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Peak ground acceleration

May 18, 2023

Peak ground acceleration (PGA) is equal to the maximum ground acceleration that occurred during earthquake shaking at a location. PGA is equal to the amplitude of the largest absolute acceleration recorded on an accelerogram at a site during a particular earthquake.[1] Earthquake shaking generally occurs in all three directions. Therefore, PGA is often split into the horizontal and vertical components. Horizontal PGAs are generally larger than those in the vertical direction but this is not always true, especially close to large earthquakes. PGA is an important parameter (also known as an intensity measure) for earthquake engineering, The design basis earthquake ground motion (DBEGM)[2] is often defined in terms of PGA.

Unlike the Richter and moment magnitude scales, it is not a measure of the total energy (magnitude, or size) of an earthquake, but rather of how much the earth shakes at a given geographic point. The Mercalli intensity scale uses personal reports and observations to measure earthquake intensity but PGA is measured by instruments, such as accelerographs. It can be correlated to macroseismic intensities on the Mercalli scale[3] but these correlations are associated with large uncertainty.[4] (See also: seismic scale).

The peak horizontal acceleration (PHA) is the most commonly used type of ground acceleration in engineering applications. It is often used within earthquake engineering (including seismic building codes) and it is commonly plotted on seismic hazard maps.[5] In an earthquake, damage to buildings and infrastructure is related more closely to ground motion, of which PGA is a measure, rather than the magnitude of the earthquake itself. For moderate earthquakes, PGA is a reasonably good determinant of damage; in severe earthquakes, damage is more often correlated with peak ground velocity.[3]

Geophysics

Earthquake energy is dispersed in waves from the hypocentre, causing ground movement omnidirectionally but typically modelled horizontally (in two directions) and vertically. PGA records the acceleration (rate of change of speed) of these movements, while peak ground velocity is the greatest speed (rate of movement) reached by the ground, and peak displacement is the distance moved.[6][7] These values vary in different earthquakes, and in differing sites within one earthquake event, depending on a number of factors. These include the length of the fault, magnitude, the depth of the quake, the distance from the epicentre, the duration (length of the shake cycle), and the geology of the ground (subsurface). Shallow-focused earthquakes generate stronger shaking (acceleration) than intermediate and deep quakes, since the energy is released closer to the surface.[8]

Peak ground acceleration can be expressed in fractions of g (the standard acceleration due to Earth's gravity, equivalent to g-force) as either a decimal or percentage; in m/s2 (1 g = 9.81 m/s2);[6] or in multiples of Gal, where 1 Gal is equal to 0.01 m/s2 (1 g = 981 Gal).

The ground type can significantly influence ground acceleration, so PGA values can display extreme variability over distances of a few kilometers, particularly with moderate to large earthquakes.[9] The varying PGA results from an earthquake can be displayed on a shake map.[10] Due to the complex conditions affecting PGA, earthquakes of similar magnitude can offer disparate results, with many moderate magnitude earthquakes generating significantly larger PGA values than larger magnitude quakes.

During an earthquake, ground acceleration is measured in three directions: vertically (V or UD, for up-down) and two perpendicular horizontal directions (H1 and H2), often north–south (NS) and east–west (EW). The peak acceleration in each of these directions is recorded, with the highest individual value often reported. Alternatively, a combined value for a given station can be noted. The peak horizontal ground acceleration (PHA or PHGA) can be reached by selecting the higher individual recording, taking the mean of the two values, or calculating a vector sum of the two components. A three-component value can also be reached, by taking the vertical component into consideration also.

In seismic engineering, the effective peak acceleration (EPA, the maximum ground acceleration to which a building responds) is often used, which tends to be ⅔ – ¾ the PGA[citation needed].

Seismic risk and engineering

Study of geographic areas combined with an assessment of historical earthquakes allows geologists to determine seismic risk and to create seismic hazard maps, which show the likely PGA values to be experienced in a region during an earthquake, with a probability of exceedance (PE). Seismic engineers and government planning departments use these values to determine the appropriate earthquake loading for buildings in each zone, with key identified structures (such as hospitals, bridges, power plants) needing to survive the maximum considered earthquake (MCE).

Damage to buildings is related to both peak ground velocity (PGV) and the duration of the earthquake – the longer high-level shaking persists, the greater the likelihood of damage.

Comparison of instrumental and felt intensity

Peak ground acceleration provides a measurement of instrumental intensity, that is, ground shaking recorded by seismic instruments. Other intensity scales measure felt intensity, based on eyewitness reports, felt shaking, and observed damage. There is correlation between these scales, but not always absolute agreement since experiences and damage can be affected by many other factors, including the quality of earthquake engineering.

Generally speaking,

  • 0.001 g (0.01 m/s2) – perceptible by people
  • 0.02  g (0.2  m/s2) – people lose their balance
  • 0.50  g (5  m/s2) – very high; well-designed buildings can survive if the duration is short.[7]

Correlation with the Mercalli scale

The United States Geological Survey developed an Instrumental Intensity scale, which maps peak ground acceleration and peak ground velocity on an intensity scale similar to the felt Mercalli scale. These values are used to create shake maps by seismologists around the world.[3]

Instrumental
Intensity 		Acceleration
(g) 		Velocity
(cm/s) 		Perceived shaking Potential damage
I < 0.000464 < 0.0215 Not felt None
II–III 0.000464 – 0.00297 0.135 – 1.41 Weak None
IV 0.00297 – 0.0276 1.41 – 4.65 Light None
V 0.0276 – 0.115 4.65 – 9.64 Moderate Very light
VI 0.115 – 0.215 9.64 – 20 Strong Light
VII 0.215 – 0.401 20 – 41.4 Very strong Moderate
VIII 0.401 – 0.747 41.4 – 85.8 Severe Moderate to heavy
IX 0.747 – 1.39 85.8 – 178 Violent Heavy
X+ > 1.39 > 178 Extreme Very heavy

Other intensity scales

In the 7-class Japan Meteorological Agency seismic intensity scale, the highest intensity, Shindo 7, covers accelerations greater than 4 m/s2 (0.41 g).

PGA hazard risks worldwide

In India, areas with expected PGA values higher than 0.36 g are classed as "Zone 5", or "Very High Damage Risk Zone".

Notable earthquakes

PGA
single direction
(max recorded) 		PGA
vector sum (H1, H2, V)
(max recorded) 		Magnitude Mw Depth Fatalities Earthquake
3.23 g [11] 7.8 15 km 2 2016 Kaikoura earthquake
2.7 g [12] 2.99 g[13][14] 9.1[15] 30 km[16] 19,759[17] 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami
4.36 g [18] 6.9 8 km 12 2008 Iwate–Miyagi Nairiku earthquake
1.92 g [19] 7.7 8 km 2,415 1999 Jiji earthquake
1.82 g [20] 6.7 18 km [21] 57 1994 Northridge earthquake
1.81 g [22] 9.5 33 km 1,000–6000 1960 Valdivia earthquake
1.62 g [23] 7.8 10 km 57,658 2023 Turkey–Syria earthquake
1.51 g [24][25] 6.2[26] 5 km 185 February 2011 Christchurch earthquake
1.26 g [27][28] 7.1 10 km 0 2010 Canterbury earthquake
1.25 g[29] 6.6 8.4 km 58–65 1971 Sylmar earthquake
1.04 g [30] 6.6 10 km 11 2007 Chūetsu offshore earthquake
0.98 g [31] 7.0 16.1 km 118 2020 Aegean Sea earthquake
0.91 g 6.9 17.6 km 5,502–6,434 1995 Great Hanshin earthquake
0.8 g [32] 7.2 12 km 222 2013 Bohol earthquake
0.65 [33] 6.9 19 km 63 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake
0.5 g [34] 7.0 13 km 100,000–316,000 2010 Haiti earthquake
0.34 g [35] 6.4 15 km 5,778 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake
0.18 g [36] 9.2 25 km 131 1964 Alaska earthquake

See also

References

  1. ^ Douglas, J (2003-04-01). "Earthquake ground motion estimation using strong-motion records: a review of equations for the estimation of peak ground acceleration and response spectral ordinates" (PDF). Earth-Science Reviews. 61 (1–2): 43–104. Bibcode:2003ESRv...61...43D. doi:10.1016/S0012-8252(02)00112-5.
  2. ^ Nuclear Power Plants and Earthquakes 2009-07-22 at the Wayback Machine, accessed 8 April 2011.
  3. ^ a b c . Earthquake Hazards Program. U. S. Geological Survey. Archived from the original on 23 June 2011. Retrieved 22 March 2011.
  4. ^ Cua, G.; et al. (2010). (PDF). Global Earthquake Model. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 December 2015. Retrieved 11 November 2015.
  5. ^ European Facilities for Earthquake Hazard & Risk (2013). . EFEHR. Archived from the original on 27 December 2015. Retrieved 11 November 2015.
  6. ^ a b . Geologic Hazards Science Center. U.S. Geological Survey. Archived from the original on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 22 March 2011.
  7. ^ a b Lorant, Gabor (17 June 2010). "Seismic Design Principles". Whole Building Design Guide. National Institute of Building Sciences. Retrieved 15 March 2011.
  8. ^ . Earthquake summary. USGS. 16 July 2001. Archived from the original on 14 March 2011. Retrieved 15 March 2011.
  9. ^ . Earthquake Hazards Program. U. S. Geological Survey. Archived from the original on 23 June 2011. Retrieved 22 March 2011.
  10. ^ . Earthquake Hazards Program. U. S. Geological Survey. Archived from the original on 23 June 2011. Retrieved 22 March 2011.
  11. ^ Goto, Hiroyuki; Kaneko, Yoshihiro; Young, John; Avery, Hamish; Damiano, Len (4 February 2019). "Extreme Accelerations During Earthquakes Caused by Elastic Flapping Effect". Scientific Reports. 9 (1): 1117. Bibcode:2019NatSR...9.1117G. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-37716-y. PMC 6361895. PMID 30718810.
  12. ^ Erol Kalkan; Volkan Sevilgen (17 March 2011). . United States Geological Survey. Archived from the original on 24 March 2011. Retrieved 22 March 2011.
  13. ^ "平成23年(2011年)東北地方太平洋沖地震による強震動" [About strong ground motion caused by the 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku Earthquake]. Kyoshin Bosai. Retrieved 10 November 2021.
  14. ^ (PDF). National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 March 2011. Retrieved 18 March 2011.
  15. ^ "M 9.1 - 2011 Great Tohoku Earthquake, Japan - Origin". USGS. Retrieved 10 November 2021.
  16. ^ . Archived from the original on 13 April 2016. Retrieved 8 September 2017.
  17. ^ [Press release no. 162 of the 2011 Tohuku earthquake] (PDF). 総務省消防庁災害対策本部 [Fire and Disaster Management Agency]. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2022-08-24. Retrieved 2022-09-23. Page 31 of the PDF file.
  18. ^ Masumi Yamada; et al. (July–August 2010). "Spatially Dense Velocity Structure Exploration in the Source Region of the Iwate-Miyagi Nairiku Earthquake". Seismological Research Letters v. 81; no. 4. Seismological Society of America. pp. 597–604. Retrieved 21 March 2011.
  19. ^ "M 7.7 - 21 km S of Puli, Taiwan". USGS. Retrieved 10 November 2021.
  20. ^ Yegian, M.K.; Ghahraman; Gazetas, G.; Dakoulas, P.; Makris, N. (April 1995). (PDF). Third International Conference on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics. Northeastern University College of Engineering. p. 1384. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 November 2021. Retrieved 7 April 2021.
  21. ^ "M 6.7 - 1km NNW of Reseda, CA". USGS. Retrieved 10 November 2021.
  22. ^ "M 9.5 - 1960 Great Chilean Earthquake (Valdivia Earthquake)". USGS. Retrieved 10 November 2021.
  23. ^ . web.archive.org. Retrieved 2023-04-07.
  24. ^ . Geonet. GNS Science. 23 February 2011. Archived from the original on 4 March 2011. Retrieved 24 February 2011.
  25. ^ . Geonet. GNS Science. Archived from the original on 31 May 2012. Retrieved 24 February 2011.
  26. ^ . Geonet. GNS Science. 22 February 2011. Archived from the original on 25 February 2011. Retrieved 24 February 2011.
  27. ^ Carter, Hamish (24 February 2011). "Technically it's just an aftershock". New Zealand Herald. APN Holdings. Retrieved 24 February 2011.
  28. ^ . GeoNet. GNS Science. Archived from the original on 2 March 2011. Retrieved 7 March 2011.
  29. ^ Cloud & Hudson 1975, pp. 278, 287
  30. ^ Katsuhiko, Ishibashi (11 August 2001). "Why Worry? Japan's Nuclear Plants at Grave Risk From Quake Damage". Japan Focus. Asia Pacific Journal. Retrieved 15 March 2011.
  31. ^ Mauricio Morales; Oguz C. Celik. "EERI PERW 2021 – Part 1: Aegean Sea Earthquake". slc.eeri.org. Earthquake Engineering Research Institute. Retrieved 12 October 2021.
  32. ^ "The Mw7.2 15 October 2013 Bohol, Philippines Earthquake" (PDF). Emi-megacities.org.
  33. ^ Clough, G. W.; Martin, J. R.; Chameau, J. L. II (1994). "The geotechnical aspects". Practical lessons from the Loma Prieta earthquake. National Academies Press. pp. 29–46. ISBN 978-0309050302.
  34. ^ Lin, Rong-Gong; Allen, Sam (26 February 2011). "New Zealand quake raises questions about L.A. buildings". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 27 February 2011.
  35. ^ Elnashai et al. 2006, p. 18
  36. ^ National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on the Alaska Earthquake, The great Alaska earthquake of 1964, Volume 1, Part 1, National Academies, 1968 p. 285

Bibliography

  • Murphy, J.R.; o'brien (1977). "The correlation of peak ground acceleration amplitude with seismic intensity and other physical parameters". Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America. 67 (3): 877–915. Bibcode:1977BuSSA..67..877M. doi:10.1785/BSSA0670030877. S2CID 129134843.
  • Campbell, K.W. (1997). "Empirical near-source attenuation relationships for horizontal and vertical components of peak ground acceleration, peak ground velocity, and pseudo-absolute acceleration response spectra". Seismological Research Letters. 68: 154–179. doi:10.1785/gssrl.68.1.154.
  • Campbell, K.W.; Y. Bozorgnia (2003). "Updated near-source ground-motion (attenuation) relations for the horizontal and vertical components of peak ground acceleration and acceleration response spectra" (PDF). Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America. 93 (1): 314–331. Bibcode:2003BuSSA..93..314C. doi:10.1785/0120020029.
  • Wald, D.J.; V. Quitoriano; T.H. Heaton; H. Kanamori (1999). "Relationships between peak ground acceleration, peak ground velocity, and modified Mercalli intensity in California". Earthquake Spectra. 15 (3): 557. doi:10.1193/1.1586058. S2CID 110698014.

May 18, 2023
peak, ground, acceleration, equal, maximum, ground, acceleration, that, occurred, during, earthquake, shaking, location, equal, amplitude, largest, absolute, acceleration, recorded, accelerogram, site, during, particular, earthquake, earthquake, shaking, gener. Peak ground acceleration PGA is equal to the maximum ground acceleration that occurred during earthquake shaking at a location PGA is equal to the amplitude of the largest absolute acceleration recorded on an accelerogram at a site during a particular earthquake 1 Earthquake shaking generally occurs in all three directions Therefore PGA is often split into the horizontal and vertical components Horizontal PGAs are generally larger than those in the vertical direction but this is not always true especially close to large earthquakes PGA is an important parameter also known as an intensity measure for earthquake engineering The design basis earthquake ground motion DBEGM 2 is often defined in terms of PGA Unlike the Richter and moment magnitude scales it is not a measure of the total energy magnitude or size of an earthquake but rather of how much the earth shakes at a given geographic point The Mercalli intensity scale uses personal reports and observations to measure earthquake intensity but PGA is measured by instruments such as accelerographs It can be correlated to macroseismic intensities on the Mercalli scale 3 but these correlations are associated with large uncertainty 4 See also seismic scale The peak horizontal acceleration PHA is the most commonly used type of ground acceleration in engineering applications It is often used within earthquake engineering including seismic building codes and it is commonly plotted on seismic hazard maps 5 In an earthquake damage to buildings and infrastructure is related more closely to ground motion of which PGA is a measure rather than the magnitude of the earthquake itself For moderate earthquakes PGA is a reasonably good determinant of damage in severe earthquakes damage is more often correlated with peak ground velocity 3 Contents 1 Geophysics 2 Seismic risk and engineering 3 Comparison of instrumental and felt intensity 3 1 Correlation with the Mercalli scale 3 2 Other intensity scales 4 PGA hazard risks worldwide 5 Notable earthquakes 6 See also 7 References 8 BibliographyGeophysics EditEarthquake energy is dispersed in waves from the hypocentre causing ground movement omnidirectionally but typically modelled horizontally in two directions and vertically PGA records the acceleration rate of change of speed of these movements while peak ground velocity is the greatest speed rate of movement reached by the ground and peak displacement is the distance moved 6 7 These values vary in different earthquakes and in differing sites within one earthquake event depending on a number of factors These include the length of the fault magnitude the depth of the quake the distance from the epicentre the duration length of the shake cycle and the geology of the ground subsurface Shallow focused earthquakes generate stronger shaking acceleration than intermediate and deep quakes since the energy is released closer to the surface 8 Peak ground acceleration can be expressed in fractions of g the standard acceleration due to Earth s gravity equivalent to g force as either a decimal or percentage in m s2 1 g 9 81 m s2 6 or in multiples of Gal where 1 Gal is equal to 0 01 m s2 1 g 981 Gal The ground type can significantly influence ground acceleration so PGA values can display extreme variability over distances of a few kilometers particularly with moderate to large earthquakes 9 The varying PGA results from an earthquake can be displayed on a shake map 10 Due to the complex conditions affecting PGA earthquakes of similar magnitude can offer disparate results with many moderate magnitude earthquakes generating significantly larger PGA values than larger magnitude quakes During an earthquake ground acceleration is measured in three directions vertically V or UD for up down and two perpendicular horizontal directions H1 and H2 often north south NS and east west EW The peak acceleration in each of these directions is recorded with the highest individual value often reported Alternatively a combined value for a given station can be noted The peak horizontal ground acceleration PHA or PHGA can be reached by selecting the higher individual recording taking the mean of the two values or calculating a vector sum of the two components A three component value can also be reached by taking the vertical component into consideration also In seismic engineering the effective peak acceleration EPA the maximum ground acceleration to which a building responds is often used which tends to be the PGA citation needed Seismic risk and engineering EditStudy of geographic areas combined with an assessment of historical earthquakes allows geologists to determine seismic risk and to create seismic hazard maps which show the likely PGA values to be experienced in a region during an earthquake with a probability of exceedance PE Seismic engineers and government planning departments use these values to determine the appropriate earthquake loading for buildings in each zone with key identified structures such as hospitals bridges power plants needing to survive the maximum considered earthquake MCE Damage to buildings is related to both peak ground velocity PGV and the duration of the earthquake the longer high level shaking persists the greater the likelihood of damage Comparison of instrumental and felt intensity EditPeak ground acceleration provides a measurement of instrumental intensity that is ground shaking recorded by seismic instruments Other intensity scales measure felt intensity based on eyewitness reports felt shaking and observed damage There is correlation between these scales but not always absolute agreement since experiences and damage can be affected by many other factors including the quality of earthquake engineering Generally speaking 0 001 g 0 01 m s2 perceptible by people 0 02 g 0 2 m s2 people lose their balance 0 50 g 5 m s2 very high well designed buildings can survive if the duration is short 7 Correlation with the Mercalli scale Edit The United States Geological Survey developed an Instrumental Intensity scale which maps peak ground acceleration and peak ground velocity on an intensity scale similar to the felt Mercalli scale These values are used to create shake maps by seismologists around the world 3 InstrumentalIntensity Acceleration g Velocity cm s Perceived shaking Potential damageI lt 0 000464 lt 0 0215 Not felt NoneII III 0 000464 0 00297 0 135 1 41 Weak NoneIV 0 00297 0 0276 1 41 4 65 Light NoneV 0 0276 0 115 4 65 9 64 Moderate Very lightVI 0 115 0 215 9 64 20 Strong LightVII 0 215 0 401 20 41 4 Very strong ModerateVIII 0 401 0 747 41 4 85 8 Severe Moderate to heavyIX 0 747 1 39 85 8 178 Violent HeavyX gt 1 39 gt 178 Extreme Very heavyOther intensity scales Edit In the 7 class Japan Meteorological Agency seismic intensity scale the highest intensity Shindo 7 covers accelerations greater than 4 m s2 0 41 g PGA hazard risks worldwide EditIn India areas with expected PGA values higher than 0 36 g are classed as Zone 5 or Very High Damage Risk Zone Notable earthquakes EditPGA single direction max recorded PGA vector sum H1 H2 V max recorded Magnitude Mw Depth Fatalities Earthquake3 23 g 11 7 8 15 km 2 2016 Kaikoura earthquake2 7 g 12 2 99 g 13 14 9 1 15 30 km 16 19 759 17 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami4 36 g 18 6 9 8 km 12 2008 Iwate Miyagi Nairiku earthquake1 92 g 19 7 7 8 km 2 415 1999 Jiji earthquake1 82 g 20 6 7 18 km 21 57 1994 Northridge earthquake1 81 g 22 9 5 33 km 1 000 6000 1960 Valdivia earthquake1 62 g 23 7 8 10 km 57 658 2023 Turkey Syria earthquake1 51 g 24 25 6 2 26 5 km 185 February 2011 Christchurch earthquake1 26 g 27 28 7 1 10 km 0 2010 Canterbury earthquake1 25 g 29 6 6 8 4 km 58 65 1971 Sylmar earthquake1 04 g 30 6 6 10 km 11 2007 Chuetsu offshore earthquake0 98 g 31 7 0 16 1 km 118 2020 Aegean Sea earthquake0 91 g 6 9 17 6 km 5 502 6 434 1995 Great Hanshin earthquake0 8 g 32 7 2 12 km 222 2013 Bohol earthquake0 65 33 6 9 19 km 63 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake0 5 g 34 7 0 13 km 100 000 316 000 2010 Haiti earthquake0 34 g 35 6 4 15 km 5 778 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake0 18 g 36 9 2 25 km 131 1964 Alaska earthquakeSee also EditEarthquake simulation Japan Meteorological Agency seismic intensity scale Spectral accelerationReferences Edit Douglas J 2003 04 01 Earthquake ground motion estimation using strong motion records a review of equations for the estimation of peak ground acceleration and response spectral ordinates PDF Earth Science Reviews 61 1 2 43 104 Bibcode 2003ESRv 61 43D doi 10 1016 S0012 8252 02 00112 5 Nuclear Power Plants and Earthquakes Archived 2009 07 22 at the Wayback Machine accessed 8 April 2011 a b c ShakeMap Scientific Background Rapid Instrumental Intensity Maps Earthquake Hazards Program U S Geological Survey Archived from the original on 23 June 2011 Retrieved 22 March 2011 Cua G et al 2010 Best Practices for Using Macroseismic Intensity and Ground Motion Intensity Conversion Equations for Hazard and Loss Models in GEM1 PDF Global Earthquake Model Archived from the original PDF on 27 December 2015 Retrieved 11 November 2015 European Facilities for Earthquake Hazard amp Risk 2013 The 2013 European Seismic Hazard Model ESHM13 EFEHR Archived from the original on 27 December 2015 Retrieved 11 November 2015 a b Explanation of Parameters Geologic Hazards Science Center U S Geological Survey Archived from the original on 21 July 2011 Retrieved 22 March 2011 a b Lorant Gabor 17 June 2010 Seismic Design Principles Whole Building Design Guide National Institute of Building Sciences Retrieved 15 March 2011 Magnitude 6 6 Near the west coast of Honshu Japan Earthquake summary USGS 16 July 2001 Archived from the original on 14 March 2011 Retrieved 15 March 2011 ShakeMap scientific background Peak acceleration maps Earthquake Hazards Program U S Geological Survey Archived from the original on 23 June 2011 Retrieved 22 March 2011 ShakeMap Scientific Background Earthquake Hazards Program U S Geological Survey Archived from the original on 23 June 2011 Retrieved 22 March 2011 Goto Hiroyuki Kaneko Yoshihiro Young John Avery Hamish Damiano Len 4 February 2019 Extreme Accelerations During Earthquakes Caused by Elastic Flapping Effect Scientific Reports 9 1 1117 Bibcode 2019NatSR 9 1117G doi 10 1038 s41598 018 37716 y PMC 6361895 PMID 30718810 Erol Kalkan Volkan Sevilgen 17 March 2011 March 11 2011 M9 0 Tohoku Japan Earthquake Preliminary results United States Geological Survey Archived from the original on 24 March 2011 Retrieved 22 March 2011 平成23年 2011年 東北地方太平洋沖地震による強震動 About strong ground motion caused by the 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku Earthquake Kyoshin Bosai Retrieved 10 November 2021 2011 Off the Pacific Coast of Tohoku earthquake Strong Ground Motion PDF National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention Archived from the original PDF on 24 March 2011 Retrieved 18 March 2011 M 9 1 2011 Great Tohoku Earthquake Japan Origin USGS Retrieved 10 November 2021 Archived copy of USGS Magnitude 7 and Greater Earthquakes in 2011 Archived from the original on 13 April 2016 Retrieved 8 September 2017 平成23年 2011年 東北地方太平洋沖地震 東日本大震災 について 第162報 令和4年3月8日 Press release no 162 of the 2011 Tohuku earthquake PDF 総務省消防庁災害対策本部 Fire and Disaster Management Agency Archived from the original PDF on 2022 08 24 Retrieved 2022 09 23 Page 31 of the PDF file Masumi Yamada et al July August 2010 Spatially Dense Velocity Structure Exploration in the Source Region of the Iwate Miyagi Nairiku Earthquake Seismological Research Letters v 81 no 4 Seismological Society of America pp 597 604 Retrieved 21 March 2011 M 7 7 21 km S of Puli Taiwan USGS Retrieved 10 November 2021 Yegian M K Ghahraman Gazetas G Dakoulas P Makris N April 1995 The Northridge Earthquake of 1994 Ground Motions and Geotechnical Aspects PDF Third International Conference on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics Northeastern University College of Engineering p 1384 Archived from the original PDF on 10 November 2021 Retrieved 7 April 2021 M 6 7 1km NNW of Reseda CA USGS Retrieved 10 November 2021 M 9 5 1960 Great Chilean Earthquake Valdivia Earthquake USGS Retrieved 10 November 2021 M 7 8 Pazarcik earthquake Kahramanmaras earthquake sequence web archive org Retrieved 2023 04 07 Feb 22 2011 Christchurch badly damaged by magnitude 6 3 earthquake Geonet GNS Science 23 February 2011 Archived from the original on 4 March 2011 Retrieved 24 February 2011 PGA intensity map Geonet GNS Science Archived from the original on 31 May 2012 Retrieved 24 February 2011 New Zealand Earthquake Report Feb 22 2011 at 12 51 pm NZDT Geonet GNS Science 22 February 2011 Archived from the original on 25 February 2011 Retrieved 24 February 2011 Carter Hamish 24 February 2011 Technically it s just an aftershock New Zealand Herald APN Holdings Retrieved 24 February 2011 M 7 1 Darfield Canterbury September 4 2010 GeoNet GNS Science Archived from the original on 2 March 2011 Retrieved 7 March 2011 Cloud amp Hudson 1975 pp 278 287harvnb error no target CITEREFCloudHudson1975 help Katsuhiko Ishibashi 11 August 2001 Why Worry Japan s Nuclear Plants at Grave Risk From Quake Damage Japan Focus Asia Pacific Journal Retrieved 15 March 2011 Mauricio Morales Oguz C Celik EERI PERW 2021 Part 1 Aegean Sea Earthquake slc eeri org Earthquake Engineering Research Institute Retrieved 12 October 2021 The Mw7 2 15 October 2013 Bohol Philippines Earthquake PDF Emi megacities org Clough G W Martin J R Chameau J L II 1994 The geotechnical aspects Practical lessons from the Loma Prieta earthquake National Academies Press pp 29 46 ISBN 978 0309050302 Lin Rong Gong Allen Sam 26 February 2011 New Zealand quake raises questions about L A buildings Los Angeles Times Retrieved 27 February 2011 Elnashai et al 2006 p 18harvnb error no target CITEREFElnashaiJig KimJin YunSidarta2006 help National Research Council U S Committee on the Alaska Earthquake The great Alaska earthquake of 1964 Volume 1 Part 1 National Academies 1968 p 285Bibliography EditMurphy J R o brien 1977 The correlation of peak ground acceleration amplitude with seismic intensity and other physical parameters Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 67 3 877 915 Bibcode 1977BuSSA 67 877M doi 10 1785 BSSA0670030877 S2CID 129134843 Campbell K W 1997 Empirical near source attenuation relationships for horizontal and vertical components of peak ground acceleration peak ground velocity and pseudo absolute acceleration response spectra Seismological Research Letters 68 154 179 doi 10 1785 gssrl 68 1 154 Campbell K W Y Bozorgnia 2003 Updated near source ground motion attenuation relations for the horizontal and vertical components of peak ground acceleration and acceleration response spectra PDF Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 93 1 314 331 Bibcode 2003BuSSA 93 314C doi 10 1785 0120020029 Wald D J V Quitoriano T H Heaton H Kanamori 1999 Relationships between peak ground acceleration peak ground velocity and modified Mercalli intensity in California Earthquake Spectra 15 3 557 doi 10 1193 1 1586058 S2CID 110698014 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Peak ground acceleration amp oldid 1148595268, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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