fbpx
Wikipedia

2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami

January 12, 2023

"2011 Miyagi earthquake" and "3.11" redirect here. For the aftershock that occurred on 7 April, see April 2011 Miyagi earthquake. For other uses, see 3/11 (disambiguation).

The 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami (Japanese: 東北地方太平洋沖地震, Hepburn: Tōhoku-chihō Taiheiyō Oki Jishin) occurred at 14:46 JST (05:46 UTC) on 11 March. The magnitude 9.0–9.1 (Mw) undersea megathrust earthquake had an epicenter in the Pacific Ocean, 72 km (45 mi) east of the Oshika Peninsula of the Tōhoku region, and lasted approximately six minutes, causing a tsunami. It is sometimes known in Japan as the "Great East Japan Earthquake" (東日本大震災, Higashi nihon daishinsai), among other names.[en 1] The disaster is often referred to in both Japanese and English as simply 3.11 (read san ten ichi-ichi in Japanese).[29][30][31]

  • 2011 Tōhoku
  • earthquake and tsunami
東北地方太平洋沖地震
東日本大震災
An SH-60F helicopter assigned to the Chargers of Helicopter Antisubmarine Squadron (HS) 14 from Naval Air Facility Atsugi flies over the port of Sendai to deliver more than 1,500 pounds of food to survivors of the earthquake tsunami. The citizens of Ebina City, Japan, donated the food, and HS-14 is supporting earthquake and tsunami relief operations in Japan as directed.
Tokyo
Sendai
UTC time2011-03-11 05:46:24
ISC event16461282
USGS-ANSSComCat
Local date11 March 2011 (2011-03-11)
Local time14:46 JST
Duration6 minutes
Magnitude9.0–9.1 Mw
Depth29 km (18 mi)
Epicenter38°19′19″N 142°22′08″E / 38.322°N 142.369°E / 38.322; 142.369Coordinates: 38°19′19″N 142°22′08″E / 38.322°N 142.369°E / 38.322; 142.369
TypeMegathrust
Areas affected
Total damage$360 billion USD
Max. intensity
Peak acceleration2.99 g [2]
Peak velocity117.41 cm/s
TsunamiUp to 40.5 m (133 ft) in Miyako, Iwate, Tōhoku
LandslidesYes
ForeshocksList of foreshocks and aftershocks of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake
Aftershocks13,386 (as of 6 March 2018)[3]
Casualties
  • 19,759 deaths,[4]
  • 6,242 injured,[5]
  • 2,553 people missing[6]
Citations[7][8][9][10][11][12]

It was the most powerful earthquake ever recorded in Japan, and the fourth most powerful earthquake in the world since modern record-keeping began in 1900.[32][33][34] The earthquake triggered powerful tsunami waves that may have reached heights of up to 40.5 meters (133 ft) in Miyako in Tōhoku's Iwate Prefecture,[35][36] and which, in the Sendai area, traveled at 700 km/h (435 mph)[37] and up to 10 km (6 mi) inland.[38] Residents of Sendai had only eight to ten minutes of warning, and more than a hundred evacuation sites were washed away.[37] The snowfall which accompanied the tsunami[39] and the freezing temperature hindered rescue works greatly;[40] for instance, Ishinomaki, the city with most deaths,[41] was 0 °C (32 °F) as the tsunami hit.[42] The official figures released in 2021 reported 19,759 deaths,[43] 6,242 injured,[44] and 2,553 people missing[45], and a report from 2015 indicated 228,863 people were still living away from their home in either temporary housing or due to permanent relocation.[46]

The tsunami caused the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, primarily the meltdowns of three of its reactors, the discharge of radioactive water in Fukushima and the associated evacuation zones affecting hundreds of thousands of residents.[47][48] Many electrical generators ran out of fuel. The loss of electrical power halted cooling systems, causing heat to build up. The heat build-up caused the generation of hydrogen gas. Without ventilation, gas accumulated within the upper refueling hall and eventually exploded causing the refueling hall's blast panels to be forcefully ejected from the structure. Residents within a 20 km (12 mi) radius of the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant and a 10 km (6.2 mi) radius of the Fukushima Daini Nuclear Power Plant were evacuated.

Early estimates placed insured losses from the earthquake alone at US$14.5 to $34.6 billion.[49] The Bank of Japan offered ¥15 trillion (US$183 billion) to the banking system on 14 March 2011 in an effort to normalize market conditions.[50] The World Bank's estimated economic cost was US$235 billion, making it the costliest natural disaster in history.[51][52] According to a 2020 study, "the earthquake and its aftermaths resulted in a 0.47 percentage point decline in Japan's real GDP growth in the year following the disaster."[53]

Earthquake

 
A seismogram recorded in Massachusetts, United States

The magnitude 9.1 (Mw) undersea megathrust earthquake occurred on 11 March 2011 at 14:46 JST (05:46 UTC) in the north-western Pacific Ocean at a relatively shallow depth of 32 km (20 mi),[7][54] with its epicenter approximately 72 km (45 mi) east of the Oshika Peninsula of Tōhoku, Japan, lasting approximately six minutes.[7][8] The earthquake was initially reported as 7.9 Mw by the USGS before it was quickly upgraded to 8.8 Mw, then to 8.9 Mw,[55] and then finally to 9.0 Mw.[56][57] On 11 July 2016, the USGS further upgraded the earthquake to 9.1. Sendai was the nearest major city to the earthquake, 130 km (81 mi) from the epicenter; the earthquake occurred 373 km (232 mi) northeast of Tokyo.[7]

The main earthquake was preceded by a number of large foreshocks, with hundreds of aftershocks reported. One of the first major foreshocks was a 7.2 Mw event on 9 March, approximately 40 km (25 mi) from the epicenter of the 11 March earthquake, with another three on the same day in excess of 6.0 Mw.[7][58] Following the main earthquake on 11 March, a 7.4 Mw aftershock was reported at 15:08 JST (6:06 UTC), succeeded by a 7.9 Mw at 15:15 JST (6:16 UTC) and a 7.7 Mw at 15:26 JST (6:26 UTC).[59] Over eight hundred aftershocks of magnitude 4.5 Mw or greater have occurred since the initial quake,[60] including one on 26 October 2013 (local time) of magnitude 7.1 Mw.[61] Aftershocks follow Omori's law, which states that the rate of aftershocks declines with the reciprocal of the time since the main quake. The aftershocks will thus taper off in time, but could continue for years.[62]

 
A visual depiction of the type of faulting that caused the main tremor, low-angle thrusting on a west-dipping fault plane

The earthquake moved Honshu (the main island of Japan) 2.4 m (8 ft) east, shifted the Earth on its axis by estimates of between 10 cm (4 in) and 25 cm (10 in),[63][64][65] increased earth's rotational speed by 1.8 µs per day,[66] and generated infrasound waves detected in perturbations of the low-orbiting Gravity Field and Steady-State Ocean Circulation Explorer satellite.[67] Initially, the earthquake caused sinking of part of Honshu's Pacific coast by up to roughly a metre, but after about three years, the coast rose back and kept on rising to exceed its original height.[68][69][70][71]

Geology

 
Mechanism of 2011 Tohoku earthquake

This megathrust earthquake was a recurrence of the mechanism of the earlier 869 Sanriku earthquake, which has been estimated as having a magnitude of at least 8.4 Mw, which also created a large tsunami that inundated the Sendai plain.[37][72][73] Three tsunami deposits have been identified within the Holocene sequence of the plain, all formed within the last 3,000 years, suggesting an 800 to 1,100 year recurrence interval for large tsunamigenic earthquakes. In 2001 it was reckoned that there was a high likelihood of a large tsunami hitting the Sendai plain as more than 1,100 years had then elapsed.[74] In 2007, the probability of an earthquake with a magnitude of Mw 8.1–8.3 was estimated as 99% within the following 30 years.[75]

This earthquake occurred where the Pacific Plate is subducting under the plate beneath northern Honshu.[64][76] The Pacific plate, which moves at a rate of 8 to 9 cm (3.1 to 3.5 in) per year, dips under Honshu's underlying plate, building large amounts of elastic energy. This motion pushes the upper plate down until the accumulated stress causes a seismic slip-rupture event. The break caused the sea floor to rise by several metres.[76] A quake of this magnitude usually has a rupture length of at least 500 km (310 mi) and generally requires a long, relatively straight fault surface. Because the plate boundary and subduction zone in the area of the Honshu rupture is not very straight, it is unusual for the magnitude of its earthquake to exceed 8.5 Mw; the magnitude of this earthquake was a surprise to some seismologists.[77] The hypocentral region of this earthquake extended from offshore Iwate Prefecture to offshore Ibaraki Prefecture.[78] The Japanese Meteorological Agency said that the earthquake may have ruptured the fault zone from Iwate to Ibaraki with a length of 500 km (310 mi) and a width of 200 km (120 mi).[79][80] Analysis showed that this earthquake consisted of a set of three events.[81] Other major earthquakes with tsunamis struck the Sanriku Coast region in 1896 and in 1933.

The source area of this earthquake has a relatively high coupling coefficient surrounded by areas of relatively low coupling coefficients in the west, north, and south. From the averaged coupling coefficient of 0.5–0.8 in the source area and the seismic moment, it was estimated that the slip deficit of this earthquake was accumulated over a period of 260–880 years, which is consistent with the recurrence interval of such great earthquakes estimated from the tsunami deposit data. The seismic moment of this earthquake accounts for about 93% of the estimated cumulative moment from 1926 to March 2011. Hence, earthquakes in this area with magnitudes of about 7 since 1926 had only released part of the accumulated energy. In the area near the trench, the coupling coefficient is high, which could act as the source of the large tsunami.[82]

Most of the foreshocks are interplate earthquakes with thrust-type focal mechanisms. Both interplate and intraplate earthquakes appeared in the aftershocks offshore Sanriku coast with considerable proportions.[83]

Energy

The surface energy of the seismic waves from the earthquake was calculated to be 1.9×1017 joules,[84] which is nearly double that of the 9.1 Mw 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami that killed 230,000 people. If harnessed, the seismic energy from this earthquake would power a city the size of Los Angeles for an entire year.[62] The seismic moment (M0), which represents a physical size for the event, was calculated by the USGS at 3.9×1022 joules,[85] slightly less than the 2004 Indian Ocean quake.

Japan's National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention (NIED) calculated a peak ground acceleration of 2.99 g (29.33 m/s2).[86][en 2] The largest individual recording in Japan was 2.7 g, in Miyagi Prefecture, 75 km from the epicentre; the highest reading in the Tokyo metropolitan area was 0.16 g.[89]

Intensity

 
Seismic intensity observations resulting from mainshock

The strong ground motion registered at the maximum of 7 on the Japan Meteorological Agency seismic intensity scale in Kurihara, Miyagi Prefecture.[90] Three other prefectures—Fukushima, Ibaraki and Tochigi—recorded an 6 upper on the JMA scale. Seismic stations in Iwate, Gunma, Saitama and Chiba Prefecture measured a 6 lower, recording an 5 upper in Tokyo.

Intensity Prefecture Location[91]
7 Miyagi Kurihara
6+ Miyagi Wakuya, Tome, Misato, Osaki, Natori, Zao, Kawasaki, Yamamoto, Sendai (Miyagino), Ishinomaki, Shiogama, Higashimatsushima, Ohira
Fukushima Shirakawa, Sukagawa, Kunimi, Kagamiishi, Ten-ei, Naraha, Tomioka, Okuma, Futaba, Namie, Shinchi
Ibaraki Hokota, Hitachi, Takahagi, Omitama, Naka, Kasama, Chikusei, Hitachiomiya
Tochigi Otawara, Utsunomiya, Mooka, Ichikai, Takanezawa
6- Iwate Ofunato, Kamaishi, Takizawa, Yahaba, Hanamaki, Ichinoseki, Ōshū
Miyagi Kesennuma, Minamisanriku, Shiroishi, Kakuda, Iwanuma, Ogawara, Watari, Sendai (Aoba, Wakabayashi, Izumi), Matsushima, Rifu, Taiwa, Ōsato, Tomiya
Fukushima Fukushima, Koriyama, Nihonmatsu, Koori, Kawamata, Nishigō, Nakajima, Yabuki, Tanagura, Tamakawa, Asakawa, Ono, Tamura, Date, Motomiya, Iwaki, Soma, Hirono, Kawauchi, Iitate, Minamisoma
Ibaraki Mito, Kitaibaraki, Hitachinaka, Ibaraki, Tokai, Hitachiota, Tsuchiura, Ishioka, Toride, Tsukuba, Kashima, Itako, Miho, Bando, Inashiki, Kasumigaura, Namegata, Sakuragawa, Joso, Tsukubamirai, Shirosato
Tochigi Nasu, Nasushiobara, Haga, Nasukarasuyama, Nakagawa
Gunma Kiryu
Saitama Miyashiro
Chiba Narita, Inzai

Geophysical effects

 
Hypocentral region boundaries (Source: The Japanese Headquarters for Earthquake Research Promotion)

Portions of northeastern Japan shifted by as much as 2.4 metres (7 ft 10 in) closer to North America,[63][64] making some sections of Japan's landmass wider than before.[64] Those areas of Japan closest to the epicenter experienced the largest shifts.[64] A 400-kilometre (250 mi) stretch of coastline dropped vertically by 0.6 metres (2 ft 0 in), allowing the tsunami to travel farther and faster onto land.[64] One early estimate suggested that the Pacific plate may have moved westward by up to 20 metres (66 ft),[92] and another early estimate put the amount of slippage at as much as 40 m (130 ft).[93] On 6 April the Japanese coast guard said that the quake shifted the seabed near the epicenter 24 metres (79 ft) and elevated the seabed off the coast of Miyagi Prefecture by 3 metres (9.8 ft).[94] A report by the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology, published in Science on 2 December 2011, concluded that the seabed in the area between the epicenter and the Japan Trench moved 50 metres (160 ft) east-southeast and rose about 7 metres (23 ft) as a result of the quake. The report also stated that the quake had caused several major landslides on the seabed in the affected area.[95]

The Earth's axis shifted by estimates of between 10 cm (4 in) and 25 cm (10 in).[63][64][65] This deviation led to a number of small planetary changes, including the length of a day, the tilt of the Earth, and the Chandler wobble.[65] The speed of the Earth's rotation increased, shortening the day by 1.8 microseconds due to the redistribution of Earth's mass.[96] The axial shift was caused by the redistribution of mass on the Earth's surface, which changed the planet's moment of inertia. Because of conservation of angular momentum, such changes of inertia result in small changes to the Earth's rate of rotation.[97] These are expected changes[65] for an earthquake of this magnitude.[63][96] The earthquake also generated infrasound waves detected by perturbations in the orbit of the GOCE satellite, which thus serendipitously became the first seismograph in orbit.[67]

Seiches observed in Sognefjorden, Norway were attributed to distant S waves and Love waves generated by the earthquake. These seiches began to occur roughly half an hour after the main shock hit Japan, and continued to occur for 3 hours, during which waves of up to 1.5 meters high were observed.[98]

Soil liquefaction was evident in areas of reclaimed land around Tokyo, particularly in Urayasu,[99][100] Chiba City, Funabashi, Narashino (all in Chiba Prefecture) and in the Koto, Edogawa, Minato, Chūō, and Ōta Wards of Tokyo. Approximately 30 homes or buildings were destroyed and 1,046 other buildings were damaged to varying degrees.[101] Nearby Haneda Airport, built mostly on reclaimed land, was not damaged. Odaiba also experienced liquefaction, but damage was minimal.[102]

Shinmoedake, a volcano in Kyushu, erupted three days after the earthquake. The volcano had previously erupted in January 2011; it is not known if the later eruption was linked to the earthquake.[103] In Antarctica, the seismic waves from the earthquake were reported to have caused the Whillans Ice Stream to slip by about 0.5 metres (1 ft 8 in).[104]

The first sign international researchers had that the earthquake caused such a dramatic change in the Earth's rotation came from the United States Geological Survey which monitors Global Positioning Satellite (GPS) stations across the world. The Survey team had several GPS monitors located near the scene of the earthquake. The GPS station located nearest the epicenter moved almost 4 m (13 ft). This motivated government researchers to look into other ways the earthquake may have had large scale effects on the planet. Calculations at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory determined that the Earth's rotation was changed by the earthquake to the point where the days are now 1.8 microseconds shorter.[105]

Aftershocks

Further information: List of foreshocks and aftershocks of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake
 
Tōhoku earthquake and aftershocks from 11 to 14 March
 
Satellite image shows snowfall on agricultural fields in Sendai area. See § Weather conditions paragraph for details.

Japan experienced over 1,000 aftershocks since the earthquake, with 80 registering over magnitude 6.0 Mw and several of which have been over magnitude 7.0 Mw.

A magnitude 7.4 Mw at 15:08 (JST), 7.9 Mw at 15:15 and a 7.7 Mw quake at 15:26 all occurred on 11 March.[106]

A month later, a major aftershock struck offshore on 7 April with a magnitude of 7.1 Mw. Its epicenter was underwater, 66 km (41 mi) off the coast of Sendai. The Japan Meteorological Agency assigned a magnitude of 7.4 MJMA, while the U.S. Geological Survey lowered it to 7.1 Mw.[107] At least four people were killed, and electricity was cut off across much of northern Japan including the loss of external power to Higashidōri Nuclear Power Plant and Rokkasho Reprocessing Plant.[108][109][110]

Four days later on 11 April, another magnitude 7.1 Mw aftershock struck Fukushima, causing additional damage and killing a total of three people.[111][112]

On 7 December 2012 a large aftershock of magnitude 7.3 Mw caused a minor tsunami, and again on 26 October 2013 a small tsunami was recorded after a 7.1 Mw aftershock.[113]

As of 16 March 2012 aftershocks continued, totaling 1887 events over magnitude 4.0; a regularly updated map showing all shocks of magnitude 4.5 and above near or off the east coast of Honshu in the last seven days[114] showed over 20 events.[115]

As of 11 March 2016 there had been 869 aftershocks of 5.0 Mw or greater, 118 of 6.0 Mw or greater, and 9 over 7.0 Mw as reported by the Japanese Meteorological Agency.[116]

The number of aftershocks was associated with decreased health across Japan.[117]

On 13 February 2021, a magnitude 7.1–7.3 earthquake struck off the coast of Sendai. It caused some damage in Miyagi and Fukushima prefectures. One person was killed, and 185 were injured.[118][119]

Land subsidence

 
Land subsidence and soil liquefaction at Shin-Urayasu Station in Urayasu, Chiba, near Tokyo

The Geospatial Information Authority of Japan reported land subsidence based on the height of triangulation stations in the area measured by GPS as compared to their previous values from 14 April 2011.[120]

Scientists say that the subsidence is permanent. As a result, the communities in question are now more susceptible to flooding during high tides.[122]

Earthquake Warning System

One minute before the earthquake was felt in Tokyo, the Earthquake Early Warning system, which includes more than 1,000 seismometers in Japan, sent out warnings of impending strong shaking to millions. It is believed that the early warning by the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) saved many lives.[123][124] The warning for the general public was delivered about eight seconds after the first P wave was detected, or about 31 seconds after the earthquake occurred. However, the estimated intensities were smaller than the actual ones in some places, especially in Kanto, Koshinetsu, and Northern Tōhoku regions where the populace warning did not trigger. According to the Japan Meteorological Agency, reasons for the underestimation include a saturated magnitude scale when using maximum amplitude as input, failure to fully take into account the area of the hypocenter, and the initial amplitude of the earthquake being less than that which would be predicted by an empirical relationship.[125][126][127][128]

There were also cases where large differences between estimated intensities by the Earthquake Early Warning system and the actual intensities occurred in the aftershocks and triggered earthquakes. Such discrepancies in the warning were attributed by the JMA to the system's inability to distinguish between two different earthquakes that happened at around same time, as well as to the reduced number of reporting seismometers due to power outages and connection fails.[129] The system's software was subsequently modified to handle this kind of situation.[130]

Tsunami

 
NOAA tsunami energy map

An upthrust of 6 to 8 metres (20 to 26 ft) along a 180 kilometres (110 mi) wide seabed at 60 kilometres (37 mi) offshore from the east coast of Tōhoku[131] resulted in a major tsunami that brought destruction along the Pacific coastline of Japan's northern islands. Thousands of lives were lost and entire towns were devastated. The tsunami propagated throughout the Pacific Ocean region reaching the entire Pacific coast of North and South America from Alaska to Chile. Warnings were issued and evacuations were carried out in many countries bordering the Pacific. Although the tsunami affected many of these places, the heights of the waves were minor.[132][133][134] Chile's Pacific coast, one of the farthest from Japan at about 17,000 kilometres (11,000 mi) away, was struck by waves 2 metres (6.6 ft) high,[135][136][137] compared with an estimated wave height of 38.9 metres (128 ft) at Omoe peninsula, Miyako city, Japan.[36]

Japan

The tsunami warning issued by the Japan Meteorological Agency was the most serious on its warning scale; it was rated as a "major tsunami", being at least 3 metres (9.8 ft) high.[138] The actual height prediction varied, the greatest being for Miyagi at 6 metres (20 ft) high.[139] The tsunami inundated a total area of approximately 561 square kilometres (217 sq mi) in Japan.[140]

 
Water column height on 11 March 2011 at DART Station, 690 NM southeast of Tokyo

The earthquake took place at 14:46 JST (UTC 05:46) around 67 kilometres (42 mi) from the nearest point on Japan's coastline, and initial estimates indicated the tsunami would have taken 10 to 30 minutes to reach the areas first affected, and then areas farther north and south based on the geography of the coastline.[141][142] At 15:55 JST, a tsunami was observed flooding Sendai Airport, which is located near the coast of Miyagi Prefecture,[143][144] with waves sweeping away cars and planes and flooding various buildings as they traveled inland.[145][146] The impact of the tsunami in and around Sendai Airport was filmed by an NHK News helicopter, showing a number of vehicles on local roads trying to escape the approaching wave and being engulfed by it.[147] A 4-metre-high (13 ft) tsunami hit Iwate Prefecture.[148] Wakabayashi Ward in Sendai was also particularly hard hit.[149] At least 101 designated tsunami evacuation sites were hit by the wave.[37][150]

 
The city of Rikuzentakata, Iwate Prefecture, suffered extensive damage from the tsunami, with almost the entirety of the lower area of the city being destroyed.

Like the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, the damage by surging water, though much more localized, was far more deadly and destructive than the actual quake. Entire towns were destroyed in tsunami-hit areas in Japan, including 9,500 missing in Minamisanriku;[151] one thousand bodies had been recovered in the town by 14 March 2011.[152]

Among the factors in the high death toll was the unexpectedly large water surge. The sea walls in several cities had been built to protect against tsunamis of much lower heights. Also, many people caught in the tsunami thought they were on high enough ground to be safe.[153] According to a special committee on disaster prevention designated by the Japanese government, the tsunami protection policy had been intended to deal with only tsunamis that had been scientifically proved to occur repeatedly. The committee advised that future policy should be to protect against the highest possible tsunami. Because tsunami walls had been overtopped, the committee also suggested, besides building taller tsunami walls, also teaching citizens how to evacuate if a large-scale tsunami should strike.[154][155]

 
Tsunami flooding on the Sendai Airport runway

Large parts of Kuji and the southern section of Ōfunato including the port area were almost entirely destroyed.[156][157] Also largely destroyed was Rikuzentakata, where the tsunami was three stories high.[158][159] Other cities destroyed or heavily damaged by the tsunami include Kamaishi, Miyako, Ōtsuchi, and Yamada (in Iwate Prefecture), Namie, Sōma, and Minamisōma (in Fukushima Prefecture) and Shichigahama, Higashimatsushima, Onagawa, Natori, Ishinomaki, and Kesennuma (in Miyagi Prefecture).[160][161][162][163][164][165][166] The most severe effects of the tsunami were felt along a 670-kilometre-long (420 mi) stretch of coastline from Erimo, Hokkaido, in the north to Ōarai, Ibaraki, in the south, with most of the destruction in that area occurring in the hour following the earthquake.[167] Near Ōarai, people captured images of a huge whirlpool that had been generated by the tsunami.[168] The tsunami washed away the sole bridge to Miyatojima, Miyagi, isolating the island's 900 residents.[169] A 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) high tsunami hit Chiba Prefecture about 2½ hours after the quake, causing heavy damage to cities such as Asahi.[170]

On 13 March 2011, the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) published details of tsunami observations recorded around the coastline of Japan following the earthquake. These observations included tsunami maximum readings of over 3 metres (9.8 ft) at the following locations and times on 11 March 2011, following the earthquake at 14:46 JST:[171]

 
Peak tsunami wave height summits, color-coded with red representing most severe
  • 15:12 JST – off Kamaishi – 6.8 metres (22 ft)
  • 15:15 JST – Ōfunato – 3.2 metres (10 ft) or higher
  • 15:20 JST – Ishinomaki-shi Ayukawa – 3.3 metres (11 ft) or higher
  • 15:21 JST – Miyako – 4 metres (13 ft) or higher
  • 15:21 JST – Kamaishi – 4.1 metres (13 ft) or higher
  • 15:44 JST – Erimo-cho Shoya – 3.5 metres (11 ft)
  • 15:50 JST – Sōma – 7.3 metres (24 ft) or higher
  • 16:52 JST – Ōarai – 4.2 metres (14 ft)

Many areas were also affected by waves of 1 to 3 metres (3 ft 3 in to 9 ft 10 in) in height, and the JMA bulletin also included the caveat that "At some parts of the coasts, tsunamis may be higher than those observed at the observation sites." The timing of the earliest recorded tsunami maximum readings ranged from 15:12 to 15:21, between 26 and 35 minutes after the earthquake had struck. The bulletin also included initial tsunami observation details, as well as more detailed maps for the coastlines affected by the tsunami waves.[172][173]

JMA also reported offshore tsunami height recorded by telemetry from moored GPS wave-height meter buoys as follows:[174]

  • offshore of central Iwate (Miyako) – 6.3 metres (21 ft)
  • offshore of northern Iwate (Kuji) – 6 metres (20 ft)
  • offshore of northern Miyagi (Kesennuma) – 6 metres (20 ft)

On 25 March 2011, Port and Airport Research Institute (PARI) reported tsunami height by visiting the port sites as follows:[175]

  • Port of Hachinohe – 5–6 metres (16–20 ft)
  • Port of Hachinohe area – 8–9 metres (26–30 ft)
  • Port of Kuji – 8–9 metres (26–30 ft)
  • Port of Kamaishi – 7–9 metres (23–30 ft)
  • Port of Ōfunato – 9.5 metres (31 ft)
  • Run up height, port of Ōfunato area – 24 metres (79 ft)
  • Fishery port of Onagawa – 15 metres (49 ft)
  • Port of Ishinomaki – 5 metres (16 ft)
  • Shiogama section of Shiogama-Sendai port – 4 metres (13 ft)
  • Sendai section of Shiogama-Sendai port – 8 metres (26 ft)
  • Sendai Airport area – 12 metres (39 ft)

The tsunami at Ryōri Bay (綾里湾), Ōfunato reached a height of 40.1 metres (132 ft) (run-up elevation). Fishing equipment was scattered on the high cliff above the bay.[176][177] At Tarō, Iwate, the tsunami reached a height of 37.9 metres (124 ft) up the slope of a mountain some 200 metres (660 ft) away from the coastline.[178] Also, at the slope of a nearby mountain from 400 metres (1,300 ft) away at Aneyoshi fishery port (姉吉漁港) of Omoe peninsula (重茂半島) in Miyako, Iwate, Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology found estimated tsunami run up height of 38.9 metres (128 ft).[36] This height is deemed the record in Japan historically, as of reporting date, that exceeds 38.2 metres (125 ft) from the 1896 Meiji-Sanriku earthquake.[179] It was also estimated that the tsunami reached heights of up to 40.5 metres (133 ft) in Miyako in Tōhoku's Iwate Prefecture. The inundated areas closely matched those of the 869 Sanriku tsunami.[180]

NOAA animation of the tsunami's propagation

A Japanese government study found that 58% of people in coastal areas in Iwate, Miyagi, and Fukushima prefectures heeded tsunami warnings immediately after the quake and headed for higher ground. Of those who attempted to evacuate after hearing the warning, only five percent were caught in the tsunami. Of those who didn't heed the warning, 49% were hit by the water.[181]

Delayed evacuations in response to the warnings had a number of causes. The tsunami height that had been initially predicted by the tsunami warning system was lower than the actual tsunami height; this error contributed to the delayed escape of some residents. The discrepancy arose as follows: in order to produce a quick prediction of a tsunami's height and thus to provide a timely warning, the initial earthquake and tsunami warning that was issued for the event was based on a calculation that requires only about three minutes. This calculation is, in turn, based on the maximum amplitude of the seismic wave. The amplitude of the seismic wave is measured using the JMA magnitude scale, which is similar to Richter magnitude scale. However, these scales "saturate" for earthquakes that are above a certain magnitude (magnitude 8 on the JMA scale); that is, in the case of very large earthquakes, the scales' values change little despite large differences in the earthquakes' energy. This resulted in an underestimation of the tsunami's height in initial reports. Problems in issuing updates also contributed to delays in evacuations. The warning system was supposed to be updated about 15 minutes after the earthquake occurred, by which time the calculation for the moment magnitude scale would normally be completed. However, the strong quake had exceeded the measurement limit of all of the teleseismometers within Japan, and thus it was impossible to calculate the moment magnitude based on data from those seismometers. Another cause of delayed evacuations was the release of the second update on the tsunami warning long after the earthquake (28 minutes, according to observations); by that time, power failures and similar circumstances reportedly prevented the update from reaching some residents. Also, observed data from tidal meters that were located off the coast were not fully reflected in the second warning. Furthermore, shortly after the earthquake, some wave meters reported a fluctuation of "20 centimetres (7.9 in)", and this value was broadcast throughout the mass media and the warning system, which caused some residents to underestimate the danger of their situation and even delayed or suspended their evacuation.[182][183]

In response to the aforementioned shortcomings in the tsunami warning system, JMA began an investigation in 2011 and updated their system in 2013. In the updated system, for a powerful earthquake that is capable of causing the JMA magnitude scale to saturate, no quantitative prediction will be released in the initial warning; instead, there will be words that describe the situation's emergency. There are plans to install new teleseismometers with the ability to measure larger earthquakes, which would allow the calculation of a quake's moment magnitude scale in a timely manner. JMA also implemented a simpler empirical method to integrate, into a tsunami warning, data from GPS tidal meters as well as from undersea water pressure meters, and there are plans to install more of these meters and to develop further technology to utilize data observed by them. To prevent under-reporting of tsunami heights, early quantitative observation data that are smaller than the expected amplitude will be overridden and the public will instead be told that the situation is under observation. About 90 seconds after an earthquake, an additional report on the possibility of a tsunami will also be included in observation reports, in order to warn people before the JMA magnitude can be calculated.[182][183]

Elsewhere across the Pacific

 
A Bonin petrel trapped in tsunami debris on Midway Atoll before being rescued

The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC) in Hawaii issued tsunami watches and announcements for locations in the Pacific. At 07:30 UTC, PTWC issued a widespread tsunami warning covering the entire Pacific Ocean.[184][185] Russia evacuated 11,000 residents from coastal areas of the Kuril Islands.[186] The United States National Tsunami Warning Center issued a tsunami warning for the coastal areas in most of California, all of Oregon, and the western part of Alaska, and a tsunami advisory covering the Pacific coastlines of most of Alaska, and all of Washington and British Columbia, Canada.[187][188] In California and Oregon, up to 2.4 m-high (7.9 ft) tsunami waves hit some areas, damaging docks and harbors and causing over US$10 million in damage.[189] In Curry County, Oregon, US$7 million in damage occurred including the destruction of 1,100 m (3,600 ft) of docks at the Brookings harbor; the county received over US$1 million in FEMA emergency grants from the US Federal Government.[190] Surges of up to 1 m (3 ft 3 in) hit Vancouver Island in Canada[188][failed verification] prompting some evacuations, and causing boats to be banned from the waters surrounding the island for 12 hours following the wave strike, leaving many island residents in the area without means of getting to work.[191][192]

 
Fishing boats that were moved to higher ground in anticipation of tsunami arrival, in Pichilemu, Chile

In the Philippines, waves up to 0.5 m (1 ft 8 in) high hit the eastern seaboard of the country. Some houses along the coast in Jayapura, Indonesia were destroyed.[193] Authorities in Wewak, East Sepik, Papua New Guinea evacuated 100 patients from the city's Boram Hospital before it was hit by waves, causing an estimated US$4 million in damage.[194] Hawaii estimated damage to public infrastructure alone at US$3 million, with damage to private properties, including resort hotels such as Four Seasons Resort Hualalai, estimated at tens of millions of dollars.[195] It was reported that a 1.5 m-high (4.9 ft) wave completely submerged Midway Atoll's reef inlets and Spit Island, killing more than 110,000 nesting seabirds at the Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge.[196] Some other South Pacific countries, including Tonga and New Zealand, and US territories American Samoa and Guam, experienced larger-than-normal waves, but did not report any major damage.[197] However, in Guam some roads were closed off and people were evacuated from low-lying areas.[198]

 
Japanese Boat washed ashore the Oregon Coast, United States

Along the Pacific Coast of Mexico and South America, tsunami surges were reported, but in most places caused little or no damage.[199] Peru reported a wave of 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) and more than 300 homes damaged.[199] The surge in Chile was large enough to damage more than 200 houses,[200] with waves of up to 3 m (9.8 ft).[201][202] In the Galápagos Islands, 260 families received assistance following a 3 m (9.8 ft) surge which arrived 20 hours after the earthquake, after the tsunami warning had been lifted.[203][204] There was a great deal of damage to buildings on the islands and one man was injured but there were no reported fatalities.[203][205]

After a 2 m (6 ft 7 in) high surge hit Chile, it was reported that the reflection from those surges traveled back across the Pacific, causing a 30–60 cm (12–24 in) surge in Japan, 47–48 hours after the earthquake, according to observation from multiple tide gauges, including in Onahama, Owase, and Kushimoto.[206][207]

The tsunami broke icebergs off the Sulzberger Ice Shelf in Antarctica, 13,000 km (8,100 mi) away. The main iceberg measured 9.5 km × 6.5 km (5.9 mi × 4.0 mi) (approximately the area of Manhattan Island) and about 80 m (260 ft) thick. A total of 125 km2 (48 sq mi; 31,000 acres) of ice broke away.[208][209]

As of April 2012, wreckage from the tsunami spread around the world, including a soccer ball which was found in Alaska's Middleton Island and a Japanese motorcycle found in British Columbia, Canada.[210][211]

Norway

On the day of the earthquake, several fjords in Norway suddenly started to boil and rise, sending freak waves rolling onto nearby shores and mystifying residents. After two years of research, scientists concluded that the massive earthquake also triggered these surprise seiche waves thousands of miles away. [212][213]

Casualties

Japan

 
Rescue team from Fairfax County, Virginia searching for survivors. Snow arrived minutes before or after the tsunami, depending on locations.[39]

Key statistics

Age Among all deaths
[214]
<9 3.0%
10–19 2.7%
20–29 3.4%
30–39 5.5%
40–49 7.3%
50–59 12.3%
60–69 19.2%
70–79 24.5%
>80 22.1%
Places with most deaths [41]
Prefecture Municipality Deaths Missing
Miyagi Ishinomaki City 3,553 418
Iwate Rikuzentakata City 1,606 202
Miyagi Kesennuma City 1,218 214
Miyagi Higashimatsushima City 1,132 23
Fukushima Minamisoma City 1,050 111
Iwate Kamaishi City 994 152
Miyagi Natori City 954 38
Miyagi Sendai City 923 27
Iwate Ōtsuchi Town 856 416
Miyagi Yamamoto Town 701 17
Iwate Yamada Town 687 145
Miyagi Minamisanriku Town 620 211
Miyagi Onagawa Town 615 257

The official figures released in 2021 reported 19,759 deaths,[215] 6,242 injured,[216] and 2,553 people missing[217]. The leading causes of death were drowning (90.64% or 14,308 bodies), burning (0.9% or 145 bodies) and others (4.2% or 667 bodies, mostly crushed by heavy objects).[214] Injuries related to nuclear exposure or the discharge of radioactive water in Fukushima are difficult to trace as 60% of the 20,000 workers on-site declined to participate in state-sponsored free health checks.[218]

Elderly aged over 60 account for 65.8% of all deaths, as shown on the table to the right.[214] In particular, in the Okawa Elementary School tragedy, which 84 drowned, it was discovered that in the wake of the tsunami, young housewives who wanted to pick up their children to high ground, found their voices drowned out by retired, elderly, male villagers, who prefer to stay put at the school, which was a sea-level evacuation site meant for earthquakes, not for tsunami. Richard Lloyd Parry concluded the tragedy to be "the ancient dialogue [...] between the entreating voices of women, and the oblivious, overbearing dismissiveness of old men".[219]

For the purpose of relief fund, an "earthquake-related death" was defined to include "Physical and mental fatigue caused by life in temporary shelter", "Physical and mental fatigue caused by evacuation", "Delayed treatment due to an inoperative hospital", "Physical and mental fatigue caused by stress from the earthquake and tsunami". A few cases of suicide are also included. Most of these deaths occurred during the first six months after the earthquake and the number dropped thereafter, but as time has passed, the number has continued to increase. Most of these deaths occurred in Fukushima prefecture, where the prefecture government has suggested that they could be due to evacuations caused by the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster.[220] Within the Fukushima prefecture, these indirect casualties have already resulted in more deaths than the number of people killed directly by earthquake and tsunami.[221][222][223]

Others

Save the Children reports that as many as 100,000 children were uprooted from their homes, some of whom were separated from their families because the earthquake occurred during the school day.[224] 236 children were orphaned in the prefectures of Iwate, Miyagi and Fukushima by the disaster;[225][226] 1,580 children lost either one or both parents,[227] 846 in Miyagi, 572 in Iwate, and 162 in Fukushima.[228] The quake and tsunami killed 378 elementary, middle-school, and high school students and left 158 others missing.[229] One elementary school in Ishinomaki, Miyagi, Okawa Elementary School, lost 74 of 108 students and 10 of 13 teachers in the tsunami due to poor decision making in evacuation.[39][230][231][232]

The Japanese Foreign Ministry confirmed the deaths of nineteen foreigners.[233] Among them were two English teachers from the United States affiliated with the Japan Exchange and Teaching Program;[234] a Canadian missionary in Shiogama;[235] and citizens of China, North and South Korea, Taiwan, Pakistan and the Philippines.

By 9:30 UTC on 11 March 2011, Google Person Finder, which was previously used in the Haitian, Chilean, and Christchurch, New Zealand earthquakes, was collecting information about survivors and their locations.[236][237]

Japanese funerals are normally elaborate Buddhist ceremonies that entail cremation. The thousands of bodies, however, exceeded the capacity of available crematoriums and morgues, many of them damaged,[238][239] and there were shortages of both kerosene—each cremation requires 50 litres—and dry ice for preservation.[240] The single crematorium in Higashimatsushima, for example, could only handle four bodies a day, although hundreds were found there.[241] Governments and the military were forced to bury many bodies in hastily dug mass graves with rudimentary or no rites, although relatives of the deceased were promised that they would be cremated later.[242]

As of 27 May 2011, three Japan Ground Self-Defense Force members had died while conducting relief operations in Tōhoku.[243] As of March 2012, the Japanese government had recognized 1,331 deaths as indirectly related to the earthquake, such as caused by harsh living conditions after the disaster.[244] As of 30 April 2012, 18 people had died and 420 had been injured while participating in disaster recovery or clean-up efforts.[245]

Overseas

The tsunami was reported to have caused several deaths outside Japan. One man was killed in Jayapura, Papua, Indonesia after being swept out to sea.[11] A man who is said to have been attempting to photograph the oncoming tsunami at the mouth of the Klamath River, south of Crescent City, California, was swept out to sea.[246] His body was found on 2 April 2011 along Ocean Beach in Fort Stevens State Park, Oregon, 530 km (330 mi) to the north.[12]

Damage and effects

 
Panorama of Rikuzentakata

The degree and extent of damage caused by the earthquake and resulting tsunami were enormous, with most of the damage being caused by the tsunami. Video footage of the towns that were worst affected shows little more than piles of rubble, with almost no parts of any structures left standing.[247] Estimates of the cost of the damage range well into the tens of billions of US dollars; before-and-after satellite photographs of devastated regions show immense damage to many regions.[248][249] Although Japan has invested the equivalent of billions of dollars on anti-tsunami seawalls which line at least 40% of its 34,751 km (21,593 mi) coastline and stand up to 12 m (39 ft) high, the tsunami simply washed over the top of some seawalls, collapsing some in the process.[250]

 
A fire that broke out in Tokyo

Japan's National Police Agency said on 3 April 2011, that 45,700 buildings were destroyed and 144,300 were damaged by the quake and tsunami. The damaged buildings included 29,500 structures in Miyagi Prefecture, 12,500 in Iwate Prefecture and 2,400 in Fukushima Prefecture.[251] Three hundred hospitals with 20 beds or more in Tōhoku were damaged by the disaster, with 11 being completely destroyed.[252] The earthquake and tsunami created an estimated 24–25 million tons of rubble and debris in Japan.[253][254]

A report by the National Police Agency of Japan on 10 September 2018 listed 121,778 buildings as "total collapsed", with a further 280,926 buildings "half collapsed", and another 699,180 buildings "partially damaged".[255] The earthquake and tsunami also caused extensive and severe structural damage in north-eastern Japan, including heavy damage to roads and railways as well as fires in many areas, and a dam collapse.[38][256] Japanese Prime Minister Naoto Kan said, "In the 65 years after the end of World War II, this is the toughest and the most difficult crisis for Japan."[257] Around 4.4 million households in northeastern Japan were left without electricity and 1.5 million without water.[258]

An estimated 230,000 automobiles and trucks were damaged or destroyed in the disaster. As of the end of May 2011, residents of Iwate, Miyagi, and Fukushima prefectures had requested the deregistration of 15,000 vehicles, meaning that the owners of those vehicles were writing them off as unrepairable or unsalvageable.[259]

Weather conditions

 
Snowfall in Ishinomaki, 16 March.

Low temperature and snowfall were major concerns after the earthquake.[260] Snow arrived minutes before or after the tsunami, depending on locations.[39] In Ishinomaki, the city which suffered the most deaths,[41] a temperature of 0 °C (32 °F) was measured, and it began to snow within a couple of hours of the earthquake.[42][39] Major snow fell again on 16 March,[40][261] and intermittently in the coming weeks.[262] 18 March was the coldest of that month, recording -4 °C to 6 °C (25 °F to 43 °F) in Sendai.[262][40] Photos of city ruins covered with snow were featured in various photo albums in international media, including NASA.[263][264][265]

Waste

The tsunami produced huge amounts of debris: estimates of 5 million tonnes of waste were reported by the Japanese Ministry of the Environment. Some of this waste, mostly plastic and styrofoam washed up on the coasts of Canada and the United States in late 2011. Along the west coast of the United States, this increased the amount of litter by a factor of ten and may have transported alien species.[266]

Ports

 
Ship and crane damage at Sendai port

All of Japan's ports were briefly shut down after the earthquake, though the ones in Tokyo and southwards soon re-opened. Fifteen ports were located in the disaster zone. The north eastern ports of Hachinohe, Sendai, Ishinomaki and Onahama were destroyed, while the Port of Chiba (which serves the hydrocarbon industry) and Japan's ninth-largest container port at Kashima were also affected, though less severely. The ports at Hitachinaka, Hitachi, Soma, Shiogama, Kesennuma, Ofunato, Kamashi and Miyako were also damaged and closed to ships.[267] All 15 ports reopened to limited ship traffic by 29 March 2011.[268] A total of 319 fishing ports, about 10% of Japan's fishing ports, were damaged in the disaster.[269] Most were restored to operating condition by 18 April 2012.[270]

The Port of Tokyo suffered slight damage; the effects of the quake included visible smoke rising from a building in the port with parts of the port areas being flooded, including soil liquefaction in Tokyo Disneyland's parking lot.[271][272]

Dams and water problems

 
Dam failure at Fujinuma

The Fujinuma irrigation dam in Sukagawa ruptured,[273] causing flooding and the washing away of five homes.[274] Eight people were missing and four bodies were discovered by the morning.[275][276][277] Reportedly, some locals had attempted to repair leaks in the dam before it completely failed.[278] On 12 March 252 dams were inspected and it was discovered that six embankment dams had shallow cracks on their crests. The reservoir at one concrete gravity dam suffered a small non-serious slope failure. All damaged dams are functioning with no problems. Four dams within the quake area were unreachable. When the roads clear, experts will be dispatched to conduct further investigations.[279]

In the immediate aftermath of the calamity, at least 1.5 million households were reported to have lost access to water supplies.[258][280] By 21 March 2011, this number fell to 1.04 million.[281]

Electricity

 
Geographic divide between 50 hertz systems and 60 hertz systems in Japan's electricity distribution network

According to the Japanese trade ministry, around 4.4 million households served by Tōhoku Electric Power (TEP) in northeastern Japan were left without electricity.[282] Several nuclear and conventional power plants went offline, reducing the Tokyo Electric Power Company's (TEPCO) total capacity by 21 GW.[283] Rolling blackouts began on 14 March due to power shortages caused by the earthquake.[284] TEPCO, which normally provides approximately 40 GW of electricity, announced that it could only provide about 30 GW, because 40% of the electricity used in the greater Tokyo area was supplied by reactors in the Niigata and Fukushima prefectures.[285] The reactors at the Fukushima Daiichi and Fukushima Dai-ni plants were automatically taken offline when the first earthquake occurred and sustained major damage from the earthquake and subsequent tsunami. Rolling blackouts of approximately three hours were experienced throughout April and May while TEPCO scrambled to find a temporary power solution. The blackouts affected Tokyo, Kanagawa, Eastern Shizuoka, Yamanashi, Chiba, Ibaraki, Saitama, Tochigi, and Gunma prefectures.[286] Voluntary reductions in electricity use by consumers in the Kanto area helped reduce the predicted frequency and duration of the blackouts.[287] By 21 March 2011, the number of households in the north without electricity fell to 242,927.[281]

 
A damaged transmission tower and severed power lines in Minamisōma, Fukushima

Tōhoku Electric Power was not able to provide the Kanto region with additional power because TEP's power plants were also damaged in the earthquake. Kansai Electric Power Company (Kepco) could not share electricity, because its system operated at 60 hertz, whereas TEPCO and TEP operate their systems at 50 hertz; the disparity is due to early industrial and infrastructure development in the 1880s that left Japan without a unified national power grid.[288] Two substations, one in Shizuoka Prefecture and one in Nagano Prefecture, were able to convert between frequencies and transfer electricity from Kansai to Kanto and Tōhoku, but their capacity was limited to 1 GW. With damage to so many power plants, it was feared it might be years before a long-term solution could be found.[289]

To help alleviate the shortage, three steel manufacturers in the Kanto region contributed electricity produced by their in-house conventional power stations to TEPCO for distribution to the general public. Sumitomo Metal Industries could produce up to 500 MW, JFE Steel 400 MW, and Nippon Steel 500 MW of electric power.[290] Auto and auto parts makers in Kanto and Tōhoku agreed in May 2011 to operate their factories on Saturdays and Sundays and close on Thursdays and Fridays to help alleviate electricity shortages during the summer of 2011.[291] The public and other companies were also encouraged to conserve electricity in the 2011 summer months (Setsuden).[292]

The expected electricity crisis in 2011 summer was successfully prevented thanks to all the setsuden measures. Peak electricity consumption recorded by TEPCO during the period was 49.22GW, which is 10.77GW (18%) lower than the peak consumption in the previous year. Overall electricity consumption during July and August was also 14% less than in the previous year.[293] The peak electricity consumption within TEP's area was 12.46GW during the 2011 summer, 3.11GW (20%) less than the peak consumption in the previous year, and the overall consumption have been reduced by 11% in July with 17% in August compared to previous year.[294][295][296] The Japanese government continued to ask the public to conserve electricity until 2016, when it is predicted that the supply will be sufficient to meet demand, thanks to the deepening of the mindset to conserve electricity among corporate and general public, addition of new electricity providers due to the electricity liberalization policy, increased output from renewable energy as well as fossil fuel power stations, as well as sharing of electricity between different electricity companies.[297][298][299]

Oil, gas and coal

 
Fire at the Cosmo Oil refinery in Ichihara
 
An aerial view of the smoke from the Sendai Nippon Oil refinery

A 220,000-barrel (35,000 m3)-per-day[300] oil refinery of Cosmo Oil Company was set on fire by the quake at Ichihara, Chiba Prefecture, to the east of Tokyo.[301][302] It was extinguished after ten days, injuring six people, and destroying storage tanks.[303] Other refineries halted production due to safety checks and power loss.[304][305] In Sendai, a 145,000-barrel (23,100 m3)-per-day refinery owned by the largest refiner in Japan, JX Nippon Oil & Energy, was also set ablaze by the quake.[300] Workers were evacuated,[306] but tsunami warnings hindered efforts to extinguish the fire until 14 March, when officials planned to do so.[300]

An analyst estimates that consumption of various types of oil may increase by as much as 300,000 barrels (48,000 m3) per day (as well as LNG), as back-up power plants burning fossil fuels try to compensate for the loss of 11 GW of Japan's nuclear power capacity.[307][308]

The city-owned plant for importing liquefied natural gas in Sendai was severely damaged, and supplies were halted for at least a month.[309]

In addition to refining and storage, several power plants were damaged. These include Sendai #4, New-Sendai #1 and #2, Haranomachi #1 and #2, Hirono #2 and #4 and Hitachinaka #1.[310]

Nuclear power plants

Further information: Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster

The Fukushima Daiichi, Fukushima Daini, Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant and Tōkai nuclear power stations, consisting of a total eleven reactors, were automatically shut down following the earthquake.[311] Higashidōri, also on the northeast coast, was already shut down for a periodic inspection. Cooling is needed to remove decay heat after a Generation II reactor has been shut down, and to maintain spent fuel pools. The backup cooling process is powered by emergency diesel generators at the plants and at Rokkasho nuclear reprocessing plant.[312] At Fukushima Daiichi and Daini, tsunami waves overtopped seawalls and destroyed diesel backup power systems, leading to severe problems at Fukushima Daiichi, including three large explosions and radioactive leakage. Subsequent analysis found that many Japanese nuclear plants, including Fukushima Daiichi, were not adequately protected against tsunamis.[313] Over 200,000 people were evacuated.[314]

The discharge of radioactive water in Fukushima were confirmed in later analysis at the three reactors at Fukushima I (Units 1, 2, and 3), which suffered meltdowns and continued to leak coolant water.[47]

The aftershock on 7 April caused the loss of external power to Rokkasho Reprocessing Plant and Higashidori Nuclear Power Plant but backup generators were functional. Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant lost three of its four external power lines and temporarily lost cooling function in its spent fuel pools for "20 to 80 minutes". A spill of "up to 3.8 litres" of radioactive water also occurred at Onagawa following the aftershock.[315] A report by the IAEA in 2012 found that the Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant had remained largely undamaged.[316]

In 2013, only two nuclear reactors in Japan had been restarted since the 2011 shutdowns.[citation needed] In February 2019, there were 42 operable reactors in Japan. Of these, only nine reactors in five power plants were operating after having been restarted post-2011.[317]

Fukushima meltdowns

Main article: Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster
 
A loose cow roaming through Namie, Fukushima after the area was evacuated

Japan declared a state of emergency following the failure of the cooling system at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant, resulting in the evacuation of nearby residents.[318][319][320] Officials from the Japanese Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency reported that radiation levels inside the plant were up to 1,000 times normal levels,[321] and that radiation levels outside the plant were up to eight times normal levels.[322] Later, a state of emergency was also declared at the Fukushima Daini nuclear power plant about 11 km (6.8 mi) south.[323] Experts described the Fukushima disaster was not as bad as the Chernobyl disaster, but worse than the Three Mile Island accident.[324]

The discharge of radioactive water of the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant was later detected in tap water. Radioactive iodine was detected in the tap water in Fukushima, Tochigi, Gunma, Tokyo, Chiba, Saitama, and Niigata, and radioactive caesium in the tap water in Fukushima, Tochigi and Gunma.[325][326][327] Radioactive caesium, iodine, and strontium[328] were also detected in the soil in some places in Fukushima. There may be a need to replace the contaminated soil.[329] Many radioactive hotspots were found outside the evacuation zone, including Tokyo.[330] Radioactive contamination of food products were detected in several places in Japan.[331] In 2021, the Japanese cabinet finally approved the dumping of radioactive water in Fukushima into the Pacific Ocean over a course of 30 years, with full support of IAEA.[332]

Incidents elsewhere

A fire occurred in the turbine section of the Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant following the earthquake.[312][333] The blaze was in a building housing the turbine, which is sited separately from the plant's reactor,[318] and was soon extinguished.[334] The plant was shut down as a precaution.[335]

On 13 March the lowest-level state of emergency was declared regarding the Onagawa plant as radioactivity readings temporarily[336] exceeded allowed levels in the area of the plant.[337][338] Tōhoku Electric Power Co. stated this may have been due to radiation from the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear accidents but was not from the Onagawa plant itself.[339]

As a result of the 7 April aftershock, Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant lost three of four external power lines and lost cooling function for as much as 80 minutes. A spill of a couple of litres of radioactive water occurred at Onagawa.[315]

The number 2 reactor at Tōkai Nuclear Power Plant was shut down automatically.[311] On 14 March it was reported that a cooling system pump for this reactor had stopped working;[340] however, the Japan Atomic Power Company stated that there was a second operational pump sustaining the cooling systems, but that two of three diesel generators used to power the cooling system were out of order.[341]

Transport

 
A highway bridge damaged and severed

Japan's transport network suffered severe disruptions. Many sections of Tōhoku Expressway serving northern Japan were damaged. The expressway did not reopen to general public use until 24 March 2011.[342][343] All railway services were suspended in Tokyo, with an estimated 20,000 people stranded at major stations across the city.[344] In the hours after the earthquake, some train services were resumed.[345] Most Tokyo area train lines resumed full service by the next day—12 March.[346] Twenty thousand stranded visitors spent the night of 11–12 March inside Tokyo Disneyland.[347]

A tsunami flooded Sendai Airport at 15:55 JST,[143] about one hour after the initial quake, causing severe damage. Narita and Haneda Airport both briefly suspended operations after the quake, but suffered little damage and reopened within 24 hours.[272] Eleven airliners bound for Narita were diverted to nearby Yokota Air Base.[348][349]

 
Remains of Shinchi Station

Various train services around Japan were also canceled, with JR East suspending all services for the rest of the day.[350] Four trains on coastal lines were reported as being out of contact with operators; one, a four-car train on the Senseki Line, was found to have derailed, and its occupants were rescued shortly after 8 am the next morning.[351] Minami-Kesennuma Station on the Kesennuma Line was obliterated save for its platform;[352] 62 of 70 (31 of 35) JR East train lines suffered damage to some degree;[268] in the worst-hit areas, 23 stations on 7 lines were washed away, with damage or loss of track in 680 locations and the 30-km radius around the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear plant unable to be assessed.[353]

There were no derailments of Shinkansen bullet train services in and out of Tokyo, but their services were also suspended.[272] The Tokaido Shinkansen resumed limited service late in the day and was back to its normal schedule by the next day, while the Jōetsu and Nagano Shinkansen resumed services late on 12 March. Services on Yamagata Shinkansen resumed with limited numbers of trains on 31 March.[354]

Derailments were minimized because of an early warning system that detected the earthquake before it struck. The system automatically stopped all high-speed trains, which minimized the damage.[355]

The Tōhoku Shinkansen line was worst hit, with JR East estimating that 1,100 sections of the line, varying from collapsed station roofs to bent power pylons, would need repairs. Services on the Tōhoku Shinkansen partially resumed only in Kantō area on 15 March, with one round-trip service per hour between Tokyo and Nasu-Shiobara,[356] and Tōhoku area service partially resumed on 22 March between Morioka and Shin-Aomori.[357] Services on Akita Shinkansen resumed with limited numbers of trains on 18 March.[358] Service between Tokyo and Shin-Aomori was restored by May, but at lower speeds due to ongoing restoration work; the pre-earthquake timetable was not reinstated until late September.[359]

The rolling blackouts brought on by the crises at the nuclear power plants in Fukushima had a profound effect on the rail networks around Tokyo starting on 14 March. Major railways began running trains at 10–20 minute intervals, rather than the usual 3–5 minute intervals, operating some lines only at rush hour and completely shutting down others; notably, the Tōkaidō Main Line, Yokosuka Line, Sōbu Main Line and Chūō-Sōbu Line were all stopped for the day.[360] This led to near-paralysis within the capital, with long lines at train stations and many people unable to come to work or get home. Railway operators gradually increased capacity over the next few days, until running at approximately 80% capacity by 17 March and relieving the worst of the passenger congestion.

 
 
A KiHa 40 series train washed away uphill from Onagawa Station (left) and a damaged utility pole in Ishinomaki

Telecommunications

Cellular and landline phone service suffered major disruptions in the affected area.[361] Immediately after the earthquake cellular communication was jammed across much of Japan due to a surge of network activity. On the day of the quake itself American broadcaster NPR was unable to reach anyone in Sendai with a working phone or access to the Internet.[362] Internet services were largely unaffected in areas where basic infrastructure remained, despite the earthquake having damaged portions of several undersea cable systems landing in the affected regions; these systems were able to reroute around affected segments onto redundant links.[363][364] Within Japan, only a few websites were initially unreachable.[365] Several Wi-Fi hotspot providers reacted to the quake by providing free access to their networks,[365] and some American telecommunications and VoIP companies such as AT&T, Sprint, Verizon,[366] T-Mobile[367] and VoIP companies such as netTALK[368] and Vonage[369] have offered free calls to (and in some cases, from) Japan for a limited time, as did Germany's Deutsche Telekom.[370]

Defense

Matsushima Air Field of the Japan Self-Defense Force in Miyagi Prefecture received a tsunami warning, and the airbase public address 'Tanoy' was used to give the warning: 'A tsunami is coming evacuate to the third floor.' Shortly after the warning the airbase was struck by the tsunami, flooding the base there was no loss of life although the tsunami resulted in damage to all 18 Mitsubishi F-2 fighter jets of the 21st Fighter Training Squadron.[371][372][373] Twelve of the aircraft were scrapped, while the remaining six were slated for repair at a cost of 80 billion yen ($1 billion), exceeding the original cost of the aircraft.[374] After the tsunami, elements of the Japanese Maritime Self-Defence Force put to sea without orders and started rescuing those who had been washed out to sea. Tsunami plans were for the Japanese Self-Defence Force assets to be led, directed, and coordinated by local civic governments. However, the earthquake destroyed town halls (the seat of local municipal government), police, and fire services in many places, so the military not only had to respond to but also command rescues.

Cultural properties

754 cultural properties were damaged across nineteen prefectures, including five National Treasures (at Zuigan-ji, Ōsaki Hachiman-gū, Shiramizu Amidadō, and Seihaku-ji); 160 Important Cultural Properties (including at Sendai Tōshō-gū, the Kōdōkan, and Entsū-in, with its Western decorative motifs); 144 Monuments of Japan (including Matsushima, Takata-matsubara, Yūbikan, and the Site of Tagajō); six Groups of Traditional Buildings; and four Important Tangible Folk Cultural Properties. Stone monuments at the UNESCO World Heritage Site: Shrines and Temples of Nikkō were toppled.[375][376][377] In Tokyo, there was damage to Koishikawa Kōrakuen, Rikugien, Hamarikyū Onshi Teien, and the walls of Edo Castle.[378] Information on the condition of collections held by museums, libraries and archives is still incomplete.[379] There was no damage to the Historic Monuments and Sites of Hiraizumi in Iwate Prefecture, and the recommendation for their inscription on the UNESCO World Heritage List in June was seized upon as a symbol of international recognition and recovery.[380]

Aftermath

Main article: Aftermath of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami

The aftermath of the earthquake and tsunami included both a humanitarian crisis and a major economic impact. The tsunami resulted in over 340,000 displaced people in the Tōhoku region, and shortages of food, water, shelter, medicine, and fuel for survivors. In response the Japanese government mobilized the Self-Defence Forces (under Joint Task Force – Tōhoku, led by Lieutenant General Eiji Kimizuka), while many countries sent search and rescue teams to help search for survivors. Aid organizations both in Japan and worldwide also responded, with the Japanese Red Cross reporting $1 billion in donations. The economic impact included both immediate problems, with industrial production suspended in many factories, and the longer term issue of the cost of rebuilding which has been estimated at ¥10 trillion ($122 billion). In comparison to the 1995 Great Hanshin earthquake, the East Japan earthquake brought serious damage to an extremely wide range.[381]

The aftermath of the twin disasters also left Japan's coastal cities and towns with nearly 25 million tons of debris. In Ishinomaki alone, there were 17 trash collection sites 180 metres (590 ft) long and at least 4.5 metres (15 ft) high. An official in the city's government trash disposal department estimated that it would take three years to empty these sites.[382]

In April 2015, authorities off the coast of Oregon discovered debris that was thought to be from a boat destroyed during the tsunami. The cargo contained yellowtail jack fish, a species that lives off the coast of Japan, still alive. KGW estimates that more than 1 million tons of debris still remain in the Pacific Ocean.[383]

In February 2016, a memorial was inaugurated by two architects for the victims of the disaster, consisting of 6.5-square-metre structure on a hillside between a temple and a cherry tree in Ishinomaki.[384]

  •  

    Emergency vehicles staging in the ruins of Otsuchi, Japan following the tsunami

  •  

    Anti-nuclear protest following the disaster

Scientific and research response

 
Fukushima radiation comparison to other incidents and standards, with graph of recorded radiation levels and specific accident events. (Note: Does not include all radiation readings from Fukushima Daini site)

Seismologists anticipated a very large quake would strike in the same place as the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake—in the Sagami Trough, southwest of Tokyo.[385][386] The Japanese government had tracked plate movements since 1976 in preparation for the so-called Tokai earthquake, predicted to take place in that region.[387] However, occurring as it did 373 km (232 mi) north east of Tokyo, the Tōhoku earthquake came as a surprise to seismologists. While the Japan Trench was known for creating large quakes, it had not been expected to generate quakes above an 8.0 magnitude.[386][387] The Headquarters for Earthquake Research Promotion set up by the Japanese government then reassessed the long-term risk of trench-type earthquakes around Japan, and it was announced in November 2011 that research on the 869 Sanriku earthquake indicated that a similar earthquake with a magnitude of Mw 8.4–9.0 would take place off the Pacific coast of northeastern Japan, on average, every 600 years. Also, a tsunami-earthquake with a tsunami magnitude scales (Mt) between 8.6 and 9.0 (Similar to the 1896 Sanriku earthquake, the Mt for the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake was 9.1–9.4) had a 30% chance to occur within 30 years.[388][389]

The quake gave scientists the opportunity to collect a large amount of data to model the seismic events that took place in great detail.[63] These data are expected to be used in a variety of ways, providing unprecedented information about how buildings respond to shaking, and other effects.[390] Gravimetric data from the quake have been used to create a model for increased warning time compared to seismic models, as gravity fields travel faster than seismic waves.[391]

Researchers have also analysed the economic effects of this earthquake and have developed models of the nationwide propagation via interfirm supply networks of the shock that originated in the Tōhoku region.[392][393]

After the full extent of the disaster was known, researchers soon launched a project to gather all digital material relating to the disaster into an online searchable archive to form the basis of future research into the events during and after the disaster. The Japan Digital Archive is presented in English and Japanese and is hosted at the Reischauer Institute of Japanese Studies at Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Some of the first research to come from the archive was a 2014 paper from the Digital Methods Initiative in Amsterdam about patterns of Twitter usage around the time of the disaster.

After the 2011 disaster, the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction held its World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction in Tohoku in March 2015, which produced the Sendai Framework document to guide efforts by international development agencies to act before disasters instead of reacting to them after the fact. At this time Japan's Disaster Management Office (Naikakufu Bosai Keikaku) published a bi-lingual guide in Japanese and English, Disaster Management in Japan, to outline the several varieties of natural disaster and the preparations being made for the eventuality of each. In the fall of 2016, Japan's National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Resilience (NIED; Japanese abbreviation, Bosai Kaken; full name Bousai Kagaku Gijutsu Kenkyusho) launched the online interactive "Disaster Chronology Map for Japan, 416–2013" (map labels in Japanese) to display in visual form the location, disaster time, and date across the islands.

The Japan Trench Fast Drilling Project, a scientific expedition conducted in 2012–2013, drilled ocean-floor boreholes through the fault zone of the earthquake and gathered important data about the rupture mechanism and physical properties of the fault that caused the 2011 earthquake and tsunami.[394][395]

Ecological research

The 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami had a great environmental impact on Japan's eastern coast. The rarity and magnitude of the earthquake-tsunami prompted researchers Jotaro Urabe, Takao Suzuki, Tatsuki Nishita, and Wataru Makino to study their immediate ecological impacts on intertidal flat communities at Sendai Bay and the Sanriku Ria coast. Pre- and post-event surveys show a reduction in animal taxon richness and change in taxon composition mainly attributed to the tsunami and its physical impacts. In particular, sessile epibenthic animals and endobenthic animals both decreased in taxon richness. Mobile epibenthic animals, such as hermit crabs, were not as affected. Post-surveys also recorded taxa that were not previously recorded before, suggesting that tsunamis have the potential to introduce species and change taxon composition and local community structure. The long term ecological impacts at Sendai Bay and the greater east coast of Japan require further study.[396]

See also

Explanatory notes

  1. ^ lit. 'Great earthquake disaster of East Japan'. The Japan Meteorological Agency announced the English name as 'The 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tōhoku Earthquake'.[13][14][15] NHK[16][17] used Tōhoku Kantō Great Earthquake disaster (東北関東大震災, Tōhoku Kantō Daishinsai); Tōhoku-Kantō Great earthquake (東北・関東大地震, Tōhoku-Kantō Daijishin) was used by Kyodo News,[18] the Tokyo Shimbun[19] and the Chunichi Shimbun;[20] East Japan Giant earthquake (東日本巨大地震, Higashi Nihon Kyodaijishin) was used by the Yomiuri Shimbun,[21] Nihon Keizai Shimbun[22] and TV Asahi,[23] and East Japan Great earthquake (東日本大地震, Higashi Nihon Daijishin) was used by Nippon Television,[24] Tokyo FM[25] and TV Asahi.[26] Also known as the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake,[27] the Great Sendai earthquake,[28] the Great Tōhoku earthquake,[28] and the great earthquake of 11 March.
  2. ^ The 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami has been assigned GLIDE identifier EQ-2011-000028-JPN by the Asian Disaster Reduction Center.[87][88]

References

  1. ^ Japan Meteorological Agency. "Information on the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake". Retrieved 22 February 2021.
  2. ^ "平成23年(2011年)東北地方太平洋沖地震による強震動" [About strong ground motion caused by the 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku Earthquake]. Kyoshin Bosai. Retrieved 3 November 2021.
  3. ^ Japan Meteorological Agency (ed.). "「平成23年（2011年）東北地方太平洋沖地震」について～７年間の地震活動～" [About 2011 Tōhoku earthquake – Seismic activities for 7 years] (PDF). Retrieved 18 June 2018. on 6 March 2018.
  4. ^ [Press release no. 162 of the 2011 Tohuku earthquake] (PDF). 総務省消防庁災害対策本部 [Fire and Disaster Management Agency]. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 August 2022. Retrieved 23 September 2022. Page 31 of the PDF file.
  5. ^ [Press release no. 162 of the 2011 Tohuku earthquake] (PDF). 総務省消防庁災害対策本部 [Fire and Disaster Management Agency]. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 August 2022. Retrieved 23 September 2022. Page 31 of the PDF file.
  6. ^ [Press release no. 162 of the 2011 Tohuku earthquake] (PDF). 総務省消防庁災害対策本部 [Fire and Disaster Management Agency]. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 August 2022. Retrieved 23 September 2022. Page 31 of the PDF file.
  7. ^ a b c d e "M 9.1 – near the east coast of Honshu, Japan". United States Geological Survey (USGS). from the original on 7 April 2011. Retrieved 9 November 2016.
  8. ^ a b "震災の揺れは６分間 キラーパルス少なく 東大地震研". Asahi Shimbun. Japan. 17 March 2011. from the original on 7 April 2011. Retrieved 18 March 2011.
  9. ^ Suzuki, W.; Aoi, S.; Sekiguchi, H.; Kunugi, T. (2012). Source rupture process of the 2011 Tohoku-Oki earthquake derived from strong-motion records (PDF). Proceedings of the fifteenth world conference on earthquake engineering. Lisbon, Portugal. p. 1.
  10. ^ Amadeo, Kimberly. . The Balance. Archived from the original on 13 May 2019. Retrieved 8 October 2017.
  11. ^ a b . Jakarta Globe. 12 March 2011. Archived from the original on 15 March 2011. Retrieved 12 March 2011.
  12. ^ a b
    • . BNO News. Archived from the original on 14 April 2011. Retrieved 12 April 2011.
    • Tsunami victim remains wash ashore near Fort Stevens. Koinlocal6.com (12 March 2011). Retrieved 2 May 2011.
    • "Body of Calif. man killed by tsunami washes up". CBS News. Associated Press. 12 April 2011. Retrieved 3 July 2018.
  13. ^ Michael Winter (14 March 2011). "Quake shifted Japan coast about 13 feet, knocked Earth 6.5 inches off axis". USA Today. from the original on 7 April 2011. Retrieved 15 March 2011.
  14. ^ "The 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tōhoku Earthquake – first report". Japan Meteorological Agency. March 2011. from the original on 16 March 2011. Retrieved 15 March 2011.
  15. ^ Abstract of the 191th [sic!] meeting of CCEP – website of the Japanese Coordinating Committee for Earthquake Prediction
  16. ^ . .nhk.or.jp. Archived from the original on 14 March 2011. Retrieved 15 March 2011.
  17. ^ . .nhk.or.jp. Archived from the original on 14 March 2011. Retrieved 15 March 2011.
  18. ^ . Kyodo News. Archived from the original on 7 April 2011. Retrieved 17 March 2011.
  19. ^ 【東京】. . Tokyo-np.co.jp. Archived from the original on 17 March 2011. Retrieved 17 March 2011.
  20. ^ 【中日新聞からのお知らせ】. . Chunichi.co.jp. Archived from the original on 7 April 2011. Retrieved 17 March 2011.
  21. ^ "東日本巨大地震 震災掲示板 : 特集 : YOMIURI ONLINE（読売新聞）". Yomiuri Shimbun. Japan. from the original on 7 April 2011. Retrieved 17 March 2011.
  22. ^ 東日本巨大地震 ：特集 ：日本経済新聞 (in Japanese). Nikkei.com. 1 January 2000. from the original on 7 April 2011. Retrieved 17 March 2011.
  23. ^ . News.tv-asahi.co.jp. Archived from the original on 17 March 2011. Retrieved 17 March 2011.
  24. ^ . Cr.ntv.co.jp. Archived from the original on 31 March 2011. Retrieved 17 March 2011.
  25. ^ "番組表 – Tokyo FM 80.0 MHz – 80.Love FM Radio Station". Tfm.co.jp. from the original on 7 April 2011. Retrieved 17 March 2011.
  26. ^ "「報道特番 ～東日本大地震～」 2011年3月14日（月）放送内容". Kakaku.com. from the original on 17 March 2011. Retrieved 17 March 2011.
  27. ^ USGS Updates Magnitude of Japan's 2011 Tōhoku Earthquake to 9.03 – website of the United States Geological Survey
  28. ^ a b Pletcher, Kenneth; Rafferty, John P. (4 March 2019). "Japan earthquake and tsunami of 2011 | Facts & Death Toll". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 12 March 2019.
  29. ^ "3.11の映像｜Nhk災害アーカイブス".
  30. ^ "3.11復興特集～復興の今、そしてこれから～". kantei.go.jp (in Japanese). from the original on 10 March 2013. Retrieved 15 September 2021.
  31. ^ "3.11".
  32. ^ "New USGS number puts Japan quake at fourth largest". CBS News. Associated Press. 14 March 2011. from the original on 7 April 2011. Retrieved 15 March 2011.
  33. ^ Branigan, Tania (13 March 2011). "Tsunami, earthquake, nuclear crisis – now Japan faces power cuts". The Guardian. London. from the original on 11 June 2022. Retrieved 15 March 2011.
  34. ^ . 11 March 2011. Archived from the original on 31 March 2011. Retrieved 11 March 2011.
  35. ^ . .nhk.or.jp. 13 August 2011. Archived from the original on 28 July 2011. Retrieved 7 September 2011.
  36. ^ a b c Yomiuri Shimbun evening edition 2-11-04-15 page 15, nearby Aneyoshi fishery port (姉吉漁港)(Google map E39 31 57.8, N 142 3 7.6) 2011-04-15, 大震災の津波、宮古で38.9 m…明治三陸上回る by okayasu Akio (岡安 章夫) 18 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  37. ^ a b c d Richard A. Clarke; R.P. Eddy (2017). Warnings: Finding Cassandras to stop catastrophe. Harper Collins. p. 77.
  38. ^ a b Roland Buerk (11 March 2011). "Japan earthquake: Tsunami hits north-east". BBC. from the original on 12 March 2011. Retrieved 12 March 2011.
  39. ^ a b c d e Heath, Chris (12 March 2012). . GQ. Archived from the original on 10 March 2021.
  40. ^ a b c [Disaster area freezes, put up a bonfire as snow piles in at night.]. Asahi Shimbun (in Japanese). 16 March 2011. Archived from the original on 21 March 2021.
  41. ^ a b c [Press release no. 161 of the 2011 Tohuku earthqyake] (PDF). 総務省消防庁災害対策本部 [Fire and Disaster Management Agency]. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 March 2021. Retrieved 10 March 2021.
  42. ^ a b "過去の気象データ検索 > 石巻 2011年3月11日（１０分ごとの値）" [Past meteorological data search: Ishinomaki, 11 March 2011, per 10-minute interval]. Japan Meteorological Agency. Archived from the original on 12 April 2021. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
  43. ^ [Press release no. 162 of the 2011 Tohuku earthquake] (PDF). 総務省消防庁災害対策本部 [Fire and Disaster Management Agency]. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 August 2022. Retrieved 23 September 2022. Page 31 of the PDF file.
  44. ^ [Press release no. 162 of the 2011 Tohuku earthquake] (PDF). 総務省消防庁災害対策本部 [Fire and Disaster Management Agency]. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 August 2022. Retrieved 23 September 2022. Page 31 of the PDF file.
  45. ^ [Press release no. 162 of the 2011 Tohuku earthquake] (PDF). 総務省消防庁災害対策本部 [Fire and Disaster Management Agency]. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 August 2022. Retrieved 23 September 2022. Page 31 of the PDF file.
  46. ^ "4th Anniversary today". Kobe Shinbun. 11 March 2015. p. 1.
  47. ^ a b . Ktvz.com. 6 June 2011. Archived from the original on 28 July 2011. Retrieved 7 September 2011.
  48. ^ "3 nuclear reactors melted down after quake, Japan confirms". CNN. 7 June 2011. from the original on 25 July 2012. Retrieved 6 June 2011.
  49. ^ Molly Hennessy-Fiske (13 March 2011). "Japan earthquake: Insurance cost for quake alone pegged at $35 billion, AIR says". Los Angeles Times. from the original on 16 March 2011. Retrieved 13 March 2011.
  50. ^ Uranaka, Taiga; Kwon, Ki Joon (14 March 2011). "New explosion shakes stricken Japanese nuclear plant". Reuters. from the original on 17 March 2011. Retrieved 15 March 2011.
  51. ^ Zhang, Bo. . AccuWeather.com. News & Video. Archived from the original on 31 March 2011. Retrieved 29 March 2011.
  52. ^ Victoria Kim (21 March 2011). "Japan damage could reach $235 billion, World Bank estimates". Los Angeles Times. from the original on 31 March 2011. Retrieved 21 March 2011.
  53. ^ Carvalho, Vasco M; Nirei, Makoto; Saito, Yukiko U; Tahbaz-Salehi, Alireza (10 December 2020). "Supply Chain Disruptions: Evidence from the Great East Japan Earthquake*". The Quarterly Journal of Economics. 136 (2): 1255–1321. doi:10.1093/qje/qjaa044. ISSN 0033-5533.
  54. ^ Japan earthquake and tsunami: what happened and why|World news. The Guardian. Retrieved 3 April 2011. 14 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  55. ^ Boadle, Anthony (11 March 2011). "UPDATE 3-USGS upgrades Japan quake to 8.9 magnitude". Reuters. from the original on 7 April 2011. Retrieved 18 March 2011.
  56. ^ Reilly, Michael (11 March 2011). . New Scientist (Short Sharp Science ed.). Archived from the original on 1 April 2011.
  57. ^ "USGS Updates Magnitude of Japan's 2011 Tōhoku Earthquake to 9.0". United States Geological Survey (USGS). 14 March 2011. from the original on 18 March 2011. Retrieved 18 March 2011.
  58. ^ Lovett, Richard A. (14 March 2011). "Japan Earthquake Not the 'Big One'?". National Geographic News. from the original on 16 March 2011. Retrieved 15 March 2011.
  59. ^ "地震情報 – 2011年3月10日 15時6分 – 日本気象協会 tenki.jp". Archived from the original on 18 April 2011. Retrieved 11 March 2011."地震情報 – 2011年3月11日 15時15分 – 日本気象協会 tenki.jp". Archived from the original on 18 April 2011. Retrieved 11 March 2011.
  60. ^ "Earthquake Information". Japan Meteorological Agency. from the original on 24 March 2011. Retrieved 11 March 2011.
  61. ^ . The Star. Toronto. Associated Press. 25 October 2013. Archived from the original on 25 October 2013. Retrieved 25 October 2013. A 7.3-magnitude earthquake struck early Saturday morning off Japan's east coast [...] Japan's meteorological agency said the quake was an aftershock of the magnitude-9.0 earthquake and tsunami that struck the same area in 2011.
  62. ^ a b Marcia McNutt (12 March 2011). Energy from quake: if harnessed, could power L.A. for a year. CBS News via YouTube (Google). from the original on 7 April 2011. Retrieved 13 March 2011.
  63. ^ a b c d e "Quake shifted Japan by over two metres". Deutsche Welle. 14 March 2011. from the original on 15 March 2011. Retrieved 14 March 2011.
  64. ^ a b c d e f g Chang, Kenneth (13 March 2011). "Quake Moves Japan Closer to U.S. and Alters Earth's Spin". The New York Times. from the original on 16 March 2011. Retrieved 14 March 2011.
  65. ^ a b c d Chai, Carmen (11 March 2011). "Japan's quake shifts earth's axis by 25 centimetres". Montreal Gazette. Montreal: Postmedia News. from the original on 14 March 2011. Retrieved 13 March 2011.
  66. ^ . National Geographic (in Japanese). 17 March 2011. Archived from the original on 13 May 2013. Retrieved 19 March 2011.
  67. ^ a b "GOCE: The First Seismometer in Orbit". 8 March 2013. Retrieved 21 August 2016.
  68. ^ 未来を考える力を 気仙沼復興レポート㉘ 地盤の沈下と隆起 11 June 2016 今川 悟
  69. ^ "震災で沈下の地盤が隆起、高すぎる岸壁に漁師困惑". TBS Newsi. 11 October 2014. Archived from the original on 11 October 2014. Retrieved 2 November 2017.
  70. ^ 地盤が隆起 漁業者困惑 最大40センチ、積み荷に影響 三陸沿岸で地殻変動か Nikkei 9 March 2015
  71. ^ 東北沿岸、地震で沈んだ地盤が謎の隆起 マントル影響か Nikkei 27 February 2017
  72. ^ Sawai, Yuki; Namegaya, Yuichi (9 November 2012). "Challenges of anticipating the 2011 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami using coastal geology". Geophysical Research Letters. 39 (21): L21309. Bibcode:2012GeoRL..3921309S. doi:10.1029/2012GL053692.
  73. ^ Goto, Kazuhisa; Chagué-Goff, Catherine (29 August 2012). (PDF). Sedimentary Geology. 282: 1–13. Bibcode:2012SedG..282....1G. doi:10.1016/j.sedgeo.2012.08.003. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 May 2015.
  74. ^ Minoura, K.; Imamura F.; Sugawara D.; Kono Y.; Iwashita T. (2001). "The 869 Jōgan tsunami deposit and recurrence interval of large-scale tsunami on the Pacific coast of northeast Japan" (PDF). Journal of Natural Disaster Science. 23 (2): 83–88.
  75. ^ Satake, K.; Sawai, Y.; Shishikura, M.; Okamura, Y.; Namegaya, Y.; Yamaki, S. (2007). "Tsunami source of the unusual AD 869 earthquake off Miyagi, Japan, inferred from tsunami deposits and numerical simulation of inundation". American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2007, Abstract #T31G-03. 31: T31G–03. Bibcode:2007AGUFM.T31G..03S.
  76. ^ a b Ian Sample (11 March 2011). "newspaper: Japan earthquake and tsunami: what happened and why". The Guardian. London. from the original on 14 March 2011. Retrieved 14 March 2011.
  77. ^ Maugh, Thomas H (11 March 2011). "Size of Japan's quake surprises seismologists". Los Angeles Times. from the original on 7 April 2011. Retrieved 11 March 2011.
  78. ^ . .nhk.or.jp. Archived from the original on 14 March 2011. Retrieved 12 March 2011.
  79. ^ "時事ドットコム：Ｍ８．８、死者３００人超＝行方不明５４０人以上−大津波１０ｍ・宮城で震度７". Jiji.com. from the original on 13 December 2013. Retrieved 12 March 2011.
  80. ^ . .nhk.or.jp. Archived from the original on 14 March 2011. Retrieved 13 March 2011.
  81. ^ "asahi.com（朝日新聞社）：地殻破壊３連鎖、計６分 専門家、余震拡大に警鐘 – 東日本大震災". Asahi Shimbun. Japan. from the original on 7 April 2011. Retrieved 13 March 2011.
  82. ^ [1] 7 December 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  83. ^ "Spatial distribution and focal mechanisms of aftershocks of the 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tōhoku Earthquake" by Y. Asano, T. Saito, Y. Ito, K. Shiomi, H. Hirose, T. Matsumoto, S. Aoi, S. Hori, and S. Sekiguchi.
  84. ^ Okada, Norio; Ye, Tao; Kajitani, Yoshio; Shi, Peijun; Tatano, Hirokazu (8 August 2012). "The 2011 eastern Japan great earthquake disaster: Overview and comments". International Journal of Disaster Risk Science. Springer. 2: 34–42. doi:10.1007/s13753-011-0004-9. S2CID 129611625.
  85. ^ . Earthquake.usgs.gov. Archived from the original on 14 March 2011. Retrieved 13 March 2011.
  86. ^ Okada Yoshimitsu (25 March 2011). (PDF). National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention (NIED). Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 October 2016. Retrieved 12 March 2012.
  87. ^ "Asian Disaster Reduction Center（ADRC）". Adrc.asia. from the original on 7 April 2011. Retrieved 17 March 2011.
  88. ^ . Adrc.asia. Archived from the original on 24 March 2011. Retrieved 17 March 2011.
  89. ^ Erol Kalkan; Volkan Sevilgen (17 March 2011). . United States Geological Survey. Archived from the original on 24 March 2011. Retrieved 22 March 2011.
  90. ^ . Jma.go.jp. Archived from the original on 24 March 2011. Retrieved 11 March 2011.
  91. ^ a b "震度データベース検索". www.data.jma.go.jp. Retrieved 18 June 2021.
  92. ^ Rincon, Paul (14 March 2011). "How the quake has moved Japan". BBC News. from the original on 14 March 2011. Retrieved 15 March 2011.
  93. ^ Reilly, Michael (12 March 2011). "Japan quake fault may have moved 40 metres". New Scientist. from the original on 13 March 2011. Retrieved 15 March 2011.
  94. ^ "Japan seabed shifted 24 metres after March quake". Reuters. 7 April 2011.
  95. ^ Jiji Press, "March temblor shifted seabed by 50 metres (160 ft)", Japan Times, 3 December 2011, p. 1.
  96. ^ a b . CBS News. 13 March 2011. Archived from the original on 13 March 2011. Retrieved 13 March 2011.
  97. ^ Harris, Bethan (14 March 2011). "Can an earthquake shift the Earth's axis?". BBC News. from the original on 16 March 2011. Retrieved 15 March 2011.
  98. ^ Union, American Geophysical. "An earthquake in Japan caused large waves in Norwegian fjords". phys.org. Retrieved 16 April 2022.
  99. ^ Fukue, Natsuko, "Liquefaction driving away Chiba residents", The Japan Times, 30 March 2012, p. 3.
  100. ^ Fukue, Natsuko, "Urayasu still dealing with liquefaction", The Japan Times, 8 April 2011, p. 4. . Archived from the original on 10 April 2011. Retrieved 7 April 2011.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  101. ^ Yomiuri Shimbun, "Liquefaction Damage Widespread", 10 April 2011.
  102. ^ Bloomberg L.P., "Tokyo Disneyland's parking lot shows the risk of reclaimed land", The Japan Times, 24 March 2011, p. 3. 7 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  103. ^ Hennessy-Fiske, Molly (13 March 2011). "Volcano in southern Japan erupts". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 13 March 2011. Retrieved 13 March 2011.
  104. ^ Ananthaswamy, Anil (15 March 2011). "Japan quake shifts Antarctic glacier". from the original on 16 March 2011. Retrieved 15 March 2011.
  105. ^ Gross, Richard (19 March 2011). "Japan Earthquake May Have Shifted Earth's Axis". NPR.
  106. ^ . Archived from the original on 9 April 2011.
  107. ^ The CNN Wire Staff (8 April 2011). "Fresh quake triggers tsunami warning in Japan". CNN. from the original on 25 July 2012. Retrieved 7 April 2011.
  108. ^ "Four dead as new tremor hits Japan disaster zone". Bangkok Post. 8 April 2011. Retrieved 8 April 2011.
  109. ^ Fukushima Nuclear Accident Update Log, IAEA, 7 April 2011 9 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  110. ^ NHK, "Strong aftershock kills four", 12 April 2011.
  111. ^ . Earthquake.usgs.gov. Archived from the original on 28 July 2011. Retrieved 7 September 2011.
  112. ^ . CNN World News. 11 April 2011. Archived from the original on 2 June 2011. Retrieved 23 April 2011.
  113. ^ ３県で津波観測、注意報を解除 福島沖でＭ７．１：朝日新聞デジタル (in Japanese). Asahi Broadcasting Corporation. 26 October 2013. Retrieved 15 July 2014.
  114. ^ . Earthquake.usgs.gov. 2 December 2009. Archived from the original on 28 July 2011. Retrieved 7 September 2011.
  115. ^ "Tōhoku, Japan 2011 Tsunami". ngdc.noaa.gov. Retrieved 22 August 2013.
  116. ^ 気象庁｜Ｍ5.0以上の余震回数 (in Japanese). Japan Meteorological Agency. Retrieved 4 November 2016.
  117. ^ Sugimoto T.; Shinozaki T.; Miyamoto Y. (2013). "Aftershocks Associated With Impaired Health Caused by the Great East Japan Disaster Among Youth Across Japan: A National Cross-Sectional Survey Interact J Med Res 2013;2(2):e31". Interactive Journal of Medical Research. 2 (2): e31. doi:10.2196/ijmr.2585. PMC 3875891. PMID 24362519.
  118. ^ "M 7.1 – 70 km ENE of Namie, Japan". earthquake.usgs.gov. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
  119. ^ "1st death confirmed in Feb. 13 northeastern Japan earthquake". Kyodo News. Fukushima. 25 February 2021. Retrieved 11 March 2021.
  120. ^ 平成23年(2011年)東北地方太平洋沖地震に伴う地盤沈下調査 [Land subsidence caused by 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami] (in Japanese). Geospatial Information Authority of Japan. 14 April 2011. from the original on 20 April 2011. Retrieved 13 March 2012.
  121. ^ a b Values announced by Geospatial Information Authority of Japan, news report by Yomiuri Shimbun 15 April 2011 ver. 13S page 33
  122. ^ Alabaster, Jay (9 May 2011). "Quake Shifted Japan; Towns Now Flood at High Tide", Associated Press, ABC News. Retrieved 13 March 2012.
  123. ^ Foster, Peter. "Alert sounded a minute before the tremor struck". The Daily Telegraph. UK. Archived from the original on 11 March 2011. Retrieved 11 March 2011.
  124. ^ Talbot, David. "80 Seconds of Warning for Tokyo". MIT Technology Review. Archived from the original on 30 May 2012. Retrieved 11 March 2011.
  125. ^ 干場充之 (2011) 経験則からのずれ ―はじめの数秒と強震動：τc, Pd，スペクトル，簡易震源域推定方法― 日本地球惑星科学連合 2011年 MIS036-P67
  126. ^ 緊急地震速報と観測された震度の特徴 JMA Meteorological Research Institute [ja] 日本地球惑星連合 2011年予稿集
  127. ^ Hoshiba, Mitsuyuki; Ozaki, Tomoaki (2012). "Earthquake Early Warning and Tsunami Warning of JMA for the 2011 off the Pacific Coast of Tohoku Earthquake". Zisin (Journal of the Seismological Society of Japan). 2nd Series. 64 (3): 155–168. doi:10.4294/zisin.64.155.
  128. ^ Japan Earthquake Early Warning 3/11/2011 (w/ English subtitles). stardust9. 20 May 2020. from the original on 1 December 2021. Retrieved 22 January 2022 – via YouTube.
  129. ^ 報道発表資料平成23年3月29日 (PDF) (in Japanese). Japan Meteorological Agency. 2011. Retrieved 15 July 2014.
  130. ^ "緊急地震速報の改善について" (Press release). Japan Meteorological Agency. 10 August 2011. Retrieved 10 August 2011.
  131. ^ NHK BS News reported 2011-04-03-02:55 JST
  132. ^ . Pacific Tsunami Warning Center/NOAA/NWS. 11 March 2011. Archived from the original on 14 March 2011. Retrieved 11 March 2011.
  133. ^ "Tsunami warnings issued for at least 20 countries after quake". CNN. 11 March 2011. from the original on 12 March 2011. Retrieved 11 March 2011.
  134. ^ "PTWC warnings complete list". Archived from the original on 30 May 2012. Retrieved 11 March 2011.
  135. ^ "Distance between Dichato, Chile and Sendai, Japan is 17228 km". Mapcrow.info. 23 October 2007. from the original on 16 March 2011. Retrieved 15 March 2011.
  136. ^ Attwood, James (12 March 2011). "Chile Lifts Tsunami Alerts After Japan Quake Spawns Waves". Bloomberg. from the original on 12 March 2011. Retrieved 15 March 2011.
  137. ^ . Publimetro.cl. Archived from the original on 17 March 2011. Retrieved 17 March 2011.
  138. ^ . Archived from the original on 16 March 2011. Retrieved 18 April 2011.
  139. ^ "Tsunami Information (Estimated Tsunami arrival time and Height)". 11 March 2011. from the original on 14 April 2011.
  140. ^ 津波による浸水範囲の面積（概略値）について（第5報） (PDF) (in Japanese). Geospatial Information Authority in Japan(国土地理院). 18 April 2011. (PDF) from the original on 23 June 2011. Retrieved 20 June 2011.
  141. ^ One estimate of 10–15 minutes came from German seismologist Rainer Kind of the GFZ German Research Center for Geosciences in Potsdam, as interviewed in Japan's tsunami victims only had 15 minutes warning, Deutsche Welle, 12 March 2011. Retrieved 13 March 2011. 7 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  142. ^ Another estimate of 15–30 minutes came from Vasily V. Titov, director of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Center for Tsunami Research, as reported in Japan tsunami: Toll could rise to more than 1,300, NDTV-hosted copy of an article by Martin Fackler, The New York Times, 12 March 2011. Retrieved 13 March 2011. 7 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  143. ^ a b "News: Tsunami rolls through Pacific, Sendai Airport under water, Tokyo Narita closed, Pacific region airports endangered". Avherald.com. 6 July 2001. Retrieved 11 March 2011.
  144. ^ . The Japan Times Online. Kyodo News. 11 March 2011. Archived from the original on 26 October 2011. Retrieved 12 March 2012.
  145. ^ . NHK. 12 March 2011. Archived from the original on 30 March 2011. Retrieved 12 March 2011.
  146. ^ "Japan 8.9-magnitude earthquake sparks massive tsunami". Herald Sun. Australia. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 16 March 2011. Retrieved 11 March 2011.
  147. ^ NHK News, ~16:00 JST.
  148. ^ "Earthquake, tsunami wreak havoc in Japan". RIA Novosti. 11 March 2011. from the original on 7 April 2011. Retrieved 13 March 2011.
  149. ^ "Earthquake", The Japan Times, 19 March 2011, p. 16.
  150. ^ Kyodo News, "Tsunami hit more than 100 designated evacuation sites", The Japan Times, 14 April 2011, p. 1. 14 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  151. ^ "9,500 unaccounted for in Miyagi's Minamisanriku: local gov't". Kyodo News. from the original on 13 March 2011. Retrieved 13 March 2011.
  152. ^ Kyodo News, "2,000 more added to death toll in Miyagi", The Japan Times, 15 March 2011, p. 1. 16 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  153. ^ Watts, Jonathan, "Quake survivors search for hope and shelter", The Japan Times, 26 March 2011, p. 13.
  154. ^ "津波、最大想定に対処…防災会議・中間報告骨子". Yomiuri Shimbun. 20 June 2011. Archived from the original on 1 May 2013. Retrieved 11 August 2011.
  155. ^ "東北地方太平洋沖地震を教訓とした地震・津波対策に関する専門調査会中間とりまとめ" (PDF). 中央防災会議 「東北地方太平洋沖地震を教訓とした地震・津波対策に関する専門調査会」. 26 June 2011. Retrieved 11 August 2011.
  156. ^ Tritten, Travis, J., and T. D. Flack, "U.S. rescue teams find devastation in northern city of Ofunato", Stars and Stripes (newspaper), 15 March 2011. Retrieved 16 March 2011. 17 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  157. ^ "Whole towns gone-no cars or people seen". Yomiuri Shimbun. from the original on 7 April 2011. Retrieved 13 March 2011.
  158. ^ "Honderden doden in Japanse kuststad (Hundreds dead in Japanese coastal town)" (in Dutch). www.rtlnieuws.nl. Retrieved 12 March 2011. 7 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  159. ^ . New Straits Times. 3 February 2011. Archived from the original on 7 April 2011. Retrieved 13 March 2011.
  160. ^ Martin, Alex, "JET post best, not 'pityfest'", The Japan Times, 7 April 2011, p. 3. 7 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  161. ^ Kyodo News, "Miyagi coastal whaling port pulverized, little more than memory", The Japan Times, 18 March 2011, p. 3. 7 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  162. ^ Kyodo News, "Deaths, people missing set to top 1,600: Edano", The Japan Times, 13 March 2011.
  163. ^ Kyodo News, "Survivors in trauma after life-changing nightmare day", The Japan Times, 13 March 2011, p. 2.
  164. ^ Kyodo News, "Death toll may surpass 10,000 in Miyagi", The Japan Times, 14 March 2011, p. 1. 7 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  165. ^ Alabaster, Jay, and Todd Pitman, (Associated Press), "Hardships, suffering in earthquake zone", The Japan Times, 15 March 2011, p. 3. 7 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  166. ^ Gihooly, Rob, "'Nothing can prepare you to witness this', The Japan Times, 20 March 2011, p. 7. 7 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  167. ^ Stuart Biggs and Aaron Sheldrick (11 March 2011). Tsunami Slams Japan After Record Earthquake, Killing Hundreds, Bloomberg L.P.. Retrieved 12 March 2012.
  168. ^ "Japan disaster: 30 powerful images of the earthquake and tsunami". The Daily Telegraph. London. 16 March 2011. from the original on 7 April 2011.
  169. ^ Kyodo News, "Survivors on cut-off isle were ready for disaster", The Japan Times, 19 March 2011, p. 2. 7 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  170. ^ Fukue, Natsuko, "Tsunami came late to unprepared Chiba", The Japan Times, 30 March 2011, p. 2. 2 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  171. ^ . Japan Meteorological Agency. 13 March 2011. Archived from the original on 14 March 2012. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
  172. ^ Tsunami Information Number 64 (Tsunami Observation), Japan Meteorological Agency, issued 18:05 JST 13 March 2011. Retrieved 14 March 2011. (Tohoku district.) 1 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  173. ^ Tsunami Information Number 64 (Tsunami Observation), Japan Meteorological Agency, issued 18:05 JST 13 March 2011. Retrieved 14 March 2011. (Kanto/Chubu district.) 24 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  174. ^ "Tsunami Information Number 64(Tsunami Observations)" 24 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine Japan Meteorological Agency. Retrieved 12 March 2012.
  175. ^ 行政情報システム室 (25 March 2011). (PDF). Yokosuka, Japan: Port and Airport Research Institute (PARI). Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 June 2013. Retrieved 12 March 2012.
  176. ^ . NHK. Archived from the original on 5 April 2011. Retrieved 29 March 2011.
  177. ^ 日本で一番大きな津波は何ですか？, JMA
  178. ^ "38-meter-high tsunami triggered by 11 March quake: survey". Kuwait News Agency (KUNA). Kyodo News. 4 April 2011. from the original on 13 June 2013. Retrieved 13 March 2012.
  179. ^ [Tsunami run up height at Miyako city, Taro Koborinai fishing port] (in Japanese). Earthquake Research Institute, University of Tokyo. 3 April 2011. Archived from the original on 7 April 2011. Retrieved 4 April 2011.
  180. ^ Yoshida, Reiji, "869 Tohoku tsunami parallels stun", The Japan Times, 11 March 2012, p. 1.
  181. ^ Jiji Press, "42% didn't immediately flee tsunami", The Japan Times, 18 August 2011, p. 2.
  182. ^ a b "東北地方太平洋沖地震による津波被害を踏まえた津波警報の改善の方向性について（最終とりまとめ）" (PDF). Japan Meteorological Agency. 12 September 2011. Retrieved 14 September 2011.
  183. ^ a b "津波警報の改善について". Japan Meteorological Agency. Retrieved 1 April 2016.
  184. ^ "Evacuate all coastal areas immediately, Hawaii Civil Defense says". 11 March 2011. from the original on 7 April 2011. Retrieved 13 March 2011.
  185. ^ "Text of PTWC Pacific-wide tsunami warning". 11 March 2011. from the original on 16 March 2011. Retrieved 13 March 2011.
  186. ^ . 1310News.com. Associated Press. 11 March 2011. Archived from the original on 14 March 2012. Retrieved 13 March 2012.
  187. ^ . Archived from the original on 16 March 2011. Retrieved 11 March 2011.
  188. ^ a b "B.C. tsunami threat passes". Canada: Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. 11 March 2011. from the original on 7 April 2011. Retrieved 13 March 2011.
  189. ^ Helen Jung and Jeff Manning, "Waves bring destruction to Oregon's south coast", The Oregonian, 12 March 2011, p. 1+
  190. ^ . Ktvz.com. 9 July 2011. Archived from the original on 28 July 2011. Retrieved 7 September 2011.
  191. ^ Twilight tsunami evacuation. Courier Mail (14 March 2011). Retrieved 3 April 2011. 7 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  192. ^ Girl, Bowen. (16 March 2011) Diary of a Bowen girl: Japan. Bowendiaries.blogspot.com. Retrieved 3 April 2011. 31 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  193. ^ . The Jakarta Post. Archived from the original on 15 March 2011. Retrieved 17 March 2011.
  194. ^ "PNG's Wewak hospital damaged by tsunami waves". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 16 March 2011. from the original on 7 April 2011. Retrieved 17 March 2011.
  195. ^ Nakaso, Dan (14 March 2011)Tsunami damage estimate for Hawaii now tens of millions Star Advertiser. Retrieved 15 March 2011. 15 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  196. ^ "Tsunami washes away feathered victims west of Hawaii". CNN. 19 March 2011. from the original on 25 July 2012. Retrieved 19 March 2011.
  197. ^ . 11 March 2011. Archived from the original on 7 April 2011. Retrieved 13 March 2011.
  198. ^ Tsunami Warning For Guam Extended Until 11 p.m. Pacificnewscenter.com (11 March 2011). Retrieved 3 April 2011. 7 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  199. ^ a b Minor damage in Latin America by Japan's tsunami 16 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Channel NewsAsia, 13 March 2011
  200. ^ (Spanish) . ANSA Latina. 13 March 2011.
  201. ^ (Spanish) Caldera: 80 viviendas resultaron destruidas en Puerto Viejo por efecto de las olas. Radio Bio-Bio. 3 December 2011. 7 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  202. ^ (Spanish) Más de 200 casas dañadas dejó seguidilla de olas que azotaron las costas chilenas La Tercera. 3 December 2011. 17 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  203. ^ a b Keall, Chris (13 March 2011). "Gareth Morgan's Galapagos hotel destroyed by tsunami". National Business Review. from the original on 14 March 2011. Retrieved 15 September 2011.
  204. ^ "Ecuador Sends Aid To Galapagos After Islands Hit By Tsunami From Japan". Latin American News Dispatch. 15 March 2011. from the original on 7 April 2011. Retrieved 17 March 2011.
  205. ^ . Galapagos.org. Retrieved 3 April 2011.
  206. ^ 「津波 太平洋を往復」Nikkei 2 May 2014 Morning News
  207. ^ 2014-05-01 Japan Geoscience Union [ja], Meteorological Research Institute [ja] visiting scholar Masami Okada.
  208. ^ "Japan tsunami caused icebergs to break off in Antarctica". European Space Agency. 9 August 2011.
  209. ^ Brunt, Kelly M.; Emile A. Okal; Douglas R. MacAyeal (1 October 2011). "Antarctic ice-shelf calving triggered by the Honshu (Japan) earthquake and tsunami, March 2011". Journal of Glaciology. 57 (205): 785–788. Bibcode:2011JGlac..57..785B. doi:10.3189/002214311798043681. (fee required for full article)
  210. ^ Japan tsunami victim's soccer ball found in Alaska 24 April 2012. Associated Press
  211. ^ "Tsunami motorcycle owner located in Japan". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. 1 May 2012. Retrieved 22 August 2013.
  212. ^ "An earthquake in Japan caused large waves in Norwegian fjords". Phys.org. 13 August 2013. Retrieved 25 May 2022.
  213. ^ Oskin, Becky. "Norway's weird waves traced to Japan quake". Nbcnews.com. Retrieved 25 May 2022.
  214. ^ a b c "特‐４ 東日本大震災による死者の死因等について（平成24年3月11日現在）[Table 4: Causes of deaths in East Japan Earthquake (as of 11 March 2012)]". [White Paper of the Police, 2012]. National Police Agency. Archived from the original on 29 January 2013.
  215. ^ [Press release no. 162 of the 2011 Tohuku earthquake] (PDF). 総務省消防庁災害対策本部 [Fire and Disaster Management Agency]. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 August 2022. Retrieved 23 September 2022. Page 31 of the PDF file.
  216. ^ [Press release no. 162 of the 2011 Tohuku earthquake] (PDF). 総務省消防庁災害対策本部 [Fire and Disaster Management Agency]. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 August 2022. Retrieved 23 September 2022. Page 31 of the PDF file.
  217. ^ [Press release no. 162 of the 2011 Tohuku earthquake] (PDF). 総務省消防庁災害対策本部 [Fire and Disaster Management Agency]. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 August 2022. Retrieved 23 September 2022. Page 31 of the PDF file.
  218. ^ [7 years after the nuclear accident. Reason why 12,000 "Hero" workers do not respond to health surveys]. NHK. 12 March 2018. Archived from the original on 9 May 2018.
  219. ^ Parry, Richard Lloyd (24 August 2017). "The school beneath the wave: the unimaginable tragedy of Japan's tsunami". The Guardian.
  220. ^ ３．11「震災関連死」という問い 福島県の分析を通して 29 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine 野口典子
  221. ^ 福島の震災関連死2000人超す　原発避難の長期化影響 28 December 2015 Nikkei
  222. ^ Smith, Alexander (10 September 2013). "Fukushima evacuation has killed more than earthquake and tsunami, survey says". from the original on 27 October 2013. Retrieved 11 September 2013.
  223. ^ . Archived from the original on 27 September 2013.
  224. ^ McCurry, Justin (15 March 2011). "Japan earthquake: 100,000 children displaced, says charity". The Guardian. London. from the original on 5 June 2022. Retrieved 15 March 2011.
  225. ^ Kyodo News, "More quake orphan benefits sought", The Japan Times, 18 September 2011, p. 1.
  226. ^ Agence France-Presse/Jiji Press, "At least 82 children were orphaned by disaster, government says", The Japan Times, 10 April 2011, p. 2.
  227. ^ Kyodo News, "Grandparents stifle grief to raise orphaned boy", The Japan Times, 23 February 2012, p. 3.
  228. ^ Kyodo News, "Tōhoku teen feels guilt of being lone survivor", The Japan Times, 24 February 2012, p. 3.
  229. ^ Kyodo News, "378 students killed, 158 missing in disaster", The Japan Times, 29 April 2011, p. 2. The victims included 234 elementary, 111 junior high and 191 high school students. Direct quote: "Out of the 378 students confirmed dead, 273 were in Miyagi, 59 in Fukushima and 46 in Iwate. The list of missing students is made up of 74 in Miyagi, 52 in Iwate and 32 in Fukushima." As of 25 December 2011, 342 elementary and junior high school students were declared dead or missing (Kyodo News, "3/11 tsunami killed 35% of students 'saved' by parents", Japan Times, 25 December 2011, p. 2.)
  230. ^ Associated Press, "Loss-staggered school reopens 14 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine", Japan Times, 19 April 2011, p. 3.
  231. ^ Kyodo News, "Loss-hit Ishinomaki school opens", The Japan Times, 22 April 2011, p. 2.
  232. ^ Kyodo News, "School that lost 70% of its pupils mourns 2 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine", Japan Times, 29 April 2011, p. 1.
  233. ^ "Japan confirms death of 19 foreigners in March 11 quake, tsunami". Kyodo News. 5 April 2011. Archived from the original on 7 April 2011. Retrieved 7 April 2011.
  234. ^ "Body of second American found in Japan". CNN. 7 April 2011. from the original on 8 April 2011. Retrieved 7 April 2011.
  235. ^ "Quebec priest killed in Japanese tsunami". Montreal Gazette. Montreal. 13 March 2011. Archived from the original on 7 April 2011. Retrieved 7 April 2011.
  236. ^ Shinde, Jayesh (11 March 2011). . PC World. Archived from the original on 7 April 2011. Retrieved 11 March 2011.
  237. ^ (Japan ed.). Appspot. Archived from the original on 11 March 2011.
  238. ^ Wines, Michael (23 March 2011). "As Tsunami Robbed Life, It Also Robs Rite of Death". The New York Times. from the original on 26 March 2011. Retrieved 11 April 2011.
  239. ^ Nishikawa, Yoko (23 March 2011). . Reuters. Archived from the original on 7 April 2011. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
  240. ^ Allen, Nick (24 March 2011). "Japan earthquake: country begins burying dead in mass graves". The Daily Telegraph. London. from the original on 7 April 2011. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
  241. ^ Wines, Michael (24 March 2011). "As Tsunami Robbed Life, It Also Robs Rite of Death". The New York Times. pp. A12. from the original on 25 April 2012. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
  242. ^ "Burials in Quake-Hit Towns Deepen Japan's Tragedy". The New York Times. Associated Press. 27 March 2011. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
  243. ^ Kyodo News, "GSDF member dies during relief", The Japan Times, 28 May 2011, p. 2.
  244. ^ Kyodo News, "Illness, suicides drive up disaster-linked toll", The Japan Times, 4 March 2012, p. 2.
  245. ^ Jiji Press, "Disaster reconstruction work has claimed 18 lives so far", The Japan Times, 6 June 2012, p. 1
  246. ^ "California tsunami death: NorCal man drowns trying to photograph tsunami – KSWB". Fox5sandiego.com. Archived from the original on 18 April 2011. Retrieved 14 March 2011.
    Associated Press (13 March 2011). "Man swept out to sea by tsunami was Bend native". The Oregonian. Archived from the original on 15 March 2011. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
    "Klamath tsunami victim identified; search comes up empty". The Times-Standard. Eureka, CA. 13 March 2011. Archived from the original on 18 April 2011. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
  247. ^ "film shown by BBC showing only rubble where there were buildings". BBC News. 13 March 2011. from the original on 14 March 2011. Retrieved 14 March 2011.
  248. ^ "Before-and-after satellite photographs of devastated regions". from the original on 13 March 2011. Retrieved 14 March 2011.
  249. ^ "animated images showing undamaged places become damaged". BBC. 14 March 2011. from the original on 16 March 2011. Retrieved 15 March 2011.
  250. ^ Onishi, Norimitsu (13 March 2011). "Seawalls Offered Little Protection Against Tsunami's Crushing Waves". The New York Times. from the original on 14 March 2011. Retrieved 15 March 2011.
  251. ^ NHK, "190,000 buildings damaged by 11 March quake", 3 April 2011.
  252. ^ Kyodo News, "Fishermen to Tepco: Don't release water", The Japan Times, 9 June 2011, p. 1.
  253. ^ Agence France-Presse/Jiji Press, "Radiation, legalities complicate cleanup efforts", The Japan Times, 9 April 2011, p. 2.
  254. ^ Kamiya, Setsuko, "Debris removal, recycling daunting, piecemeal labor", The Japan Times, 30 June 2011, p. 3.
  255. ^ "Police Countermeasures and Damage Situation associated with 2011 Tohoku district – off the Pacific Ocean Earthquake March 10, 2021" (PDF). National Police Agency of Japan. (PDF) from the original on 22 September 2017. Retrieved 10 September 2018.
  256. ^ Saira Syed – "Japan quake: Infrastructure damage will delay recovery" – 16 March 2011 – BBC News – Retrieved 18 March 2011. 17 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  257. ^ "Japanese PM: 'Toughest' crisis since World War II". CNN. 13 March 2011. from the original on 31 March 2011. Retrieved 12 March 2012.
  258. ^ a b NPR Staff and Wires (14 March 2011). "Millions of Stricken Japanese Lack Water, Food, Heat". NPR. from the original on 17 March 2011. Retrieved 16 March 2011. Nearly 1.5 million households had gone without water since the quake struck.
  259. ^ Kyodo News, "Applications to deregister cars lost in tsunami soar, The Japan Times, 16 June 2011, p. 1.
  260. ^ . Reuters. 16 March 2011. Archived from the original on 2 February 2017.
  261. ^ "無情の雪 増す疲労 沿岸真冬並み寒さ 「とにかく燃料必要」" [Merciless snow, increasing weariness, coastal towns are freezing like winter]. Iwate Nippo. 17 March 2011. from the original on 12 September 2017. Retrieved 8 August 2021.
  262. ^ a b "過去の気象データ検索 > 仙台 2011年3月（日ごとの値） 主な要素" [Past meteorological data search: Sendai, March 2011, Daily values]. Japan Meteorological Agency. Archived from the original on 12 April 2021. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
  263. ^ Jesse Allen and Robert Simmon. . NASA Earth Observatory. Archived from the original on 17 January 2019.
  264. ^ Kim, Kyung-Hoon; Sagolj, Damir (16 March 2011). "Pictures: Snowfall in Japan". Reuters.
  265. ^ Sim, David (29 December 2016). "60 powerful photos of the earthquake and tsunami that hit Japan five years ago". International Business Times.
  266. ^ Environment, U. N. (21 October 2021). "Drowning in Plastics – Marine Litter and Plastic Waste Vital Graphics". UNEP - UN Environment Programme. Retrieved 23 March 2022.
  267. ^ "Status of Japanese ports 5 days after devastating quake and tsunami". Reuters. 15 March 2011. from the original on 7 April 2011. Retrieved 15 March 2011.
  268. ^ a b Nihon Keizai Shimbun, "90 percent of major transport networks back in operation", 29 March 2011.
  269. ^ Fukada, Takahiro, "Iwate fisheries continue struggle to recover", The Japan Times, 21 September 2011, p. 3.
  270. ^ Jiji Press, "Most disaster-hit fish ports back up", The Japan Times, 26 May 2012, p. 2
  271. ^ "Tokyo Disneyland hit by liquefaction after quake". MediaCorp Channel NewsAsia. 11 March 2011. Retrieved 11 March 2011.[dead link]
  272. ^ a b c "Japan issues top tsunami warning after major quake". MediaCorp Channel NewsAsia. 11 March 2011. Retrieved 11 March 2011.[dead link]
  273. ^ "Japan's Afternoon of Horror". The Gulf Today. 12 March 2011. Archived from the original on 13 March 2011. Retrieved 13 March 2011.
  274. ^ "Dam Breaks in Northeast Japan, Washes Away Homes". Arab Times Online. 12 March 2011. from the original on 7 April 2011. Retrieved 13 March 2012.
  275. ^ Azuma, Kita (12 March 2011). (in Japanese). MSN. Archived from the original on 13 April 2011. Retrieved 14 March 2011.
  276. ^ ダム決壊 ５棟流出 福島・須賀川 (in Japanese). Fukushima News. 13 March 2011. Archived from the original on 28 March 2011. Retrieved 14 March 2011.
  277. ^ . Archived from the original on 2 June 2011. Retrieved 6 May 2018.
  278. ^ ダム決壊 8人が行方不明 須賀川・藤沼ルポ (in Japanese). Fukushima News. 12 March 2011. Archived from the original on 28 March 2011. Retrieved 14 March 2011.
  279. ^ "A quick report on Japanese Dams after the Earthquake". Chinese National Committee on Large Dams. 12 March 2011. from the original on 26 March 2011. Retrieved 15 March 2011.
  280. ^ Uranaka, Taiga; Kwon, Ki Joon (14 March 2011). . Reuters. Archived from the original on 16 March 2011. Retrieved 14 March 2011.
  281. ^ a b Nomiyama, Chiz (21 March 2011). "Factbox: Japan disaster in figures". Reuters. from the original on 24 March 2011. Retrieved 21 March 2011.
  282. ^ Inajima, Tsuyoshi; Okada, Yuji (11 March 2011) "Japanese Quake Forces Evacuation Near Nuclear Reactor; Oil Refinery Burns", Bloomberg L.P.. Retrieved 13 March 2012.
  283. ^ Kyodo News, "Utilities' monopoly on power backfires", The Japan Times, 30 March 2011, p. 2. 31 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  284. ^ "Power Outage To Deal Further Blows To Industrial Output". Nikkei.com. 14 March 2011. from the original on 16 March 2011. Retrieved 14 March 2011.
  285. ^ "東京電力ホームページ – エネルギーの最適サービスを通じてゆたかで快適な環境の実現に貢献します –". Tokyo Electric Power Company. from the original on 27 February 2011. Retrieved 13 March 2011.
  286. ^ . Nikkan Sports. Archived from the original on 15 March 2011. Retrieved 13 March 2011.
  287. ^ Joe, Melinda, "Kanto area works on energy conservation", The Japan Times, 17 March 2011, p. 11. 7 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  288. ^ A legacy from the 1800s leaves Tokyo facing blackouts, ITworld, 18 March 2011 7 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  289. ^ Hongo, Jun, "One certainty in the crisis: Power will be at a premium", The Japan Times, 16 March 2011, p. 2. 7 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  290. ^ NHK, "Steel makers provide TEPCO with electricity", 27 March 2011.
  291. ^ Nakata, Hiroko, "Auto industry agrees to adopt weekend work shifts", The Japan Times, 20 May 2011, p. 1.
  292. ^ Rubin, Jeffrey "Setsuden Poised to Replace Nuclear Power in Japan ""The Huffington Post", 4 August 2011. Retrieved 6 February 2011
  293. ^ 節電について 6 October 2018 at the Wayback Machine, 今夏の電力需給状況について 27 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine, 最大電力の動向 27 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine TEPCO, Access Date: 9 October 2011
  294. ^ 7月分の電力需給実績について 1 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine TEP, 26 August 2011
  295. ^ 8月分の電力需給実績について 1 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine TEP, 28 September 2011
  296. ^ 9月定例社長記者会見概要 1 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine TEP, 10 September 2011
  297. ^ 政府、今夏は節電要請せず　東日本大震災後初 Nikkei, 13 May 2016
  298. ^ 「節電なし」初の夏が来る　窮地を救う省・再・新 Nikkei, 28 June 2016
  299. ^ 今夏の節電要請見送り　安定的な供給可能 Mainichi Shimbun, 21 May 2017
  300. ^ a b c Fernandez, Clarence (14 March 2011). "Japan's shipping, energy sectors begin march back from quake". Reuters. from the original on 16 March 2011. Retrieved 14 March 2011.
  301. ^ Watkins, Eric (11 March 2011). "After 8.9 quake, explosion hits pchem complex in Japan". Oil & Gas Journal. PennEnergy.com.
  302. ^ The Daily Telegraph, London, 11 March 2011
  303. ^ "LPG Tanks Fire Extinguished at Chiba Refinery (5th Update) | COSMO OIL Co., Ltd". Cosmo-oil.co.jp. 11 March 2011. from the original on 28 July 2011. Retrieved 7 September 2011.
  304. ^ Fires, safety checks take out Japanese refineriesArgus Media, 14 March 2011. Retrieved 18 March 2011. 7 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  305. ^ Japanese refiners try to offset shortagesArgus Media, 15 March 2011. Retrieved 18 March 2011. 7 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  306. ^ Tsukimori, Osamu; Negishi, Mayumi (11 March 2011). "JX refinery fire seen originated from shipping facility". Reuters. from the original on 15 March 2011. Retrieved 14 March 2011.
  307. ^ Analysis – Oil markets adjust to Japan's disasterArgus Media, 16 March 2011. Retrieved 18 March 2011. 7 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  308. ^ Japan quake begins to impact LNG tradeArgus Media, 15 March 2011. Retrieved 18 March 2011. 7 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  309. ^ Tsunami Disaster: "Japan's Sendai says LNG Infrastructure Badly Damaged"Argus Media, 16 March 2011. Retrieved 18 March 2011. 7 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  310. ^ Kanekiyo, Kensuke; Ishimura, Akira, eds. (March 2011). "Eastern Japan paralyzed by unprecedented earthquake" (PDF). Japan Energy Brief (12).
  311. ^ a b "Japan earthquake: Evacuations ordered as fears grow of radiation leak at nuclear plant; News.com.au". Agence France-Presse. 12 March 2011. from the original on 7 April 2011. Retrieved 13 March 2011.
January 12, 2023
2011, tōhoku, earthquake, tsunami, 2011, miyagi, earthquake, redirect, here, aftershock, that, occurred, april, april, 2011, miyagi, earthquake, other, uses, disambiguation, japanese, 東北地方太平洋沖地震, hepburn, tōhoku, chihō, taiheiyō, jishin, occurred, march, magni. 2011 Miyagi earthquake and 3 11 redirect here For the aftershock that occurred on 7 April see April 2011 Miyagi earthquake For other uses see 3 11 disambiguation The 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami Japanese 東北地方太平洋沖地震 Hepburn Tōhoku chihō Taiheiyō Oki Jishin occurred at 14 46 JST 05 46 UTC on 11 March The magnitude 9 0 9 1 Mw undersea megathrust earthquake had an epicenter in the Pacific Ocean 72 km 45 mi east of the Oshika Peninsula of the Tōhoku region and lasted approximately six minutes causing a tsunami It is sometimes known in Japan as the Great East Japan Earthquake 東日本大震災 Higashi nihon daishinsai among other names en 1 The disaster is often referred to in both Japanese and English as simply 3 11 read san ten ichi ichi in Japanese 29 30 31 2011 Tōhokuearthquake and tsunami東北地方太平洋沖地震東日本大震災An SH 60F helicopter assigned to the Chargers of Helicopter Antisubmarine Squadron HS 14 from Naval Air Facility Atsugi flies over the port of Sendai to deliver more than 1 500 pounds of food to survivors of the earthquake tsunami The citizens of Ebina City Japan donated the food and HS 14 is supporting earthquake and tsunami relief operations in Japan as directed TokyoSendaiUTC time2011 03 11 05 46 24ISC event16461282USGS ANSSComCatLocal date11 March 2011 2011 03 11 Local time14 46 JSTDuration6 minutesMagnitude9 0 9 1 MwDepth29 km 18 mi Epicenter38 19 19 N 142 22 08 E 38 322 N 142 369 E 38 322 142 369 Coordinates 38 19 19 N 142 22 08 E 38 322 N 142 369 E 38 322 142 369TypeMegathrustAreas affectedJapan shaking tsunami Pacific Rim tsunami Total damage 360 billion USDMax intensityIX Violent JMA 7 1 Peak acceleration2 99 g 2 Peak velocity117 41 cm sTsunamiUp to 40 5 m 133 ft in Miyako Iwate TōhokuLandslidesYesForeshocksList of foreshocks and aftershocks of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquakeAftershocks13 386 as of 6 March 2018 update 3 Casualties19 759 deaths 4 6 242 injured 5 2 553 people missing 6 Citations 7 8 9 10 11 12 It was the most powerful earthquake ever recorded in Japan and the fourth most powerful earthquake in the world since modern record keeping began in 1900 32 33 34 The earthquake triggered powerful tsunami waves that may have reached heights of up to 40 5 meters 133 ft in Miyako in Tōhoku s Iwate Prefecture 35 36 and which in the Sendai area traveled at 700 km h 435 mph 37 and up to 10 km 6 mi inland 38 Residents of Sendai had only eight to ten minutes of warning and more than a hundred evacuation sites were washed away 37 The snowfall which accompanied the tsunami 39 and the freezing temperature hindered rescue works greatly 40 for instance Ishinomaki the city with most deaths 41 was 0 C 32 F as the tsunami hit 42 The official figures released in 2021 reported 19 759 deaths 43 6 242 injured 44 and 2 553 people missing 45 and a report from 2015 indicated 228 863 people were still living away from their home in either temporary housing or due to permanent relocation 46 The tsunami caused the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster primarily the meltdowns of three of its reactors the discharge of radioactive water in Fukushima and the associated evacuation zones affecting hundreds of thousands of residents 47 48 Many electrical generators ran out of fuel The loss of electrical power halted cooling systems causing heat to build up The heat build up caused the generation of hydrogen gas Without ventilation gas accumulated within the upper refueling hall and eventually exploded causing the refueling hall s blast panels to be forcefully ejected from the structure Residents within a 20 km 12 mi radius of the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant and a 10 km 6 2 mi radius of the Fukushima Daini Nuclear Power Plant were evacuated Early estimates placed insured losses from the earthquake alone at US 14 5 to 34 6 billion 49 The Bank of Japan offered 15 trillion US 183 billion to the banking system on 14 March 2011 in an effort to normalize market conditions 50 The World Bank s estimated economic cost was US 235 billion making it the costliest natural disaster in history 51 52 According to a 2020 study the earthquake and its aftermaths resulted in a 0 47 percentage point decline in Japan s real GDP growth in the year following the disaster 53 Contents 1 Earthquake 1 1 Geology 1 2 Energy 1 3 Intensity 1 4 Geophysical effects 1 5 Aftershocks 1 6 Land subsidence 1 7 Earthquake Warning System 2 Tsunami 2 1 Japan 2 2 Elsewhere across the Pacific 2 3 Norway 3 Casualties 3 1 Japan 3 1 1 Key statistics 3 1 2 Others 3 2 Overseas 4 Damage and effects 4 1 Weather conditions 4 2 Waste 4 3 Ports 4 4 Dams and water problems 4 5 Electricity 4 6 Oil gas and coal 4 7 Nuclear power plants 4 7 1 Fukushima meltdowns 4 7 2 Incidents elsewhere 4 8 Transport 4 9 Telecommunications 4 10 Defense 4 11 Cultural properties 5 Aftermath 6 Scientific and research response 6 1 Ecological research 7 See also 8 Explanatory notes 9 References 10 Further reading 11 Sources 12 External linksEarthquake A seismogram recorded in Massachusetts United States The magnitude 9 1 Mw undersea megathrust earthquake occurred on 11 March 2011 at 14 46 JST 05 46 UTC in the north western Pacific Ocean at a relatively shallow depth of 32 km 20 mi 7 54 with its epicenter approximately 72 km 45 mi east of the Oshika Peninsula of Tōhoku Japan lasting approximately six minutes 7 8 The earthquake was initially reported as 7 9 Mw by the USGS before it was quickly upgraded to 8 8 Mw then to 8 9 Mw 55 and then finally to 9 0 Mw 56 57 On 11 July 2016 the USGS further upgraded the earthquake to 9 1 Sendai was the nearest major city to the earthquake 130 km 81 mi from the epicenter the earthquake occurred 373 km 232 mi northeast of Tokyo 7 The main earthquake was preceded by a number of large foreshocks with hundreds of aftershocks reported One of the first major foreshocks was a 7 2 Mw event on 9 March approximately 40 km 25 mi from the epicenter of the 11 March earthquake with another three on the same day in excess of 6 0 Mw 7 58 Following the main earthquake on 11 March a 7 4 Mw aftershock was reported at 15 08 JST 6 06 UTC succeeded by a 7 9 Mw at 15 15 JST 6 16 UTC and a 7 7 Mw at 15 26 JST 6 26 UTC 59 Over eight hundred aftershocks of magnitude 4 5 Mw or greater have occurred since the initial quake 60 including one on 26 October 2013 local time of magnitude 7 1 Mw 61 Aftershocks follow Omori s law which states that the rate of aftershocks declines with the reciprocal of the time since the main quake The aftershocks will thus taper off in time but could continue for years 62 A visual depiction of the type of faulting that caused the main tremor low angle thrusting on a west dipping fault plane The earthquake moved Honshu the main island of Japan 2 4 m 8 ft east shifted the Earth on its axis by estimates of between 10 cm 4 in and 25 cm 10 in 63 64 65 increased earth s rotational speed by 1 8 µs per day 66 and generated infrasound waves detected in perturbations of the low orbiting Gravity Field and Steady State Ocean Circulation Explorer satellite 67 Initially the earthquake caused sinking of part of Honshu s Pacific coast by up to roughly a metre but after about three years the coast rose back and kept on rising to exceed its original height 68 69 70 71 Geology Mechanism of 2011 Tohoku earthquake This megathrust earthquake was a recurrence of the mechanism of the earlier 869 Sanriku earthquake which has been estimated as having a magnitude of at least 8 4 Mw which also created a large tsunami that inundated the Sendai plain 37 72 73 Three tsunami deposits have been identified within the Holocene sequence of the plain all formed within the last 3 000 years suggesting an 800 to 1 100 year recurrence interval for large tsunamigenic earthquakes In 2001 it was reckoned that there was a high likelihood of a large tsunami hitting the Sendai plain as more than 1 100 years had then elapsed 74 In 2007 the probability of an earthquake with a magnitude of Mw 8 1 8 3 was estimated as 99 within the following 30 years 75 This earthquake occurred where the Pacific Plate is subducting under the plate beneath northern Honshu 64 76 The Pacific plate which moves at a rate of 8 to 9 cm 3 1 to 3 5 in per year dips under Honshu s underlying plate building large amounts of elastic energy This motion pushes the upper plate down until the accumulated stress causes a seismic slip rupture event The break caused the sea floor to rise by several metres 76 A quake of this magnitude usually has a rupture length of at least 500 km 310 mi and generally requires a long relatively straight fault surface Because the plate boundary and subduction zone in the area of the Honshu rupture is not very straight it is unusual for the magnitude of its earthquake to exceed 8 5 Mw the magnitude of this earthquake was a surprise to some seismologists 77 The hypocentral region of this earthquake extended from offshore Iwate Prefecture to offshore Ibaraki Prefecture 78 The Japanese Meteorological Agency said that the earthquake may have ruptured the fault zone from Iwate to Ibaraki with a length of 500 km 310 mi and a width of 200 km 120 mi 79 80 Analysis showed that this earthquake consisted of a set of three events 81 Other major earthquakes with tsunamis struck the Sanriku Coast region in 1896 and in 1933 The source area of this earthquake has a relatively high coupling coefficient surrounded by areas of relatively low coupling coefficients in the west north and south From the averaged coupling coefficient of 0 5 0 8 in the source area and the seismic moment it was estimated that the slip deficit of this earthquake was accumulated over a period of 260 880 years which is consistent with the recurrence interval of such great earthquakes estimated from the tsunami deposit data The seismic moment of this earthquake accounts for about 93 of the estimated cumulative moment from 1926 to March 2011 Hence earthquakes in this area with magnitudes of about 7 since 1926 had only released part of the accumulated energy In the area near the trench the coupling coefficient is high which could act as the source of the large tsunami 82 Most of the foreshocks are interplate earthquakes with thrust type focal mechanisms Both interplate and intraplate earthquakes appeared in the aftershocks offshore Sanriku coast with considerable proportions 83 Energy The surface energy of the seismic waves from the earthquake was calculated to be 1 9 1017 joules 84 which is nearly double that of the 9 1 Mw 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami that killed 230 000 people If harnessed the seismic energy from this earthquake would power a city the size of Los Angeles for an entire year 62 The seismic moment M0 which represents a physical size for the event was calculated by the USGS at 3 9 1022 joules 85 slightly less than the 2004 Indian Ocean quake Japan s National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention NIED calculated a peak ground acceleration of 2 99 g 29 33 m s2 86 en 2 The largest individual recording in Japan was 2 7 g in Miyagi Prefecture 75 km from the epicentre the highest reading in the Tokyo metropolitan area was 0 16 g 89 Intensity Seismic intensity observations resulting from mainshockThe strong ground motion registered at the maximum of 7 on the Japan Meteorological Agency seismic intensity scale in Kurihara Miyagi Prefecture 90 Three other prefectures Fukushima Ibaraki and Tochigi recorded an 6 upper on the JMA scale Seismic stations in Iwate Gunma Saitama and Chiba Prefecture measured a 6 lower recording an 5 upper in Tokyo Intensity Prefecture 91 7 Miyagi6 Fukushima Ibaraki Tochigi6 Iwate Gunma Saitama Chiba5 Aomori Akita Yamagata Tokyo Kanagawa Yamanashi5 Niigata Nagano Shizuoka4 Hokkaido Gifu Aichi3 Toyama Ishikawa Fukui Mie Shiga Kyoto Osaka Hyogo Nara2 Wakayama Tottori Shimane Okayama Tokushima Kochi Saga Kumamoto1 Hiroshima Kagawa Ehime Yamaguchi Fukuoka Nagasaki Oita KagoshimaIntensity Prefecture Location 91 7 Miyagi Kurihara6 Miyagi Wakuya Tome Misato Osaki Natori Zao Kawasaki Yamamoto Sendai Miyagino Ishinomaki Shiogama Higashimatsushima OhiraFukushima Shirakawa Sukagawa Kunimi Kagamiishi Ten ei Naraha Tomioka Okuma Futaba Namie ShinchiIbaraki Hokota Hitachi Takahagi Omitama Naka Kasama Chikusei HitachiomiyaTochigi Otawara Utsunomiya Mooka Ichikai Takanezawa6 Iwate Ofunato Kamaishi Takizawa Yahaba Hanamaki Ichinoseki ŌshuMiyagi Kesennuma Minamisanriku Shiroishi Kakuda Iwanuma Ogawara Watari Sendai Aoba Wakabayashi Izumi Matsushima Rifu Taiwa Ōsato TomiyaFukushima Fukushima Koriyama Nihonmatsu Koori Kawamata Nishigō Nakajima Yabuki Tanagura Tamakawa Asakawa Ono Tamura Date Motomiya Iwaki Soma Hirono Kawauchi Iitate MinamisomaIbaraki Mito Kitaibaraki Hitachinaka Ibaraki Tokai Hitachiota Tsuchiura Ishioka Toride Tsukuba Kashima Itako Miho Bando Inashiki Kasumigaura Namegata Sakuragawa Joso Tsukubamirai ShirosatoTochigi Nasu Nasushiobara Haga Nasukarasuyama NakagawaGunma KiryuSaitama MiyashiroChiba Narita InzaiGeophysical effects Hypocentral region boundaries Source The Japanese Headquarters for Earthquake Research Promotion Portions of northeastern Japan shifted by as much as 2 4 metres 7 ft 10 in closer to North America 63 64 making some sections of Japan s landmass wider than before 64 Those areas of Japan closest to the epicenter experienced the largest shifts 64 A 400 kilometre 250 mi stretch of coastline dropped vertically by 0 6 metres 2 ft 0 in allowing the tsunami to travel farther and faster onto land 64 One early estimate suggested that the Pacific plate may have moved westward by up to 20 metres 66 ft 92 and another early estimate put the amount of slippage at as much as 40 m 130 ft 93 On 6 April the Japanese coast guard said that the quake shifted the seabed near the epicenter 24 metres 79 ft and elevated the seabed off the coast of Miyagi Prefecture by 3 metres 9 8 ft 94 A report by the Japan Agency for Marine Earth Science and Technology published in Science on 2 December 2011 concluded that the seabed in the area between the epicenter and the Japan Trench moved 50 metres 160 ft east southeast and rose about 7 metres 23 ft as a result of the quake The report also stated that the quake had caused several major landslides on the seabed in the affected area 95 The Earth s axis shifted by estimates of between 10 cm 4 in and 25 cm 10 in 63 64 65 This deviation led to a number of small planetary changes including the length of a day the tilt of the Earth and the Chandler wobble 65 The speed of the Earth s rotation increased shortening the day by 1 8 microseconds due to the redistribution of Earth s mass 96 The axial shift was caused by the redistribution of mass on the Earth s surface which changed the planet s moment of inertia Because of conservation of angular momentum such changes of inertia result in small changes to the Earth s rate of rotation 97 These are expected changes 65 for an earthquake of this magnitude 63 96 The earthquake also generated infrasound waves detected by perturbations in the orbit of the GOCE satellite which thus serendipitously became the first seismograph in orbit 67 Seiches observed in Sognefjorden Norway were attributed to distant S waves and Love waves generated by the earthquake These seiches began to occur roughly half an hour after the main shock hit Japan and continued to occur for 3 hours during which waves of up to 1 5 meters high were observed 98 Soil liquefaction was evident in areas of reclaimed land around Tokyo particularly in Urayasu 99 100 Chiba City Funabashi Narashino all in Chiba Prefecture and in the Koto Edogawa Minato Chuō and Ōta Wards of Tokyo Approximately 30 homes or buildings were destroyed and 1 046 other buildings were damaged to varying degrees 101 Nearby Haneda Airport built mostly on reclaimed land was not damaged Odaiba also experienced liquefaction but damage was minimal 102 Soil liquefaction in Kōtō Tokyo Shinmoedake a volcano in Kyushu erupted three days after the earthquake The volcano had previously erupted in January 2011 it is not known if the later eruption was linked to the earthquake 103 In Antarctica the seismic waves from the earthquake were reported to have caused the Whillans Ice Stream to slip by about 0 5 metres 1 ft 8 in 104 The first sign international researchers had that the earthquake caused such a dramatic change in the Earth s rotation came from the United States Geological Survey which monitors Global Positioning Satellite GPS stations across the world The Survey team had several GPS monitors located near the scene of the earthquake The GPS station located nearest the epicenter moved almost 4 m 13 ft This motivated government researchers to look into other ways the earthquake may have had large scale effects on the planet Calculations at NASA s Jet Propulsion Laboratory determined that the Earth s rotation was changed by the earthquake to the point where the days are now 1 8 microseconds shorter 105 Aftershocks Further information List of foreshocks and aftershocks of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake Tōhoku earthquake and aftershocks from 11 to 14 March Satellite image shows snowfall on agricultural fields in Sendai area See Weather conditions paragraph for details Japan experienced over 1 000 aftershocks since the earthquake with 80 registering over magnitude 6 0 Mw and several of which have been over magnitude 7 0 Mw A magnitude 7 4 Mw at 15 08 JST 7 9 Mw at 15 15 and a 7 7 Mw quake at 15 26 all occurred on 11 March 106 A month later a major aftershock struck offshore on 7 April with a magnitude of 7 1 Mw Its epicenter was underwater 66 km 41 mi off the coast of Sendai The Japan Meteorological Agency assigned a magnitude of 7 4 MJMA while the U S Geological Survey lowered it to 7 1 Mw 107 At least four people were killed and electricity was cut off across much of northern Japan including the loss of external power to Higashidōri Nuclear Power Plant and Rokkasho Reprocessing Plant 108 109 110 Four days later on 11 April another magnitude 7 1 Mw aftershock struck Fukushima causing additional damage and killing a total of three people 111 112 On 7 December 2012 a large aftershock of magnitude 7 3 Mw caused a minor tsunami and again on 26 October 2013 a small tsunami was recorded after a 7 1 Mw aftershock 113 As of 16 March 2012 aftershocks continued totaling 1887 events over magnitude 4 0 a regularly updated map showing all shocks of magnitude 4 5 and above near or off the east coast of Honshu in the last seven days 114 showed over 20 events 115 As of 11 March 2016 update there had been 869 aftershocks of 5 0 Mw or greater 118 of 6 0 Mw or greater and 9 over 7 0 Mw as reported by the Japanese Meteorological Agency 116 The number of aftershocks was associated with decreased health across Japan 117 On 13 February 2021 a magnitude 7 1 7 3 earthquake struck off the coast of Sendai It caused some damage in Miyagi and Fukushima prefectures One person was killed and 185 were injured 118 119 Land subsidence Land subsidence and soil liquefaction at Shin Urayasu Station in Urayasu Chiba near Tokyo The Geospatial Information Authority of Japan reported land subsidence based on the height of triangulation stations in the area measured by GPS as compared to their previous values from 14 April 2011 120 Miyako Iwate 0 50 metres 1 ft 8 in Yamada Iwate 0 53 metres 1 ft 9 in Ōtsuchi Iwate 0 35 metres 1 ft 2 in 121 Kamaishi Iwate 0 66 metres 2 ft 2 in Ōfunato Iwate 0 73 metres 2 ft 5 in Rikuzentakata Iwate 0 84 metres 2 ft 9 in Kesennuma Miyagi 0 74 metres 2 ft 5 in Minamisanriku Miyagi 0 69 metres 2 ft 3 in Oshika Peninsula Miyagi 1 2 metres 3 ft 11 in 121 Ishinomaki Miyagi 0 78 metres 2 ft 7 in Higashimatsushima Miyagi 0 43 metres 1 ft 5 in Iwanuma Miyagi 0 47 metres 1 ft 7 in Sōma Fukushima 0 29 metres 11 in Scientists say that the subsidence is permanent As a result the communities in question are now more susceptible to flooding during high tides 122 Earthquake Warning System One minute before the earthquake was felt in Tokyo the Earthquake Early Warning system which includes more than 1 000 seismometers in Japan sent out warnings of impending strong shaking to millions It is believed that the early warning by the Japan Meteorological Agency JMA saved many lives 123 124 The warning for the general public was delivered about eight seconds after the first P wave was detected or about 31 seconds after the earthquake occurred However the estimated intensities were smaller than the actual ones in some places especially in Kanto Koshinetsu and Northern Tōhoku regions where the populace warning did not trigger According to the Japan Meteorological Agency reasons for the underestimation include a saturated magnitude scale when using maximum amplitude as input failure to fully take into account the area of the hypocenter and the initial amplitude of the earthquake being less than that which would be predicted by an empirical relationship 125 126 127 128 There were also cases where large differences between estimated intensities by the Earthquake Early Warning system and the actual intensities occurred in the aftershocks and triggered earthquakes Such discrepancies in the warning were attributed by the JMA to the system s inability to distinguish between two different earthquakes that happened at around same time as well as to the reduced number of reporting seismometers due to power outages and connection fails 129 The system s software was subsequently modified to handle this kind of situation 130 Tsunami NOAA tsunami energy map An upthrust of 6 to 8 metres 20 to 26 ft along a 180 kilometres 110 mi wide seabed at 60 kilometres 37 mi offshore from the east coast of Tōhoku 131 resulted in a major tsunami that brought destruction along the Pacific coastline of Japan s northern islands Thousands of lives were lost and entire towns were devastated The tsunami propagated throughout the Pacific Ocean region reaching the entire Pacific coast of North and South America from Alaska to Chile Warnings were issued and evacuations were carried out in many countries bordering the Pacific Although the tsunami affected many of these places the heights of the waves were minor 132 133 134 Chile s Pacific coast one of the farthest from Japan at about 17 000 kilometres 11 000 mi away was struck by waves 2 metres 6 6 ft high 135 136 137 compared with an estimated wave height of 38 9 metres 128 ft at Omoe peninsula Miyako city Japan 36 Japan The tsunami warning issued by the Japan Meteorological Agency was the most serious on its warning scale it was rated as a major tsunami being at least 3 metres 9 8 ft high 138 The actual height prediction varied the greatest being for Miyagi at 6 metres 20 ft high 139 The tsunami inundated a total area of approximately 561 square kilometres 217 sq mi in Japan 140 Water column height on 11 March 2011 at DART Station 690 NM southeast of Tokyo The earthquake took place at 14 46 JST UTC 05 46 around 67 kilometres 42 mi from the nearest point on Japan s coastline and initial estimates indicated the tsunami would have taken 10 to 30 minutes to reach the areas first affected and then areas farther north and south based on the geography of the coastline 141 142 At 15 55 JST a tsunami was observed flooding Sendai Airport which is located near the coast of Miyagi Prefecture 143 144 with waves sweeping away cars and planes and flooding various buildings as they traveled inland 145 146 The impact of the tsunami in and around Sendai Airport was filmed by an NHK News helicopter showing a number of vehicles on local roads trying to escape the approaching wave and being engulfed by it 147 A 4 metre high 13 ft tsunami hit Iwate Prefecture 148 Wakabayashi Ward in Sendai was also particularly hard hit 149 At least 101 designated tsunami evacuation sites were hit by the wave 37 150 The city of Rikuzentakata Iwate Prefecture suffered extensive damage from the tsunami with almost the entirety of the lower area of the city being destroyed Like the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami the damage by surging water though much more localized was far more deadly and destructive than the actual quake Entire towns were destroyed in tsunami hit areas in Japan including 9 500 missing in Minamisanriku 151 one thousand bodies had been recovered in the town by 14 March 2011 152 Among the factors in the high death toll was the unexpectedly large water surge The sea walls in several cities had been built to protect against tsunamis of much lower heights Also many people caught in the tsunami thought they were on high enough ground to be safe 153 According to a special committee on disaster prevention designated by the Japanese government the tsunami protection policy had been intended to deal with only tsunamis that had been scientifically proved to occur repeatedly The committee advised that future policy should be to protect against the highest possible tsunami Because tsunami walls had been overtopped the committee also suggested besides building taller tsunami walls also teaching citizens how to evacuate if a large scale tsunami should strike 154 155 Tsunami flooding on the Sendai Airport runway Large parts of Kuji and the southern section of Ōfunato including the port area were almost entirely destroyed 156 157 Also largely destroyed was Rikuzentakata where the tsunami was three stories high 158 159 Other cities destroyed or heavily damaged by the tsunami include Kamaishi Miyako Ōtsuchi and Yamada in Iwate Prefecture Namie Sōma and Minamisōma in Fukushima Prefecture and Shichigahama Higashimatsushima Onagawa Natori Ishinomaki and Kesennuma in Miyagi Prefecture 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 The most severe effects of the tsunami were felt along a 670 kilometre long 420 mi stretch of coastline from Erimo Hokkaido in the north to Ōarai Ibaraki in the south with most of the destruction in that area occurring in the hour following the earthquake 167 Near Ōarai people captured images of a huge whirlpool that had been generated by the tsunami 168 The tsunami washed away the sole bridge to Miyatojima Miyagi isolating the island s 900 residents 169 A 2 metres 6 ft 7 in high tsunami hit Chiba Prefecture about 2 hours after the quake causing heavy damage to cities such as Asahi 170 On 13 March 2011 the Japan Meteorological Agency JMA published details of tsunami observations recorded around the coastline of Japan following the earthquake These observations included tsunami maximum readings of over 3 metres 9 8 ft at the following locations and times on 11 March 2011 following the earthquake at 14 46 JST 171 Peak tsunami wave height summits color coded with red representing most severe 15 12 JST off Kamaishi 6 8 metres 22 ft 15 15 JST Ōfunato 3 2 metres 10 ft or higher 15 20 JST Ishinomaki shi Ayukawa 3 3 metres 11 ft or higher 15 21 JST Miyako 4 metres 13 ft or higher 15 21 JST Kamaishi 4 1 metres 13 ft or higher 15 44 JST Erimo cho Shoya 3 5 metres 11 ft 15 50 JST Sōma 7 3 metres 24 ft or higher 16 52 JST Ōarai 4 2 metres 14 ft Many areas were also affected by waves of 1 to 3 metres 3 ft 3 in to 9 ft 10 in in height and the JMA bulletin also included the caveat that At some parts of the coasts tsunamis may be higher than those observed at the observation sites The timing of the earliest recorded tsunami maximum readings ranged from 15 12 to 15 21 between 26 and 35 minutes after the earthquake had struck The bulletin also included initial tsunami observation details as well as more detailed maps for the coastlines affected by the tsunami waves 172 173 JMA also reported offshore tsunami height recorded by telemetry from moored GPS wave height meter buoys as follows 174 offshore of central Iwate Miyako 6 3 metres 21 ft offshore of northern Iwate Kuji 6 metres 20 ft offshore of northern Miyagi Kesennuma 6 metres 20 ft On 25 March 2011 Port and Airport Research Institute PARI reported tsunami height by visiting the port sites as follows 175 Port of Hachinohe 5 6 metres 16 20 ft Port of Hachinohe area 8 9 metres 26 30 ft Port of Kuji 8 9 metres 26 30 ft Port of Kamaishi 7 9 metres 23 30 ft Port of Ōfunato 9 5 metres 31 ft Run up height port of Ōfunato area 24 metres 79 ft Fishery port of Onagawa 15 metres 49 ft Port of Ishinomaki 5 metres 16 ft Shiogama section of Shiogama Sendai port 4 metres 13 ft Sendai section of Shiogama Sendai port 8 metres 26 ft Sendai Airport area 12 metres 39 ft The tsunami at Ryōri Bay 綾里湾 Ōfunato reached a height of 40 1 metres 132 ft run up elevation Fishing equipment was scattered on the high cliff above the bay 176 177 At Tarō Iwate the tsunami reached a height of 37 9 metres 124 ft up the slope of a mountain some 200 metres 660 ft away from the coastline 178 Also at the slope of a nearby mountain from 400 metres 1 300 ft away at Aneyoshi fishery port 姉吉漁港 of Omoe peninsula 重茂半島 in Miyako Iwate Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology found estimated tsunami run up height of 38 9 metres 128 ft 36 This height is deemed the record in Japan historically as of reporting date that exceeds 38 2 metres 125 ft from the 1896 Meiji Sanriku earthquake 179 It was also estimated that the tsunami reached heights of up to 40 5 metres 133 ft in Miyako in Tōhoku s Iwate Prefecture The inundated areas closely matched those of the 869 Sanriku tsunami 180 source source source source source source source source source source NOAA animation of the tsunami s propagation A Japanese government study found that 58 of people in coastal areas in Iwate Miyagi and Fukushima prefectures heeded tsunami warnings immediately after the quake and headed for higher ground Of those who attempted to evacuate after hearing the warning only five percent were caught in the tsunami Of those who didn t heed the warning 49 were hit by the water 181 Delayed evacuations in response to the warnings had a number of causes The tsunami height that had been initially predicted by the tsunami warning system was lower than the actual tsunami height this error contributed to the delayed escape of some residents The discrepancy arose as follows in order to produce a quick prediction of a tsunami s height and thus to provide a timely warning the initial earthquake and tsunami warning that was issued for the event was based on a calculation that requires only about three minutes This calculation is in turn based on the maximum amplitude of the seismic wave The amplitude of the seismic wave is measured using the JMA magnitude scale which is similar to Richter magnitude scale However these scales saturate for earthquakes that are above a certain magnitude magnitude 8 on the JMA scale that is in the case of very large earthquakes the scales values change little despite large differences in the earthquakes energy This resulted in an underestimation of the tsunami s height in initial reports Problems in issuing updates also contributed to delays in evacuations The warning system was supposed to be updated about 15 minutes after the earthquake occurred by which time the calculation for the moment magnitude scale would normally be completed However the strong quake had exceeded the measurement limit of all of the teleseismometers within Japan and thus it was impossible to calculate the moment magnitude based on data from those seismometers Another cause of delayed evacuations was the release of the second update on the tsunami warning long after the earthquake 28 minutes according to observations by that time power failures and similar circumstances reportedly prevented the update from reaching some residents Also observed data from tidal meters that were located off the coast were not fully reflected in the second warning Furthermore shortly after the earthquake some wave meters reported a fluctuation of 20 centimetres 7 9 in and this value was broadcast throughout the mass media and the warning system which caused some residents to underestimate the danger of their situation and even delayed or suspended their evacuation 182 183 In response to the aforementioned shortcomings in the tsunami warning system JMA began an investigation in 2011 and updated their system in 2013 In the updated system for a powerful earthquake that is capable of causing the JMA magnitude scale to saturate no quantitative prediction will be released in the initial warning instead there will be words that describe the situation s emergency There are plans to install new teleseismometers with the ability to measure larger earthquakes which would allow the calculation of a quake s moment magnitude scale in a timely manner JMA also implemented a simpler empirical method to integrate into a tsunami warning data from GPS tidal meters as well as from undersea water pressure meters and there are plans to install more of these meters and to develop further technology to utilize data observed by them To prevent under reporting of tsunami heights early quantitative observation data that are smaller than the expected amplitude will be overridden and the public will instead be told that the situation is under observation About 90 seconds after an earthquake an additional report on the possibility of a tsunami will also be included in observation reports in order to warn people before the JMA magnitude can be calculated 182 183 Elsewhere across the Pacific A Bonin petrel trapped in tsunami debris on Midway Atoll before being rescued The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center PTWC in Hawaii issued tsunami watches and announcements for locations in the Pacific At 07 30 UTC PTWC issued a widespread tsunami warning covering the entire Pacific Ocean 184 185 Russia evacuated 11 000 residents from coastal areas of the Kuril Islands 186 The United States National Tsunami Warning Center issued a tsunami warning for the coastal areas in most of California all of Oregon and the western part of Alaska and a tsunami advisory covering the Pacific coastlines of most of Alaska and all of Washington and British Columbia Canada 187 188 In California and Oregon up to 2 4 m high 7 9 ft tsunami waves hit some areas damaging docks and harbors and causing over US 10 million in damage 189 In Curry County Oregon US 7 million in damage occurred including the destruction of 1 100 m 3 600 ft of docks at the Brookings harbor the county received over US 1 million in FEMA emergency grants from the US Federal Government 190 Surges of up to 1 m 3 ft 3 in hit Vancouver Island in Canada 188 failed verification prompting some evacuations and causing boats to be banned from the waters surrounding the island for 12 hours following the wave strike leaving many island residents in the area without means of getting to work 191 192 Fishing boats that were moved to higher ground in anticipation of tsunami arrival in Pichilemu Chile In the Philippines waves up to 0 5 m 1 ft 8 in high hit the eastern seaboard of the country Some houses along the coast in Jayapura Indonesia were destroyed 193 Authorities in Wewak East Sepik Papua New Guinea evacuated 100 patients from the city s Boram Hospital before it was hit by waves causing an estimated US 4 million in damage 194 Hawaii estimated damage to public infrastructure alone at US 3 million with damage to private properties including resort hotels such as Four Seasons Resort Hualalai estimated at tens of millions of dollars 195 It was reported that a 1 5 m high 4 9 ft wave completely submerged Midway Atoll s reef inlets and Spit Island killing more than 110 000 nesting seabirds at the Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge 196 Some other South Pacific countries including Tonga and New Zealand and US territories American Samoa and Guam experienced larger than normal waves but did not report any major damage 197 However in Guam some roads were closed off and people were evacuated from low lying areas 198 Japanese Boat washed ashore the Oregon Coast United States Along the Pacific Coast of Mexico and South America tsunami surges were reported but in most places caused little or no damage 199 Peru reported a wave of 1 5 m 4 ft 11 in and more than 300 homes damaged 199 The surge in Chile was large enough to damage more than 200 houses 200 with waves of up to 3 m 9 8 ft 201 202 In the Galapagos Islands 260 families received assistance following a 3 m 9 8 ft surge which arrived 20 hours after the earthquake after the tsunami warning had been lifted 203 204 There was a great deal of damage to buildings on the islands and one man was injured but there were no reported fatalities 203 205 After a 2 m 6 ft 7 in high surge hit Chile it was reported that the reflection from those surges traveled back across the Pacific causing a 30 60 cm 12 24 in surge in Japan 47 48 hours after the earthquake according to observation from multiple tide gauges including in Onahama Owase and Kushimoto 206 207 The tsunami broke icebergs off the Sulzberger Ice Shelf in Antarctica 13 000 km 8 100 mi away The main iceberg measured 9 5 km 6 5 km 5 9 mi 4 0 mi approximately the area of Manhattan Island and about 80 m 260 ft thick A total of 125 km2 48 sq mi 31 000 acres of ice broke away 208 209 As of April 2012 wreckage from the tsunami spread around the world including a soccer ball which was found in Alaska s Middleton Island and a Japanese motorcycle found in British Columbia Canada 210 211 Norway On the day of the earthquake several fjords in Norway suddenly started to boil and rise sending freak waves rolling onto nearby shores and mystifying residents After two years of research scientists concluded that the massive earthquake also triggered these surprise seiche waves thousands of miles away 212 213 CasualtiesJapan Rescue team from Fairfax County Virginia searching for survivors Snow arrived minutes before or after the tsunami depending on locations 39 Key statistics Age Among all deaths 214 lt 9 3 0 10 19 2 7 20 29 3 4 30 39 5 5 40 49 7 3 50 59 12 3 60 69 19 2 70 79 24 5 gt 80 22 1 Places with most deaths 41 Prefecture Municipality Deaths MissingMiyagi Ishinomaki City 3 553 418Iwate Rikuzentakata City 1 606 202Miyagi Kesennuma City 1 218 214Miyagi Higashimatsushima City 1 132 23Fukushima Minamisoma City 1 050 111Iwate Kamaishi City 994 152Miyagi Natori City 954 38Miyagi Sendai City 923 27Iwate Ōtsuchi Town 856 416Miyagi Yamamoto Town 701 17Iwate Yamada Town 687 145Miyagi Minamisanriku Town 620 211Miyagi Onagawa Town 615 257The official figures released in 2021 reported 19 759 deaths 215 6 242 injured 216 and 2 553 people missing 217 The leading causes of death were drowning 90 64 or 14 308 bodies burning 0 9 or 145 bodies and others 4 2 or 667 bodies mostly crushed by heavy objects 214 Injuries related to nuclear exposure or the discharge of radioactive water in Fukushima are difficult to trace as 60 of the 20 000 workers on site declined to participate in state sponsored free health checks 218 Elderly aged over 60 account for 65 8 of all deaths as shown on the table to the right 214 In particular in the Okawa Elementary School tragedy which 84 drowned it was discovered that in the wake of the tsunami young housewives who wanted to pick up their children to high ground found their voices drowned out by retired elderly male villagers who prefer to stay put at the school which was a sea level evacuation site meant for earthquakes not for tsunami Richard Lloyd Parry concluded the tragedy to be the ancient dialogue between the entreating voices of women and the oblivious overbearing dismissiveness of old men 219 For the purpose of relief fund an earthquake related death was defined to include Physical and mental fatigue caused by life in temporary shelter Physical and mental fatigue caused by evacuation Delayed treatment due to an inoperative hospital Physical and mental fatigue caused by stress from the earthquake and tsunami A few cases of suicide are also included Most of these deaths occurred during the first six months after the earthquake and the number dropped thereafter but as time has passed the number has continued to increase Most of these deaths occurred in Fukushima prefecture where the prefecture government has suggested that they could be due to evacuations caused by the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster 220 Within the Fukushima prefecture these indirect casualties have already resulted in more deaths than the number of people killed directly by earthquake and tsunami 221 222 223 Others Save the Children reports that as many as 100 000 children were uprooted from their homes some of whom were separated from their families because the earthquake occurred during the school day 224 236 children were orphaned in the prefectures of Iwate Miyagi and Fukushima by the disaster 225 226 1 580 children lost either one or both parents 227 846 in Miyagi 572 in Iwate and 162 in Fukushima 228 The quake and tsunami killed 378 elementary middle school and high school students and left 158 others missing 229 One elementary school in Ishinomaki Miyagi Okawa Elementary School lost 74 of 108 students and 10 of 13 teachers in the tsunami due to poor decision making in evacuation 39 230 231 232 The Japanese Foreign Ministry confirmed the deaths of nineteen foreigners 233 Among them were two English teachers from the United States affiliated with the Japan Exchange and Teaching Program 234 a Canadian missionary in Shiogama 235 and citizens of China North and South Korea Taiwan Pakistan and the Philippines By 9 30 UTC on 11 March 2011 Google Person Finder which was previously used in the Haitian Chilean and Christchurch New Zealand earthquakes was collecting information about survivors and their locations 236 237 Japanese funerals are normally elaborate Buddhist ceremonies that entail cremation The thousands of bodies however exceeded the capacity of available crematoriums and morgues many of them damaged 238 239 and there were shortages of both kerosene each cremation requires 50 litres and dry ice for preservation 240 The single crematorium in Higashimatsushima for example could only handle four bodies a day although hundreds were found there 241 Governments and the military were forced to bury many bodies in hastily dug mass graves with rudimentary or no rites although relatives of the deceased were promised that they would be cremated later 242 As of 27 May 2011 three Japan Ground Self Defense Force members had died while conducting relief operations in Tōhoku 243 As of March 2012 the Japanese government had recognized 1 331 deaths as indirectly related to the earthquake such as caused by harsh living conditions after the disaster 244 As of 30 April 2012 18 people had died and 420 had been injured while participating in disaster recovery or clean up efforts 245 Overseas The tsunami was reported to have caused several deaths outside Japan One man was killed in Jayapura Papua Indonesia after being swept out to sea 11 A man who is said to have been attempting to photograph the oncoming tsunami at the mouth of the Klamath River south of Crescent City California was swept out to sea 246 His body was found on 2 April 2011 along Ocean Beach in Fort Stevens State Park Oregon 530 km 330 mi to the north 12 Damage and effects Panorama of Rikuzentakata The degree and extent of damage caused by the earthquake and resulting tsunami were enormous with most of the damage being caused by the tsunami Video footage of the towns that were worst affected shows little more than piles of rubble with almost no parts of any structures left standing 247 Estimates of the cost of the damage range well into the tens of billions of US dollars before and after satellite photographs of devastated regions show immense damage to many regions 248 249 Although Japan has invested the equivalent of billions of dollars on anti tsunami seawalls which line at least 40 of its 34 751 km 21 593 mi coastline and stand up to 12 m 39 ft high the tsunami simply washed over the top of some seawalls collapsing some in the process 250 A fire that broke out in Tokyo Japan s National Police Agency said on 3 April 2011 that 45 700 buildings were destroyed and 144 300 were damaged by the quake and tsunami The damaged buildings included 29 500 structures in Miyagi Prefecture 12 500 in Iwate Prefecture and 2 400 in Fukushima Prefecture 251 Three hundred hospitals with 20 beds or more in Tōhoku were damaged by the disaster with 11 being completely destroyed 252 The earthquake and tsunami created an estimated 24 25 million tons of rubble and debris in Japan 253 254 A report by the National Police Agency of Japan on 10 September 2018 listed 121 778 buildings as total collapsed with a further 280 926 buildings half collapsed and another 699 180 buildings partially damaged 255 The earthquake and tsunami also caused extensive and severe structural damage in north eastern Japan including heavy damage to roads and railways as well as fires in many areas and a dam collapse 38 256 Japanese Prime Minister Naoto Kan said In the 65 years after the end of World War II this is the toughest and the most difficult crisis for Japan 257 Around 4 4 million households in northeastern Japan were left without electricity and 1 5 million without water 258 An estimated 230 000 automobiles and trucks were damaged or destroyed in the disaster As of the end of May 2011 residents of Iwate Miyagi and Fukushima prefectures had requested the deregistration of 15 000 vehicles meaning that the owners of those vehicles were writing them off as unrepairable or unsalvageable 259 Weather conditions Snowfall in Ishinomaki 16 March Low temperature and snowfall were major concerns after the earthquake 260 Snow arrived minutes before or after the tsunami depending on locations 39 In Ishinomaki the city which suffered the most deaths 41 a temperature of 0 C 32 F was measured and it began to snow within a couple of hours of the earthquake 42 39 Major snow fell again on 16 March 40 261 and intermittently in the coming weeks 262 18 March was the coldest of that month recording 4 C to 6 C 25 F to 43 F in Sendai 262 40 Photos of city ruins covered with snow were featured in various photo albums in international media including NASA 263 264 265 Waste The tsunami produced huge amounts of debris estimates of 5 million tonnes of waste were reported by the Japanese Ministry of the Environment Some of this waste mostly plastic and styrofoam washed up on the coasts of Canada and the United States in late 2011 Along the west coast of the United States this increased the amount of litter by a factor of ten and may have transported alien species 266 Ports Ship and crane damage at Sendai port All of Japan s ports were briefly shut down after the earthquake though the ones in Tokyo and southwards soon re opened Fifteen ports were located in the disaster zone The north eastern ports of Hachinohe Sendai Ishinomaki and Onahama were destroyed while the Port of Chiba which serves the hydrocarbon industry and Japan s ninth largest container port at Kashima were also affected though less severely The ports at Hitachinaka Hitachi Soma Shiogama Kesennuma Ofunato Kamashi and Miyako were also damaged and closed to ships 267 All 15 ports reopened to limited ship traffic by 29 March 2011 268 A total of 319 fishing ports about 10 of Japan s fishing ports were damaged in the disaster 269 Most were restored to operating condition by 18 April 2012 270 The Port of Tokyo suffered slight damage the effects of the quake included visible smoke rising from a building in the port with parts of the port areas being flooded including soil liquefaction in Tokyo Disneyland s parking lot 271 272 Dams and water problems Dam failure at FujinumaThe Fujinuma irrigation dam in Sukagawa ruptured 273 causing flooding and the washing away of five homes 274 Eight people were missing and four bodies were discovered by the morning 275 276 277 Reportedly some locals had attempted to repair leaks in the dam before it completely failed 278 On 12 March 252 dams were inspected and it was discovered that six embankment dams had shallow cracks on their crests The reservoir at one concrete gravity dam suffered a small non serious slope failure All damaged dams are functioning with no problems Four dams within the quake area were unreachable When the roads clear experts will be dispatched to conduct further investigations 279 In the immediate aftermath of the calamity at least 1 5 million households were reported to have lost access to water supplies 258 280 By 21 March 2011 this number fell to 1 04 million 281 Electricity Geographic divide between 50 hertz systems and 60 hertz systems in Japan s electricity distribution network According to the Japanese trade ministry around 4 4 million households served by Tōhoku Electric Power TEP in northeastern Japan were left without electricity 282 Several nuclear and conventional power plants went offline reducing the Tokyo Electric Power Company s TEPCO total capacity by 21 GW 283 Rolling blackouts began on 14 March due to power shortages caused by the earthquake 284 TEPCO which normally provides approximately 40 GW of electricity announced that it could only provide about 30 GW because 40 of the electricity used in the greater Tokyo area was supplied by reactors in the Niigata and Fukushima prefectures 285 The reactors at the Fukushima Daiichi and Fukushima Dai ni plants were automatically taken offline when the first earthquake occurred and sustained major damage from the earthquake and subsequent tsunami Rolling blackouts of approximately three hours were experienced throughout April and May while TEPCO scrambled to find a temporary power solution The blackouts affected Tokyo Kanagawa Eastern Shizuoka Yamanashi Chiba Ibaraki Saitama Tochigi and Gunma prefectures 286 Voluntary reductions in electricity use by consumers in the Kanto area helped reduce the predicted frequency and duration of the blackouts 287 By 21 March 2011 the number of households in the north without electricity fell to 242 927 281 A damaged transmission tower and severed power lines in Minamisōma Fukushima Tōhoku Electric Power was not able to provide the Kanto region with additional power because TEP s power plants were also damaged in the earthquake Kansai Electric Power Company Kepco could not share electricity because its system operated at 60 hertz whereas TEPCO and TEP operate their systems at 50 hertz the disparity is due to early industrial and infrastructure development in the 1880s that left Japan without a unified national power grid 288 Two substations one in Shizuoka Prefecture and one in Nagano Prefecture were able to convert between frequencies and transfer electricity from Kansai to Kanto and Tōhoku but their capacity was limited to 1 GW With damage to so many power plants it was feared it might be years before a long term solution could be found 289 To help alleviate the shortage three steel manufacturers in the Kanto region contributed electricity produced by their in house conventional power stations to TEPCO for distribution to the general public Sumitomo Metal Industries could produce up to 500 MW JFE Steel 400 MW and Nippon Steel 500 MW of electric power 290 Auto and auto parts makers in Kanto and Tōhoku agreed in May 2011 to operate their factories on Saturdays and Sundays and close on Thursdays and Fridays to help alleviate electricity shortages during the summer of 2011 291 The public and other companies were also encouraged to conserve electricity in the 2011 summer months Setsuden 292 The expected electricity crisis in 2011 summer was successfully prevented thanks to all the setsuden measures Peak electricity consumption recorded by TEPCO during the period was 49 22GW which is 10 77GW 18 lower than the peak consumption in the previous year Overall electricity consumption during July and August was also 14 less than in the previous year 293 The peak electricity consumption within TEP s area was 12 46GW during the 2011 summer 3 11GW 20 less than the peak consumption in the previous year and the overall consumption have been reduced by 11 in July with 17 in August compared to previous year 294 295 296 The Japanese government continued to ask the public to conserve electricity until 2016 when it is predicted that the supply will be sufficient to meet demand thanks to the deepening of the mindset to conserve electricity among corporate and general public addition of new electricity providers due to the electricity liberalization policy increased output from renewable energy as well as fossil fuel power stations as well as sharing of electricity between different electricity companies 297 298 299 Oil gas and coal Fire at the Cosmo Oil refinery in Ichihara An aerial view of the smoke from the Sendai Nippon Oil refinery A 220 000 barrel 35 000 m3 per day 300 oil refinery of Cosmo Oil Company was set on fire by the quake at Ichihara Chiba Prefecture to the east of Tokyo 301 302 It was extinguished after ten days injuring six people and destroying storage tanks 303 Other refineries halted production due to safety checks and power loss 304 305 In Sendai a 145 000 barrel 23 100 m3 per day refinery owned by the largest refiner in Japan JX Nippon Oil amp Energy was also set ablaze by the quake 300 Workers were evacuated 306 but tsunami warnings hindered efforts to extinguish the fire until 14 March when officials planned to do so 300 An analyst estimates that consumption of various types of oil may increase by as much as 300 000 barrels 48 000 m3 per day as well as LNG as back up power plants burning fossil fuels try to compensate for the loss of 11 GW of Japan s nuclear power capacity 307 308 The city owned plant for importing liquefied natural gas in Sendai was severely damaged and supplies were halted for at least a month 309 In addition to refining and storage several power plants were damaged These include Sendai 4 New Sendai 1 and 2 Haranomachi 1 and 2 Hirono 2 and 4 and Hitachinaka 1 310 Nuclear power plants Further information Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster The Fukushima Daiichi Fukushima Daini Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant and Tōkai nuclear power stations consisting of a total eleven reactors were automatically shut down following the earthquake 311 Higashidōri also on the northeast coast was already shut down for a periodic inspection Cooling is needed to remove decay heat after a Generation II reactor has been shut down and to maintain spent fuel pools The backup cooling process is powered by emergency diesel generators at the plants and at Rokkasho nuclear reprocessing plant 312 At Fukushima Daiichi and Daini tsunami waves overtopped seawalls and destroyed diesel backup power systems leading to severe problems at Fukushima Daiichi including three large explosions and radioactive leakage Subsequent analysis found that many Japanese nuclear plants including Fukushima Daiichi were not adequately protected against tsunamis 313 Over 200 000 people were evacuated 314 The discharge of radioactive water in Fukushima were confirmed in later analysis at the three reactors at Fukushima I Units 1 2 and 3 which suffered meltdowns and continued to leak coolant water 47 The aftershock on 7 April caused the loss of external power to Rokkasho Reprocessing Plant and Higashidori Nuclear Power Plant but backup generators were functional Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant lost three of its four external power lines and temporarily lost cooling function in its spent fuel pools for 20 to 80 minutes A spill of up to 3 8 litres of radioactive water also occurred at Onagawa following the aftershock 315 A report by the IAEA in 2012 found that the Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant had remained largely undamaged 316 In 2013 only two nuclear reactors in Japan had been restarted since the 2011 shutdowns citation needed In February 2019 there were 42 operable reactors in Japan Of these only nine reactors in five power plants were operating after having been restarted post 2011 317 Fukushima meltdowns Main article Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster A loose cow roaming through Namie Fukushima after the area was evacuated Japan declared a state of emergency following the failure of the cooling system at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant resulting in the evacuation of nearby residents 318 319 320 Officials from the Japanese Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency reported that radiation levels inside the plant were up to 1 000 times normal levels 321 and that radiation levels outside the plant were up to eight times normal levels 322 Later a state of emergency was also declared at the Fukushima Daini nuclear power plant about 11 km 6 8 mi south 323 Experts described the Fukushima disaster was not as bad as the Chernobyl disaster but worse than the Three Mile Island accident 324 The discharge of radioactive water of the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant was later detected in tap water Radioactive iodine was detected in the tap water in Fukushima Tochigi Gunma Tokyo Chiba Saitama and Niigata and radioactive caesium in the tap water in Fukushima Tochigi and Gunma 325 326 327 Radioactive caesium iodine and strontium 328 were also detected in the soil in some places in Fukushima There may be a need to replace the contaminated soil 329 Many radioactive hotspots were found outside the evacuation zone including Tokyo 330 Radioactive contamination of food products were detected in several places in Japan 331 In 2021 the Japanese cabinet finally approved the dumping of radioactive water in Fukushima into the Pacific Ocean over a course of 30 years with full support of IAEA 332 Incidents elsewhere A fire occurred in the turbine section of the Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant following the earthquake 312 333 The blaze was in a building housing the turbine which is sited separately from the plant s reactor 318 and was soon extinguished 334 The plant was shut down as a precaution 335 On 13 March the lowest level state of emergency was declared regarding the Onagawa plant as radioactivity readings temporarily 336 exceeded allowed levels in the area of the plant 337 338 Tōhoku Electric Power Co stated this may have been due to radiation from the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear accidents but was not from the Onagawa plant itself 339 As a result of the 7 April aftershock Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant lost three of four external power lines and lost cooling function for as much as 80 minutes A spill of a couple of litres of radioactive water occurred at Onagawa 315 The number 2 reactor at Tōkai Nuclear Power Plant was shut down automatically 311 On 14 March it was reported that a cooling system pump for this reactor had stopped working 340 however the Japan Atomic Power Company stated that there was a second operational pump sustaining the cooling systems but that two of three diesel generators used to power the cooling system were out of order 341 Transport A highway bridge damaged and severed Japan s transport network suffered severe disruptions Many sections of Tōhoku Expressway serving northern Japan were damaged The expressway did not reopen to general public use until 24 March 2011 342 343 All railway services were suspended in Tokyo with an estimated 20 000 people stranded at major stations across the city 344 In the hours after the earthquake some train services were resumed 345 Most Tokyo area train lines resumed full service by the next day 12 March 346 Twenty thousand stranded visitors spent the night of 11 12 March inside Tokyo Disneyland 347 A tsunami flooded Sendai Airport at 15 55 JST 143 about one hour after the initial quake causing severe damage Narita and Haneda Airport both briefly suspended operations after the quake but suffered little damage and reopened within 24 hours 272 Eleven airliners bound for Narita were diverted to nearby Yokota Air Base 348 349 Remains of Shinchi Station Various train services around Japan were also canceled with JR East suspending all services for the rest of the day 350 Four trains on coastal lines were reported as being out of contact with operators one a four car train on the Senseki Line was found to have derailed and its occupants were rescued shortly after 8 am the next morning 351 Minami Kesennuma Station on the Kesennuma Line was obliterated save for its platform 352 62 of 70 31 of 35 JR East train lines suffered damage to some degree 268 in the worst hit areas 23 stations on 7 lines were washed away with damage or loss of track in 680 locations and the 30 km radius around the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear plant unable to be assessed 353 There were no derailments of Shinkansen bullet train services in and out of Tokyo but their services were also suspended 272 The Tokaido Shinkansen resumed limited service late in the day and was back to its normal schedule by the next day while the Jōetsu and Nagano Shinkansen resumed services late on 12 March Services on Yamagata Shinkansen resumed with limited numbers of trains on 31 March 354 Derailments were minimized because of an early warning system that detected the earthquake before it struck The system automatically stopped all high speed trains which minimized the damage 355 The Tōhoku Shinkansen line was worst hit with JR East estimating that 1 100 sections of the line varying from collapsed station roofs to bent power pylons would need repairs Services on the Tōhoku Shinkansen partially resumed only in Kantō area on 15 March with one round trip service per hour between Tokyo and Nasu Shiobara 356 and Tōhoku area service partially resumed on 22 March between Morioka and Shin Aomori 357 Services on Akita Shinkansen resumed with limited numbers of trains on 18 March 358 Service between Tokyo and Shin Aomori was restored by May but at lower speeds due to ongoing restoration work the pre earthquake timetable was not reinstated until late September 359 The rolling blackouts brought on by the crises at the nuclear power plants in Fukushima had a profound effect on the rail networks around Tokyo starting on 14 March Major railways began running trains at 10 20 minute intervals rather than the usual 3 5 minute intervals operating some lines only at rush hour and completely shutting down others notably the Tōkaidō Main Line Yokosuka Line Sōbu Main Line and Chuō Sōbu Line were all stopped for the day 360 This led to near paralysis within the capital with long lines at train stations and many people unable to come to work or get home Railway operators gradually increased capacity over the next few days until running at approximately 80 capacity by 17 March and relieving the worst of the passenger congestion A KiHa 40 series train washed away uphill from Onagawa Station left and a damaged utility pole in Ishinomaki Telecommunications Cellular and landline phone service suffered major disruptions in the affected area 361 Immediately after the earthquake cellular communication was jammed across much of Japan due to a surge of network activity On the day of the quake itself American broadcaster NPR was unable to reach anyone in Sendai with a working phone or access to the Internet 362 Internet services were largely unaffected in areas where basic infrastructure remained despite the earthquake having damaged portions of several undersea cable systems landing in the affected regions these systems were able to reroute around affected segments onto redundant links 363 364 Within Japan only a few websites were initially unreachable 365 Several Wi Fi hotspot providers reacted to the quake by providing free access to their networks 365 and some American telecommunications and VoIP companies such as AT amp T Sprint Verizon 366 T Mobile 367 and VoIP companies such as netTALK 368 and Vonage 369 have offered free calls to and in some cases from Japan for a limited time as did Germany s Deutsche Telekom 370 Defense Matsushima Air Field of the Japan Self Defense Force in Miyagi Prefecture received a tsunami warning and the airbase public address Tanoy was used to give the warning A tsunami is coming evacuate to the third floor Shortly after the warning the airbase was struck by the tsunami flooding the base there was no loss of life although the tsunami resulted in damage to all 18 Mitsubishi F 2 fighter jets of the 21st Fighter Training Squadron 371 372 373 Twelve of the aircraft were scrapped while the remaining six were slated for repair at a cost of 80 billion yen 1 billion exceeding the original cost of the aircraft 374 After the tsunami elements of the Japanese Maritime Self Defence Force put to sea without orders and started rescuing those who had been washed out to sea Tsunami plans were for the Japanese Self Defence Force assets to be led directed and coordinated by local civic governments However the earthquake destroyed town halls the seat of local municipal government police and fire services in many places so the military not only had to respond to but also command rescues Cultural properties Damage to a traditional lantern at Tokiwa shrine in Mito City 754 cultural properties were damaged across nineteen prefectures including five National Treasures at Zuigan ji Ōsaki Hachiman gu Shiramizu Amidadō and Seihaku ji 160 Important Cultural Properties including at Sendai Tōshō gu the Kōdōkan and Entsu in with its Western decorative motifs 144 Monuments of Japan including Matsushima Takata matsubara Yubikan and the Site of Tagajō six Groups of Traditional Buildings and four Important Tangible Folk Cultural Properties Stone monuments at the UNESCO World Heritage Site Shrines and Temples of Nikkō were toppled 375 376 377 In Tokyo there was damage to Koishikawa Kōrakuen Rikugien Hamarikyu Onshi Teien and the walls of Edo Castle 378 Information on the condition of collections held by museums libraries and archives is still incomplete 379 There was no damage to the Historic Monuments and Sites of Hiraizumi in Iwate Prefecture and the recommendation for their inscription on the UNESCO World Heritage List in June was seized upon as a symbol of international recognition and recovery 380 AftermathMain article Aftermath of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami The aftermath of the earthquake and tsunami included both a humanitarian crisis and a major economic impact The tsunami resulted in over 340 000 displaced people in the Tōhoku region and shortages of food water shelter medicine and fuel for survivors In response the Japanese government mobilized the Self Defence Forces under Joint Task Force Tōhoku led by Lieutenant General Eiji Kimizuka while many countries sent search and rescue teams to help search for survivors Aid organizations both in Japan and worldwide also responded with the Japanese Red Cross reporting 1 billion in donations The economic impact included both immediate problems with industrial production suspended in many factories and the longer term issue of the cost of rebuilding which has been estimated at 10 trillion 122 billion In comparison to the 1995 Great Hanshin earthquake the East Japan earthquake brought serious damage to an extremely wide range 381 The aftermath of the twin disasters also left Japan s coastal cities and towns with nearly 25 million tons of debris In Ishinomaki alone there were 17 trash collection sites 180 metres 590 ft long and at least 4 5 metres 15 ft high An official in the city s government trash disposal department estimated that it would take three years to empty these sites 382 In April 2015 authorities off the coast of Oregon discovered debris that was thought to be from a boat destroyed during the tsunami The cargo contained yellowtail jack fish a species that lives off the coast of Japan still alive KGW estimates that more than 1 million tons of debris still remain in the Pacific Ocean 383 In February 2016 a memorial was inaugurated by two architects for the victims of the disaster consisting of 6 5 square metre structure on a hillside between a temple and a cherry tree in Ishinomaki 384 Emergency vehicles staging in the ruins of Otsuchi Japan following the tsunami Anti nuclear protest following the disasterScientific and research response Fukushima radiation comparison to other incidents and standards with graph of recorded radiation levels and specific accident events Note Does not include all radiation readings from Fukushima Daini site Seismologists anticipated a very large quake would strike in the same place as the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake in the Sagami Trough southwest of Tokyo 385 386 The Japanese government had tracked plate movements since 1976 in preparation for the so called Tokai earthquake predicted to take place in that region 387 However occurring as it did 373 km 232 mi north east of Tokyo the Tōhoku earthquake came as a surprise to seismologists While the Japan Trench was known for creating large quakes it had not been expected to generate quakes above an 8 0 magnitude 386 387 The Headquarters for Earthquake Research Promotion set up by the Japanese government then reassessed the long term risk of trench type earthquakes around Japan and it was announced in November 2011 that research on the 869 Sanriku earthquake indicated that a similar earthquake with a magnitude of Mw 8 4 9 0 would take place off the Pacific coast of northeastern Japan on average every 600 years Also a tsunami earthquake with a tsunami magnitude scales Mt between 8 6 and 9 0 Similar to the 1896 Sanriku earthquake the Mt for the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake was 9 1 9 4 had a 30 chance to occur within 30 years 388 389 The quake gave scientists the opportunity to collect a large amount of data to model the seismic events that took place in great detail 63 These data are expected to be used in a variety of ways providing unprecedented information about how buildings respond to shaking and other effects 390 Gravimetric data from the quake have been used to create a model for increased warning time compared to seismic models as gravity fields travel faster than seismic waves 391 Researchers have also analysed the economic effects of this earthquake and have developed models of the nationwide propagation via interfirm supply networks of the shock that originated in the Tōhoku region 392 393 After the full extent of the disaster was known researchers soon launched a project to gather all digital material relating to the disaster into an online searchable archive to form the basis of future research into the events during and after the disaster The Japan Digital Archive is presented in English and Japanese and is hosted at the Reischauer Institute of Japanese Studies at Harvard University in Cambridge Massachusetts Some of the first research to come from the archive was a 2014 paper from the Digital Methods Initiative in Amsterdam about patterns of Twitter usage around the time of the disaster After the 2011 disaster the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction held its World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction in Tohoku in March 2015 which produced the Sendai Framework document to guide efforts by international development agencies to act before disasters instead of reacting to them after the fact At this time Japan s Disaster Management Office Naikakufu Bosai Keikaku published a bi lingual guide in Japanese and English Disaster Management in Japan to outline the several varieties of natural disaster and the preparations being made for the eventuality of each In the fall of 2016 Japan s National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Resilience NIED Japanese abbreviation Bosai Kaken full name Bousai Kagaku Gijutsu Kenkyusho launched the online interactive Disaster Chronology Map for Japan 416 2013 map labels in Japanese to display in visual form the location disaster time and date across the islands The Japan Trench Fast Drilling Project a scientific expedition conducted in 2012 2013 drilled ocean floor boreholes through the fault zone of the earthquake and gathered important data about the rupture mechanism and physical properties of the fault that caused the 2011 earthquake and tsunami 394 395 Ecological research The 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami had a great environmental impact on Japan s eastern coast The rarity and magnitude of the earthquake tsunami prompted researchers Jotaro Urabe Takao Suzuki Tatsuki Nishita and Wataru Makino to study their immediate ecological impacts on intertidal flat communities at Sendai Bay and the Sanriku Ria coast Pre and post event surveys show a reduction in animal taxon richness and change in taxon composition mainly attributed to the tsunami and its physical impacts In particular sessile epibenthic animals and endobenthic animals both decreased in taxon richness Mobile epibenthic animals such as hermit crabs were not as affected Post surveys also recorded taxa that were not previously recorded before suggesting that tsunamis have the potential to introduce species and change taxon composition and local community structure The long term ecological impacts at Sendai Bay and the greater east coast of Japan require further study 396 See also Japan portal Earth sciences portalHealth crisis Humanitarian response to the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami Lists of earthquakes List of earthquakes in 2011 List of earthquakes in Japan List of tsunamis List of megathrust earthquakes Nuclear power in Japan Seismicity Ryou Un Maru Seismicity of the Sanriku coast Takashi ShimokawaraExplanatory notes lit Great earthquake disaster of East Japan The Japan Meteorological Agency announced the English name as The 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tōhoku Earthquake 13 14 15 NHK 16 17 used Tōhoku Kantō Great Earthquake disaster 東北関東大震災 Tōhoku Kantō Daishinsai Tōhoku Kantō Great earthquake 東北 関東大地震 Tōhoku Kantō Daijishin was used by Kyodo News 18 the Tokyo Shimbun 19 and the Chunichi Shimbun 20 East Japan Giant earthquake 東日本巨大地震 Higashi Nihon Kyodaijishin was used by the Yomiuri Shimbun 21 Nihon Keizai Shimbun 22 and TV Asahi 23 and East Japan Great earthquake 東日本大地震 Higashi Nihon Daijishin was used by Nippon Television 24 Tokyo FM 25 and TV Asahi 26 Also known as the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake 27 the Great Sendai earthquake 28 the Great Tōhoku earthquake 28 and the great earthquake of 11 March The 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami has been assigned GLIDE identifier EQ 2011 000028 JPN by the Asian Disaster Reduction Center 87 88 References Japan Meteorological Agency Information on the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake Retrieved 22 February 2021 平成23年 2011年 東北地方太平洋沖地震による強震動 About strong ground motion caused by the 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku Earthquake Kyoshin Bosai Retrieved 3 November 2021 Japan Meteorological Agency ed 平成23年 2011年 東北地方太平洋沖地震 について ７年間の地震活動 About 2011 Tōhoku earthquake Seismic activities for 7 years PDF Retrieved 18 June 2018 on 6 March 2018 平成23年 2011年 東北地方太平洋沖地震 東日本大震災 について 第162報 令和4年3月8日 Press release no 162 of the 2011 Tohuku earthquake PDF 総務省消防庁災害対策本部 Fire and Disaster Management Agency Archived from the original PDF on 24 August 2022 Retrieved 23 September 2022 Page 31 of the PDF file 平成23年 2011年 東北地方太平洋沖地震 東日本大震災 について 第162報 令和4年3月8日 Press release no 162 of the 2011 Tohuku earthquake PDF 総務省消防庁災害対策本部 Fire and Disaster Management Agency Archived from the original PDF on 24 August 2022 Retrieved 23 September 2022 Page 31 of the PDF file 平成23年 2011年 東北地方太平洋沖地震 東日本大震災 について 第162報 令和4年3月8日 Press release no 162 of the 2011 Tohuku earthquake PDF 総務省消防庁災害対策本部 Fire and Disaster Management Agency Archived from the original PDF on 24 August 2022 Retrieved 23 September 2022 Page 31 of the PDF file a b c d e M 9 1 near the east coast of Honshu Japan United States Geological Survey USGS Archived from the original on 7 April 2011 Retrieved 9 November 2016 a b 震災の揺れは６分間 キラーパルス少なく 東大地震研 Asahi Shimbun Japan 17 March 2011 Archived from the original on 7 April 2011 Retrieved 18 March 2011 Suzuki W Aoi S Sekiguchi H Kunugi T 2012 Source rupture process of the 2011 Tohoku Oki earthquake derived from strong motion records PDF Proceedings of the fifteenth world conference on earthquake engineering Lisbon Portugal p 1 Amadeo Kimberly How the 2011 Earthquake in Japan Affected the Global Economy The Balance Archived from the original on 13 May 2019 Retrieved 8 October 2017 a b Japan Tsunami Strikes Indonesia One Confirmed Dead Jakarta Globe 12 March 2011 Archived from the original on 15 March 2011 Retrieved 12 March 2011 a b Body found in Oregon identified as missing tsunami victim BNO News Archived from the original on 14 April 2011 Retrieved 12 April 2011 Tsunami victim remains wash ashore near Fort Stevens Koinlocal6 com 12 March 2011 Retrieved 2 May 2011 Body of Calif man killed by tsunami washes up CBS News Associated Press 12 April 2011 Retrieved 3 July 2018 Michael Winter 14 March 2011 Quake shifted Japan coast about 13 feet knocked Earth 6 5 inches off axis USA Today Archived from the original on 7 April 2011 Retrieved 15 March 2011 The 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tōhoku Earthquake first report Japan Meteorological Agency March 2011 Archived from the original on 16 March 2011 Retrieved 15 March 2011 Abstract of the 191th sic meeting of CCEP website of the Japanese Coordinating Committee for Earthquake Prediction NHKニュース 東北関東大震災 動画 nhk or jp Archived from the original on 14 March 2011 Retrieved 15 March 2011 仙台放送局 東北関東大震災 nhk or jp Archived from the original on 14 March 2011 Retrieved 15 March 2011 東日本大震災 一般社団法人 共同通信社 ニュース特集 Kyodo News Archived from the original on 7 April 2011 Retrieved 17 March 2011 東京 東京新聞 収まらぬ余震 不安 東北 関東大地震 東京 TOKYO Web Tokyo np co jp Archived from the original on 17 March 2011 Retrieved 17 March 2011 中日新聞からのお知らせ 中日新聞 災害義援金受け付け 東日本大震災 中日新聞からのお知らせ CHUNICHI Web Chunichi co jp Archived from the original on 7 April 2011 Retrieved 17 March 2011 東日本巨大地震 震災掲示板 特集 YOMIURI ONLINE 読売新聞 Yomiuri Shimbun Japan Archived from the original on 7 April 2011 Retrieved 17 March 2011 東日本巨大地震 特集 日本経済新聞 in Japanese Nikkei com 1 January 2000 Archived from the original on 7 April 2011 Retrieved 17 March 2011 地震 東日本巨大地震を激甚災害指定 政府 News tv asahi co jp Archived from the original on 17 March 2011 Retrieved 17 March 2011 東日本大地震 緊急募金受け付け中 Cr ntv co jp Archived from the original on 31 March 2011 Retrieved 17 March 2011 番組表 Tokyo FM 80 0 MHz 80 Love FM Radio Station Tfm co jp Archived from the original on 7 April 2011 Retrieved 17 March 2011 報道特番 東日本大地震 2011年3月14日 月 放送内容 Kakaku com Archived from the original on 17 March 2011 Retrieved 17 March 2011 USGS Updates Magnitude of Japan s 2011 Tōhoku Earthquake to 9 03 website of the United States Geological Survey a b Pletcher Kenneth Rafferty John P 4 March 2019 Japan earthquake and tsunami of 2011 Facts amp Death Toll Encyclopaedia Britannica Retrieved 12 March 2019 3 11の映像 Nhk災害アーカイブス 3 11復興特集 復興の今 そしてこれから kantei go jp in Japanese Archived from the original on 10 March 2013 Retrieved 15 September 2021 3 11 New USGS number puts Japan quake at fourth largest CBS News Associated Press 14 March 2011 Archived from the original on 7 April 2011 Retrieved 15 March 2011 Branigan Tania 13 March 2011 Tsunami earthquake nuclear crisis now Japan faces power cuts The Guardian London Archived from the original on 11 June 2022 Retrieved 15 March 2011 Japan quake seventh largest in recorded history 11 March 2011 Archived from the original on 31 March 2011 Retrieved 11 March 2011 March 11th tsunami a record 40 5 metres high NHK nhk or jp 13 August 2011 Archived from the original on 28 July 2011 Retrieved 7 September 2011 a b c Yomiuri Shimbun evening edition 2 11 04 15 page 15 nearby Aneyoshi fishery port 姉吉漁港 Google map E39 31 57 8 N 142 3 7 6 2011 04 15 大震災の津波 宮古で38 9 m 明治三陸上回る by okayasu Akio 岡安 章夫 Archived 18 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine a b c d Richard A Clarke R P Eddy 2017 Warnings Finding Cassandras to stop catastrophe Harper Collins p 77 a b Roland Buerk 11 March 2011 Japan earthquake Tsunami hits north east BBC Archived from the original on 12 March 2011 Retrieved 12 March 2011 a b c d e Heath Chris 12 March 2012 Graduation Day GQ Archived from the original on 10 March 2021 a b c 凍てつく被災地 雪降り積む夜 囲む焚き火 Disaster area freezes put up a bonfire as snow piles in at night Asahi Shimbun in Japanese 16 March 2011 Archived from the original on 21 March 2021 a b c 平成23年 2011年 東北地方太平洋沖地震 東日本大震災 について 第161報 令和3年3月9日 Press release no 161 of the 2011 Tohuku earthqyake PDF 総務省消防庁災害対策本部 Fire and Disaster Management Agency Archived from the original PDF on 9 March 2021 Retrieved 10 March 2021 a b 過去の気象データ検索 gt 石巻 2011年3月11日 １０分ごとの値 Past meteorological data search Ishinomaki 11 March 2011 per 10 minute interval Japan Meteorological Agency Archived from the original on 12 April 2021 Retrieved 12 April 2021 平成23年 2011年 東北地方太平洋沖地震 東日本大震災 について 第162報 令和4年3月8日 Press release no 162 of the 2011 Tohuku earthquake PDF 総務省消防庁災害対策本部 Fire and Disaster Management Agency Archived from the original PDF on 24 August 2022 Retrieved 23 September 2022 Page 31 of the PDF file 平成23年 2011年 東北地方太平洋沖地震 東日本大震災 について 第162報 令和4年3月8日 Press release no 162 of the 2011 Tohuku earthquake PDF 総務省消防庁災害対策本部 Fire and Disaster Management Agency Archived from the original PDF on 24 August 2022 Retrieved 23 September 2022 Page 31 of the PDF file 平成23年 2011年 東北地方太平洋沖地震 東日本大震災 について 第162報 令和4年3月8日 Press release no 162 of the 2011 Tohuku earthquake PDF 総務省消防庁災害対策本部 Fire and Disaster Management Agency Archived from the original PDF on 24 August 2022 Retrieved 23 September 2022 Page 31 of the PDF file 4th Anniversary today Kobe Shinbun 11 March 2015 p 1 a b Japan 3 Nuclear Reactors Melted Down News Story KTVZ Bend Ktvz com 6 June 2011 Archived from the original on 28 July 2011 Retrieved 7 September 2011 3 nuclear reactors melted down after quake Japan confirms CNN 7 June 2011 Archived from the original on 25 July 2012 Retrieved 6 June 2011 Molly Hennessy Fiske 13 March 2011 Japan earthquake Insurance cost for quake alone pegged at 35 billion AIR says Los Angeles Times Archived from the original on 16 March 2011 Retrieved 13 March 2011 Uranaka Taiga Kwon Ki Joon 14 March 2011 New explosion shakes stricken Japanese nuclear plant Reuters Archived from the original on 17 March 2011 Retrieved 15 March 2011 Zhang Bo Top 5 Most Expensive Natural Disasters in History AccuWeather com News amp Video Archived from the original on 31 March 2011 Retrieved 29 March 2011 Victoria Kim 21 March 2011 Japan damage could reach 235 billion World Bank estimates Los Angeles Times Archived from the original on 31 March 2011 Retrieved 21 March 2011 Carvalho Vasco M Nirei Makoto Saito Yukiko U Tahbaz Salehi Alireza 10 December 2020 Supply Chain Disruptions Evidence from the Great East Japan Earthquake The Quarterly Journal of Economics 136 2 1255 1321 doi 10 1093 qje qjaa044 ISSN 0033 5533 Japan earthquake and tsunami what happened and why World news The Guardian Retrieved 3 April 2011 Archived 14 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine Boadle Anthony 11 March 2011 UPDATE 3 USGS upgrades Japan quake to 8 9 magnitude Reuters Archived from the original on 7 April 2011 Retrieved 18 March 2011 Reilly Michael 11 March 2011 Japan s quake updated to magnitude 9 0 New Scientist Short Sharp Science ed Archived from the original on 1 April 2011 USGS Updates Magnitude of Japan s 2011 Tōhoku Earthquake to 9 0 United States Geological Survey USGS 14 March 2011 Archived from the original on 18 March 2011 Retrieved 18 March 2011 Lovett Richard A 14 March 2011 Japan Earthquake Not the Big One National Geographic News Archived from the original on 16 March 2011 Retrieved 15 March 2011 地震情報 2011年3月10日 15時6分 日本気象協会 tenki jp Archived from the original on 18 April 2011 Retrieved 11 March 2011 地震情報 2011年3月11日 15時15分 日本気象協会 tenki jp Archived from the original on 18 April 2011 Retrieved 11 March 2011 Earthquake Information Japan Meteorological Agency Archived from the original on 24 March 2011 Retrieved 11 March 2011 Earthquake strikes near Japan s Fukushima nuclear plant no reports of damage The Star Toronto Associated Press 25 October 2013 Archived from the original on 25 October 2013 Retrieved 25 October 2013 A 7 3 magnitude earthquake struck early Saturday morning off Japan s east coast Japan s meteorological agency said the quake was an aftershock of the magnitude 9 0 earthquake and tsunami that struck the same area in 2011 a b Marcia McNutt 12 March 2011 Energy from quake if harnessed could power L A for a year CBS News via YouTube Google Archived from the original on 7 April 2011 Retrieved 13 March 2011 a b c d e Quake shifted Japan by over two metres Deutsche Welle 14 March 2011 Archived from the original on 15 March 2011 Retrieved 14 March 2011 a b c d e f g Chang Kenneth 13 March 2011 Quake Moves Japan Closer to U S and Alters Earth s Spin The New York Times Archived from the original on 16 March 2011 Retrieved 14 March 2011 a b c d Chai Carmen 11 March 2011 Japan s quake shifts earth s axis by 25 centimetres Montreal Gazette Montreal Postmedia News Archived from the original on 14 March 2011 Retrieved 13 March 2011 大地震で一日が短縮 軸の振動も変化 National Geographic in Japanese 17 March 2011 Archived from the original on 13 May 2013 Retrieved 19 March 2011 a b GOCE The First Seismometer in Orbit 8 March 2013 Retrieved 21 August 2016 未来を考える力を 気仙沼復興レポート 地盤の沈下と隆起 11 June 2016 今川 悟 震災で沈下の地盤が隆起 高すぎる岸壁に漁師困惑 TBS Newsi 11 October 2014 Archived from the original on 11 October 2014 Retrieved 2 November 2017 地盤が隆起 漁業者困惑 最大40センチ 積み荷に影響 三陸沿岸で地殻変動か Nikkei 9 March 2015 東北沿岸 地震で沈んだ地盤が謎の隆起 マントル影響か Nikkei 27 February 2017 Sawai Yuki Namegaya Yuichi 9 November 2012 Challenges of anticipating the 2011 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami using coastal geology Geophysical Research Letters 39 21 L21309 Bibcode 2012GeoRL 3921309S doi 10 1029 2012GL053692 Goto Kazuhisa Chague Goff Catherine 29 August 2012 The future of tsunami research following the 2011 Tōhoku oki event PDF Sedimentary Geology 282 1 13 Bibcode 2012SedG 282 1G doi 10 1016 j sedgeo 2012 08 003 Archived from the original PDF on 28 May 2015 Minoura K Imamura F Sugawara D Kono Y Iwashita T 2001 The 869 Jōgan tsunami deposit and recurrence interval of large scale tsunami on the Pacific coast of northeast Japan PDF Journal of Natural Disaster Science 23 2 83 88 Satake K Sawai Y Shishikura M Okamura Y Namegaya Y Yamaki S 2007 Tsunami source of the unusual AD 869 earthquake off Miyagi Japan inferred from tsunami deposits and numerical simulation of inundation American Geophysical Union Fall Meeting 2007 Abstract T31G 03 31 T31G 03 Bibcode 2007AGUFM T31G 03S a b Ian Sample 11 March 2011 newspaper Japan earthquake and tsunami what happened and why The Guardian London Archived from the original on 14 March 2011 Retrieved 14 March 2011 Maugh Thomas H 11 March 2011 Size of Japan s quake surprises seismologists Los Angeles Times Archived from the original on 7 April 2011 Retrieved 11 March 2011 地震調査委 想定外の連動地震 NHKニュース nhk or jp Archived from the original on 14 March 2011 Retrieved 12 March 2011 時事ドットコム Ｍ８ ８ 死者３００人超 行方不明５４０人以上 大津波１０ｍ 宮城で震度７ Jiji com Archived from the original on 13 December 2013 Retrieved 12 March 2011 気象庁 マグニチュードは９ ０ NHKニュース nhk or jp Archived from the original on 14 March 2011 Retrieved 13 March 2011 asahi com 朝日新聞社 地殻破壊３連鎖 計６分 専門家 余震拡大に警鐘 東日本大震災 Asahi Shimbun Japan Archived from the original on 7 April 2011 Retrieved 13 March 2011 1 Archived 7 December 2011 at the Wayback Machine Spatial distribution and focal mechanisms of aftershocks of the 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tōhoku Earthquake by Y Asano T Saito Y Ito K Shiomi H Hirose T Matsumoto S Aoi S Hori and S Sekiguchi Okada Norio Ye Tao Kajitani Yoshio Shi Peijun Tatano Hirokazu 8 August 2012 The 2011 eastern Japan great earthquake disaster Overview and comments International Journal of Disaster Risk Science Springer 2 34 42 doi 10 1007 s13753 011 0004 9 S2CID 129611625 USGS gov USGS WPhase Moment Solution Earthquake usgs gov Archived from the original on 14 March 2011 Retrieved 13 March 2011 Okada Yoshimitsu 25 March 2011 Preliminary report of the 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tōhoku Earthquake PDF National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention NIED Archived from the original PDF on 21 October 2016 Retrieved 12 March 2012 Asian Disaster Reduction Center ADRC Adrc asia Archived from the original on 7 April 2011 Retrieved 17 March 2011 Asian Disaster Reduction Center ADRC Information Sharing on Disaster Reduction Adrc asia Archived from the original on 24 March 2011 Retrieved 17 March 2011 Erol Kalkan Volkan Sevilgen 17 March 2011 March 11 2011 M9 0 Tōhoku Japan Earthquake Preliminary results United States Geological Survey Archived from the original on 24 March 2011 Retrieved 22 March 2011 Japan Meteorological Agency Earthquake Information Jma go jp Archived from the original on 24 March 2011 Retrieved 11 March 2011 a b 震度データベース検索 www data jma go jp Retrieved 18 June 2021 Rincon Paul 14 March 2011 How the quake has moved Japan BBC News Archived from the original on 14 March 2011 Retrieved 15 March 2011 Reilly Michael 12 March 2011 Japan quake fault may have moved 40 metres New Scientist Archived from the original on 13 March 2011 Retrieved 15 March 2011 Japan seabed shifted 24 metres after March quake Reuters 7 April 2011 Jiji Press March temblor shifted seabed by 50 metres 160 ft Japan Times 3 December 2011 p 1 a b Earth s day length shortened by Japan earthquake CBS News 13 March 2011 Archived from the original on 13 March 2011 Retrieved 13 March 2011 Harris Bethan 14 March 2011 Can an earthquake shift the Earth s axis BBC News Archived from the original on 16 March 2011 Retrieved 15 March 2011 Union American Geophysical An earthquake in Japan caused large waves in Norwegian fjords phys org Retrieved 16 April 2022 Fukue Natsuko Liquefaction driving away Chiba residents The Japan Times 30 March 2012 p 3 Fukue Natsuko Urayasu still dealing with liquefaction The Japan Times 8 April 2011 p 4 Urayasu still dealing with liquefaction the Japan Times Online Archived from the original on 10 April 2011 Retrieved 7 April 2011 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link Yomiuri Shimbun Liquefaction Damage Widespread 10 April 2011 Bloomberg L P Tokyo Disneyland s parking lot shows the risk of reclaimed land The Japan Times 24 March 2011 p 3 Archived 7 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine Hennessy Fiske Molly 13 March 2011 Volcano in southern Japan erupts Los Angeles Times Archived from the original on 13 March 2011 Retrieved 13 March 2011 Ananthaswamy Anil 15 March 2011 Japan quake shifts Antarctic glacier Archived from the original on 16 March 2011 Retrieved 15 March 2011 Gross Richard 19 March 2011 Japan Earthquake May Have Shifted Earth s Axis NPR Magnitude 7 1 Near the East Coast of Honshu Japan Archived from the original on 9 April 2011 The CNN Wire Staff 8 April 2011 Fresh quake triggers tsunami warning in Japan CNN Archived from the original on 25 July 2012 Retrieved 7 April 2011 Four dead as new tremor hits Japan disaster zone Bangkok Post 8 April 2011 Retrieved 8 April 2011 Fukushima Nuclear Accident Update Log IAEA 7 April 2011 Archived 9 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine NHK Strong aftershock kills four 12 April 2011 Magnitude 6 6 Eastern Honshu Japan Earthquake usgs gov Archived from the original on 28 July 2011 Retrieved 7 September 2011 At least 6 killed in new Japan earthquake CNN World News 11 April 2011 Archived from the original on 2 June 2011 Retrieved 23 April 2011 ３県で津波観測 注意報を解除 福島沖でＭ７ １ 朝日新聞デジタル in Japanese Asahi Broadcasting Corporation 26 October 2013 Retrieved 15 July 2014 USGS 10 degree Map Centered at 35 N 140 E of earthquakes of magnitude 4 5 or over Earthquake usgs gov 2 December 2009 Archived from the original on 28 July 2011 Retrieved 7 September 2011 Tōhoku Japan 2011 Tsunami ngdc noaa gov Retrieved 22 August 2013 気象庁 Ｍ5 0以上の余震回数 in Japanese Japan Meteorological Agency Retrieved 4 November 2016 Sugimoto T Shinozaki T Miyamoto Y 2013 Aftershocks Associated With Impaired Health Caused by the Great East Japan Disaster Among Youth Across Japan A National Cross Sectional Survey Interact J Med Res 2013 2 2 e31 Interactive Journal of Medical Research 2 2 e31 doi 10 2196 ijmr 2585 PMC 3875891 PMID 24362519 M 7 1 70 km ENE of Namie Japan earthquake usgs gov Retrieved 13 February 2021 1st death confirmed in Feb 13 northeastern Japan earthquake Kyodo News Fukushima 25 February 2021 Retrieved 11 March 2021 平成23年 2011年 東北地方太平洋沖地震に伴う地盤沈下調査 Land subsidence caused by 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami in Japanese Geospatial Information Authority of Japan 14 April 2011 Archived from the original on 20 April 2011 Retrieved 13 March 2012 a b Values announced by Geospatial Information Authority of Japan news report by Yomiuri Shimbun 15 April 2011 ver 13S page 33 Alabaster Jay 9 May 2011 Quake Shifted Japan Towns Now Flood at High Tide Associated Press ABC News Retrieved 13 March 2012 Foster Peter Alert sounded a minute before the tremor struck The Daily Telegraph UK Archived from the original on 11 March 2011 Retrieved 11 March 2011 Talbot David 80 Seconds of Warning for Tokyo MIT Technology Review Archived from the original on 30 May 2012 Retrieved 11 March 2011 干場充之 2011 経験則からのずれ はじめの数秒と強震動 tc Pd スペクトル 簡易震源域推定方法 日本地球惑星科学連合 2011年 MIS036 P67 緊急地震速報と観測された震度の特徴 JMA Meteorological Research Institute ja 日本地球惑星連合 2011年予稿集 Hoshiba Mitsuyuki Ozaki Tomoaki 2012 Earthquake Early Warning and Tsunami Warning of JMA for the 2011 off the Pacific Coast of Tohoku Earthquake Zisin Journal of the Seismological Society of Japan 2nd Series 64 3 155 168 doi 10 4294 zisin 64 155 Japan Earthquake Early Warning 3 11 2011 w English subtitles stardust9 20 May 2020 Archived from the original on 1 December 2021 Retrieved 22 January 2022 via YouTube 報道発表資料平成23年3月29日 PDF in Japanese Japan Meteorological Agency 2011 Retrieved 15 July 2014 緊急地震速報の改善について Press release Japan Meteorological Agency 10 August 2011 Retrieved 10 August 2011 NHK BS News reported 2011 04 03 02 55 JST Tsunami bulletin number 3 Pacific Tsunami Warning Center NOAA NWS 11 March 2011 Archived from the original on 14 March 2011 Retrieved 11 March 2011 Tsunami warnings issued for at least 20 countries after quake CNN 11 March 2011 Archived from the original on 12 March 2011 Retrieved 11 March 2011 PTWC warnings complete list Archived from the original on 30 May 2012 Retrieved 11 March 2011 Distance between Dichato Chile and Sendai Japan is 17228 km Mapcrow info 23 October 2007 Archived from the original on 16 March 2011 Retrieved 15 March 2011 Attwood James 12 March 2011 Chile Lifts Tsunami Alerts After Japan Quake Spawns Waves Bloomberg Archived from the original on 12 March 2011 Retrieved 15 March 2011 Chilean site Tsunami waves penetrated 70 100 m in different parts of the country Publimetro cl Archived from the original on 17 March 2011 Retrieved 17 March 2011 Tsunami Warning Advisory and Tsunami Information Archived from the original on 16 March 2011 Retrieved 18 April 2011 Tsunami Information Estimated Tsunami arrival time and Height 11 March 2011 Archived from the original on 14 April 2011 津波による浸水範囲の面積 概略値 について 第5報 PDF in Japanese Geospatial Information Authority in Japan 国土地理院 18 April 2011 Archived PDF from the original on 23 June 2011 Retrieved 20 June 2011 One estimate of 10 15 minutes came from German seismologist Rainer Kind of the GFZ German Research Center for Geosciences in Potsdam as interviewed in Japan s tsunami victims only had 15 minutes warning Deutsche Welle 12 March 2011 Retrieved 13 March 2011 Archived 7 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine Another estimate of 15 30 minutes came from Vasily V Titov director of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration s Center for Tsunami Research as reported in Japan tsunami Toll could rise to more than 1 300 NDTV hosted copy of an article by Martin Fackler The New York Times 12 March 2011 Retrieved 13 March 2011 Archived 7 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine a b News Tsunami rolls through Pacific Sendai Airport under water Tokyo Narita closed Pacific region airports endangered Avherald com 6 July 2001 Retrieved 11 March 2011 10 meter tsunami observed in area near Sendai in Miyagi Pref The Japan Times Online Kyodo News 11 March 2011 Archived from the original on 26 October 2011 Retrieved 12 March 2012 World English NHK 12 March 2011 Archived from the original on 30 March 2011 Retrieved 12 March 2011 Japan 8 9 magnitude earthquake sparks massive tsunami Herald Sun Australia Associated Press Archived from the original on 16 March 2011 Retrieved 11 March 2011 NHK News 16 00 JST Earthquake tsunami wreak havoc in Japan RIA Novosti 11 March 2011 Archived from the original on 7 April 2011 Retrieved 13 March 2011 Earthquake The Japan Times 19 March 2011 p 16 Kyodo News Tsunami hit more than 100 designated evacuation sites The Japan Times 14 April 2011 p 1 Archived 14 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine 9 500 unaccounted for in Miyagi s Minamisanriku local gov t Kyodo News Archived from the original on 13 March 2011 Retrieved 13 March 2011 Kyodo News 2 000 more added to death toll in Miyagi The Japan Times 15 March 2011 p 1 Archived 16 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine Watts Jonathan Quake survivors search for hope and shelter The Japan Times 26 March 2011 p 13 津波 最大想定に対処 防災会議 中間報告骨子 Yomiuri Shimbun 20 June 2011 Archived from the original on 1 May 2013 Retrieved 11 August 2011 東北地方太平洋沖地震を教訓とした地震 津波対策に関する専門調査会中間とりまとめ PDF 中央防災会議 東北地方太平洋沖地震を教訓とした地震 津波対策に関する専門調査会 26 June 2011 Retrieved 11 August 2011 Tritten Travis J and T D Flack U S rescue teams find devastation in northern city of Ofunato Stars and Stripes newspaper 15 March 2011 Retrieved 16 March 2011 Archived 17 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine Whole towns gone no cars or people seen Yomiuri Shimbun Archived from the original on 7 April 2011 Retrieved 13 March 2011 Honderden doden in Japanse kuststad Hundreds dead in Japanese coastal town in Dutch www rtlnieuws nl Retrieved 12 March 2011 Archived 7 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine Japan army says 300 400 bodies found in Rikuzentakata Report New Straits Times 3 February 2011 Archived from the original on 7 April 2011 Retrieved 13 March 2011 Martin Alex JET post best not pityfest The Japan Times 7 April 2011 p 3 Archived 7 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine Kyodo News Miyagi coastal whaling port pulverized little more than memory The Japan Times 18 March 2011 p 3 Archived 7 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine Kyodo News Deaths people missing set to top 1 600 Edano The Japan Times 13 March 2011 Kyodo News Survivors in trauma after life changing nightmare day The Japan Times 13 March 2011 p 2 Kyodo News Death toll may surpass 10 000 in Miyagi The Japan Times 14 March 2011 p 1 Archived 7 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine Alabaster Jay and Todd Pitman Associated Press Hardships suffering in earthquake zone The Japan Times 15 March 2011 p 3 Archived 7 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine Gihooly Rob Nothing can prepare you to witness this The Japan Times 20 March 2011 p 7 Archived 7 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine Stuart Biggs and Aaron Sheldrick 11 March 2011 Tsunami Slams Japan After Record Earthquake Killing Hundreds Bloomberg L P Retrieved 12 March 2012 Japan disaster 30 powerful images of the earthquake and tsunami The Daily Telegraph London 16 March 2011 Archived from the original on 7 April 2011 Kyodo News Survivors on cut off isle were ready for disaster The Japan Times 19 March 2011 p 2 Archived 7 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine Fukue Natsuko Tsunami came late to unprepared Chiba The Japan Times 30 March 2011 p 2 Archived 2 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine Tsunami Information Number 64 Tsunami Observation Japan Meteorological Agency 13 March 2011 Archived from the original on 14 March 2012 Retrieved 19 November 2021 Tsunami Information Number 64 Tsunami Observation Japan Meteorological Agency issued 18 05 JST 13 March 2011 Retrieved 14 March 2011 Tohoku district Archived 1 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine Tsunami Information Number 64 Tsunami Observation Japan Meteorological Agency issued 18 05 JST 13 March 2011 Retrieved 14 March 2011 Kanto Chubu district Archived 24 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine Tsunami Information Number 64 Tsunami Observations Archived 24 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine Japan Meteorological Agency Retrieved 12 March 2012 行政情報システム室 25 March 2011 Executive Summary of Urgent Field Survey of Earthquake and Tsunami Disasters by the 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tōhoku Earthquake PDF Yokosuka Japan Port and Airport Research Institute PARI Archived from the original PDF on 13 June 2013 Retrieved 12 March 2012 Researchers 30 meter tsunami in Ofunato NHK Archived from the original on 5 April 2011 Retrieved 29 March 2011 日本で一番大きな津波は何ですか JMA 38 meter high tsunami triggered by 11 March quake survey Kuwait News Agency KUNA Kyodo News 4 April 2011 Archived from the original on 13 June 2013 Retrieved 13 March 2012 宮古市田老小堀内漁港での津波遡上高 Tsunami run up height at Miyako city Taro Koborinai fishing port in Japanese Earthquake Research Institute University of Tokyo 3 April 2011 Archived from the original on 7 April 2011 Retrieved 4 April 2011 Yoshida Reiji 869 Tohoku tsunami parallels stun The Japan Times 11 March 2012 p 1 Jiji Press 42 didn t immediately flee tsunami The Japan Times 18 August 2011 p 2 a b 東北地方太平洋沖地震による津波被害を踏まえた津波警報の改善の方向性について 最終とりまとめ PDF Japan Meteorological Agency 12 September 2011 Retrieved 14 September 2011 a b 津波警報の改善について Japan Meteorological Agency Retrieved 1 April 2016 Evacuate all coastal areas immediately Hawaii Civil Defense says 11 March 2011 Archived from the original on 7 April 2011 Retrieved 13 March 2011 Text of PTWC Pacific wide tsunami warning 11 March 2011 Archived from the original on 16 March 2011 Retrieved 13 March 2011 Tsunami from Japanese quake prompts evacuation of 11 000 residents on Russia s Pacific islands 1310News com Associated Press 11 March 2011 Archived from the original on 14 March 2012 Retrieved 13 March 2012 Tsunami Warning and Advisory No 7 issued 03 11 2011 at 3 39 am PST Archived from the original on 16 March 2011 Retrieved 11 March 2011 a b B C tsunami threat passes Canada Canadian Broadcasting Corporation 11 March 2011 Archived from the original on 7 April 2011 Retrieved 13 March 2011 Helen Jung and Jeff Manning Waves bring destruction to Oregon s south coast The Oregonian 12 March 2011 p 1 1 2M FEMA Tsunami Grant To Ore s Curry County Oregon Northwest News Story KTVZ Bend Ktvz com 9 July 2011 Archived from the original on 28 July 2011 Retrieved 7 September 2011 Twilight tsunami evacuation Courier Mail 14 March 2011 Retrieved 3 April 2011 Archived 7 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine Girl Bowen 16 March 2011 Diary of a Bowen girl Japan Bowendiaries blogspot com Retrieved 3 April 2011 Archived 31 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine Tsunami destroys houses in Jayapura The Jakarta Post Archived from the original on 15 March 2011 Retrieved 17 March 2011 PNG s Wewak hospital damaged by tsunami waves Australian Broadcasting Corporation 16 March 2011 Archived from the original on 7 April 2011 Retrieved 17 March 2011 Nakaso Dan 14 March 2011 Tsunami damage estimate for Hawaii now tens of millions Star Advertiser Retrieved 15 March 2011 Archived 15 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine Tsunami washes away feathered victims west of Hawaii CNN 19 March 2011 Archived from the original on 25 July 2012 Retrieved 19 March 2011 South Pacific islands hit by tsunami swells 11 March 2011 Archived from the original on 7 April 2011 Retrieved 13 March 2011 Tsunami Warning For Guam Extended Until 11 p m Pacificnewscenter com 11 March 2011 Retrieved 3 April 2011 Archived 7 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine a b Minor damage in Latin America by Japan s tsunami Archived 16 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine Channel NewsAsia 13 March 2011 Spanish Mas de 200 casas danadas dejo seguidilla de olas ANSA Latina 13 March 2011 Spanish Caldera 80 viviendas resultaron destruidas en Puerto Viejo por efecto de las olas Radio Bio Bio 3 December 2011 Archived 7 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine Spanish Mas de 200 casas danadas dejo seguidilla de olas que azotaron las costas chilenas La Tercera 3 December 2011 Archived 17 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine a b Keall Chris 13 March 2011 Gareth Morgan s Galapagos hotel destroyed by tsunami National Business Review Archived from the original on 14 March 2011 Retrieved 15 September 2011 Ecuador Sends Aid To Galapagos After Islands Hit By Tsunami From Japan Latin American News Dispatch 15 March 2011 Archived from the original on 7 April 2011 Retrieved 17 March 2011 Tsunami Aftermath in Galapagos Update from CDRS Director Dr J Gabriel Lopez Galapagos org Retrieved 3 April 2011 津波 太平洋を往復 Nikkei 2 May 2014 Morning News 2014 05 01 Japan Geoscience Union ja Meteorological Research Institute ja visiting scholar Masami Okada Japan tsunami caused icebergs to break off in Antarctica European Space Agency 9 August 2011 Brunt Kelly M Emile A Okal Douglas R MacAyeal 1 October 2011 Antarctic ice shelf calving triggered by the Honshu Japan earthquake and tsunami March 2011 Journal of Glaciology 57 205 785 788 Bibcode 2011JGlac 57 785B doi 10 3189 002214311798043681 fee required for full article Japan tsunami victim s soccer ball found in Alaska 24 April 2012 Associated Press Tsunami motorcycle owner located in Japan Canadian Broadcasting Corporation 1 May 2012 Retrieved 22 August 2013 An earthquake in Japan caused large waves in Norwegian fjords Phys org 13 August 2013 Retrieved 25 May 2022 Oskin Becky Norway s weird waves traced to Japan quake Nbcnews com Retrieved 25 May 2022 a b c 特 ４ 東日本大震災による死者の死因等について 平成24年3月11日現在 Table 4 Causes of deaths in East Japan Earthquake as of 11 March 2012 平成24年警察白書 White Paper of the Police 2012 National Police Agency Archived from the original on 29 January 2013 平成23年 2011年 東北地方太平洋沖地震 東日本大震災 について 第162報 令和4年3月8日 Press release no 162 of the 2011 Tohuku earthquake PDF 総務省消防庁災害対策本部 Fire and Disaster Management Agency Archived from the original PDF on 24 August 2022 Retrieved 23 September 2022 Page 31 of the PDF file 平成23年 2011年 東北地方太平洋沖地震 東日本大震災 について 第162報 令和4年3月8日 Press release no 162 of the 2011 Tohuku earthquake PDF 総務省消防庁災害対策本部 Fire and Disaster Management Agency Archived from the original PDF on 24 August 2022 Retrieved 23 September 2022 Page 31 of the PDF file 平成23年 2011年 東北地方太平洋沖地震 東日本大震災 について 第162報 令和4年3月8日 Press release no 162 of the 2011 Tohuku earthquake PDF 総務省消防庁災害対策本部 Fire and Disaster Management Agency Archived from the original PDF on 24 August 2022 Retrieved 23 September 2022 Page 31 of the PDF file 原発事故 7年後の 英雄たち 1万2000人の作業員が健康調査に応じない理由 7 years after the nuclear accident Reason why 12 000 Hero workers do not respond to health surveys NHK 12 March 2018 Archived from the original on 9 May 2018 Parry Richard Lloyd 24 August 2017 The school beneath the wave the unimaginable tragedy of Japan s tsunami The Guardian ３ 11 震災関連死 という問い 福島県の分析を通して Archived 29 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine 野口典子 福島の震災関連死2000人超す 原発避難の長期化影響 28 December 2015 Nikkei Smith Alexander 10 September 2013 Fukushima evacuation has killed more than earthquake and tsunami survey says Archived from the original on 27 October 2013 Retrieved 11 September 2013 Stress induced deaths in Fukushima top those from 2011 natural disasters Archived from the original on 27 September 2013 McCurry Justin 15 March 2011 Japan earthquake 100 000 children displaced says charity The Guardian London Archived from the original on 5 June 2022 Retrieved 15 March 2011 Kyodo News More quake orphan benefits sought The Japan Times 18 September 2011 p 1 Agence France Presse Jiji Press At least 82 children were orphaned by disaster government says The Japan Times 10 April 2011 p 2 Kyodo News Grandparents stifle grief to raise orphaned boy The Japan Times 23 February 2012 p 3 Kyodo News Tōhoku teen feels guilt of being lone survivor The Japan Times 24 February 2012 p 3 Kyodo News 378 students killed 158 missing in disaster The Japan Times 29 April 2011 p 2 The victims included 234 elementary 111 junior high and 191 high school students Direct quote Out of the 378 students confirmed dead 273 were in Miyagi 59 in Fukushima and 46 in Iwate The list of missing students is made up of 74 in Miyagi 52 in Iwate and 32 in Fukushima As of 25 December 2011 342 elementary and junior high school students were declared dead or missing Kyodo News 3 11 tsunami killed 35 of students saved by parents Japan Times 25 December 2011 p 2 Associated Press Loss staggered school reopens Archived 14 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine Japan Times 19 April 2011 p 3 Kyodo News Loss hit Ishinomaki school opens The Japan Times 22 April 2011 p 2 Kyodo News School that lost 70 of its pupils mourns Archived 2 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine Japan Times 29 April 2011 p 1 Japan confirms death of 19 foreigners in March 11 quake tsunami Kyodo News 5 April 2011 Archived from the original on 7 April 2011 Retrieved 7 April 2011 Body of second American found in Japan CNN 7 April 2011 Archived from the original on 8 April 2011 Retrieved 7 April 2011 Quebec priest killed in Japanese tsunami Montreal Gazette Montreal 13 March 2011 Archived from the original on 7 April 2011 Retrieved 7 April 2011 Shinde Jayesh 11 March 2011 Google Person Finder for Japan Earthquake Tsunami launched PC World Archived from the original on 7 April 2011 Retrieved 11 March 2011 Person finder Japan ed Appspot Archived from the original on 11 March 2011 Wines Michael 23 March 2011 As Tsunami Robbed Life It Also Robs Rite of Death The New York Times Archived from the original on 26 March 2011 Retrieved 11 April 2011 Nishikawa Yoko 23 March 2011 Quake ravaged Japan digs mass graves Reuters Archived from the original on 7 April 2011 Retrieved 27 March 2011 Allen Nick 24 March 2011 Japan earthquake country begins burying dead in mass graves The Daily Telegraph London Archived from the original on 7 April 2011 Retrieved 27 March 2011 Wines Michael 24 March 2011 As Tsunami Robbed Life It Also Robs Rite of Death The New York Times pp A12 Archived from the original on 25 April 2012 Retrieved 27 March 2011 Burials in Quake Hit Towns Deepen Japan s Tragedy The New York Times Associated Press 27 March 2011 Retrieved 27 March 2011 Kyodo News GSDF member dies during relief The Japan Times 28 May 2011 p 2 Kyodo News Illness suicides drive up disaster linked toll The Japan Times 4 March 2012 p 2 Jiji Press Disaster reconstruction work has claimed 18 lives so far The Japan Times 6 June 2012 p 1 California tsunami death NorCal man drowns trying to photograph tsunami KSWB Fox5sandiego com Archived from the original on 18 April 2011 Retrieved 14 March 2011 Associated Press 13 March 2011 Man swept out to sea by tsunami was Bend native The Oregonian Archived from the original on 15 March 2011 Retrieved 27 March 2011 Klamath tsunami victim identified search comes up empty The Times Standard Eureka CA 13 March 2011 Archived from the original on 18 April 2011 Retrieved 27 March 2011 film shown by BBC showing only rubble where there were buildings BBC News 13 March 2011 Archived from the original on 14 March 2011 Retrieved 14 March 2011 Before and after satellite photographs of devastated regions Archived from the original on 13 March 2011 Retrieved 14 March 2011 animated images showing undamaged places become damaged BBC 14 March 2011 Archived from the original on 16 March 2011 Retrieved 15 March 2011 Onishi Norimitsu 13 March 2011 Seawalls Offered Little Protection Against Tsunami s Crushing Waves The New York Times Archived from the original on 14 March 2011 Retrieved 15 March 2011 NHK 190 000 buildings damaged by 11 March quake 3 April 2011 Kyodo News Fishermen to Tepco Don t release water The Japan Times 9 June 2011 p 1 Agence France Presse Jiji Press Radiation legalities complicate cleanup efforts The Japan Times 9 April 2011 p 2 Kamiya Setsuko Debris removal recycling daunting piecemeal labor The Japan Times 30 June 2011 p 3 Police Countermeasures and Damage Situation associated with 2011 Tohoku district off the Pacific Ocean Earthquake March 10 2021 PDF National Police Agency of Japan Archived PDF from the original on 22 September 2017 Retrieved 10 September 2018 Saira Syed Japan quake Infrastructure damage will delay recovery 16 March 2011 BBC News Retrieved 18 March 2011 Archived 17 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine Japanese PM Toughest crisis since World War II CNN 13 March 2011 Archived from the original on 31 March 2011 Retrieved 12 March 2012 a b NPR Staff and Wires 14 March 2011 Millions of Stricken Japanese Lack Water Food Heat NPR Archived from the original on 17 March 2011 Retrieved 16 March 2011 Nearly 1 5 million households had gone without water since the quake struck Kyodo News Applications to deregister cars lost in tsunami soar The Japan Times 16 June 2011 p 1 Snow piles more misery on Japan s devastated northeast Reuters 16 March 2011 Archived from the original on 2 February 2017 無情の雪 増す疲労 沿岸真冬並み寒さ とにかく燃料必要 Merciless snow increasing weariness coastal towns are freezing like winter Iwate Nippo 17 March 2011 Archived from the original on 12 September 2017 Retrieved 8 August 2021 a b 過去の気象データ検索 gt 仙台 2011年3月 日ごとの値 主な要素 Past meteorological data search Sendai March 2011 Daily values Japan Meteorological Agency Archived from the original on 12 April 2021 Retrieved 12 April 2021 Jesse Allen and Robert Simmon Earthquake and Tsunami near Sendai Japan NASA Earth Observatory Archived from the original on 17 January 2019 Kim Kyung Hoon Sagolj Damir 16 March 2011 Pictures Snowfall in Japan Reuters Sim David 29 December 2016 60 powerful photos of the earthquake and tsunami that hit Japan five years ago International Business Times Environment U N 21 October 2021 Drowning in Plastics Marine Litter and Plastic Waste Vital Graphics UNEP UN Environment Programme Retrieved 23 March 2022 Status of Japanese ports 5 days after devastating quake and tsunami Reuters 15 March 2011 Archived from the original on 7 April 2011 Retrieved 15 March 2011 a b Nihon Keizai Shimbun 90 percent of major transport networks back in operation 29 March 2011 Fukada Takahiro Iwate fisheries continue struggle to recover The Japan Times 21 September 2011 p 3 Jiji Press Most disaster hit fish ports back up The Japan Times 26 May 2012 p 2 Tokyo Disneyland hit by liquefaction after quake MediaCorp Channel NewsAsia 11 March 2011 Retrieved 11 March 2011 dead link a b c Japan issues top tsunami warning after major quake MediaCorp Channel NewsAsia 11 March 2011 Retrieved 11 March 2011 dead link Japan s Afternoon of Horror The Gulf Today 12 March 2011 Archived from the original on 13 March 2011 Retrieved 13 March 2011 Dam Breaks in Northeast Japan Washes Away Homes Arab Times Online 12 March 2011 Archived from the original on 7 April 2011 Retrieved 13 March 2012 Azuma Kita 12 March 2011 Pacific Ocean coast Earthquake in Japanese MSN Archived from the original on 13 April 2011 Retrieved 14 March 2011 ダム決壊 ５棟流出 福島 須賀川 in Japanese Fukushima News 13 March 2011 Archived from the original on 28 March 2011 Retrieved 14 March 2011 Death toll from powerful Japan quake likely to top 1 000 Archived from the original on 2 June 2011 Retrieved 6 May 2018 ダム決壊 8人が行方不明 須賀川 藤沼ルポ in Japanese Fukushima News 12 March 2011 Archived from the original on 28 March 2011 Retrieved 14 March 2011 A quick report on Japanese Dams after the Earthquake Chinese National Committee on Large Dams 12 March 2011 Archived from the original on 26 March 2011 Retrieved 15 March 2011 Uranaka Taiga Kwon Ki Joon 14 March 2011 Quake hit Japan battles to avert radiation leak Reuters Archived from the original on 16 March 2011 Retrieved 14 March 2011 a b Nomiyama Chiz 21 March 2011 Factbox Japan disaster in figures Reuters Archived from the original on 24 March 2011 Retrieved 21 March 2011 Inajima Tsuyoshi Okada Yuji 11 March 2011 Japanese Quake Forces Evacuation Near Nuclear Reactor Oil Refinery Burns Bloomberg L P Retrieved 13 March 2012 Kyodo News Utilities monopoly on power backfires The Japan Times 30 March 2011 p 2 Archived 31 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine Power Outage To Deal Further Blows To Industrial Output Nikkei com 14 March 2011 Archived from the original on 16 March 2011 Retrieved 14 March 2011 東京電力ホームページ エネルギーの最適サービスを通じてゆたかで快適な環境の実現に貢献します Tokyo Electric Power Company Archived from the original on 27 February 2011 Retrieved 13 March 2011 News Nikkan Sports Archived from the original on 15 March 2011 Retrieved 13 March 2011 Joe Melinda Kanto area works on energy conservation The Japan Times 17 March 2011 p 11 Archived 7 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine A legacy from the 1800s leaves Tokyo facing blackouts ITworld 18 March 2011 Archived 7 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine Hongo Jun One certainty in the crisis Power will be at a premium The Japan Times 16 March 2011 p 2 Archived 7 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine NHK Steel makers provide TEPCO with electricity 27 March 2011 Nakata Hiroko Auto industry agrees to adopt weekend work shifts The Japan Times 20 May 2011 p 1 Rubin Jeffrey Setsuden Poised to Replace Nuclear Power in Japan The Huffington Post 4 August 2011 Retrieved 6 February 2011 節電について Archived 6 October 2018 at the Wayback Machine 今夏の電力需給状況について Archived 27 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine 最大電力の動向 Archived 27 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine TEPCO Access Date 9 October 2011 7月分の電力需給実績について Archived 1 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine TEP 26 August 2011 8月分の電力需給実績について Archived 1 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine TEP 28 September 2011 9月定例社長記者会見概要 Archived 1 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine TEP 10 September 2011 政府 今夏は節電要請せず 東日本大震災後初 Nikkei 13 May 2016 節電なし 初の夏が来る 窮地を救う省 再 新 Nikkei 28 June 2016 今夏の節電要請見送り 安定的な供給可能 Mainichi Shimbun 21 May 2017 a b c Fernandez Clarence 14 March 2011 Japan s shipping energy sectors begin march back from quake Reuters Archived from the original on 16 March 2011 Retrieved 14 March 2011 Watkins Eric 11 March 2011 After 8 9 quake explosion hits pchem complex in Japan Oil amp Gas Journal PennEnergy com Japan earthquake causes oil refinery inferno The Daily Telegraph London 11 March 2011 LPG Tanks Fire Extinguished at Chiba Refinery 5th Update COSMO OIL Co Ltd Cosmo oil co jp 11 March 2011 Archived from the original on 28 July 2011 Retrieved 7 September 2011 Fires safety checks take out Japanese refineriesArgus Media 14 March 2011 Retrieved 18 March 2011 Archived 7 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine Japanese refiners try to offset shortagesArgus Media 15 March 2011 Retrieved 18 March 2011 Archived 7 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine Tsukimori Osamu Negishi Mayumi 11 March 2011 JX refinery fire seen originated from shipping facility Reuters Archived from the original on 15 March 2011 Retrieved 14 March 2011 Analysis Oil markets adjust to Japan s disasterArgus Media 16 March 2011 Retrieved 18 March 2011 Archived 7 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine Japan quake begins to impact LNG tradeArgus Media 15 March 2011 Retrieved 18 March 2011 Archived 7 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine Tsunami Disaster Japan s Sendai says LNG Infrastructure Badly Damaged Argus Media 16 March 2011 Retrieved 18 March 2011 Archived 7 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine Kanekiyo Kensuke Ishimura Akira eds March 2011 Eastern Japan paralyzed by unprecedented earthquake PDF Japan Energy Brief 12 a b Japan earthquake Evacuations ordered as fears grow of radiation leak at nuclear plant News com au Agence France Presse 12 March 2011 Archived from the original on 7 April 2011 Retrieved 13 March 2011 span, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.