Porites

Porites is a genus of stony coral; they are small polyp stony (SPS) corals. They are characterised by a finger-like morphology. Members of this genus have widely spaced calices, a well-developed wall reticulum and are bilaterally symmetrical. Porites, particularly Porites lutea, often form microatolls.^[3] Corals of the genus Porites also often serve as hosts for Christmas tree worms (Spirobranchus giganteus).

Porites
Porites sp.
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Cnidaria
Class:	Hexacorallia
Order:	Scleractinia
Family:	Poritidae
Genus:	Porites Link, 1807^[1]
Species
See text
Synonyms
List Cosmoporites Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1860 Napopora Quelch, 1884 Neoporites Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1860 Synaraea Verrill, 1864

In intertidal reef-flat environments, massive Porites form characteristic microatoll formations, with living tissues around the perimeter, and dead skeleton on the exposed upper surface. Microatoll growth is predominantly lateral, as vertical growth is limited by a lack of accommodation space.^[2]

Small colony of Porites porites

Aquarium trade

Specimens of Porites are sometimes available for purchase in the aquarium trade. Due to the strict water quality, lighting and dietary requirements, keeping Porites in captivity is very difficult.

Most Porites that are collected have Christmas tree worms (Spirobranchus giganteus) that bore into the coral, serving as additional aesthetic livestock. These particular Porites specimens are called "christmas tree worm rocks" or "christmas tree worm coral".^{[citation needed]}

Paleoclimatology

Porites corals have been shown to be accurate and precise recorders of past marine surface conditions.^[4] Measurements of the oxygen isotopic composition of the aragonitic skeleton of coral specimens indicate the sea-surface temperature conditions and the oxygen isotopic composition of the seawater at the time of growth.^[5] The oxygen isotopic composition of seawater can indicate the precipitation/evaporation balance because oxygen atoms of the more abundant mass 16 will preferentially evaporate before the more rare mass 18 oxygen. The relationship between temperature, precipitation, and the oxygen isotopic composition of Porites corals is important for reconstructing past climates, and associated large-scale patterns such as the El-Nino Southern Oscillation, the Intertropical Convergence Zone, and the mean state of the climate system.

Ecology and biogeography

Corals in the genus Porites are found in reefs throughout the world. It is a dominant taxon on the Pandora platform of the Great Barrier Reef. Potts et al. (1985) identified 7 dominant species: P. lobata, P. solida, P. lutea, P. australiensis, P. mayeri, P. murrayensis, and P. anae. The oldest of six colonies in this reef was approximately 700 years old, and was estimated to be growing at 10.3 mm per year.^[6]

Meyer and Schultz (1985) demonstrated that P. furcata has a mutualistic relationship with the schools of French and white grunts (Haemulon flavolineatum and H. plumierii) that rest in their heads during the day. The fish provide it with ammonium, nitrates, and phosphorus compounds. Coral heads with resting grunts experience significantly higher growth rates and nitrogen composition than those without.^[7]

Representatives of this genus are found in both the Indo-Pacific and Caribbean basins.

Physiology

Some species in this genus demonstrate high levels of halotolerance. In the Gulf of Thailand P. lutea tolerates daily tidal shifts of 10-30‰ salinity. Moberg et al. (1997) determined that when the salinity declines, the symbiotic zooxanthellae decrease their photosynthesis rate as the coral contracts its polyps to protect them. The corals maintain their metabolic rate by temporarily switching to heterotrophy, consuming prey such as brine shrimp and other zooplankton.^[8]

Porites growth rates can be determined by examining annual rings in their skeleton. This method was used to determine that P. astreoides grows its skeleton about the central axis by approximately 3.67mm/year, calcifies at approximately 0.55g/cm²/year, and increases density in this region of the body at approximately 1.69g/cm³/year.^[9] Additionally, Meyer and Schultz (1985) reported that coral growth varies seasonally. They observed that P. furcata's growth rate peaked between May and August, which is summertime in their Caribbean habitat.^[10]

Threats

Threats to corals in the genus Porites include predation, climate change, and anthropogenic pollution. When exposed to increased temperatures and copper, P. cylindrica slowed its rate of production. Additionally, the symbiotic zooxanthellae reduced their photosynthesis rate when exposed to both stressors.^[11]

Done and Potts (1992) observed that when settled, larvae in Porites are vulnerable to competition from other corals and predation from sea urchins. Additionally, mortality likelihood increases following strong storms.^[12]

Species

Porites alveolata Milne Edwards, 1860 †Porites amplectans Felix, 1921 Porites annae Crossland, 1952 †Porites anguillensis Vaughan, 1919 Porites aranetai Nemenzo, 1955 Porites arnaudi Reyes-Bonilla & Carricart-Ganivet, 2000 Porites astreoides Lamarck, 1816 Porites attenuata Nemenzo, 1955 Porites australiensis Vaughan, 1918 Porites baueri Squires, 1959 Porites branneri Rathbun, 1887 Porites brighami Vaughan, 1907 Porites cocosensis Wells, 1950 Porites colonensis Zlatarski, 1990 Porites columnaris Klunzinger, 1879 Porites compressa Dana, 1846 Porites cribripora Dana, 1846 Porites cumulatus Nemenzo, 1955 Porites cylindrica Dana, 1846 Porites decasepta Clareboudt, 2006 Porites deformis Nemenzo, 1955 Porites densa Vaughan, 1918 Porites desilveri Veron, 2000 Porites divaricata LeSueur, 1821 Porites echinulata Klunzinger, 1879 Porites eridani Umbgrove, 1940 Porites evermanni Vaughan, 1907 Porites exserta Pillai, 1967 Porites flavus Veron, 2000 Porites fontanesii Benzoni & Stefani, 2012 Porites fragosa Dana, 1846 Porites furcata Lamarck, 1816 Porites gaimardi Milne Edwards & Haime, 1851 Porites harrisoni Veron, 2000 Porites hawaiiensis Vaughan, 1907 Porites heronensis Veron, 1985 Porites horizontalata Hoffmeister, 1925 †Porites indica Duncan, 1880 Porites latistellata Quelch, 1886

Porites lichen Dana, 1846 Porites lobata Dana, 1846 Porites lutea Quoy & Gaimard, 1833 †Porites macdonaldi Vaughan, 1919 Porites mannarensis Pillai, 1967 Porites mayeri Vaughan, 1918 Porites minicoiensis Pillai, 1967 Porites monticulosa Dana, 1846 Porites murrayensis Vaughan, 1918 Porites myrmidonensis Veron, 1985 Porites napopora Veron, 2000 Porites negrosensis Veron, 1990 Porites nigrescens Dana, 1846 Porites nodifera Klunzinger, 1879 Porites okinawensis Veron, 1990 Porites ornata Nemenzo, 1971 Porites palmata Dana, 1846 Porites panamensis Verrill, 1866 †Porites pellegrinii Duncan, 1880 Porites porites Pallas, 1766 †Porites portoricensis Vaughan, 1919 Porites profundus Rehberg, 1892 Porites pukoensis Vaughan, 1907 Porites randalli Forsman & Birkeland, 2009 †Porites reussiana Ducan & Wall, 1865 Porites rugosa Fenner & Veron, 2000 Porites rus Forskål, 1775 Porites sillimaniani Nemenzo, 1976 Porites solida Forskål, 1775 Porites somaliensis Gravier, 1910 Porites stephensoni Crossland, 1952 Porites superfusa Gardiner, 1898 †Porites superposita Duncan, 1880 Porites sverdrupi Durham, 1947 †Porites trinitatis Vaughan in Vaughan and Hoffmeister, 1926 Porites tuberculosa Veron, 2000 Porites vaughani Crossland, 1952 †Porites waylandi Foster, 1986

References

1. WoRMS (2018). "Porites Link, 1807". WoRMS. World Register of Marine Species. Retrieved 2018-08-22.
2. van Woesik, R.; Golbuu, Y.; Roff, G. (2015). "Keep up or drown: adjustment of western Pacific coral reefs to sea-level rise in the 21st century". Royal Society Open Science. 2 (7): 150181. Bibcode:2015RSOS....250181V. doi:10.1098/rsos.150181. PMC 4632590. PMID 26587277.
3. Flora, C.J.; Ely P.S. (2003). "Surface Growth Rings of Porites lutea Microatolls Accurately Track Their Annual Growth" (PDF). Northwest Science. 77 (3): 237–245. Retrieved 2009-10-30.^{[permanent dead link]}
4. Lough, Janice M. (2010). "Climate records from corals". Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change. 1 (3): 318–331. doi:10.1002/wcc.39. S2CID 130219508.
5. Thompson, D. M. (2011). "Comparison of observed and simulated tropical climate trends using a forward model of coralδ18O". Geophysical Research Letters. 38 (14): n/a. Bibcode:2011GeoRL..3814706T. doi:10.1029/2011GL048224.
6. Potts, D.C.; Done, T.J.; Isdale, P.J.; Fisk, D.A. (1985). "Dominance of a Coral Community in the Genus Porites Scleractinia". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 23 (1): 79–84. Bibcode:1985MEPS...23...79P. doi:10.3354/meps023079.
7. Meyer, J.L.; Schultz, E.T. (1985). "Tissue Condition and Growth Rate of Corals Associated with Schooling Fish". Limnol. Oceanogr. 30 (1): 157–166. Bibcode:1985LimOc..30..157M. doi:10.4319/lo.1985.30.1.0157.
8. Moberg, F.; Nystrom, M.; Kautsky, N.; Tedengren, M.; Jarayabhand, P. (1997). "Effects of reduced salinity on the rates of photosynthesis and respiration in the hermatypic corals Porites lutea and Pocillopora damicornis". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 157: 53–59. Bibcode:1997MEPS..157...53M. doi:10.3354/meps157053.
9. Elizalde-Rendon, E.M.; Horta-Puga, G.; Gonzalez-Diaz, P.; Carricart-Ganivet, J.P. (2010). "Growth characteristics of the reef-building coral Porites astreoides under different environmental conditions in the Western Atlantic". Coral Reefs. 29 (3): 607–614. Bibcode:2010CorRe..29..607E. doi:10.1007/s00338-010-0604-7. S2CID 20491507.
10. Meyer, J.L.; Schultz, E.T. (1985). "Tissue Condition and Growth Rate of Corals Associated with Schooling Fish". Limnol. Oceanogr. 30 (1): 157–166. Bibcode:1985LimOc..30..157M. doi:10.4319/lo.1985.30.1.0157.
11. Nystrom, M.; Nordemar, I.; Tedengren, M. (2001). "Simultaneous and sequential stress from increased temperature and copper on the metabolism of the hermatypic coral Porites cylindrica". Marine Biology (Berlin). 138 (6): 1225–1231. doi:10.1007/s002270100549. S2CID 85015152.
12. Done, T.J.; Potts, D.C. (1992). "Influences of habitat and natural disturbances on contributions of massive Porites corals to reef communities". Marine Biology (Berlin). 114 (3): 479–493. doi:10.1007/BF00350040. S2CID 83505538.