2009-06-22. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  91. ^ . International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia. June 2007. Archived from the original on December 15, 2007. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  92. ^ 1 Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology, and Logistics, "Unexploded Ordnance Report," table 2-3, p. 5. No date, but transmitted to the U.S. Congress on February 29, 2000
  93. ^ "Operation Desert Storm: Casualties Caused by Improper Handling of Unexploded U.S. Submunitions" (PDF). US General Accounting Office. August 1993. Retrieved 2006-09-01. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  94. ^ "Cluster Munitions a Foreseeable Hazard in Iraq". Human Rights Watch Briefing Paper. Retrieved 2011-07-13.
  95. ^ "'Million bomblets' in S Lebanon". BBC. 2006-09-26. Retrieved 2006-09-26.
  96. ^ "Army RDT&E Budget Item Justification, Item No. 177, MLRS Product Improvement Program" (PDF). Defense Technical Information Center. February 1993. (PDF) from the original on 2007-06-28. Retrieved 2006-09-01. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  97. ^ Jane's Ammunition Handbook 1994 page 362
  98. ^
  99. ^ Laos: the enduring threat from cluster munitions August 22, 2010, at the Wayback Machine
  100. ^ "Kosovo mine expert criticises Nato". BBC News. 2000-05-23. Retrieved 2010-04-30.
  101. ^ . www.hrw.org. 24 July 2006. Archived from the original on 13 November 2008. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
  102. ^ (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-04-11. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
  103. ^ a b c Cluster Munition Monitor 2019 (PDF). International Campaign to Ban Landmines – Cluster Munition Coalition. August 2019. pp. 37–39. ISBN 978-2-9701146-5-9. Retrieved 2020-02-17.
  104. ^ a b c "Eritrea Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 26 June 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  105. ^ a b c "Ethiopia Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 26 June 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  106. ^ . The Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Archived from the original on January 11, 2009.
  107. ^ . The Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Archived from the original on 2011-06-09. Retrieved 2011-07-13.
  108. ^ "Treaties, States parties, and Commentaries – CCW Protocol (V) on Explosive Remnants of War, 2003". www.icrc.org. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
  109. ^ "Moniteur Belge – Belgisch Staatsblad". www.ejustice.just.fgov.be. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
  110. ^ . Archived from the original on 2011-12-10. Retrieved 2011-11-26.
  111. ^ "US-led attempt to allow cluster bomb use is rejected at UN negotiations".
  112. ^ Barak, Eitan (13 May 2010). "Eitan Barak, Doomed to Be Violated? The U.S.-Israeli Clandestine End-User Agreement and the Second Lebanon War: Lessons for the Convention on Cluster Munitions". SSRN 1606304. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  113. ^ Foulkes, Imogen (2006-11-12). "New bomb clean-up treaty begins". BBC News. Retrieved 2010-04-30.
  114. ^ . Cluster Munition Coalition. Archived from the original on November 21, 2007.
  115. ^ "Expert Meeting Report: Humanitarian, Military, Technical and Legal Challenges of Cluster Munitions". ICRC. 3 October 2013.
  116. ^ www.clustermunitionsdublin.ie. Archived from the original on 19 June 2008. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
  117. ^ . The Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Archived from the original on 2011-06-09. Retrieved 2011-07-13.
  118. ^ "News – Media – CMC". www.stopclustermunitions.org. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
  119. ^ "United States Department of Defense". www.defenselink.mil. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
  120. ^ Signing Conference Website 2008-12-16 at the Wayback Machine last retrieved on 28 November 2008
  121. ^ Cluster bombs: MEPs to press for signature of treaty ban 2009-02-22 at the Wayback Machine last retrieved on 19 November 2008
  122. ^ Convention on Cluster Munitions to enter into force on 1 August 2010 ICRC web site
  123. ^ Convention on cluster munitions – convention text in English August 19, 2010, at the Wayback Machine
  124. ^ Hughes, Stuart (1 August 2010). "Cluster bomb ban comes into force". BBC News. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
  125. ^ . Archived from the original on 6 August 2010. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
  126. ^ Belanger, Louis (30 July 2010). "Cluster Bombs Treaty becomes int'l law: Years of campaigning reap results". HuffPost. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
  127. ^ Canada Post: UN chief hails Aug. 1 entry into force of treaty banning cluster bombs[dead link]
  128. ^ . 12 January 2011. Archived from the original on 10 February 2022. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
  129. ^ a b c d Cluster Munitions: Background and Issues for Congress – Fas.org, 30 June 2013
  130. ^ "Cluster Munitions". 2001-2009.state.gov. 2023-05-06. Retrieved 2023-05-06.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  131. ^ (PDF). www.dau.mil. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-02-01. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
  132. ^ "United States Cluster Munition Ban Policy". ICBL - CMC. 24 November 2020.
  133. ^ "Cluster Munitions: Background and Issues for Congress" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. 9 March 2022.
  134. ^ US Putting Off Planned Ban on Its Use of Cluster Bombs – Military.com, 30 November 2017
  135. ^ Feickert, Andrew; Kerr, Paul K. (December 17, 2017). Cluster Munitions: Background and Issues for Congress (PDF). Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service. Retrieved 24 January 2018.
  136. ^ "Armenia Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  137. ^ "Nagorno-Karabakh (Area) Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 26 June 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  138. ^ a b "Azerbaijan Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 3 July 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  139. ^ a b "Bahrain Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 3 July 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  140. ^ a b c "Yemen Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 2 August 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  141. ^ "Colombia Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 26 June 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  142. ^ "Colombia Cluster Munition Ban Policy". archives.the-monitor.org. 2 September 2013. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  143. ^ a b c "Egypt Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 2 August 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  144. ^ a b "France Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 3 July 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  145. ^ a b "Georgia Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 26 June 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  146. ^ a b "Iraq Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 9 July 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  147. ^ a b c "Israel Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 2 August 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  148. ^ a b "Libya Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 2 August 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  149. ^ a b "Morocco Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 3 July 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  150. ^ a b "Netherlands Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 8 August 2016. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  151. ^ a b "Nigeria Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 2 August 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  152. ^ "Nigeria Cluster Munition Ban Policy". archives.the-monitor.org. 12 August 2014. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  153. ^ a b c "Russia Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 7 August 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  154. ^ a b "Saudi Arabia Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 3 July 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  155. ^ Edward McGill Alexander (July 2003). "Appendix A to Chapter 9 of the Cassinga Raid" (PDF). University of South Africa. Retrieved 27 September 2018. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  156. ^ "Sri Lanka Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 9 July 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  157. ^ a b "Sudan Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 9 July 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  158. ^ a b "Syria Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 2 August 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  159. ^ a b "Thailand Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 3 July 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  160. ^ a b c "United States Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 2 August 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  161. ^ "Ukraine: Widespread Use of Cluster Munitions". 20 October 2014. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
  162. ^ a b c "Ukraine Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 2 August 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  163. ^ Ostaptschuk, Markian (23 October 2014). "Doubts arise over HRW cluster bomb report in Ukraine". dw.com. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  164. ^ a b c d e f g h Cluster Munition Monitor 2019 (PDF). International Campaign to Ban Landmines – Cluster Munition Coalition. August 2019. p. 15. ISBN 978-2-9701146-5-9. Retrieved 2020-03-02.
  165. ^ a b "Global Problem – Stockpilers of Cluster Munitions". www.stopclustermunitions.org. Cluster Munition Coalition. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  166. ^ a b "Overview of Article 3 (stockpile destruction) deadlines" (PDF). Convention on Cluster Munitions. September 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  167. ^ "Belgium Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 29 July 2015. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  168. ^ "Bosnia and Herzegovina Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 31 July 2015. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  169. ^ a b "Brazil Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 26 June 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  170. ^ "Chile Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 21 July 2016. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  171. ^ a b "China Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 3 July 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  172. ^ "Croatia Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 2 August 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  173. ^ "Germany Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 8 August 2016. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  174. ^ a b "Greece Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 3 July 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  175. ^ a b "India Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 3 July 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  176. ^ "Survey of Cluster Munitions Produced and Stockpiled". www.hrw.org. April 2007. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  177. ^ "Japan Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 10 August 2015. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  178. ^ a b "North Korea Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 26 June 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  179. ^ a b "South Korea Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 2 August 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  180. ^ a b "Pakistan Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 3 July 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  181. ^ a b "Poland Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 3 July 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  182. ^ a b "Romania Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 3 July 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  183. ^ a b "Singapore Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 3 July 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  184. ^ a b "Slovakia Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 2 August 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  185. ^ a b "South Africa Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 2 August 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  186. ^ "Spain Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 8 July 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  187. ^ "Sweden Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 8 August 2016. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  188. ^ a b "Taiwan Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 3 August 2016. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  189. ^ a b "Turkey Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 9 July 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  190. ^ "United Kingdom Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 12 August 2015. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  191. ^ "Algeria Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 3 July 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  192. ^ "Belarus Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 26 June 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  193. ^ "Botswana Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 2 August 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  194. ^ "Bulgaria Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 7 August 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  195. ^ "Cambodia Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 26 June 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  196. ^ "Cyprus Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 3 July 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  197. ^ "Estonia Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 3 July 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  198. ^ "Finland Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 3 July 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  199. ^ "Guinea Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 3 July 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  200. ^ "Guinea Bissau Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 9 July 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  201. ^ "Indonesia Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 26 June 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  202. ^ "Iran Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 2 August 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  203. ^ "Jordan Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 26 June 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  204. ^ "Kazakhstan Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 26 June 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  205. ^ "Kuwait Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 3 July 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  206. ^ "Oman Cluster Munition Ban Policy". archives.the-monitor.org. 12 August 2014. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  207. ^ "Peru Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 2 August 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  208. ^ "Qatar Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 3 July 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  209. ^ "Serbia Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 3 July 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  210. ^ "Switzerland Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 2 August 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  211. ^ "Turkmenistan Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 26 June 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  212. ^ "United Arab Emirates Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 9 July 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  213. ^ "Uzbekistan Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 26 June 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  214. ^ "Venezuela Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 9 July 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  215. ^ "Zimbabwe Cluster Munition Ban Policy". the-monitor.org. 2 August 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
  216. ^ . Archived from the original on 2012-08-25. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
  217. ^ "Key Findings from the November 2014 update of "Worldwide Investments in Cluster Munitions a shared responsibility" by PAX" (PDF). Retrieved 15 May 2018.
  218. ^ . Archived from the original on 25 March 2014. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
  219. ^ (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-11-12. Retrieved 15 May 2018.

Bibliography

External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cluster munitions.
  • Cluster Munition Coalition
  • Mines Advisory Group
  • Cluster munitions and international humanitarian law International Committee of the Red Cross
  • Convention on Cluster Munitions – Official website serving the government initiative to ban cluster munitions
  • Global Security.org LBU-30
  • 16 May 2007
  • Disarmament Insight website
  • Council on Foreign Relations: The Campaign to Ban Cluster Bombs 21 November 2006

Technical

  • Federation of American Scientists article on the CBU97 and CBU105 cluster bombs with smart munitions. 2016-07-29 at the Wayback Machine
  • Federation of American Scientists article on the BLU-114 anti-electrical weapon. 2016-01-02 at the Wayback Machine

Inquiries

  • Inquiry by the Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade Committee of the Australian Senate into the provisions of the Cluster Munitions (Prohibition) Bill 2006 2007-07-12 at the Wayback Machine

May 12, 2023
cluster, munition, cluster, munition, form, dropped, ground, launched, explosive, weapon, that, releases, ejects, smaller, submunitions, commonly, this, cluster, bomb, that, ejects, explosive, bomblets, that, designed, kill, personnel, destroy, vehicles, other. A cluster munition is a form of air dropped or ground launched explosive weapon that releases or ejects smaller submunitions Commonly this is a cluster bomb that ejects explosive bomblets that are designed to kill personnel and destroy vehicles Other cluster munitions are designed to destroy runways or electric power transmission lines disperse chemical or biological weapons or to scatter land mines Some submunition based weapons can disperse non munitions such as leaflets U S Honest John missile warhead cutaway around 1960 showing M134 bomblets filled with Sarin Half of a surface to air missile site in North Vietnam blanketed in exploding bomblets dispersed by a U S cluster munition Vietnam War A cluster bomb is being dropped at the Nightmare Range in South Korea Because cluster bombs release many small bomblets over a wide area they pose risks to civilians both during attacks and afterwards Unexploded bomblets can kill or maim civilians and or unintended targets long after a conflict has ended and are costly to locate and remove Cluster munitions are prohibited for those nations that ratified the Convention on Cluster Munitions adopted in Dublin Ireland in May 2008 The Convention entered into force and became binding international law upon ratifying states on 1 August 2010 six months after being ratified by 30 states 1 As of 10 February 2022 a total of 123 states have joined the Convention as 110 states parties and 13 signatories 2 Contents 1 Development 2 Types 2 1 Incendiary 2 2 Anti personnel 2 3 Anti tank 2 4 Mine laying 2 5 Chemical weapons 2 6 Anti electrical 2 7 Leaflet dispensing 3 History of use 3 1 Vietnam War 3 2 South Lebanon conflict 1978 3 3 Western Sahara war 1975 1991 3 4 Soviet Afghan War 1979 1989 3 5 Falklands War 3 6 Grenada 1983 3 7 Nagorno Karabakh War 1992 1994 2016 2020 3 8 First Chechen War 1995 3 9 Yugoslavia 1999 3 10 Afghanistan 2001 2002 3 11 Iraq 1991 2003 2006 3 12 Lebanon 1978 1982 and 2006 3 13 Georgia 2008 3 14 Libya 2011 3 15 Syria 2012 3 16 South Sudan 2013 3 17 Ukraine 2014 3 18 Saudi Arabian led intervention in Yemen 2015 2022 3 19 Ethiopia 2021 3 20 Russian invasion of Ukraine 2022 4 Threat to civilians 4 1 Unexploded ordnance 4 1 1 Civilian deaths 4 1 2 Locations 5 International legislation 5 1 International treaties 5 2 Convention on Cluster Munitions 5 2 1 Ratifiers and signatories 5 3 United States policy 6 Users 6 1 Countries 6 2 Non state armed groups 7 Producers 8 Countries with stocks 9 Financiers 10 See also 11 References 11 1 Citations 11 2 Bibliography 12 External links 12 1 Technical 12 2 InquiriesDevelopment SD2 Butterfly Bomb circa 1940 Wings rotate as bomb falls unscrewing the arming spindle connected to the fuze The first significantly operationally used 3 cluster bomb was the German SD 2 or Sprengbombe Dickwandig 2 kg commonly referred to as the Butterfly Bomb 4 It was used in World War II to attack both civilian and military targets The technology was developed independently by the United States Russia and Italy see Thermos bomb The US used the 20 lb M41 fragmentation bomb wired together in clusters of 6 or 25 with highly sensitive or proximity fuzes From the 1970s to the 1990s cluster bombs became standard air dropped munitions for many nations in a wide variety of types They have been produced by 34 countries and used in at least 23 5 Artillery shells that employ similar principles have existed for decades They are typically referred to as ICM Improved Conventional Munitions shells The US military slang terms for them are firecracker or popcorn shells for the many small explosions they cause in the target area Types A US Vietnam era BLU 3 cluster bomblet A basic cluster bomb consists of a hollow shell and then two to more than 2 000 submunitions or bomblets contained within it Some types are dispensers that are designed to be retained by the aircraft after releasing their munitions The submunitions themselves may be fitted with small parachute retarders or streamers to slow their descent allowing the aircraft to escape the blast area in low altitude attacks 6 3 Modern cluster bombs and submunition dispensers can be multiple purpose weapons containing a combination of anti armor anti personnel and anti materiel munitions The submunitions themselves may also be multi purpose such as combining a shaped charge to attack armour with a fragmenting case to attack infantry material and light vehicles They may also have an incendiary function Since the 1990s submunition based weapons have been designed that deploy smart submunitions using thermal and visual sensors to locate and attack particular targets usually armored vehicles Weapons of this type include the US CBU 97 sensor fuzed weapon first used in combat during Operation Iraqi Freedom the 2003 invasion of Iraq Some munitions specifically intended for anti tank use can be set to self destruct if they reach the ground without locating a target theoretically reducing the risk of unintended civilian deaths and injuries Although smart submunition weapons are much more expensive than standard cluster bombs fewer smart submunitions are required to defeat dispersed and mobile targets partly offsetting their cost Because they are designed to prevent indiscriminate area effects and unexploded ordnance risks some smart munitions are excluded from coverage by the Convention on Cluster Munitions 7 8 Incendiary During the Winter War of 1939 1940 the Soviet Union dropped RRAB 3 nicknamed Molotov bread baskets which scattered incendiary bomblets on Finland Incendiary cluster bombs are intended to start fires just like conventional incendiary bombs firebombs They contain submunitions of white phosphorus or napalm and can be combined anti personnel and anti tank submunitions to hamper firefighting efforts 3 In urban areas they have been preceded by the use of conventional explosive bombs to fracture the roofs and walls of buildings to expose their flammable contents One of the earliest examples is the so called Molotov bread basket used by the Soviet Union in the Winter War of 1939 40 Incendiary clusters were extensively used by both sides in the strategic bombings of World War II They caused firestorms and conflagrations in the bombing of Dresden in World War II and the firebombing of Tokyo Some modern bomb submunitions deliver a highly combustible thermobaric aerosol that results in a high pressure explosion when ignited citation needed Anti personnel Anti personnel cluster bombs use explosive fragmentation to kill troops and destroy soft unarmored targets Along with incendiary cluster bombs these were among the first types of cluster bombs produced by Nazi Germany during World War II They were used during the Blitz with delay and booby trap fusing to hamper firefighting and other damage control efforts in the target areas They were also used with a contact fuze when attacking entrenchments These weapons were widely used during the Vietnam War when many thousands of tons of submunitions were dropped on Laos Cambodia and Vietnam 9 Anti tank Most anti armor munitions contain shaped charge warheads to pierce the armor of tanks and armored fighting vehicles In some cases guidance is used to increase the likelihood of successfully hitting a vehicle Modern guided submunitions such as those found in the U S CBU 97 can use either a shaped charge or an explosively formed penetrator Unguided shaped charge submunitions are designed to be effective against entrenchments that incorporate overhead cover To simplify supply and increase battlefield effectiveness by allowing a single type of round to be used against nearly any target submunitions that incorporate both fragmentation and shaped charge effects are produced 10 Mine laying Submunition based mines do not detonate immediately but behave like conventional land mines that detonate later These submunitions usually include a combination of anti personnel and anti tank mines Since such mines lie exposed on surfaces the anti personnel forms such as the US Area Denial Artillery Munition normally deploy tripwires automatically after landing to make clearing the minefield more difficult In order to avoid accumulating large areas of impassable battlefield and to minimize the amount of mine clearing needed after a conflict scatterable mines used by the United States are designed to self destruct after a period of time from 4 to 48 hours The internationally agreed definition of cluster munitions being negotiated in the Oslo Process may not include this type of weapon since landmines are already covered by other international treaties Chemical weapons During the 1950s and 1960s the United States and Soviet Union developed cluster weapons designed to deliver chemical weapons The Chemical Weapons Convention of 1993 banned their use Six member nations declared themselves in possession of chemical weapons The US and Russia are still in the process of destroying their stockpiles having received extensions of the time limit for full destruction They were unable to complete the destruction of their chemical weapons stockpiles by 2007 as the Treaty originally required Anti electrical An anti electrical weapon the CBU 94 B was first used by the U S in the Kosovo War in 1999 These consist of a TMD Tactical Munitions Dispenser filled with 202 BLU 114 B Soft Bomb submunitions Each submunition contains a small explosive charge that disperses 147 reels of fine conductive fiber of either carbon or aluminum coated glass Their purpose is to disrupt and damage electric power transmission systems by producing short circuits in high voltage power lines and electrical substations On the initial attack these knocked out 70 of the electrical power supply in Serbia Leaflet dispensing The LBU 30 is designed for dropping large quantities of propaganda leaflets from aircraft Enclosing the leaflets within the bomblets ensures that the leaflets will fall on the intended area without being dispersed excessively by the wind The LBU 30 consists of SUU 30 dispensers that have been adapted to leaflet dispersal The dispensers are essentially recycled units from old bombs The LBU 30 was tested at Eglin Air Force Base in 2000 by an F 16 flying at 20 000 feet 6 100 m 11 History of use A U S Navy Grumman A 6E Intruder drops CBU 59 cluster bombs over Iranian targets in 1988 Vietnam War During the Vietnam War the US used cluster bombs in air strikes against targets in Vietnam Laos and Cambodia 12 According to The Guardian of the 260 million cluster bomblets that rained down on Laos between 1964 and 1973 particularly on Xieng Khouang province 80 million failed to explode 13 The GlobalPost reports that as of 2009 update about 7 000 people have been injured or killed by explosives left from the Vietnam War era in the Vietnamese Quang Tri Province alone 14 South Lebanon conflict 1978 During the South Lebanon conflict in 1978 the IDF used cluster bombs provided by the United States According to U S President Jimmy Carter this use of the cluster bombs violated the legal agreement between Israel and the U S because the weapons had been provided for defensive purposes against an attack on Israel 15 Israel also transferred American weapons to Saad Haddad s Lebanese militia a violation of American law 15 Carter s administration prepared to notify Congress that American weapons were being used illegally which would have resulted in military aid to Israel being cut off 15 The American consul in Jerusalem informed the Israeli government of their plans and according to Carter Prime Minister Begin said that the operation was over 15 Western Sahara war 1975 1991 During the 16 year long conflict on the territory of Western Sahara the Royal Moroccan Army RMA dropped cluster bombs The RMA used both artillery fired and air dropped cluster munitions BLU 63 M42 and MK118 submunitions were used at multiple locations in Bir Lahlou Tifarity Mehaires Mijek and Awganit More than 300 cluster strike areas have been recorded in the MINURSO Mine Action Coordination Center database Soviet Afghan War 1979 1989 During the Soviet Afghan War the Soviets dealt harshly with Mujaheddin rebels and those who supported them including leveling entire villages to deny safe havens to their enemy and the usage of cluster bombs 16 page needed Falklands War Sea Harriers of the Royal Navy dropped BL755 cluster bombs on Argentinian positions during the Falklands War of 1982 17 Grenada 1983 The United States dropped 21 Rockeye cluster bombs during its invasion of Grenada 18 Nagorno Karabakh War 1992 1994 2016 2020 The armed conflict between Azerbaijan and Armenia in Nagorno Karabakh in 1992 1994 led to the use of cluster munitions against military and civilian targets in the region 19 As of 2010 93 km2 36 sq mi remain off limits due to contamination with unexploded cluster ordnance HALO Trust has made major contributions to the cleanup effort 20 21 During renewed hostilities in April 2016 HALO Trust reported the use of cluster bombs by Azerbaijan having found cluster munitions in the villages of Nerkin Horatagh and Kicik Qarabey 22 Azerbaijan reported that the Armenian forces had used cluster munition against Azerbaijani civilians in the given period 23 According to the Cluster Munition Monitor report in 2010 neither Armenia nor Azerbaijan not acceded to become a member of the Convention on Cluster Munitions 24 Further use of cluster munition was reported during the 2020 Nagorno Karabakh war 25 26 27 The Armenian populated city of Stepanakert came under bombardment throughout the war beginning on the first day Human Rights Watch reported that residential neighborhoods in Stepanakert which lacked any identifiable military targets were hit by the Azerbaijani Army with cluster munitions Human Rights Watch also identified Azerbaijani usage of cluster munitions in Hadrut 28 Human Rights Watch also reported the use of cluster munitions by the Armenian forces during the months long bombardment of Tartar missile attacks on Barda and on Goranboy 29 Amnesty International also confirmed that the Armenian forces had used cluster munitions in Barda 30 which resulted in the deaths of 25 Azerbaijani civilians according to Azerbaijan 31 First Chechen War 1995 Used by Russia see also 1995 Shali cluster bomb attackYugoslavia 1999 See also Nis cluster bombing Used by the US the UK and Netherlands About 2 000 cluster bombs containing 380 000 sub munitions were dropped on Yugoslavia during the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia in 1999 of which the Royal Air Force dropped 531 RBL755 cluster bombs 32 33 On 7 May 1999 between the time of 11 30 and 11 40 a NATO attack was carried out with two containers of cluster bombs and fell in the central part of the city The Pathology building next to the Medical Center of Nis in the south of the city Next to the building of Banovina including the main market bus station next to the Nis Fortress and 12th February Health Centre Parking of Nis Express near river Nisava River Reports claimed that 15 civilians were killed 8 civilians were seriously injured 11 civilians had sustained minor injuries 120 housing units were damaged and 47 were destroyed and that 15 cars were damaged Overall during the operation at least 23 Serb civilians were killed by cluster munitions At least six Serbs including three children were killed by bomblets after the operation ended and up to 23 square kilometres in six areas remain cluster contaminated according to Serbian government including on Mt Kopaonik near the slopes of the ski resort The UK contributed 86 000 to the Serbian Mine Action Centre 32 Afghanistan 2001 2002 United States and other NATO countries used large numbers of cluster munitions during the initial stage of the operation 1 228 cluster bombs containing 248 056 bomblets were used by the Coalition 34 35 Iraq 1991 2003 2006 A US Navy F A 18C Hornet launches from USS Nimitz to a mission in Southern Iraq Among other weapons the plane carries CBU 100 Rockeye cluster bombs Used by the United States and the United Kingdom1991 United States France and the United Kingdom dropped 61 000 cluster bombs containing 20 million submunitions on Iraq according to the HRW 36 2003 2006 United States and allies attacked Iraq with 13 000 cluster munitions containing two million submunitions during Operation Iraqi Freedom according to the HRW 37 At multiple times coalition forces used cluster munitions in residential areas and the country remains among the most contaminated to this day bomblets posing a threat to both US military personnel in the area and local civilians 38 When these weapons were fired on Baghdad on 7 April 2003 many of the bomblets failed to explode on impact Afterward some of them exploded when touched by civilians USA Today reported that the Pentagon presented a misleading picture during the war of the extent to which cluster weapons were being used and of the civilian casualties they were causing On 26 April General Richard Myers chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff said that the US had caused only one civilian casualty 39 Lebanon 1978 1982 and 2006 Extensively used by Israel during the 1978 Israeli invasion of Lebanon the 1982 2000 occupation of Lebanon and also by Hezbollah in the 2006 Lebanon War During the Israeli Lebanese conflict in 1982 Israel used cluster munitions many of them American made on targets in southern Lebanon Israel also used cluster bombs in the 2006 Lebanon War 40 41 42 Two types of cluster munitions were transferred to Israel from the U S The first was the CBU 58 which uses the BLU 63 bomblet This cluster bomb is no longer in production The second was the MK 20 Rockeye produced by Honeywell Incorporated in Minneapolis citation needed The CBU 58 was used by Israel in Lebanon in both 1978 and 1982 40 The Israeli Defense company Israel Military Industries also manufactures the more up to date M 85 cluster bomb Hezbollah fired Chinese manufactured cluster munitions against Israeli civilian targets using 122 mm rocket launchers during the 2006 war hitting Kiryat Motzkin Nahariya Karmiel Maghar and Safsufa A total of 113 rockets and 4 407 submunitions were fired into Israel during the war 43 44 According to the United Nations Mine Action Service Israel dropped up to four million submunitions on Lebanese soil of which one million remain unexploded 45 According to a report prepared by Lionel Beehner for the Council on Foreign Relations the United States restocked Israel s arsenal of cluster bombs triggering a State Department investigation to determine whether Israel had violated secret agreements it had signed with the United States on their use 45 As Haaretz reported in November 2006 the Israel Defense Forces Chief of Staff Dan Halutz wanted to launch an investigation into the use of cluster bombs during the Lebanon war 46 Halutz claimed that some cluster bombs had been fired against his direct order which stated that cluster bombs should be used with extreme caution and not be fired into populated areas The IDF apparently disobeyed this order 46 Human Rights Watch said there was evidence that Israel had used cluster bombs very close to civilian areas and described them as unacceptably inaccurate and unreliable weapons when used around civilians and that they should never be used in populated areas 47 Human Rights Watch has accused Israel of using cluster munitions in an attack on Bilda a Lebanese village on 19 July 48 which killed 1 civilian and injured 12 including seven children The Israeli army defended the use of cluster munitions in its offensive with Lebanon saying that using such munitions was legal under international law and the army employed them in accordance with international standards 49 Foreign Ministry Spokesman Mark Regev added I f NATO countries stock these weapons and have used them in recent conflicts in FR Yugoslavia Afghanistan and Iraq the world has no reason to point a finger at Israel 50 Georgia 2008 Georgia and Russia both were accused of using cluster munitions during the 2008 Russo Georgian War Georgia admitted use Russia denied it Georgia admitted using cluster bombs during the war according to Human Rights Watch but stressed they were only used against military targets 51 The Georgian army used LAR 160 multiple rocket launchers to fire MK4 LAR 160 type rockets with M 85 bomblets with a range of 45 kilometers the Georgian Minister of Defense MoD said 52 Human Rights Watch accused the Russian Air Force of using RBK 250 cluster bombs during the conflict 53 A high ranking Russian military official denied use of cluster bombs 54 The Dutch government after investigating the death of a Dutch citizen claimed that a cluster munition was propelled by an 9K720 Iskander tactical missile used by Russia at the time of conflict and not used by Georgia 55 Libya 2011 It was reported in April 2011 that Colonel Gaddafi s forces had used cluster bombs in the conflict between government forces and rebel forces trying to overthrow Gaddafi s government during the battle of Misrata 56 These reports were denied by the government and the Secretary of State of the US 57 Hillary Clinton said she was not aware of the specific use of cluster or other indiscriminate weapons in Misurata even though a New York Times investigation refuted those claims 58 An ejection canister for a Type 314 A AV submunition manufactured in France was found in Libya despite the fact that France is a party to the international convention that bans cluster munitions 59 Syria 2012 During the Syrian uprising a few videos of cluster bombs first appeared in 2011 but escalated in frequency near the end of 2012 60 61 As Human Rights Watch reported on 13 October 2012 Eliot Higgins who blogs on military hardware and tactics used in Syria under the pseudonym Brown Moses compiled a list of the videos showing cluster munition remnants in Syria s various governorates 60 61 The type of bombs have been reported to be RBK 250 cluster bombs with AO 1 SCH bomblets of Soviet design 61 Designed by the Soviet Union for use on tank and troop formations PTAB 2 5M bomblets were used on civilian targets in Mare in December 2012 by the Syrian government 62 According to the seventh annual Cluster Munition Report there is compelling evidence that Russia has used cluster munitions during their involvement in Syria 63 South Sudan 2013 Cluster bombs remnants were discovered by a UN de mining team in February 2014 on a section of road near the Jonglei state capital Bor The strategic town was the scene of heavy fighting changing hands several times during the South Sudanese Civil War which erupted in the capital Juba on 15 December 2013 before spreading to other parts of the country According to the United Nations Mine Action Service UNMAS the site was contaminated with the remnants of up to eight cluster bombs and an unknown quantity of bomblets 64 Ukraine 2014 Human Rights Watch reported that Ukrainian government forces used cluster munitions in populated areas in Donetsk city in early October 2014 Also circumstances indicate that anti government forces might also have been responsible for the use of cluster munitions 65 Saudi Arabian led intervention in Yemen 2015 2022 See also Human rights violations during the Yemeni Civil War 2015 present British supplied 66 and U S supplied cluster bombs 67 have been used by Saudi Arabian led military coalition against Houthi militias in Yemen according to Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International 68 69 70 71 72 Saudi Arabia is not signatory to the Convention on Cluster Munitions 73 Ethiopia 2021 The New York Times journalist Christiaan Triebert revealed that the Ethiopian Air Force bombings of Samre during the Tigray War are evidenced by multiple photos of the tails of Soviet era cluster bombs likely RBK 250 74 Ethiopia is not signatory to the Convention on Cluster Munitions 75 Russian invasion of Ukraine 2022 See also War crimes in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine and Attacks on civilians in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine Iskander M ballistic missile with cluster warhead wreckage that was shot down over Kramatorsk by the Ukrainian air defenses Human Rights Watch reported the use of cluster munitions by the Russian Armed Forces during the 2022 invasion of Ukraine HRMMU reported 16 credible allegations that Russian armed forces used cluster munitions in populated areas causing in civilian casualties and other damage 76 On 24 February 2022 a Russian 9M79 series Tochka ballistic missile with a 9N123 cluster munition warhead containing 50 9N24 fragmentation submunitions impacted outside a hospital in Vuhledar in Donetsk Oblast Ukraine The attack killed four civilians and wounded ten 77 Further use of cluster munitions such as the Uragan 9M27K and BM 30 Smerch 9M55K cluster rockets is being investigated by Bellingcat through a public appeal for evidence on Twitter 78 According to HRW and Amnesty International Russian troops used cluster munition during an attack on the city of Okhtyrka on the morning of 25 February 2022 76 A 220mm Uragan rocket dropped cluster munitions on a kindergarten in the town As a result of that people were killed including a child 79 The same day non precision guided missiles bearing cluster munitions were deployed against Kharkiv killing at least nine civilians and injuring 37 76 80 The United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights announced on 30 March 2022 that they had credible reports indicating that Russian armed forces had used cluster munitions in populated areas of Ukraine at least 24 times since the start of the conflict on 24 February 81 76 Ukrainian forces reportedly also fired cluster munition rockets on one occasion 82 According to representatives of the self proclaimed Donetsk People s Republic and the Russian Federation Ukrainian armed forces launched a Tochka U missile around 11 a m on 14 March 2022 equipped with cluster sub munitions They said it was intercepted over the centre of Donetsk and several of its cluster sub munitions killed 20 civilians and injured 33 to 37 HRMMU confirmed at least 15 civilian deaths and 36 injured in this incident and at the time of its report was working to corroborate other alleged casualties and whether they were caused by cluster sub munitions 76 On 7 December it was revealed that Ukraine is seeking access to US stockpiles of cluster munitions due to a shortage of ammunition for HIMARS type and 155 mm artillery systems The US has stockpiled its cluster munitions and the US is considering the Ukrainian request Ukraine claims it will give them an edge over Russian artillery as well as preventing depletion of other US and Western stocks 83 Threat to civilians Monument to victims of the Nis cluster bombing While all weapons are dangerous cluster bombs pose a particular threat to civilians for two reasons they have a wide area of effect and they consistently leave behind a large number of unexploded bomblets The unexploded bomblets can remain dangerous for decades after the end of a conflict For example while the United States cluster bombing of Laos stopped in 1973 cluster bombs and other unexploded munitions continued to cause over 100 casualties per year to Laotian civilians as of 2009 update 84 85 Cluster munitions are opposed by many individuals and hundreds of groups such as the Red Cross 86 the Cluster Munition Coalition and the United Nations because of the high number of civilians that have fallen victim to the weapon Since February 2005 Handicap International called for cluster munitions to be prohibited and collected hundreds of thousands of signatures to support its call 87 98 of 13 306 recorded cluster munitions casualties that are registered with Handicap International are civilians while 27 are children 88 The area affected by a single cluster munition known as its footprint can be very large a single unguided M26 MLRS rocket can effectively cover an area of 0 23 km2 57 acres 89 In US and most allied services the M26 has been replaced by the M30 guided missile fired from the MLRS The M30 has greater range and accuracy but a smaller area of coverage It is worth noting that for reasons including both danger to civilians and changing tactical requirements the non cluster unitary warhead XM31 missile is in many cases replacing even the M30 Because of the weapon s broad area of effect they have often been documented as striking both civilian and military objects in the target area This characteristic of the weapon is particularly problematic for civilians when cluster munitions are used in or near populated areas and has been documented by research reports from groups such as Human Rights Watch 90 Landmine Action Mines Action Canada and Handicap International In some cases like the Zagreb rocket attack civilians were deliberately targeted by such weapons 91 Unexploded ordnance Unexploded cluster sub munition probably a BLU 26 type Plain of Jars Laos The other serious problem also common to explosive weapons is unexploded ordnance UXO of cluster bomblets left behind after a strike These bomblets may be duds or in some cases the weapons are designed to detonate at a later stage In both cases the surviving bomblets are live and can explode when handled making them a serious threat to civilians and military personnel entering the area In effect the UXOs can function like land mines Even though cluster bombs are designed to explode prior to or on impact there are always some individual submunitions that do not explode on impact The US made MLRS with M26 warhead and M77 submunitions are supposed to have a 5 dud rate but studies have shown that some have a much higher rate 92 The rate in acceptance tests prior to the Gulf War for this type ranged from 2 to a high of 23 for rockets cooled to 25 F 32 C before testing 93 The M483A1 DPICM artillery delivered cluster bombs have a reported dud rate of 14 94 Given that each cluster bomb can contain hundreds of bomblets and be fired in volleys even a small failure rate can lead each strike to leave behind hundreds or thousands of UXOs scattered randomly across the strike area For example after the 2006 Israel Lebanon conflict UN experts have estimated that as many as one million unexploded bomblets may contaminate the hundreds of cluster munition strike sites in Lebanon 95 M77 submunition of type fired against Lebanon in 1986 Each MLRS rocket has 644 M77 packed in the warhead In addition some cluster bomblets such as the BLU 97 B used in the CBU 87 are brightly colored to increase their visibility and warn off civilians However the yellow color coupled with their small and nonthreatening appearance is attractive to young children who wrongly believe them to be toys This problem was exacerbated in the War in Afghanistan 2001 present when US forces dropped humanitarian rations from airplanes with similar yellow colored packaging as the BLU 97 B yellow being the NATO standard colour for high explosive filler in air weapons The rations packaging was later changed first to blue and then to clear in the hope of avoiding such hazardous confusion The US military is developing new cluster bombs that it claims could have a much lower less than 1 dud rate 96 Sensor fused weapons that contain a limited number of submunitions that are capable of autonomously engaging armored targets may provide a viable if costly alternative to cluster munitions that will allow multiple target engagement with one shell or bomb while avoiding the civilian deaths and injuries consistently documented from the use of cluster munitions Certain such weapons may be allowed under the recently adopted Convention on Cluster Munitions provided they do not have the indiscriminate area effects or pose the unexploded ordnance risks of cluster munitions In the 1980s the Spanish firm Esperanza y Cia developed a 120mm caliber mortar bomb which contained 21 anti armor submunitions What made the 120mm Espin unique was the electrical impact fusing system which totally eliminated dangerous duds The system operates on a capacitor in each submunition which is charged by a wind generator in the nose of the projectile after being fired If for what ever reason the electrical fuse fails to function on impact approximately 5 minutes later the capacitor bleeds out therefore neutralizing the submunition s electronic fuse system 97 Later a similar mortar round was offered in the 81mm caliber and equipped some Spanish Marines units On signing the Wellington Declaration on Cluster Munitions Spain withdrew both the 81mm and 120mm Espin rounds from its military units Civilian deaths In Vietnam people are still being killed as a result of cluster bombs and other objects left by the US and Vietnamese military forces Hundreds of people are killed or injured annually by unexploded ordnance 98 Some 270 million cluster submunitions were dropped on Laos in the 1960s and 1970s approximately one third of these submunitions failed to explode and continue to pose a threat today 99 Within the first year after the end of the Kosovo War more than 100 civilians died from unexploded bombs and mines During the war NATO planes dropped nearly 1 400 cluster bombs in Kosovo Cluster bombs make up to 40 of mines and unexploded bombs in Kosovo 100 Israel used cluster bombs in Lebanon in 1978 and in the 1980s Those weapons used more than two decades ago by Israel continue to affect Lebanon 101 During the 2006 war in Lebanon Israel fired large numbers of cluster bombs in Lebanon containing an estimated more than 4 million cluster submunitions In the first month following the ceasefire unexploded cluster munitions killed or injured an average of 3 4 people per day 102 Locations Ban Advocates from Afghanistan and Ethiopia demonstrating outside of the Dublin conference Countries and disputed territories listed in italic that have been affected by cluster munitions as of August 2019 include 103 Afghanistan Angola Azerbaijan mainly Nagorno Karabakh Bosnia amp Herzegovina Cambodia Chad Croatia Democratic Republic of the Congo Eritrea 104 Ethiopia 105 Germany Iran Iraq Laos Lebanon Libya Montenegro Serbia South Sudan Sudan Syria Tajikistan Ukraine United Kingdom Falkland Islands Vietnam Yemen Kosovo Western Sahara As of August 2019 it is unclear whether Colombia and Georgia are contaminated 103 Albania the Republic of the Congo Grenada Guinea Bissau Mauritania Mozambique Norway Zambia Uganda and Thailand completed clearance of areas contaminated by cluster munition remnants in previous years 103 International legislation Erik Thorstvedt leads a Norwegian parade celebrating the effectuation of the Convention on Cluster Munitions 31 July 2010 Photo Norsk Folkehjelp Cluster bombs fall under the general rules of international humanitarian law but were not specifically covered by any currently binding international legal instrument until the signature of the Convention on Cluster Munitions in December 2008 This international treaty stemmed from an initiative by Stoltenberg s Second Cabinet known as the Oslo Process which was launched in February 2007 to prohibit cluster munitions 106 More than 100 countries agreed to the text of the resulting Convention on Cluster Munitions in May 2008 which sets out a comprehensive ban on these weapons This treaty was signed by 94 states in Oslo on 3 4 December 2008 The Oslo Process was launched largely in response to the failure of the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons CCW where five years of discussions failed to find an adequate response to these weapons 107 The Cluster Munition Coalition CMC is campaigning for the widespread accession to and ratification of the Convention on Cluster Munitions A number of sections of the Protocol on explosive remnants of war Protocol V to the 1980 Convention 28 November 2003 108 occasionally address some of the problems associated with the use of cluster munitions in particular Article 9 which mandates States Parties to take generic preventive measures aimed at minimising the occurrence of explosive remnants of war In June 2006 Belgium was the first country to issue a ban on the use carrying transportation export stockpiling trade and production of cluster munitions 109 and Austria followed suit on 7 December 2007 5 There has been legislative activity on cluster munitions in several countries including Austria Australia Denmark France Germany Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom and United States In some of these countries ongoing discussions concerning draft legislation banning cluster munitions along the lines of the legislation adopted in Belgium and Austria will now turn to ratification of the global ban treaty Norway and Ireland have national legislation prohibiting cluster munitions and were able to deposit their instruments of ratification to the Convention on Cluster Munitions immediately after signing it in Oslo on 3 December 2008 International treaties Nations subscribing to the Wellington Declaration which led to the Convention on Cluster Munitions Other weapons such as land mines have been banned in many countries under specific legal instruments for several years notably the Ottawa Treaty to ban land mines and some of the Protocols in the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons that also help clearing the lands contaminated by left munitions after the end of conflicts and provides international assistance to the affected populations However until the recent adoption of the Convention on Cluster Munitions in Dublin in May 2008 cluster bombs were not banned by any international treaty and were considered legitimate weapons by some governments To increase pressure for governments to come to an international treaty on 13 November 2003 the Cluster Munition Coalition CMC was established with the goal of addressing the impact of cluster munitions on civilians At the launch organised by Pax Christi Netherlands the then Minister of Foreign Affairs the later Secretary General of NATO Jaap de Hoop Scheffer addressed the crowd of gathered government NGO and press representatives International governmental deliberations in the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons turned on the broader problem of explosive remnants of war a problem to which cluster munitions have contributed in a significant way There were consistent calls from the Cluster Munition Coalition the International Committee of the Red Cross ICRC and a number of UN agencies joined by approximately 30 governments for international governmental negotiations to develop specific measures that would address the humanitarian problems cluster munitions pose This did not prove possible in the conventional multilateral forum After a reversal in the US position in 2007 deliberations did begin on cluster munitions within the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons There was a concerted effort led by the US to develop a new protocol to the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons but this proposal was rejected by over 50 states together with civil society ICRC and UN agencies 110 The discussions ended with no result in November 2011 leaving the 2008 Convention on Cluster Munitions as the single international standard on the weapons 111 In February 2006 Belgium announced its decision to ban the weapon by law Then Norway announced a national moratorium in June and Austria announced its decision in July to work for an international instrument on the weapon The international controversy over the use and impact of cluster munitions during the war between Lebanon and Israel in July and August 2006 added weight to the global campaign for a ban treaty 112 Ugandan demonstrator at the May 2008 Dublin conference for the Convention on Cluster Munitions Against this background a new flexible multilateral process similar to the process that led to the ban on anti personnel land mines in 1997 the Ottawa Treaty began with an announcement in November 2006 113 in Geneva as well at the same time by the Government of Norway that it would convene an international meeting in early 2007 in Oslo to work towards a new treaty prohibiting cluster munitions Forty nine governments attended the meeting in Oslo 22 23 February 2007 in order to reaffirm their commitment to a new international ban on the weapon During the meeting Austria announced an immediate moratorium on the use production and transfer of cluster munitions until a new international treaty banning the weapons is in place A follow up meeting in this process was held in Lima in May where around 70 states discussed the outline of a new treaty Hungary became the latest country to announce a moratorium and Peru launched an initiative to make Latin America a cluster munition free zone 114 In addition the ICRC held an experts meeting on cluster munitions in April 2007 which helped clarify technical legal military and humanitarian aspects of the weapon with a view to developing an international response 115 Further meetings took place in Vienna on 4 7 December 2007 and in Wellington on 18 22 February 2008 where a declaration in favor of negotiations on a draft convention was adopted by more than 80 countries In May 2008 after around 120 countries had subscribed to the Wellington Declaration and participated in the Dublin Diplomatic Conference from 19 to 30 May 2008 At the end of this conference 107 countries agreed to adopt the Convention on Cluster Munitions that bans cluster munitions and was opened for signature in Oslo on 3 4 December 2008 where it was signed by 94 countries 116 117 118 In July 2008 United States Defense Secretary Robert M Gates implemented a policy to eliminate by 2018 all cluster bombs that do not meet new safety standards 119 In November 2008 ahead of the signing Conference in Oslo 120 the European Parliament passed a resolution calling on all European Union governments to sign and ratify the Convention 121 On 16 February 2010 Burkina Faso became the 30th state to deposit its instrument of ratification for the Convention on Cluster Munitions This means that the number of States required for the Convention to enter into force had been reached The treaty s obligations became legally binding on the 30 ratifying States on 1 August 2010 and subsequently for other ratifying States 122 Convention on Cluster Munitions Main article Convention on Cluster Munitions Taking effect on 1 August 2010 the Convention on Cluster Munitions 123 bans the stockpiling use and transfer of virtually all existing cluster bombs and provides for the clearing up of unexploded munitions It had been signed by 108 countries of which 38 had ratified it by the affected date but many of the world s major military powers including the United States Russia Brazil and China are not signatories to the treaty 124 125 126 127 Ratifiers and signatories This section duplicates the scope of other sections Please discuss this issue on the talk page and edit it to conform with Wikipedia s Manual of Style by replacing the section with a link and a summary of the repeated material or by spinning off the repeated text into an article in its own right April 2021 The Convention on Cluster Munitions entered into force on 1 August 2010 six months after it was ratified by 30 states As of 26 September 2018 a total of 120 states have joined the Convention as 104 States parties and 16 signatories 128 For an updated list of countries see Convention on Cluster Munitions State parties United States policy USAF B 1 Lancer dropping CBU cluster bombs According to the US State Department the U S suspended operational use of cluster munitions in 2003 129 U S arguments favoring the use of cluster munitions are that their use reduces the number of aircraft and artillery systems needed to support military operations and if they were eliminated significantly more money would have to be spent on new weapons ammunition and logistical resources Also militaries would need to increase their use of massed artillery and rocket barrages to get the same coverage which would destroy or damage more key infrastructures 129 The U S was initially against any CCW limitation negotiations but dropped its opposition in June 2007 Cluster munitions have been determined as needed for ensuring the country s national security interests but measures were taken to address humanitarian concerns of their use as well as pursuing their original suggested alternative to a total ban of pursuing technological fixes to make the weapons no longer viable after the end of a conflict 129 In May 2008 then Acting Assistant Secretary of State for Political Military Affairs Stephen Mull stated that the U S military relies upon cluster munitions as an important part of their war strategy 130 Mull emphasized that U S forces simply cannot fight by design or by doctrine without holding out at least the possibility of using cluster munitions The U S Army ceased procurement of GMLRS cluster rockets in December 2008 because of a submunition dud rate as high as five percent Pentagon policy was to have all cluster munitions used after 2018 to have a submunition unexploded ordnance rate of less than one percent To achieve this the Army undertook the Alternative Warhead Program AWP to assess and recommend technologies to reduce or eliminate cluster munition failures as some 80 percent of U S military cluster weapons reside in Army artillery stockpiles 129 In July 2012 the U S fired at a target area with 36 Guided Multiple Launch Rocket System GMLRS unitary warhead rockets Analysis indicated that capability gaps existed as cluster munitions require approval by the Combatant Commander which reduced the advantage of responsive precision fire The same effect could have been made by four Alternative Warhead AW GMLRS rockets under development by the AWP to engage the same target set as cluster munitions Without access to the AW the operation required using nine times as many rockets cost nine times as much 3 6 million compared to 400 000 and took 40 times as long more than 20 minutes compared to less than 30 seconds to execute 131 Starting with the Omnibus Appropriations Act 2009 P L 111 8 annual Consolidated Appropriations Act legislation has placed export moratorium language on cluster weapons since then On 19 May 2011 the Defense Security Cooperation Agency issued a memorandum prohibiting the sale of all but the CBU 97B CBU 105 Sensor Fuzed Weapon because the others have been demonstrated to have a unexploded ordnance rate of greater than 1 132 133 On 30 November 2017 the Pentagon put off indefinitely their planned ban on using cluster bombs after 2018 as they had been unable to produce submunitions with failure rates of 1 or less Since it is unclear how long it might take to achieve that standard a months long policy review concluded the deadline should be postponed deployment of existing cluster weapons is left to commanders discretion to authorize their use when deemed necessary until sufficient quantities of safer versions are developed and fielded 134 135 UsersCountries At least 25 countries have used cluster munitions in recent history since the creation of the United Nations Countries listed in bold have signed and ratified the Convention on Cluster Munitions agreeing in principle to ban cluster bombs Countries listed in italic have signed but not yet ratified the Convention on Cluster Munitions Armenia 136 137 Azerbaijan 138 Bahrain 139 140 Colombia 141 142 Egypt 143 140 Ethiopia 105 Eritrea 104 France 144 Georgia 145 Iraq 146 Israel 147 Libya 148 Morocco 149 Netherlands 150 Nigeria 151 152 responsibility denied Russia 153 Saudi Arabia 154 South Africa 155 Sri Lanka 156 responsibility denied Sudan 157 Syria 158 Thailand 159 United States 160 Ukraine 161 162 responsibility denied 162 163 In addition at least two countries that no longer exist the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia 18 have used cluster bombs In some cases the responsibility or even the use of cluster munition is denied by the local government Non state armed groups Very few violent non state actors have used cluster munitions and their delivery systems due to the complexity 164 As of August 2019 cluster munitions have been used in conflicts by non state actors in at least six countries 164 Croatian militia 164 Hezbollah 164 Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant 164 Northern Alliance 164 Serbian militia 164 Separatist forces of the war in Donbass 164 ProducersAt least 31 nations have produced cluster munitions in recent history since the creation of the United Nations Many of these nations still have stocks of these munitions 165 166 Most but not all of them are involved in recent wars or long unsolved international conflicts however most of them did not use the munitions they produced Countries listed in bold have signed and ratified the Convention on Cluster Munitions agreeing in principle to ban cluster bombs As of September 2018 countries marked with an Asterisk officially ceased production of cluster munitions Belgium 167 Bosnia and Herzegovina 168 Brazil 169 Chile 170 China 171 Croatia 172 Egypt 143 France 144 Germany 173 Greece 174 India 175 Iran 176 Iraq 146 Israel 147 Japan 177 Netherlands 150 North Korea 178 South Korea 179 Pakistan 180 Poland 181 Romania 182 Russia 153 Singapore 183 Slovakia 184 South Africa 185 Spain 186 Sweden 187 Taiwan 188 Turkey 189 United Kingdom 190 United States 160 Countries with stocksAs of September 2018 at least 57 countries have stockpiles of cluster munitions 165 166 Countries listed in bold have signed and ratified the Convention on Cluster Munitions agreeing in principle that their stockpiles should be destroyed Countries listed in italic have signed but not yet ratified the Convention on Cluster Munitions countries marked with an Asterisk are in the process of destroying their stockpiles Algeria 191 Azerbaijan 138 Bahrain 139 Belarus 192 Botswana 193 Brazil 169 Bulgaria 194 Cambodia 195 China 171 Cyprus 196 Egypt 143 Eritrea 104 Estonia 197 Ethiopia 105 Finland 198 Georgia 145 Greece 174 Guinea 199 Guinea Bissau 200 India 175 Indonesia 201 Iran 202 Israel 147 Jordan 203 Kazakhstan 204 North Korea 178 South Korea 179 Kuwait 205 Libya 148 Morocco 149 Nigeria 151 Oman 206 Pakistan 180 Peru 207 Poland 181 Qatar 208 Romania 182 Russia 153 Saudi Arabia 154 Serbia 209 Singapore 183 Slovakia 184 South Africa 185 Sudan 157 Switzerland 210 Syria 158 Taiwan 188 Thailand 159 Turkey 189 Turkmenistan 211 Ukraine 162 United Arab Emirates 212 United States 160 Uzbekistan 213 Venezuela 214 Yemen 140 Zimbabwe 215 FinanciersAccording to BankTrack an international network of NGOs specializing in control of financial institutions many major banks and other financial corporations either directly financed or provided financial services to companies producing cluster munition in 2005 2012 Among other BankTrack 2012 report 216 names ABN AMRO Bank of America Bank of China Bank of Tokyo Mitsubishi UFJ Barclays BBVA BNP Paribas Citigroup Commerzbank AG Commonwealth Bank of Australia Credit Agricole Credit Suisse Group Deutsche Bank Goldman Sachs HSBC Industrial Bank of China ING Group JPMorgan Chase Korea Development Bank Lloyds TSB Merrill Lynch Morgan Stanley Royal Bank of Canada Royal Bank of Scotland Sberbank Societe Generale UBS Wells Fargo Many of these financial companies are connected to such producers of cluster munitions as Alliant Techsystems China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation Hanwha Norinco Singapore Technologies Engineering Textron and others 217 According to Pax Christi a Netherlands based NGO in 2009 around 137 financial institutions financed cluster munition production 218 Out of 137 institutions 63 were based in the US another 18 in the EU the United Kingdom France Germany Italy etc 16 were based in China 4 in Singapore 3 in each of Canada Japan Taiwan 2 in Switzerland and 4 other countries had 1 financial institution involved 219 See alsoAnti runway penetration bomb Ban Advocates Bomb disposal Demining List of cluster bombs Mines Advisory Group Fares Scale of Injuries due to Cluster Munitions Cluster Munition CoalitionReferencesCitations Treaty status The Treaty CMC www stopclustermunitions org Retrieved 15 May 2018 Convention on Cluster Munition Website The Convention on Cluster Munition Geneva Switzerland February 10 2022 Archived from the original on 2008 06 12 Retrieved March 1 2022 a b c A Guide to Cluster Munitions PDF Geneva GICHD November 2007 p 28 ISBN 978 2 940369 07 2 Rogers James I 2013 06 21 Remembering the terror the Luftwaffe s butterfly bombs brought to the North The Guardian ISSN 0261 3077 Retrieved 2017 02 09 a b Austria bans cluster munitions International Herald Tribune 7 Dec 2007 How Cluster Bombs Work HI Retrieved 2021 02 03 Twelve Facts and Fallacies about the Convention on Cluster Munitions Human Rights Watch 14 April 2009 Retrieved 29 April 2021 Convention on Cluster Munitions PDF clusterconvention org May 30 2008 p 2 Art 2 Nr 2 Archived from the original PDF on January 27 2021 Retrieved February 3 2021 Cluster Weapons Convenience or necessity Archived October 4 2006 at the Wayback Machine Anti Tank submunitions shaped charge effects are produced Cluster Bomb Development History YTread youtuberead com Retrieved 2023 04 05 Global Security org LBU 30 Loy Irwin 7 December 2010 Vietnam s Cluster Bomb Shadow GlobalPost Tokyo Retrieved 29 July 2012 MacKinnon Ian 3 December 2008 Forty years on Laos reaps bitter harvest of the secret war The Guardian London Retrieved 29 July 2012 Eaton Daysha 6 June 2010 In Vietnam cluster bombs still plague countryside GlobalPost Boston MA Retrieved 29 July 2012 a b c d Jimmy Carter 1993 The blood of Abraham insights into the Middle East University of Arkansas Press pp 92 93 ISBN 978 1 55728 862 2 As reported by Human Rights Watch Afghanistan The Forgotten War Human Rights Abuses and Violations of the Laws of War Since the Soviet Withdrawal 1 February 1991 United Kingdom Landmine amp Cluster Munition Monitor Retrieved 26 May 2021 a b Meeting the Challenge I The Technological Evolution and Early Proliferation and Use of Cluster Munitions Human Rights Watch 22 November 2010 Retrieved 27 September 2018 Safikhanov Hafiz March 2008 Cluster Munitions Monitoring and Information Campaign in Azerbaijan Journal of Conventional Weapons Destruction 12 2 1 2 Retrieved 4 October 2020 The HALO Trust A charity specialising in the removal of the debris of war British Embassy Yerevan holds event for HALO Archived from the original on 2012 12 26 Retrieved 15 May 2018 Nagorno Karabakh Landmine and Cluster Munition Monitor Archived from the original on 16 June 2015 Retrieved 15 May 2018 HALO begins emergency clearance in Nagorno Karabakh Mine Free NK Retrieved 15 May 2018 Azerbaijani MFA Armenian use of cluster munition serves only committing mass destruction among civilians REPORT AZ Retrieved 4 October 2020 Cluster Munition Monitor 2010 PDF Landmine amp Cluster Munition Monitor pp 193 194 Retrieved 4 October 2020 Beaumont Peter Safi Michael 8 October 2020 Nagorno Karabakh conflict both sides accused of using cluster bombs The Guardian Azerbaijan says Armenian forces shell second city of Ganja The Jerusalem Post Jpost com Reuters Retrieved 4 October 2020 Hikmat Hajiyev Dropping banned bombs on populated areas once again shows that Armenia is a terrorist state AZERTAC 4 October 2020 Retrieved 4 October 2020 Azerbaijan Cluster Munitions Used in Nagorno Karabakh Human Rights Watch 2020 10 23 Armenia Unlawful Rocket Missile Strikes on Azerbaijan Human Rights Watch 11 December 2020 Retrieved 11 December 2020 Armenia Azerbaijan First confirmed use of cluster munitions by Armenia cruel and reckless Amnesty International 29 October 2020 Retrieved 29 October 2020 Azerbaijan says Armenia used cluster bombs in deadly Barda attack aljazeera com Al Jazeera 28 October 2020 Wednesday s strike marked the deadliest reported attack on civilians in a month of fighting over Nagorno Karabakh a b Brady Brian 2007 09 16 Nato comes clean on cluster bombs The Independent London Archived from the original on December 27 2009 Retrieved 2011 04 16 SRBIJI NE PRETE SAMO KASETNE BOMBE Archived 2011 07 22 at the Wayback Machine in Serbian only Martin Scott Obama moves to legalize cluster munitions Retrieved 15 May 2018 Cluster bombs remain in 69 nations Retrieved 15 May 2018 Iraq Cluster Treaty Approval Should Inspire Neighbors to Join 9 December 2009 Retrieved 15 May 2018 Estados Unidos Cientos de muertes de civiles en Irak pudieron prevenirse 11 December 2003 Retrieved 15 May 2018 Wiseman Paul 16 December 2003 Cluster bombs kill in Iraq even after shooting ends USA Today Wiseman Paul 16 December 2003 Cluster bombs kill in Iraq even after shooting ends USA Today a b MCC Cluster Bombs Archived November 21 2006 at the Wayback Machine Use of Cluster Bombs Is Confirmed by Israel The New York Times 1982 06 28 Retrieved 2010 03 27 President Reagan News Conferences amp Interviews on the Middle East Israel 1982 www jewishvirtuallibrary org Retrieved 15 May 2018 Lebanon Israel Hezbollah Hit Israel with Cluster Munitions During Conflict 18 October 2006 Retrieved 15 May 2018 State snubbed war victim family says Ynet 30 August 2007 Archived from the original on 2 June 2008 Retrieved 13 July 2008 a b Beehner Lionel 2006 11 21 The Campaign to Ban Cluster Bombs cfr org Council on Foreign Relations Retrieved 2020 02 17 a b Hasson Nir Rapoport Meron 2006 11 20 Halutz Orders Probe Into Use of Cluster Bombs in Lebanon Haaretz Tel Aviv Retrieved 2020 02 17 Israeli Cluster Munitions Hit Civilians in Lebanon HRW 2006 07 24 Archived from the original on 2008 11 13 Retrieved 2016 12 04 Middle East Rice Calls For A New Middle East Radio Free Europe 2006 07 25 EXTRA Israel defends use of cluster munitions Deutsche Presse Agentur 25 July 2006 LexisNexis Academic Friedman Ina Deadly Remnants The Jerusalem Report 13 November 2006 20 22 Georgia Civil Civil Ge www civil ge Retrieved 15 May 2018 Georgia Civil Civil Ge MoD Says it Used Cluster Bombs but not in Populated Areas www civil ge Retrieved 15 May 2018 Georgia Russian Cluster Bombs Kill Civilians Human Rights Watch 14 8 2008 www hrw org 15 August 2008 Archived from the original on 19 July 2020 Retrieved 15 May 2018 Russia used cluster bombs in Georgia rights group Reuters August 15 2008 Dutch government report on Storimans death concludes cluster bomb propelled by Russian SS 26 pdf Archived June 9 2010 at the Wayback Machine Taylor Jerome These indiscriminate killers leave their deadly legacy from Libya to Lebanon The Independent 16 August 2011 Retrieved 17 August 2011 Chivers C J 15 April 2011 Qaddafi Troops Fire Cluster Bombs into Civilian Areas New York Times Retrieved 15 April 2011 Chivers C J Down the Rabbit Hole Qaddafi s Cluster Munitions and the Age of Internet Claims The New York Times June 23 2011 Retrieved July 13 2011 Chivers C J 2012 10 10 French Cluster Munitions in Libya and a Call for Help At War Blog Retrieved 2021 02 03 a b Syria New Evidence Military Dropped Cluster Bombs Human Rights Watch October 13 2012 Archived from the original on October 14 2012 Retrieved October 13 2012 a b c Cluster Bomb Usage Rises Significantly Across Syria Brown Moses Blog October 13 2012 Retrieved October 13 2012 C J Chivers December 20 2012 Syria Unleashes Cluster Bombs on Town Punishing Civilians The New York Times Retrieved December 21 2012 Sewell Chan September 1 2016 Report Finds Ban Hasn t Halted Use of Cluster Bombs in Syria or Yemen The New York Times Retrieved June 12 2019 Ugandan army won t take part in cluster bomb investigation spokesperson Archived 2014 05 20 at the Wayback Machine Sudan Tribune 19 Feb 2014 Ukraine Widespread Use of Cluster Munitions Human Rights Watch 2014 10 20 Retrieved 2023 05 06 Saudi Arabia admits it used UK made cluster bombs in Yemen The Guardian 19 December 2016 Yemen Saudi Arabia used cluster bombs rights groups says BBC News 3 May 2015 Saudis used cluster bombs in Yemen BBC News 3 May 2015 Retrieved 15 May 2018 Fahim Kareem 3 May 2015 Saudi Led Group Said to Use Cluster Bombs in Yemen The New York Times Retrieved 15 May 2018 Saudi Arabia uses terrorism as an excuse for human rights abuses Al Jazeera America December 3 2015 Yemen Cluster Munitions Wound Children Human Rights Watch 17 March 2017 Yemen Denounces Saudi Led Coalition s Use of Cluster Bombs in Sana a Video Tasnim News Agency 9 February 2022 Cluster Munition Coalition Take Action CMC www stopclustermunitions org Retrieved 15 May 2018 Nyssen J 2021 Cluster bombing on Tigray by the Ethiopian army more than 500 homesteads destroyed in Gijet Cluster Munition Coalition Take Action CMC www stopclustermunitions org Retrieved 20 October 2021 a b c d e HRMMU Update on the human rights situation in Ukraine 24 February 26 March 2022 PDF Report UN Human Rights Monitoring Mission in Ukraine 28 March 2022 Ukraine Russian Cluster Munition Hits Hospital Human Rights Watch 25 February 2022 Retrieved 27 February 2022 bellingcat February 26 2022 We are seeking images of Uragan 9M27K and Smerch 9M55K cluster rocket and their submunitions from the current fighting in Ukraine as well as videos of suspected cluster munition attacks Tweet Retrieved February 27 2022 via Twitter Ukraine Cluster munitions kill child and two other civilians taking shelter at a preschool Amnesty International 27 February 2022 Retrieved 28 February 2022 Cheetham Josh Devlin Kayleen Goodman Jack Korenyuk Maria 3 March 2022 Anatomy of an attack Is Russia using cluster bombs in Ukraine BBC News Ukraine war Russia used cluster weapons at least 24 times says UN s Bachelet UN News Bostock Bill 19 April 2022 Ukraine used cluster munitions which many countries have banned to force Russian troops out of a village report says Yahoo News Retrieved 20 April 2022 Natasha Bertrand Alex Marquardt and Zachary Cohen 7 December 2022 Exclusive Biden administration weighs Ukrainian requests for access to US stockpile of controversial cluster munitions CNN Retrieved 8 December 2022 Cluster Bomb Fact Sheet Legacies of War Archived from the original on 2019 11 01 Retrieved 2019 11 05 Lance Rachel The Enduring Danger of Cluster Bombs Wired ISSN 1059 1028 Retrieved 2 April 2022 International Committee of the Red Cross 3 October 2013 Retrieved 15 May 2018 clusterbombs org www clusterbombs org Archived from the original on 2013 07 24 Retrieved 2022 03 04 konsoleH Login en handicapinternational be Archived from the original on 11 October 2017 Retrieved 15 May 2018 M26 Multiple Launch Rocket System MLRS Retrieved 15 May 2018 Off Target The Conduct of the War and Civilian Casualties in Iraq PDF Human Rights Watch December 2003 Archived from the original PDF on June 24 2006 Retrieved 2009 06 22 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Summary of Judgement for Milan Martic International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia June 2007 Archived from the original on December 15 2007 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help 1 Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition Technology and Logistics Unexploded Ordnance Report table 2 3 p 5 No date but transmitted to the U S Congress on February 29 2000 Operation Desert Storm Casualties Caused by Improper Handling of Unexploded U S Submunitions PDF US General Accounting Office August 1993 Retrieved 2006 09 01 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Cluster Munitions a Foreseeable Hazard in Iraq Human Rights Watch Briefing Paper Retrieved 2011 07 13 Million bomblets in S Lebanon BBC 2006 09 26 Retrieved 2006 09 26 Army RDT amp E Budget Item Justification Item No 177 MLRS Product Improvement Program PDF Defense Technical Information Center February 1993 Archived PDF from the original on 2007 06 28 Retrieved 2006 09 01 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Jane s Ammunition Handbook 1994 page 362 Clear Path International Assisting Landmine Survivors their Families and their Communities Laos the enduring threat from cluster munitions Archived August 22 2010 at the Wayback Machine Kosovo mine expert criticises Nato BBC News 2000 05 23 Retrieved 2010 04 30 Israeli Cluster Munitions Hit Civilians in Lebanon Human Rights Watch 24 7 2006 www hrw org 24 July 2006 Archived from the original on 13 November 2008 Retrieved 15 May 2018 UKWGLM 18377 pdf PDF Archived from the original PDF on 2012 04 11 Retrieved 15 May 2018 a b c Cluster Munition Monitor 2019 PDF International Campaign to Ban Landmines Cluster Munition Coalition August 2019 pp 37 39 ISBN 978 2 9701146 5 9 Retrieved 2020 02 17 a b c Eritrea Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 26 June 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 a b c Ethiopia Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 26 June 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 The Norwegian Government s initiative for a ban on cluster munitions The Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs Archived from the original on January 11 2009 Webcast from the Oslo Conference on Cluster Munitions The Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs Archived from the original on 2011 06 09 Retrieved 2011 07 13 Treaties States parties and Commentaries CCW Protocol V on Explosive Remnants of War 2003 www icrc org Retrieved 15 May 2018 Moniteur Belge Belgisch Staatsblad www ejustice just fgov be Retrieved 15 May 2018 CCW review conference ends with rejection of US backed proposal for protocol that would allow cluster bomb use Archived from the original on 2011 12 10 Retrieved 2011 11 26 US led attempt to allow cluster bomb use is rejected at UN negotiations Barak Eitan 13 May 2010 Eitan Barak Doomed to Be Violated The U S Israeli Clandestine End User Agreement and the Second Lebanon War Lessons for the Convention on Cluster Munitions SSRN 1606304 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Foulkes Imogen 2006 11 12 New bomb clean up treaty begins BBC News Retrieved 2010 04 30 Report on Lima Conference Cluster Munition Coalition Archived from the original on November 21 2007 Expert Meeting Report Humanitarian Military Technical and Legal Challenges of Cluster Munitions ICRC 3 October 2013 Message from Minister for Foreign Affairs Micheal Martin T D www clustermunitionsdublin ie Archived from the original on 19 June 2008 Retrieved 15 May 2018 International ban on cluster munitions The Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs Archived from the original on 2011 06 09 Retrieved 2011 07 13 News Media CMC www stopclustermunitions org Retrieved 15 May 2018 United States Department of Defense www defenselink mil Retrieved 15 May 2018 Signing Conference Website Archived 2008 12 16 at the Wayback Machine last retrieved on 28 November 2008 Cluster bombs MEPs to press for signature of treaty ban Archived 2009 02 22 at the Wayback Machine last retrieved on 19 November 2008 Convention on Cluster Munitions to enter into force on 1 August 2010 ICRC web site Convention on cluster munitions convention text in English Archived August 19 2010 at the Wayback Machine Hughes Stuart 1 August 2010 Cluster bomb ban comes into force BBC News Retrieved 15 May 2018 Cluster Munitions Treaty to Take Effect Sunday Archived from the original on 6 August 2010 Retrieved 15 May 2018 Belanger Louis 30 July 2010 Cluster Bombs Treaty becomes int l law Years of campaigning reap results HuffPost Retrieved 15 May 2018 Canada Post UN chief hails Aug 1 entry into force of treaty banning cluster bombs dead link States Parties and Signatories by region 12 January 2011 Archived from the original on 10 February 2022 Retrieved 15 May 2018 a b c d Cluster Munitions Background and Issues for Congress Fas org 30 June 2013 Cluster Munitions 2001 2009 state gov 2023 05 06 Retrieved 2023 05 06 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint url status link PageNotFound PDF www dau mil Archived from the original PDF on 2017 02 01 Retrieved 15 May 2018 United States Cluster Munition Ban Policy ICBL CMC 24 November 2020 Cluster Munitions Background and Issues for Congress PDF Congressional Research Service 9 March 2022 US Putting Off Planned Ban on Its Use of Cluster Bombs Military com 30 November 2017 Feickert Andrew Kerr Paul K December 17 2017 Cluster Munitions Background and Issues for Congress PDF Washington D C Congressional Research Service Retrieved 24 January 2018 Armenia Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org Retrieved 27 September 2018 Nagorno Karabakh Area Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 26 June 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 a b Azerbaijan Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 3 July 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 a b Bahrain Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 3 July 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 a b c Yemen Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 2 August 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 Colombia Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 26 June 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 Colombia Cluster Munition Ban Policy archives the monitor org 2 September 2013 Retrieved 27 September 2018 a b c Egypt Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 2 August 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 a b France Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 3 July 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 a b Georgia Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 26 June 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 a b Iraq Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 9 July 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 a b c Israel Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 2 August 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 a b Libya Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 2 August 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 a b Morocco Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 3 July 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 a b Netherlands Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 8 August 2016 Retrieved 27 September 2018 a b Nigeria Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 2 August 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 Nigeria Cluster Munition Ban Policy archives the monitor org 12 August 2014 Retrieved 27 September 2018 a b c Russia Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 7 August 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 a b Saudi Arabia Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 3 July 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 Edward McGill Alexander July 2003 Appendix A to Chapter 9 of the Cassinga Raid PDF University of South Africa Retrieved 27 September 2018 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Sri Lanka Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 9 July 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 a b Sudan Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 9 July 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 a b Syria Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 2 August 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 a b Thailand Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 3 July 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 a b c United States Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 2 August 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 Ukraine Widespread Use of Cluster Munitions 20 October 2014 Retrieved 15 May 2018 a b c Ukraine Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 2 August 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 Ostaptschuk Markian 23 October 2014 Doubts arise over HRW cluster bomb report in Ukraine dw com Retrieved 27 September 2018 a b c d e f g h Cluster Munition Monitor 2019 PDF International Campaign to Ban Landmines Cluster Munition Coalition August 2019 p 15 ISBN 978 2 9701146 5 9 Retrieved 2020 03 02 a b Global Problem Stockpilers of Cluster Munitions www stopclustermunitions org Cluster Munition Coalition Retrieved 27 September 2018 a b Overview of Article 3 stockpile destruction deadlines PDF Convention on Cluster Munitions September 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 Belgium Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 29 July 2015 Retrieved 27 September 2018 Bosnia and Herzegovina Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 31 July 2015 Retrieved 27 September 2018 a b Brazil Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 26 June 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 Chile Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 21 July 2016 Retrieved 27 September 2018 a b China Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 3 July 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 Croatia Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 2 August 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 Germany Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 8 August 2016 Retrieved 27 September 2018 a b Greece Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 3 July 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 a b India Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 3 July 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 Survey of Cluster Munitions Produced and Stockpiled www hrw org April 2007 Retrieved 27 September 2018 Japan Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 10 August 2015 Retrieved 27 September 2018 a b North Korea Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 26 June 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 a b South Korea Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 2 August 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 a b Pakistan Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 3 July 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 a b Poland Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 3 July 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 a b Romania Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 3 July 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 a b Singapore Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 3 July 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 a b Slovakia Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 2 August 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 a b South Africa Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 2 August 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 Spain Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 8 July 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 Sweden Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 8 August 2016 Retrieved 27 September 2018 a b Taiwan Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 3 August 2016 Retrieved 27 September 2018 a b Turkey Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 9 July 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 United Kingdom Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 12 August 2015 Retrieved 27 September 2018 Algeria Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 3 July 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 Belarus Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 26 June 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 Botswana Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 2 August 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 Bulgaria Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 7 August 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 Cambodia Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 26 June 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 Cyprus Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 3 July 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 Estonia Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 3 July 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 Finland Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 3 July 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 Guinea Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 3 July 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 Guinea Bissau Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 9 July 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 Indonesia Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 26 June 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 Iran Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 2 August 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 Jordan Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 26 June 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 Kazakhstan Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 26 June 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 Kuwait Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 3 July 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 Oman Cluster Munition Ban Policy archives the monitor org 12 August 2014 Retrieved 27 September 2018 Peru Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 2 August 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 Qatar Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 3 July 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 Serbia Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 3 July 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 Switzerland Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 2 August 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 Turkmenistan Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 26 June 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 United Arab Emirates Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 9 July 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 Uzbekistan Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 26 June 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 Venezuela Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 9 July 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 Zimbabwe Cluster Munition Ban Policy the monitor org 2 August 2018 Retrieved 27 September 2018 Financial institutions involved in CM production process 2012 report by BankTrack Archived from the original on 2012 08 25 Retrieved 15 May 2018 Key Findings from the November 2014 update of Worldwide Investments in Cluster Munitions a shared responsibility by PAX PDF Retrieved 15 May 2018 Report Banks Financial Institutions Still Funding Cluster Bomb Making Companies with Billions of Dollars Archived from the original on 25 March 2014 Retrieved 15 May 2018 Worldwide investments in CLUSTER MUNITIONS a shared responsibility IKV Pax Christi report update June 2012 PDF Archived from the original PDF on 2013 11 12 Retrieved 15 May 2018 Bibliography Clancy Tom 1996 Fighter Wing London HarperCollins 1995 ISBN 0 00 255527 1 External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cluster munitions Cluster Munition Coalition Mines Advisory Group Cluster munitions and international humanitarian law International Committee of the Red Cross Convention on Cluster Munitions Official website serving the government initiative to ban cluster munitions Global Security org LBU 30 Circle of Impact The Fatal Footprint of Cluster Munitions on People and Communities 16 May 2007 Disarmament Insight website Council on Foreign Relations The Campaign to Ban Cluster Bombs 21 November 2006 Ban Advocates Voices from affected communitiesTechnical Federation of American Scientists article on the CBU97 and CBU105 cluster bombs with smart munitions Archived 2016 07 29 at the Wayback Machine Federation of American Scientists article on the BLU 114 anti electrical weapon Archived 2016 01 02 at the Wayback MachineInquiries Inquiry by the Foreign Affairs Defence and Trade Committee of the Australian Senate into the provisions of the Cluster Munitions Prohibition Bill 2006 Archived 2007 07 12 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Cluster munition amp oldid 1154154201, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.