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Wikipedia

Plastic

March 22, 2023

For other uses, see Plastic (disambiguation).

Plastics are a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic materials that use polymers as a main ingredient. Their plasticity makes it possible for plastics to be moulded, extruded or pressed into solid objects of various shapes. This adaptability, plus a wide range of other properties, such as being lightweight, durable, flexible, and inexpensive to produce, has led to its widespread use. Plastics typically are made through human industrial systems. Most modern plastics are derived from fossil fuel-based chemicals like natural gas or petroleum; however, recent industrial methods use variants made from renewable materials, such as corn or cotton derivatives.[1]

Household items made of various types of plastic

9.2 billion tonnes of plastic are estimated to have been made between 1950 and 2017. More than half this plastic has been produced since 2004. In 2020, 400 million tonnes of plastic were produced.[2] If global trends on plastic demand continue, it is estimated that by 2050 annual global plastic production will reach over 1,100 million tonnes.

The success and dominance of plastics starting in the early 20th century has caused widespread environmental problems,[3] due to their slow decomposition rate in natural ecosystems. Most plastic produced has not been reused, either being captured in landfills or persisting in the environment as plastic pollution. Plastic pollution can be found in all the world's major water bodies, for example, creating garbage patches in all of the world's oceans and contaminating terrestrial ecosystems. Of all the plastic discarded so far, some 14% has been incinerated and less than 10% has been recycled.[2]

In developed economies, about a third of plastic is used in packaging and roughly the same in buildings in applications such as piping, plumbing or vinyl siding.[4] Other uses include automobiles (up to 20% plastic[4]), furniture, and toys.[4] In the developing world, the applications of plastic may differ; 42% of India's consumption is used in packaging.[4] In the medical field, polymer implants and other medical devices are derived at least partially from plastic. Worldwide, about 50 kg of plastic is produced annually per person, with production doubling every ten years.

The world's first fully synthetic plastic was Bakelite, invented in New York in 1907, by Leo Baekeland,[5] who coined the term "plastics".[6] Dozens of different types of plastics are produced today, such as polyethylene, which is widely used in product packaging, and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), used in construction and pipes because of its strength and durability. Many chemists have contributed to the materials science of plastics, including Nobel laureate Hermann Staudinger, who has been called "the father of polymer chemistry" and Herman Mark, known as "the father of polymer physics".[7]

Etymology

The word plastic derives from the Greek πλαστικός (plastikos) meaning "capable of being shaped or molded," and in turn from πλαστός (plastos) meaning "molded."[8] As a noun the word most commonly refers to the solid products of petrochemical-derived manufacturing.[9]

The noun plasticity refers specifically here to the deformability of the materials used in the manufacture of plastics. Plasticity allows molding, extrusion or compression into a variety of shapes: films, fibers, plates, tubes, bottles and boxes, among many others. Plasticity also has a technical definition in materials science outside the scope of this article referring to the non-reversible change in form of solid substances.

Structure

See also: Polymer

Most plastics contain organic polymers.[10] The vast majority of these polymers are formed from chains of carbon atoms, with or without the attachment of oxygen, nitrogen or sulfur atoms. These chains comprise many repeating units formed from monomers. Each polymer chain consists of several thousand repeating units. The backbone is the part of the chain that is on the main path, linking together a large number of repeat units. To customize the properties of a plastic, different molecular groups called side chains hang from this backbone; they are usually hung from the monomers before the monomers themselves are linked together to form the polymer chain. The structure of these side chains influences the properties of the polymer.

Properties and classifications

Plastics are usually classified by the chemical structure of the polymer's backbone and side chains. Important groups classified in this way include the acrylics, polyesters, silicones, polyurethanes, and halogenated plastics. Plastics can be classified by the chemical process used in their synthesis, such as condensation, polyaddition, and cross-linking.[11] They can also be classified by their physical properties, including hardness, density, tensile strength, thermal resistance, and glass transition temperature. Plastics can additionally be classified by their resistance and reactions to various substances and processes, such as exposure to organic solvents, oxidation, and ionizing radiation.[12] Other classifications of plastics are based on qualities relevant to manufacturing or product design for a particular purpose. Examples include thermoplastics, thermosets, conductive polymers, biodegradable plastics, engineering plastics and elastomers.

Thermoplastics and thermosetting polymers

 
This plastic handle from a kitchen utensil has been deformed by heat and partially melted

One important classification of plastics is the degree to which the chemical processes used to make them are reversible or not.

Thermoplastics do not undergo chemical change in their composition when heated and thus can be molded repeatedly. Examples include polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC).[13]

Thermosets, or thermosetting polymers, can melt and take shape only once: after they have solidified, they stay solid.[14] If reheated, thermosets decompose rather than melt. In the thermosetting process, an irreversible chemical reaction occurs. The vulcanization of rubber is an example of this process. Before heating in the presence of sulfur, natural rubber (polyisoprene) is a sticky, slightly runny material; after vulcanization, the product is dry and rigid.

Amorphous plastics and crystalline plastics

Many plastics are completely amorphous (without a highly ordered molecular structure),[15] including thermosets, polystyrene, and methyl methacrylate (PMMA). Crystalline plastics exhibit a pattern of more regularly spaced atoms, such as high-density polyethylene (HDPE), polybutylene terephthalate (PBT), and polyether ether ketone (PEEK). However, some plastics are partially amorphous and partially crystalline in molecular structure, giving them both a melting point and one or more glass transitions (the temperature above which the extent of localized molecular flexibility is substantially increased). These so-called semi-crystalline plastics include polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, polyamides (nylons), polyesters and some polyurethanes.

Conductive polymers

Main article: Conductive polymer

Intrinsically Conducting Polymers (ICP) are organic polymers that conduct electricity. While a conductivity of up to 80 kS/cm in stretch-oriented polyacetylene,[16] has been achieved, it does not approach that of most metals. For example, copper has a conductivity of several hundred kS/cm.[17]

Biodegradable plastics and bioplastics

Biodegradable plastics

Main article: Biodegradable plastic

Biodegradable plastics are plastics that degrade (break down) upon exposure to sunlight or ultra-violet radiation; water or dampness; bacteria; enzymes; or wind abrasion. Attack by insects, such as waxworms and mealworms, can also be considered as forms of biodegradation. Aerobic degradation requires that the plastic be exposed at the surface, whereas anaerobic degradation would be effective in landfill or composting systems. Some companies produce biodegradable additives to enhance biodegradation. Although starch powder can be added as a filler to allow some plastics to degrade more easily, such treatment does not lead to complete breakdown. Some researchers have genetically engineered bacteria to synthesize completely biodegradable plastics, such as polyhydroxy butyrate (PHB); however, these are relatively costly as of 2021.[18]

Bioplastics

Main article: Bioplastic

While most plastics are produced from petrochemicals, bioplastics are made substantially from renewable plant materials like cellulose and starch.[19] Due both to the finite limits of fossil fuel reserves and to rising levels of greenhouse gases caused primarily by the burning of those fuels, the development of bioplastics is a growing field.[20][21] Global production capacity for bio-based plastics is estimated at 327,000 tonnes per year. In contrast, global production of polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP), the world's leading petrochemical-derived polyolefins, was estimated at over 150 million tonnes in 2015.[22]

Plastic industry

The plastic industry includes the global production, compounding, conversion and sale of plastic products. Although the Middle East and Russia produce most of the required petrochemical raw materials; the production of plastic is concentrated in the global East and West. The plastic industry comprises a huge number of companies and can be divided into several sectors:

Production

9.2 billion tonnes of plastic are estimated to have been made between 1950 and 2017, with more than half this having been produced since 2004. Since the birth of the plastic industry in the 1950s, global production has increased enormously, reaching 400 million tonnes a year in 2021 up from 381 million metric tonnes in 2015 (excluding additives).[2][23] From the 1950s rapid growth occurred in the use of plastics for packaging, in building and construction, and in other sectors.[2] If global trends on plastic demand continue, it is estimated that by 2050 annual global plastic production will exceed 1.1 billion tonnes annually.[2]

Polypropylene plants
 
A Slovnaft facility in Bratislava, Slovakia
 
A SOCAR Polymer polypropylene plant in Sumgayit, Azerbaijan
Annual global plastic production 1950–2015.[23] Vertical lines denote the 1973–1975 recession and the financial crisis of 2007–2008 which caused brief lowering of plastic production.

Plastics are produced in chemical plants by the polymerization of their starting materials (monomers); which are almost always petrochemical in nature. Such facilities are normally large and are visually similar to oil refineries, with sprawling pipework running throughout. The large size of these plants allows them to exploit economies of scale. Despite this, plastic production is not particularly monopolized, with about 100 companies accounting for 90% of global production.[24] This includes a mixture of private and state-owned enterprises. Roughly half of all production takes place in East Asia, with China being the largest single producer. Major international producers include:

Global plastic production (2020)[25]
Region Global production
China 31%
Japan 3%
Rest of Asia 17%
NAFTA 19%
Latin America 4%
Europe 16%
CIS 3%
Middle East & Africa 7%

Historically, Europe and North America have dominated global plastics production. However, since 2010 Asia has emerged as a significant producer, with China accounting for 31% of total plastic resin production in 2020.[25] Regional differences in the volume of plastics production are driven by user demand, the price of fossil fuel feedstocks, and investments made in the petrochemical industry. For example, since 2010 over US$200 billion has been invested in the United States in new plastic and chemical plants, stimulated by the low cost of raw materials. In the European Union (EU), too, heavy investments have been made in the plastics industry, which employs over 1.6 million people with a turnover of more than 360 billion euros per year. In China in 2016 there were over 15,000 plastic manufacturing companies, generating more than US$366 billion in revenue.[2]

In 2017 the global plastics market was dominated by thermoplastics– polymers that can be melted and recast. Thermoplastics include polyethylene (PE), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polypropylene (PP), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polystyrene (PS) and synthetic fibres, which together represent 86% of all plastics.[2]

Compounding

 
Plastic compounding scheme for a thermosoftening material

Plastic is not sold as a pure unadulterated substance, but is instead mixed with various chemicals and other materials, which are collectively known as additives. These are added during the compounding stage and include substances such as stabilizers, plasticizers and dyes, which are intended to improve the lifespan, workability or appearance of the final item. In some cases, this can involve mixing different types of plastic together to form a polymer blend, such as high impact polystyrene. Large companies may do their own compounding prior to production, but some producers have it done by a third party. Companies that specialize in this work are known as Compounders.

The compounding of thermosetting plastic is relatively straightforward; as it remains liquid until it is cured into its final form. For thermosoftening materials, which are used to make the majority of products, it is necessary to melt the plastic in order to mix-in the additives. This involves heating it to anywhere between 150–320 °C (300–610 °F). Molten plastic is viscous and exhibits laminar flow, leading to poor mixing. Compounding is therefore done using extrusion equipment, which is able to supply the necessary heat and mixing to give a properly dispersed product.

The concentrations of most additives are usually quite low, however high levels can be added to create Masterbatch products. The additives in these are concentrated but still properly dispersed in the host resin. Masterbatch granules can be mixed with cheaper bulk polymer and will release their additives during processing to give a homogeneous final product. This can be cheaper than working with a fully compounded material and is particularly common for the introduction of colour.

Converting

Short video on injection molding (9 min 37 s)
 
Blow molding a plastic drinks bottle

Companies that produce finished goods are known as converters (sometimes processors). The vast majority of plastics produced worldwide are thermosoftening and must be heated until molten in order to be molded. Various sorts of extrusion equipment exist which can then form the plastic into almost any shape.

For thermosetting materials the process is slightly different, as the plastics are liquid to begin with and but must be cured to give solid products, but much of the equipment is broadly similar.

The most commonly produced plastic consumer products include packaging made from LDPE (e.g. bags, containers, food packaging film), containers made from HDPE (e.g. milk bottles, shampoo bottles, ice cream tubs), and PET (e.g. bottles for water and other drinks). Together these products account for around 36% of plastics use in the world. Most of them (e.g. disposable cups, plates, cutlery, takeaway containers, carrier bags) are used for only a short period, many for less than a day. The use of plastics in building and construction, textiles, transportation and electrical equipment also accounts for a substantial share of the plastics market. Plastic items used for such purposes generally have longer life spans. They may be in use for periods ranging from around five years (e.g. textiles and electrical equipment) to more than 20 years (e.g. construction materials, industrial machinery).[2]

Plastic consumption differs among countries and communities, with some form of plastic having made its way into most people's lives. North America (i.e. the North American Free Trade Agreement or NAFTA region) accounts for 21% of global plastic consumption, closely followed by China (20%) and Western Europe (18%). In North America and Europe there is high per capita plastic consumption (94 kg and 85 kg/capita/year, respectively). In China there is lower per capita consumption (58 kg/capita/year), but high consumption nationally because of its large population.[2]

Types of plastics

Commodity plastics

 
Chemical structures and uses of some common plastics

Around 70% of global production is concentrated in six major polymer types, the so-called commodity plastics. Unlike most other plastics these can often be identified by their resin identification code (RIC):

  Polyethylene terephthalate (PET or PETE)
  High-density polyethylene (HDPE or PE-HD)
  Polyvinyl chloride (PVC or V)
  Low-density polyethylene (LDPE or PE-LD),
  Polypropylene (PP)
  Polystyrene (PS)

Polyurethanes (PUR) and PP&A fibres[26] are often also included as major commodity classes, although they usually lack RICs, as they are chemically quite diverse groups. These materials are inexpensive, versatile and easy to work with, making them the preferred choice for the mass production everyday objects. Their biggest single application is in packaging, with some 146 million tonnes being used this way in 2015, equivalent to 36% of global production. Due to their dominance; many of the properties and problems commonly associated with plastics, such as pollution stemming from their poor biodegradability, are ultimately attributable to commodity plastics.

A huge number of plastics exist beyond the commodity plastics, with many having exceptional properties.

Global plastic production by polymer type (2015)[23]
Polymer Production (Mt) Percentage of all plastics Polymer type Thermal character
Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) 64 15.7% Polyolefin Thermoplastic
High-density polyethylene (HDPE) 52 12.8% Polyolefin Thermoplastic
polypropylene (PP) 68 16.7% Polyolefin Thermoplastic
Polystyrene (PS) 25 6.1% Unsaturated polyolefin Thermoplastic
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) 38 9.3% Halogenated Thermoplastic
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) 33 8.1% Condensation Thermoplastic
Polyurethane (PUR) 27 6.6% Condensation Thermoset[27]
PP&A Fibers[26] 59 14.5% Condensation Thermoplastic
All Others 16 3.9% Various Varies
Additives 25 6.1% - -
Total 407 100% - -

Engineering plastics

Engineering plastics are more robust and are used to make products such as vehicle parts, building and construction materials, and some machine parts. In some cases they are polymer blends formed by mixing different plastics together (ABS, HIPS etc.). Engineering plastics can replace metals in vehicles, lowering their weight and improving fuel efficiency by 6–8%. Roughly 50% of the volume of modern cars is made of plastic, but this only accounts for 12–17% of the vehicle weight.[28]

  • Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS): electronic equipment cases (e.g. computer monitors, printers, keyboards) and drainage pipe
  • High impact polystyrene (HIPS): refrigerator liners, food packaging and vending cups
  • Polycarbonate (PC): compact discs, eyeglasses, riot shields, security windows, traffic lights, and lenses
  • Polycarbonate + acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (PC + ABS): a blend of PC and ABS that creates a stronger plastic used in car interior and exterior parts, and in mobile phone bodies
  • Polyethylene + acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (PE + ABS): a slippery blend of PE and ABS used in low-duty dry bearings
  • Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) (acrylic): contact lenses (of the original "hard" variety), glazing (best known in this form by its various trade names around the world; e.g. Perspex, Plexiglas, and Oroglas), fluorescent-light diffusers, and rear light covers for vehicles. It also forms the basis of artistic and commercial acrylic paints, when suspended in water with the use of other agents.
  • Silicones (polysiloxanes): heat-resistant resins used mainly as sealants but also used for high-temperature cooking utensils and as a base resin for industrial paints
  • Urea-formaldehyde (UF): one of the aminoplasts used as a multi-colorable alternative to phenolics: used as a wood adhesive (for plywood, chipboard, hardboard) and electrical switch housings

High-performance plastics

High-performance plastics are usually expensive, with their use limited to specialised applications which make use of their superior properties.

  • Aramids: best known for their use in making body armor, this class of heat-resistant and strong synthetic fibers are also used in aerospace and military applications, includes Kevlar and Nomex, and Twaron.
  • Ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylenes
  • Polyetheretherketone (PEEK): strong, chemical- and heat-resistant thermoplastic; its biocompatibility allows for use in medical implant applications and aerospace moldings. It is one of the most expensive commercial polymers.
  • Polyetherimide (PEI) (Ultem): a high-temperature, chemically stable polymer that does not crystallize
  • Polyimide: a high-temperature plastic used in materials such as Kapton tape
  • Polysulfone: high-temperature melt-processable resin used in membranes, filtration media, water heater dip tubes and other high-temperature applications
  • Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), or Teflon: heat-resistant, low-friction coatings used in non-stick surfaces for frying pans, plumber's tape and water slides
  • Polyamide-imide (PAI): High-performance engineering plastic extensively used in high performance gears, switches, transmission and other automotive components, and aerospace parts.[29]

Gallery

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    PET water bottle

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    High density polythene (HDPE) is used for making sturdy containers; Transparent ones may be made of PET

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    Disposable suits; nonwoven HDPE fabric

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    Plastic mailing envelopes (hdpe)

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    Clear plastic bags (shown) are made of low density polythene (LDPE); blown-film shopping bags with handles are now made of HDPE

  •  

    A Ziploc bag made from LDPE

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    Food wrap (ldpe)

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    Metalised polypropylene film is a commonly used snack pack material[30]

  •  

    Kinder Joy shell made of polypropylene

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    A polypropylene chair

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    Stools of hdpe

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    Expanded polystyrene foam ("Thermocol")

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    Extruded polystyrene foam ("Styrofoam")

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    Thermocol take-away food container

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    Egg tray (PETE)

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    A piece of packaging foam made from LDPE

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    A kitchen sponge made of polyurethane foam

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    Non-stick cookware with Teflon coating

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    iPhone 5c, a smartphone with a polycarbonate unibody shell

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    10m deep Monterey Bay Aquarium tank has acrylic windows up to 33 cm thick to withstand the water pressure

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    PVC pipes

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    PVC blister pack

Applications

The largest application for plastics is as packaging materials, but they are used in a wide range of other sectors, including: construction (pipes, gutters, door and windows), textiles (stretchable fabrics, fleece), consumer goods (toys, tableware, toothbrushes), transportation (headlights, bumpers, body panels, wing mirrors), electronics (phones, computers, televisions) and as machine parts.[23]



Additives

Additives are chemicals blended into plastics to change their performance or appearance, making it possible to alter the properties of plastics to better suit their intended applications.[31][32] Additives are therefore one of the reasons why plastic is used so widely.[33] Plastics are composed of chains of polymers. Many different chemicals are used as plastic additives. A randomly chosen plastic product generally contains around 20 additives. The identities and concentrations of additives are generally not listed on products.[2]

In the EU, over 400 additives are used in high volumes.[34][2] 5500 additives were found in a global market analysis.[35] At a minimum all plastic contains some polymer stabilisers which permit them to be melt-processed (moulded) without suffering polymer degradation. Other additives are optional and can be added as required, with loadings varying significantly between applications. The amount of additives contained in plastics varies depending on the additives’ function. For example, additives in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) can constitute up to 80% of the total volume.[2] Pure unadulterated plastic (barefoot resin) is never sold, even by the primary producers.

Leaching

Additives may be weakly bound to the polymers or react in the polymer matrix. Although additives are blended into plastic they remain chemically distinct from it, and can gradually leach back out during normal use, when in landfills, or following improper disposal in the environment.[36] Additives may also degrade to form other toxic molecules. Plastic fragmentation into microplastics and nanoplastics can allow chemical additives to move in the environment far from the point of use. Once released, some additives and derivatives may persist in the environment and bioaccumulate in organisms. They can have adverse effects on human health and biota. A recent review by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) revealed that out of 3,377 chemicals potentially associated with plastic packaging and 906 likely associated with it, 68 were ranked by ECHA as "highest for human health hazards" and 68 as "highest for environmental hazards".[2]

Recycling

Main article: Plastic recycling

As additives change the properties of plastics they have to be considered during recycling. Presently, almost all recycling is performed by simply remelting and reforming used plastic into new items. Additives present risks in recycled products, as they are difficult to remove. When plastic products are recycled, it is highly likely that the additives will be integrated into the new products. Waste plastic, even if it is all of the same polymer type, will contain varying types and amounts of additives. Mixing these together can give a material with inconsistent properties, which can be unappealing to industry. For example, mixing different coloured plastics with different plastic colorants together can produce a discoloured or brown material and for this reason plastic is usually sorted by both polymer type and color before recycling.[2]

Absence of transparency and reporting across the value chain often results in lack of knowledge concerning the chemical profile of the final products. For example, products containing brominated flame retardants have been incorporated into new plastic products. Flame retardants are a group of chemicals used in electronic and electrical equipment, textiles, furniture and construction materials which should not be present in food packaging or child care products. A recent study found brominated dioxins as unintentional contaminants in toys made from recycled plastic electronic waste that contained brominated flame retardants. Brominated dioxins have been found to exhibit toxicity similar to that of chlorinated dioxins. They can have negative developmental effects and negative effects on the nervous system and interfere with mechanisms of the endocrine system.[2]

Health effects

Many of the controversies associated with plastics actually relate to their additives, as some compounds can be persistent, bioaccumulating and potentially harmful.[37][38][31] The now banned flame retardants OctaBDE and PentaBDE are an example of this, while the health effects of phthalates are an ongoing area of public concern. Additives can also be problematic if waste is burned, especially when burning is uncontrolled or takes place in low- technology incinerators, as is common in many developing countries. Incomplete combustion can cause emissions of hazardous substances such as acid gases and ash which can contain persistent organic pollutants (POPs) such as dioxins.[2]

A number of additives identified as hazardous to humans and/or the environment are regulated internationally. The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) is a global treaty to protect human health and the environment from chemicals that remain intact in the environment for long periods, become widely distributed geographically, accumulate in the fatty tissue of humans and wildlife, and have harmful impacts on human health or on the environment.[2]

Other additives proven to be harmful such as cadmium, chromium, lead and mercury (regulated under the Minamata Convention on Mercury), which have previously been used in plastic production, are banned in many jurisdictions. However they are still routinely found in some plastic packaging including food packaging. The use of the additive bisphenol A (BPA) in plastic baby bottles is banned in many parts of the world, but is not restricted in some low-income countries.[2]

In 2023, plasticosis, a new disease caused solely by plastics, was discovered in seabirds. The birds identified as having the disease have scarred digestive tracts from ingesting plastic waste.[39] ”When birds ingest small pieces of plastic, they found, it inflames the digestive tract. Over time, the persistent inflammation causes tissues to become scarred and disfigured, affecting digestion, growth and survival.”[40]

Types of additive

Additive type Typical concentration when present (%)[31] Description Example compounds Comment Share of global additive production (by weight)[23]
Plasticizers 10–70 Plastics can be brittle, adding some plasticizer makes them more durable, adding lots makes them flexible Phthalates are the dominant class, safer alternatives include adipate esters (DEHA, DOA) and citrate esters (ATBC and TEC) 80–90 % of world production is used in PVC, much of the rest is used in cellulose acetate. For most products loadings are between 10 and 35%, high loadings are used for plastisols 34%
Flame retardants 1–30 Being petrochemicals, most plastics burn readily, flame retardants can prevent this Brominated flame retardants, chlorinated paraffins Non-chlorinated organophosphates are ecologically safer, though often less efficient 13%
Heat stabilizers 0.3-5 Prevents heat related degradation Traditionally derivatives of lead, cadmium & tin. Safer modern alternatives include barium/zinc mixtures and calcium stearate, along with various synergists Almost exclusively used in PVC. 5%
Fillers 0–50 Changes appearance and mechanical properties, can lower price Calcium carbonate "chalk", talc, glass beads, carbon black. Also reinforcing fillers like carbon-fiber Most opaque plastic contains fillers. High levels can also protect against UV rays. 28%
Impact modifiers 10–40 Improved toughness and resistance to damage[41] Typically some other elastomeric polymer, e.g. rubbers, styrene copolymers Chlorinated polyethylene is used for PVC 5%
Antioxidants 0.05–3 Protects against degradation during processing Phenols, phosphite esters, certain thioethers The most widely used type of additives, all plastics will contain polymer stabilisers of some sort 6%
Colorants 0.001-10 Imparts colour Numerous dyes or pigments 2%
Lubricants 0.1-3 Assists in molding the plastic, includes processing aids (or flow aids), release agents, slip additives Paraffin wax, wax esters, metal stearates (i.e. zinc stearate), long-chain fatty acid amides (oleamide, erucamide) 2%
Light stabilizers 0.05–3 Protects against UV damage HALS, UV blockers and quenchers Normally only used for items itended for outdoor use 1%
Other Various Antimicrobials, antistatics, blowing agents, nucleating agents 4%

Toxicity

Pure plastics have low toxicity due to their insolubility in water, and because they have a large molecular weight, they are biochemically inert. Plastic products contain a variety of additives, however, some of which can be toxic.[42] For example, plasticizers like adipates and phthalates are often added to brittle plastics like PVC to make them pliable enough for use in food packaging, toys, and many other items. Traces of these compounds can leach out of the product. Owing to concerns over the effects of such leachates, the EU has restricted the use of DEHP (di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate) and other phthalates in some applications, and the US has limited the use of DEHP, DPB, BBP, DINP, DIDP, and DnOP in children's toys and child-care articles through the Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act. Some compounds leaching from polystyrene food containers have been proposed to interfere with hormone functions and are suspected human carcinogens (cancer-causing substances).[43] Other chemicals of potential concern include alkylphenols.[38]

While a finished plastic may be non-toxic, the monomers used in the manufacture of its parent polymers may be toxic. In some cases, small amounts of those chemicals can remain trapped in the product unless suitable processing is employed. For example, the World Health Organization's International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has recognized vinyl chloride, the precursor to PVC, as a human carcinogen.[43]

Bisphenol A (BPA)

See also: Health effects of Bisphenol A

Some plastic products degrade to chemicals with estrogenic activity.[44] The primary building block of polycarbonates, bisphenol A (BPA), is an estrogen-like endocrine disruptor that may leach into food.[43] Research in Environmental Health Perspectives finds that BPA leached from the lining of tin cans, dental sealants and polycarbonate bottles can increase the body weight of lab animals' offspring.[45] A more recent animal study suggests that even low-level exposure to BPA results in insulin resistance, which can lead to inflammation and heart disease.[46] As of January 2010, the Los Angeles Times reported that the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is spending $30 million to investigate indications of BPA's link to cancer.[47] Bis(2-ethylhexyl) adipate, present in plastic wrap based on PVC, is also of concern, as are the volatile organic compounds present in new car smell. The EU has a permanent ban on the use of phthalates in toys. In 2009, the US government banned certain types of phthalates commonly used in plastic.[48]

Environmental effects

 
A communication campaign infographic showing that there will be more plastic in the oceans than fish by 2050
See also: Plastic pollution, Marine debris, and Great Pacific garbage patch

Because the chemical structure of most plastics renders them durable, they are resistant to many natural degradation processes. Much of this material may persist for centuries or longer, given the demonstrated persistence of structurally similar natural materials such as amber.

There are differing estimates of how much plastic waste has been produced in the last century. By one estimate, one billion tons of plastic waste have been discarded since the 1950s.[49] Others estimate a cumulative human production of 8.3 billion tons of plastic, of which 6.3 billion tons is waste, with only 9% getting recycled.[50]

It is estimated that this waste is made up of 81% polymer resin, 13% polymer fibres and 32% additives. In 2018 more than 343 million tonnes of plastic waste were generated, 90% of which was composed of post-consumer plastic waste (industrial, agricultural, commercial and municipal plastic waste). The rest was pre-consumer waste from resin production and manufacturing of plastic products (e.g. materials rejected due to unsuitable colour, hardness, or processing characteristics).[2]

The Ocean Conservancy reported that China, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam dump more plastic into the sea than all other countries combined.[51] The rivers Yangtze, Indus, Yellow, Hai, Nile, Ganges, Pearl, Amur, Niger, and Mekong "transport 88% to 95% of the global [plastics] load into the sea."[52][53][verify quote punctuation]

The presence of plastics, particularly microplastics, within the food chain is increasing. In the 1960s microplastics were observed in the guts of seabirds, and since then have been found in increasing concentrations.[54] The long-term effects of plastics in the food chain are poorly understood. In 2009 it was estimated that 10% of modern waste was plastic,[55] although estimates vary according to region.[54] Meanwhile, 50% to 80% of debris in marine areas is plastic.[54] Plastic is often used in agriculture. There is more plastic in the soil that in the oceans. The presence of plastic in the environment hurt ecosystems and human health.[56]

Research on the environmental impacts has typically focused on the disposal phase. However, the production of plastics is also responsible for substantial environmental, health and socioeconomic impacts.[57]

Prior to the Montreal Protocol, CFCs had been commonly used in the manufacture of the plastic polystyrene, the production of which had contributed to depletion of the ozone layer.

Efforts to minimize environmental impact of plastics may include lowering of plastics production and use, waste- and recycling-policies, and the proactive development and deployment of alternatives to plastics such as for sustainable packaging.

Microplastics

This section is an excerpt from Microplastics.[edit]
 
Microplastics in sediments from four rivers in Germany. Note the diverse shapes indicated by white arrowheads. (The white bars represent 1 mm for scale.)
Photodegraded Plastic Straw. A light touch breaks larger straw into microplastics.

Microplastics are fragments of any type of plastic less than 5 mm (0.20 in) in length, according to the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)[58][59] and the European Chemicals Agency.[60] They cause pollution by entering natural ecosystems from a variety of sources, including cosmetics, clothing, food packaging, and industrial processes.

The term macroplastics is used to differentiate microplastics from larger plastic waste, such as plastic bottles. Two classifications of microplastics are currently recognized. Primary microplastics include any plastic fragments or particles that are already 5.0 mm in size or less before entering the environment. These include microfibers from clothing, microbeads, and plastic pellets (also known as nurdles).[61][62][63] Secondary microplastics arise from the degradation (breakdown) of larger plastic products through natural weathering processes after entering the environment. Such sources of secondary microplastics include water and soda bottles, fishing nets, plastic bags, microwave containers, tea bags and tire wear.[64][63][65][66] Both types are recognized to persist in the environment at high levels, particularly in aquatic and marine ecosystems, where they cause water pollution.[67] 35% of all ocean microplastics come from textiles/clothing, primarily due to the erosion of polyester, acrylic, or nylon-based clothing, often during the washing process.[68] However, microplastics also accumulate in the air and terrestrial ecosystems.

Because plastics degrade slowly (often over hundreds to thousands of years),[69][70] microplastics have a high probability of ingestion, incorporation into, and accumulation in the bodies and tissues of many organisms. The toxic chemicals that come from both the ocean and runoff can also biomagnify up the food chain.[71][72] In terrestrial ecosystems, microplastics have been demonstrated to reduce the viability of soil ecosystems and reduce weight of earthworms.[73][74] The cycle and movement of microplastics in the environment are not fully known, but research is currently underway to investigate the phenomenon. Deep layer ocean sediment surveys in China (2020) show the presence of plastics in deposition layers far older than the invention of plastics, leading to suspected underestimation of microplastics in surface sample ocean surveys.[75] Microplastics have also been found in the high mountains, at great distances from their source.[76]

Microplastics have also been found in human blood, though their effects are largely unknown.[77][78]

Decomposition of plastics

Main article: Polymer degradation

Plastics degrade by a variety of processes, the most significant of which is usually photo-oxidation. Their chemical structure determines their fate. Polymers' marine degradation takes much longer as a result of the saline environment and cooling effect of the sea, contributing to the persistence of plastic debris in certain environments.[54] Recent studies have shown, however, that plastics in the ocean decompose faster than had been previously thought, due to exposure to the sun, rain, and other environmental conditions, resulting in the release of toxic chemicals such as bisphenol A. However, due to the increased volume of plastics in the ocean, decomposition has slowed down.[79] The Marine Conservancy has predicted the decomposition rates of several plastic products: It is estimated that a foam plastic cup will take 50 years, a plastic beverage holder will take 400 years, a disposable diaper will take 450 years, and fishing line will take 600 years to degrade.[80]

Microbial species capable of degrading plastics are known to science, some of which are potentially useful for disposal of certain classes of plastic waste.

  • In 1975, a team of Japanese scientists studying ponds containing waste water from a nylon factory discovered a strain of Flavobacterium that digests certain byproducts of nylon 6 manufacture, such as the linear dimer of 6-aminohexanoate.[81] Nylon 4 (polybutyrolactam) can be degraded by the ND-10 and ND-11 strands of Pseudomonas sp. found in sludge, resulting in GABA (γ-aminobutyric acid) as a byproduct.[82]
  • Several species of soil fungi can consume polyurethane,[83] including two species of the Ecuadorian fungus Pestalotiopsis. They can consume polyurethane both aerobically and anaerobically (such as at the bottom of landfills).[84]
  • Methanogenic microbial consortia degrade styrene, using it as a carbon source.[85] Pseudomonas putida can convert styrene oil into various biodegradable plastic|biodegradable polyhydroxyalkanoates.[86][87]
  • Microbial communities isolated from soil samples mixed with starch have been shown to be capable of degrading polypropylene.[88]
  • The fungus Aspergillus fumigatus effectively degrades plasticized PVC.[89]: 45–46  Phanerochaete chrysosporium has been grown on PVC in a mineral salt agar.[89]: 76 </ref> P. chrysosporium, Lentinus tigrinus, A. niger, and A. sydowii can also effectively degrade PVC.[89]: 122 
  • Phenol-formaldehyde, commonly known as Bakelite, is degraded by the white rot fungus P. chrysosporium.[90]
  • Acinetobacter has been found to partially degrade low-molecular-weight polyethylene oligomers.[82] When used in combination, Pseudomonas fluorescens and Sphingomonas can degrade over 40% of the weight of plastic bags in less than three months.[91] The thermophilic bacterium Brevibacillus borstelensis (strain 707) was isolated from a soil sample and found capable of using low-density polyethylene as a sole carbon source when incubated at 50 °C. Pre-exposure of the plastic to ultraviolet radiation broke chemical bonds and aided biodegradation; the longer the period of UV exposure, the greater the promotion of the degradation.[92]
  • Hazardous molds have been found aboard space stations that degrade rubber into a digestible form.[93]
  • Several species of yeasts, bacteria, algae and lichens have been found growing on synthetic polymer artifacts in museums and at archaeological sites.[94]
  • In the plastic-polluted waters of the Sargasso Sea, bacteria have been found that consume various types of plastic; however, it is unknown to what extent these bacteria effectively clean up poisons rather than simply release them into the marine microbial ecosystem.
  • Plastic-eating microbes also have been found in landfills.[95]
  • Nocardia can degrade PET with an esterase enzyme.[96]
  • The fungus Geotrichum candidum, found in Belize, has been found to consume the polycarbonate plastic found in CDs.[97][98]
  • Futuro houses are made of fiberglass-reinforced polyesters, polyester-polyurethane, and PMMA. One such house was found to be harmfully degraded by Cyanobacteria and Archaea.[99][100]
 
Manual material triage for recycling.

Recycling

This section is an excerpt from Plastic recycling.[edit]
Plastic recycling
 
 
 
 
Clockwise from top left:
  • Sorting plastic waste at a single-stream recycling centre
  • Baled colour-sorted used bottles
  • Recovered HDPE ready for recycling
  • A watering can made from recycled bottles

Plastic recycling is the processing of plastic waste into other products.[101][102][103] Recycling can reduce dependence on landfill, conserve resources and protect the environment from plastic pollution and greenhouse gas emissions.[104][105] Recycling rates lag those of other recoverable materials, such as aluminium, glass and paper. Through 2015, the world produced some 6.3 billion tonnes of plastic waste, only 9% of which has been recycled, and only ~1% has been recycled more than once.[106] Additionally, 12% was incinerated and the remaining 79% sent to landfill or to the environment including the ocean.[106]

Almost all plastic is not biodegradable and absent recyling, spreads across the environment[107][108] where it can cause harm. For example, as of 2015 approximately 8 million tons of waste plastic enter the oceans annually, damaging the ecosystem and forming ocean garbage patches.[109]

Almost all recycling is mechanical: melting and reforming plastic into other items. This can cause polymer degradation at a molecular level, and requires that waste be sorted by colour and polymer type before processing, which is complicated and expensive. Errors can lead to material with inconsistent properties, rendering it unappealing to industry.[110] In feedstock recycling, waste plastic is converted into its starting chemicals, which can then become fresh plastic. This involves higher energy and capital costs. Alternatively, plastic can be burned in place of fossil fuels. In some countries, it is the dominant form of plastic waste disposal, particularly where landfill diversion policies are in place.

Plastic recycling is low in the waste hierarchy. It has been advocated since the early 1970s,[111] but due to economic and technical challenges, did not impact plastic waste to any significant extent until the late 1980s. The plastics industry has been criticised for lobbying for expansion of recycling programs, even while research showed that most plastic could not be economically recycled.[112][113]

Pyrolysis

By heating to above 500 °C in the absence of oxygen (pyrolysis), plastics can be broken down into simpler hydrocarbons. These can be reused as starting materials for new plastics.[114] They can also be used as fuels.[115]

Climate change

According to the OECD, plastic contributed greenhouse gases in the equivalent of 1.8 billion tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) to the atmosphere in 2019, 3.4% of global emissions.[116] They say that by 2060, plastic could emit 4.3 billion tons of greenhouse gas emissions a year.

The effect of plastics on global warming is mixed. Plastics are generally made from petroleum, thus the production of plastics creates further emissions. However, due to the lightness and durability of plastic versus glass or metal, plastic may lower energy consumption. For example, packaging beverages in PET plastic rather than glass or metal is estimated to save 52% in transportation energy.[4]

Production of plastics

Production of plastics from crude oil requires 7.9 to 13.7 kWh/lb (taking into account the average efficiency of US utility stations of 35%). Producing silicon and semiconductors for modern electronic equipment is even more energy consuming: 29.2 to 29.8 kWh/lb for silicon, and about 381 kWh/lb for semiconductors.[117] This is much higher than the energy needed to produce many other materials. For example, to produce iron (from iron ore) requires 2.5-3.2 kWh/lb of energy; glass (from sand, etc.) 2.3–4.4 kWh/lb; steel (from iron) 2.5–6.4 kWh/lb; and paper (from timber) 3.2–6.4 kWh/lb.[118]

Incineration of plastics

Quickly burning plastics at very high temperatures breaks down many toxic components, such as dioxins and furans. This approach is widely used in municipal solid waste incineration. Municipal solid waste incinerators also normally treat the flue gas to decrease pollutants further, which is needed because uncontrolled incineration of plastic produces carcinogenic polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins.[119] Open-air burning of plastic occurs at lower temperatures and normally releases such toxic fumes.

In the European Union, municipal waste incineration is regulated by the Industrial Emissions Directive,[120] which stipulates a minimum temperature of 850 °C for at least two seconds.[121]

History

See also: Timeline of plastic development

The development of plastics has evolved from the use of naturally plastic materials (e.g., gums and shellac) to the use of the chemical modification of those materials (e.g., natural rubber, cellulose, collagen, and milk proteins), and finally to completely synthetic plastics (e.g., bakelite, epoxy, and PVC). Early plastics were bio-derived materials such as egg and blood proteins, which are organic polymers. In around 1600 BC, Mesoamericans used natural rubber for balls, bands, and figurines.[4] Treated cattle horns were used as windows for lanterns in the Middle Ages. Materials that mimicked the properties of horns were developed by treating milk proteins with lye. In the nineteenth century, as chemistry developed during the Industrial Revolution, many materials were reported. The development of plastics accelerated with Charles Goodyear's 1839 discovery of vulcanization to harden natural rubber.

 
Plaque commemorating Parkes at the Birmingham Science Museum

Parkesine, invented by Alexander Parkes in 1855 and patented the following year,[122] is considered the first man-made plastic. It was manufactured from cellulose (the major component of plant cell walls) treated with nitric acid as a solvent. The output of the process (commonly known as cellulose nitrate or pyroxilin) could be dissolved in alcohol and hardened into a transparent and elastic material that could be molded when heated.[123] By incorporating pigments into the product, it could be made to resemble ivory. Parkesine was unveiled at the 1862 International Exhibition in London and garnered for Parkes the bronze medal.[124]

In 1893, French chemist Auguste Trillat discovered the means to insolubilize casein (milk proteins) by immersion in formaldehyde, producing material marketed as galalith.[125] In 1897, mass-printing press owner Wilhelm Krische of Hanover, Germany, was commissioned to develop an alternative to blackboards.[125] The resultant horn-like plastic made from casein was developed in cooperation with the Austrian chemist (Friedrich) Adolph Spitteler (1846–1940). Although unsuitable for the intended purpose, other uses would be discovered.[125]

The world's first fully synthetic plastic was Bakelite, invented in New York in 1907 by Leo Baekeland,[5] who coined the term plastics.[6] Many chemists have contributed to the materials science of plastics, including Nobel laureate Hermann Staudinger, who has been called "the father of polymer chemistry," and Herman Mark, known as "the father of polymer physics."[7]

After World War I, improvements in chemistry led to an explosion of new forms of plastics, with mass production beginning in the 1940s and 1950s.[55] Among the earliest examples in the wave of new polymers were polystyrene (first produced by BASF in the 1930s)[4] and polyvinyl chloride (first created in 1872 but commercially produced in the late 1920s).[4] In 1923, Durite Plastics, Inc., was the first manufacturer of phenol-furfural resins.[126] In 1933, polyethylene was discovered by Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) researchers Reginald Gibson and Eric Fawcett.[4]

The discovery of polyethylene terephthalate is credited to employees of the Calico Printers' Association in the UK in 1941; it was licensed to DuPont for the US and ICI otherwise, and as one of the few plastics appropriate as a replacement for glass in many circumstances, resulting in widespread use for bottles in Europe.[4] In 1954 polypropylene was discovered by Giulio Natta and began to be manufactured in 1957.[4] Also in 1954 expanded polystyrene (used for building insulation, packaging, and cups) was invented by Dow Chemical.[4]

Policy

See also: Global plastic pollution treaty

Work is currently underway to develop a global treaty on plastic pollution. On March 2, 2022 UN Member States voted at the resumed fifth UN Environment Assembly (UNEA-5.2) to establish an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC) with the mandate of advancing a legally-binding international agreement on plastics.[127] The resolution is entitled “End plastic pollution: Towards an international legally binding instrument.” The mandate specifies that the INC must begin its work by the end of 2022 with the goal of "completing a draft global legally binding agreement by the end of 2024."[128]

See also

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  • Substantial parts of this text originated from by Greg Goebel (1 March 2001), which is in the public domain.

Sources

  This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under Cc BY-SA 3.0 IGO (license statement/permission). Text taken from Drowning in Plastics – Marine Litter and Plastic Waste Vital Graphics​, United Nations Environment Programme. To learn how to add open license text to Wikipedia articles, please see this how-to page. For information on reusing text from Wikipedia, please see the terms of use.

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  • . Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution. Archived from the original on 2006-02-12.
  • . Plastics International. Archived from the original on 2017-03-24.
  • "Plastics Historical Society".
  • . plasticsindustry.org. Archived from the original on 2009-07-06.
  • Knight L (17 May 2014). "A brief history of plastics, natural and synthetic". BBC Magazine.
  • "Timeline of important milestone of plastic injection moulding and plastics". Tangram Technology Ltd. 27 June 2014.

March 22, 2023
plastic, other, uses, disambiguation, wide, range, synthetic, semi, synthetic, materials, that, polymers, main, ingredient, their, plasticity, makes, possible, plastics, moulded, extruded, pressed, into, solid, objects, various, shapes, this, adaptability, plu. For other uses see Plastic disambiguation Plastics are a wide range of synthetic or semi synthetic materials that use polymers as a main ingredient Their plasticity makes it possible for plastics to be moulded extruded or pressed into solid objects of various shapes This adaptability plus a wide range of other properties such as being lightweight durable flexible and inexpensive to produce has led to its widespread use Plastics typically are made through human industrial systems Most modern plastics are derived from fossil fuel based chemicals like natural gas or petroleum however recent industrial methods use variants made from renewable materials such as corn or cotton derivatives 1 Household items made of various types of plastic 9 2 billion tonnes of plastic are estimated to have been made between 1950 and 2017 More than half this plastic has been produced since 2004 In 2020 400 million tonnes of plastic were produced 2 If global trends on plastic demand continue it is estimated that by 2050 annual global plastic production will reach over 1 100 million tonnes The success and dominance of plastics starting in the early 20th century has caused widespread environmental problems 3 due to their slow decomposition rate in natural ecosystems Most plastic produced has not been reused either being captured in landfills or persisting in the environment as plastic pollution Plastic pollution can be found in all the world s major water bodies for example creating garbage patches in all of the world s oceans and contaminating terrestrial ecosystems Of all the plastic discarded so far some 14 has been incinerated and less than 10 has been recycled 2 In developed economies about a third of plastic is used in packaging and roughly the same in buildings in applications such as piping plumbing or vinyl siding 4 Other uses include automobiles up to 20 plastic 4 furniture and toys 4 In the developing world the applications of plastic may differ 42 of India s consumption is used in packaging 4 In the medical field polymer implants and other medical devices are derived at least partially from plastic Worldwide about 50 kg of plastic is produced annually per person with production doubling every ten years The world s first fully synthetic plastic was Bakelite invented in New York in 1907 by Leo Baekeland 5 who coined the term plastics 6 Dozens of different types of plastics are produced today such as polyethylene which is widely used in product packaging and polyvinyl chloride PVC used in construction and pipes because of its strength and durability Many chemists have contributed to the materials science of plastics including Nobel laureate Hermann Staudinger who has been called the father of polymer chemistry and Herman Mark known as the father of polymer physics 7 Contents 1 Etymology 2 Structure 3 Properties and classifications 3 1 Thermoplastics and thermosetting polymers 3 2 Amorphous plastics and crystalline plastics 3 3 Conductive polymers 3 4 Biodegradable plastics and bioplastics 3 4 1 Biodegradable plastics 3 4 2 Bioplastics 4 Plastic industry 4 1 Production 4 2 Compounding 4 3 Converting 5 Types of plastics 5 1 Commodity plastics 5 2 Engineering plastics 5 3 High performance plastics 6 Gallery 7 Applications 8 Additives 8 1 Leaching 8 2 Recycling 8 3 Health effects 8 4 Types of additive 9 Toxicity 9 1 Bisphenol A BPA 10 Environmental effects 10 1 Microplastics 10 2 Decomposition of plastics 10 3 Recycling 10 3 1 Pyrolysis 10 4 Climate change 10 5 Production of plastics 10 6 Incineration of plastics 11 History 12 Policy 13 See also 14 References 15 Sources 16 External linksEtymologyThe word plastic derives from the Greek plastikos plastikos meaning capable of being shaped or molded and in turn from plastos plastos meaning molded 8 As a noun the word most commonly refers to the solid products of petrochemical derived manufacturing 9 The noun plasticity refers specifically here to the deformability of the materials used in the manufacture of plastics Plasticity allows molding extrusion or compression into a variety of shapes films fibers plates tubes bottles and boxes among many others Plasticity also has a technical definition in materials science outside the scope of this article referring to the non reversible change in form of solid substances StructureSee also PolymerMost plastics contain organic polymers 10 The vast majority of these polymers are formed from chains of carbon atoms with or without the attachment of oxygen nitrogen or sulfur atoms These chains comprise many repeating units formed from monomers Each polymer chain consists of several thousand repeating units The backbone is the part of the chain that is on the main path linking together a large number of repeat units To customize the properties of a plastic different molecular groups called side chains hang from this backbone they are usually hung from the monomers before the monomers themselves are linked together to form the polymer chain The structure of these side chains influences the properties of the polymer Properties and classificationsPlastics are usually classified by the chemical structure of the polymer s backbone and side chains Important groups classified in this way include the acrylics polyesters silicones polyurethanes and halogenated plastics Plastics can be classified by the chemical process used in their synthesis such as condensation polyaddition and cross linking 11 They can also be classified by their physical properties including hardness density tensile strength thermal resistance and glass transition temperature Plastics can additionally be classified by their resistance and reactions to various substances and processes such as exposure to organic solvents oxidation and ionizing radiation 12 Other classifications of plastics are based on qualities relevant to manufacturing or product design for a particular purpose Examples include thermoplastics thermosets conductive polymers biodegradable plastics engineering plastics and elastomers Thermoplastics and thermosetting polymers This plastic handle from a kitchen utensil has been deformed by heat and partially melted One important classification of plastics is the degree to which the chemical processes used to make them are reversible or not Thermoplastics do not undergo chemical change in their composition when heated and thus can be molded repeatedly Examples include polyethylene PE polypropylene PP polystyrene PS and polyvinyl chloride PVC 13 Thermosets or thermosetting polymers can melt and take shape only once after they have solidified they stay solid 14 If reheated thermosets decompose rather than melt In the thermosetting process an irreversible chemical reaction occurs The vulcanization of rubber is an example of this process Before heating in the presence of sulfur natural rubber polyisoprene is a sticky slightly runny material after vulcanization the product is dry and rigid Amorphous plastics and crystalline plastics Many plastics are completely amorphous without a highly ordered molecular structure 15 including thermosets polystyrene and methyl methacrylate PMMA Crystalline plastics exhibit a pattern of more regularly spaced atoms such as high density polyethylene HDPE polybutylene terephthalate PBT and polyether ether ketone PEEK However some plastics are partially amorphous and partially crystalline in molecular structure giving them both a melting point and one or more glass transitions the temperature above which the extent of localized molecular flexibility is substantially increased These so called semi crystalline plastics include polyethylene polypropylene polyvinyl chloride polyamides nylons polyesters and some polyurethanes Conductive polymers Main article Conductive polymer Intrinsically Conducting Polymers ICP are organic polymers that conduct electricity While a conductivity of up to 80 kS cm in stretch oriented polyacetylene 16 has been achieved it does not approach that of most metals For example copper has a conductivity of several hundred kS cm 17 Biodegradable plastics and bioplastics Biodegradable plastics Main article Biodegradable plastic Biodegradable plastics are plastics that degrade break down upon exposure to sunlight or ultra violet radiation water or dampness bacteria enzymes or wind abrasion Attack by insects such as waxworms and mealworms can also be considered as forms of biodegradation Aerobic degradation requires that the plastic be exposed at the surface whereas anaerobic degradation would be effective in landfill or composting systems Some companies produce biodegradable additives to enhance biodegradation Although starch powder can be added as a filler to allow some plastics to degrade more easily such treatment does not lead to complete breakdown Some researchers have genetically engineered bacteria to synthesize completely biodegradable plastics such as polyhydroxy butyrate PHB however these are relatively costly as of 2021 18 Bioplastics Main article Bioplastic While most plastics are produced from petrochemicals bioplastics are made substantially from renewable plant materials like cellulose and starch 19 Due both to the finite limits of fossil fuel reserves and to rising levels of greenhouse gases caused primarily by the burning of those fuels the development of bioplastics is a growing field 20 21 Global production capacity for bio based plastics is estimated at 327 000 tonnes per year In contrast global production of polyethylene PE and polypropylene PP the world s leading petrochemical derived polyolefins was estimated at over 150 million tonnes in 2015 22 Plastic industryThe plastic industry includes the global production compounding conversion and sale of plastic products Although the Middle East and Russia produce most of the required petrochemical raw materials the production of plastic is concentrated in the global East and West The plastic industry comprises a huge number of companies and can be divided into several sectors Production 9 2 billion tonnes of plastic are estimated to have been made between 1950 and 2017 with more than half this having been produced since 2004 Since the birth of the plastic industry in the 1950s global production has increased enormously reaching 400 million tonnes a year in 2021 up from 381 million metric tonnes in 2015 excluding additives 2 23 From the 1950s rapid growth occurred in the use of plastics for packaging in building and construction and in other sectors 2 If global trends on plastic demand continue it is estimated that by 2050 annual global plastic production will exceed 1 1 billion tonnes annually 2 Polypropylene plants A Slovnaft facility in Bratislava Slovakia A SOCAR Polymer polypropylene plant in Sumgayit Azerbaijan Annual global plastic production 1950 2015 23 Vertical lines denote the 1973 1975 recession and the financial crisis of 2007 2008 which caused brief lowering of plastic production Plastics are produced in chemical plants by the polymerization of their starting materials monomers which are almost always petrochemical in nature Such facilities are normally large and are visually similar to oil refineries with sprawling pipework running throughout The large size of these plants allows them to exploit economies of scale Despite this plastic production is not particularly monopolized with about 100 companies accounting for 90 of global production 24 This includes a mixture of private and state owned enterprises Roughly half of all production takes place in East Asia with China being the largest single producer Major international producers include Dow Chemical LyondellBasell Exxonmobil SABIC BASF Sibur Shin Etsu Chemical Indorama Ventures Sinopec Braskem Global plastic production 2020 25 Region Global productionChina 31 Japan 3 Rest of Asia 17 NAFTA 19 Latin America 4 Europe 16 CIS 3 Middle East amp Africa 7 Historically Europe and North America have dominated global plastics production However since 2010 Asia has emerged as a significant producer with China accounting for 31 of total plastic resin production in 2020 25 Regional differences in the volume of plastics production are driven by user demand the price of fossil fuel feedstocks and investments made in the petrochemical industry For example since 2010 over US 200 billion has been invested in the United States in new plastic and chemical plants stimulated by the low cost of raw materials In the European Union EU too heavy investments have been made in the plastics industry which employs over 1 6 million people with a turnover of more than 360 billion euros per year In China in 2016 there were over 15 000 plastic manufacturing companies generating more than US 366 billion in revenue 2 In 2017 the global plastics market was dominated by thermoplastics polymers that can be melted and recast Thermoplastics include polyethylene PE polyethylene terephthalate PET polypropylene PP polyvinyl chloride PVC polystyrene PS and synthetic fibres which together represent 86 of all plastics 2 Compounding Plastic compounding scheme for a thermosoftening material Plastic is not sold as a pure unadulterated substance but is instead mixed with various chemicals and other materials which are collectively known as additives These are added during the compounding stage and include substances such as stabilizers plasticizers and dyes which are intended to improve the lifespan workability or appearance of the final item In some cases this can involve mixing different types of plastic together to form a polymer blend such as high impact polystyrene Large companies may do their own compounding prior to production but some producers have it done by a third party Companies that specialize in this work are known as Compounders The compounding of thermosetting plastic is relatively straightforward as it remains liquid until it is cured into its final form For thermosoftening materials which are used to make the majority of products it is necessary to melt the plastic in order to mix in the additives This involves heating it to anywhere between 150 320 C 300 610 F Molten plastic is viscous and exhibits laminar flow leading to poor mixing Compounding is therefore done using extrusion equipment which is able to supply the necessary heat and mixing to give a properly dispersed product The concentrations of most additives are usually quite low however high levels can be added to create Masterbatch products The additives in these are concentrated but still properly dispersed in the host resin Masterbatch granules can be mixed with cheaper bulk polymer and will release their additives during processing to give a homogeneous final product This can be cheaper than working with a fully compounded material and is particularly common for the introduction of colour Converting source source source source source source source source source source source source source source track Short video on injection molding 9 min 37 s Blow molding a plastic drinks bottle Companies that produce finished goods are known as converters sometimes processors The vast majority of plastics produced worldwide are thermosoftening and must be heated until molten in order to be molded Various sorts of extrusion equipment exist which can then form the plastic into almost any shape Film blowing Plastic films carrier bags sheeting Blow molding Small thin walled hollow objects in large quantities drinks bottles toys Rotational molding Large thick walled hollow objects IBC tanks Injection molding Solid objects phone cases keyboards Spinning Produces fibers nylon spandex etc For thermosetting materials the process is slightly different as the plastics are liquid to begin with and but must be cured to give solid products but much of the equipment is broadly similar The most commonly produced plastic consumer products include packaging made from LDPE e g bags containers food packaging film containers made from HDPE e g milk bottles shampoo bottles ice cream tubs and PET e g bottles for water and other drinks Together these products account for around 36 of plastics use in the world Most of them e g disposable cups plates cutlery takeaway containers carrier bags are used for only a short period many for less than a day The use of plastics in building and construction textiles transportation and electrical equipment also accounts for a substantial share of the plastics market Plastic items used for such purposes generally have longer life spans They may be in use for periods ranging from around five years e g textiles and electrical equipment to more than 20 years e g construction materials industrial machinery 2 Plastic consumption differs among countries and communities with some form of plastic having made its way into most people s lives North America i e the North American Free Trade Agreement or NAFTA region accounts for 21 of global plastic consumption closely followed by China 20 and Western Europe 18 In North America and Europe there is high per capita plastic consumption 94 kg and 85 kg capita year respectively In China there is lower per capita consumption 58 kg capita year but high consumption nationally because of its large population 2 Types of plasticsCommodity plastics Chemical structures and uses of some common plastics Around 70 of global production is concentrated in six major polymer types the so called commodity plastics Unlike most other plastics these can often be identified by their resin identification code RIC Polyethylene terephthalate PET or PETE High density polyethylene HDPE or PE HD Polyvinyl chloride PVC or V Low density polyethylene LDPE or PE LD Polypropylene PP Polystyrene PS Polyurethanes PUR and PP amp A fibres 26 are often also included as major commodity classes although they usually lack RICs as they are chemically quite diverse groups These materials are inexpensive versatile and easy to work with making them the preferred choice for the mass production everyday objects Their biggest single application is in packaging with some 146 million tonnes being used this way in 2015 equivalent to 36 of global production Due to their dominance many of the properties and problems commonly associated with plastics such as pollution stemming from their poor biodegradability are ultimately attributable to commodity plastics A huge number of plastics exist beyond the commodity plastics with many having exceptional properties Global plastic production by polymer type 2015 23 Polymer Production Mt Percentage of all plastics Polymer type Thermal characterLow density polyethylene LDPE 64 15 7 Polyolefin ThermoplasticHigh density polyethylene HDPE 52 12 8 Polyolefin Thermoplasticpolypropylene PP 68 16 7 Polyolefin ThermoplasticPolystyrene PS 25 6 1 Unsaturated polyolefin ThermoplasticPolyvinyl chloride PVC 38 9 3 Halogenated ThermoplasticPolyethylene terephthalate PET 33 8 1 Condensation ThermoplasticPolyurethane PUR 27 6 6 Condensation Thermoset 27 PP amp A Fibers 26 59 14 5 Condensation ThermoplasticAll Others 16 3 9 Various VariesAdditives 25 6 1 Total 407 100 Engineering plastics Engineering plastics are more robust and are used to make products such as vehicle parts building and construction materials and some machine parts In some cases they are polymer blends formed by mixing different plastics together ABS HIPS etc Engineering plastics can replace metals in vehicles lowering their weight and improving fuel efficiency by 6 8 Roughly 50 of the volume of modern cars is made of plastic but this only accounts for 12 17 of the vehicle weight 28 Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene ABS electronic equipment cases e g computer monitors printers keyboards and drainage pipe High impact polystyrene HIPS refrigerator liners food packaging and vending cups Polycarbonate PC compact discs eyeglasses riot shields security windows traffic lights and lenses Polycarbonate acrylonitrile butadiene styrene PC ABS a blend of PC and ABS that creates a stronger plastic used in car interior and exterior parts and in mobile phone bodies Polyethylene acrylonitrile butadiene styrene PE ABS a slippery blend of PE and ABS used in low duty dry bearings Polymethyl methacrylate PMMA acrylic contact lenses of the original hard variety glazing best known in this form by its various trade names around the world e g Perspex Plexiglas and Oroglas fluorescent light diffusers and rear light covers for vehicles It also forms the basis of artistic and commercial acrylic paints when suspended in water with the use of other agents Silicones polysiloxanes heat resistant resins used mainly as sealants but also used for high temperature cooking utensils and as a base resin for industrial paints Urea formaldehyde UF one of the aminoplasts used as a multi colorable alternative to phenolics used as a wood adhesive for plywood chipboard hardboard and electrical switch housingsHigh performance plastics High performance plastics are usually expensive with their use limited to specialised applications which make use of their superior properties Aramids best known for their use in making body armor this class of heat resistant and strong synthetic fibers are also used in aerospace and military applications includes Kevlar and Nomex and Twaron Ultra high molecular weight polyethylenes Polyetheretherketone PEEK strong chemical and heat resistant thermoplastic its biocompatibility allows for use in medical implant applications and aerospace moldings It is one of the most expensive commercial polymers Polyetherimide PEI Ultem a high temperature chemically stable polymer that does not crystallize Polyimide a high temperature plastic used in materials such as Kapton tape Polysulfone high temperature melt processable resin used in membranes filtration media water heater dip tubes and other high temperature applications Polytetrafluoroethylene PTFE or Teflon heat resistant low friction coatings used in non stick surfaces for frying pans plumber s tape and water slides Polyamide imide PAI High performance engineering plastic extensively used in high performance gears switches transmission and other automotive components and aerospace parts 29 Gallery PET water bottle High density polythene HDPE is used for making sturdy containers Transparent ones may be made of PET Disposable suits nonwoven HDPE fabric Plastic mailing envelopes hdpe Clear plastic bags shown are made of low density polythene LDPE blown film shopping bags with handles are now made of HDPE A Ziploc bag made from LDPE Food wrap ldpe Metalised polypropylene film is a commonly used snack pack material 30 Kinder Joy shell made of polypropylene A polypropylene chair Stools of hdpe Expanded polystyrene foam Thermocol Extruded polystyrene foam Styrofoam Thermocol take away food container Egg tray PETE A piece of packaging foam made from LDPE A kitchen sponge made of polyurethane foam Non stick cookware with Teflon coating iPhone 5c a smartphone with a polycarbonate unibody shell 10m deep Monterey Bay Aquarium tank has acrylic windows up to 33 cm thick to withstand the water pressure PVC pipes PVC blister packApplicationsThe largest application for plastics is as packaging materials but they are used in a wide range of other sectors including construction pipes gutters door and windows textiles stretchable fabrics fleece consumer goods toys tableware toothbrushes transportation headlights bumpers body panels wing mirrors electronics phones computers televisions and as machine parts 23 AdditivesAdditives are chemicals blended into plastics to change their performance or appearance making it possible to alter the properties of plastics to better suit their intended applications 31 32 Additives are therefore one of the reasons why plastic is used so widely 33 Plastics are composed of chains of polymers Many different chemicals are used as plastic additives A randomly chosen plastic product generally contains around 20 additives The identities and concentrations of additives are generally not listed on products 2 In the EU over 400 additives are used in high volumes 34 2 5500 additives were found in a global market analysis 35 At a minimum all plastic contains some polymer stabilisers which permit them to be melt processed moulded without suffering polymer degradation Other additives are optional and can be added as required with loadings varying significantly between applications The amount of additives contained in plastics varies depending on the additives function For example additives in polyvinyl chloride PVC can constitute up to 80 of the total volume 2 Pure unadulterated plastic barefoot resin is never sold even by the primary producers Leaching Additives may be weakly bound to the polymers or react in the polymer matrix Although additives are blended into plastic they remain chemically distinct from it and can gradually leach back out during normal use when in landfills or following improper disposal in the environment 36 Additives may also degrade to form other toxic molecules Plastic fragmentation into microplastics and nanoplastics can allow chemical additives to move in the environment far from the point of use Once released some additives and derivatives may persist in the environment and bioaccumulate in organisms They can have adverse effects on human health and biota A recent review by the United States Environmental Protection Agency US EPA revealed that out of 3 377 chemicals potentially associated with plastic packaging and 906 likely associated with it 68 were ranked by ECHA as highest for human health hazards and 68 as highest for environmental hazards 2 Recycling Main article Plastic recycling As additives change the properties of plastics they have to be considered during recycling Presently almost all recycling is performed by simply remelting and reforming used plastic into new items Additives present risks in recycled products as they are difficult to remove When plastic products are recycled it is highly likely that the additives will be integrated into the new products Waste plastic even if it is all of the same polymer type will contain varying types and amounts of additives Mixing these together can give a material with inconsistent properties which can be unappealing to industry For example mixing different coloured plastics with different plastic colorants together can produce a discoloured or brown material and for this reason plastic is usually sorted by both polymer type and color before recycling 2 Absence of transparency and reporting across the value chain often results in lack of knowledge concerning the chemical profile of the final products For example products containing brominated flame retardants have been incorporated into new plastic products Flame retardants are a group of chemicals used in electronic and electrical equipment textiles furniture and construction materials which should not be present in food packaging or child care products A recent study found brominated dioxins as unintentional contaminants in toys made from recycled plastic electronic waste that contained brominated flame retardants Brominated dioxins have been found to exhibit toxicity similar to that of chlorinated dioxins They can have negative developmental effects and negative effects on the nervous system and interfere with mechanisms of the endocrine system 2 Health effects Many of the controversies associated with plastics actually relate to their additives as some compounds can be persistent bioaccumulating and potentially harmful 37 38 31 The now banned flame retardants OctaBDE and PentaBDE are an example of this while the health effects of phthalates are an ongoing area of public concern Additives can also be problematic if waste is burned especially when burning is uncontrolled or takes place in low technology incinerators as is common in many developing countries Incomplete combustion can cause emissions of hazardous substances such as acid gases and ash which can contain persistent organic pollutants POPs such as dioxins 2 A number of additives identified as hazardous to humans and or the environment are regulated internationally The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants POPs is a global treaty to protect human health and the environment from chemicals that remain intact in the environment for long periods become widely distributed geographically accumulate in the fatty tissue of humans and wildlife and have harmful impacts on human health or on the environment 2 Other additives proven to be harmful such as cadmium chromium lead and mercury regulated under the Minamata Convention on Mercury which have previously been used in plastic production are banned in many jurisdictions However they are still routinely found in some plastic packaging including food packaging The use of the additive bisphenol A BPA in plastic baby bottles is banned in many parts of the world but is not restricted in some low income countries 2 In 2023 plasticosis a new disease caused solely by plastics was discovered in seabirds The birds identified as having the disease have scarred digestive tracts from ingesting plastic waste 39 When birds ingest small pieces of plastic they found it inflames the digestive tract Over time the persistent inflammation causes tissues to become scarred and disfigured affecting digestion growth and survival 40 Types of additive Additive type Typical concentration when present 31 Description Example compounds Comment Share of global additive production by weight 23 Plasticizers 10 70 Plastics can be brittle adding some plasticizer makes them more durable adding lots makes them flexible Phthalates are the dominant class safer alternatives include adipate esters DEHA DOA and citrate esters ATBC and TEC 80 90 of world production is used in PVC much of the rest is used in cellulose acetate For most products loadings are between 10 and 35 high loadings are used for plastisols 34 Flame retardants 1 30 Being petrochemicals most plastics burn readily flame retardants can prevent this Brominated flame retardants chlorinated paraffins Non chlorinated organophosphates are ecologically safer though often less efficient 13 Heat stabilizers 0 3 5 Prevents heat related degradation Traditionally derivatives of lead cadmium amp tin Safer modern alternatives include barium zinc mixtures and calcium stearate along with various synergists Almost exclusively used in PVC 5 Fillers 0 50 Changes appearance and mechanical properties can lower price Calcium carbonate chalk talc glass beads carbon black Also reinforcing fillers like carbon fiber Most opaque plastic contains fillers High levels can also protect against UV rays 28 Impact modifiers 10 40 Improved toughness and resistance to damage 41 Typically some other elastomeric polymer e g rubbers styrene copolymers Chlorinated polyethylene is used for PVC 5 Antioxidants 0 05 3 Protects against degradation during processing Phenols phosphite esters certain thioethers The most widely used type of additives all plastics will contain polymer stabilisers of some sort 6 Colorants 0 001 10 Imparts colour Numerous dyes or pigments 2 Lubricants 0 1 3 Assists in molding the plastic includes processing aids or flow aids release agents slip additives Paraffin wax wax esters metal stearates i e zinc stearate long chain fatty acid amides oleamide erucamide 2 Light stabilizers 0 05 3 Protects against UV damage HALS UV blockers and quenchers Normally only used for items itended for outdoor use 1 Other Various Antimicrobials antistatics blowing agents nucleating agents 4 ToxicityPure plastics have low toxicity due to their insolubility in water and because they have a large molecular weight they are biochemically inert Plastic products contain a variety of additives however some of which can be toxic 42 For example plasticizers like adipates and phthalates are often added to brittle plastics like PVC to make them pliable enough for use in food packaging toys and many other items Traces of these compounds can leach out of the product Owing to concerns over the effects of such leachates the EU has restricted the use of DEHP di 2 ethylhexyl phthalate and other phthalates in some applications and the US has limited the use of DEHP DPB BBP DINP DIDP and DnOP in children s toys and child care articles through the Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act Some compounds leaching from polystyrene food containers have been proposed to interfere with hormone functions and are suspected human carcinogens cancer causing substances 43 Other chemicals of potential concern include alkylphenols 38 While a finished plastic may be non toxic the monomers used in the manufacture of its parent polymers may be toxic In some cases small amounts of those chemicals can remain trapped in the product unless suitable processing is employed For example the World Health Organization s International Agency for Research on Cancer IARC has recognized vinyl chloride the precursor to PVC as a human carcinogen 43 Bisphenol A BPA See also Health effects of Bisphenol A Some plastic products degrade to chemicals with estrogenic activity 44 The primary building block of polycarbonates bisphenol A BPA is an estrogen like endocrine disruptor that may leach into food 43 Research in Environmental Health Perspectives finds that BPA leached from the lining of tin cans dental sealants and polycarbonate bottles can increase the body weight of lab animals offspring 45 A more recent animal study suggests that even low level exposure to BPA results in insulin resistance which can lead to inflammation and heart disease 46 As of January 2010 the Los Angeles Times reported that the US Food and Drug Administration FDA is spending 30 million to investigate indications of BPA s link to cancer 47 Bis 2 ethylhexyl adipate present in plastic wrap based on PVC is also of concern as are the volatile organic compounds present in new car smell The EU has a permanent ban on the use of phthalates in toys In 2009 the US government banned certain types of phthalates commonly used in plastic 48 Environmental effects A communication campaign infographic showing that there will be more plastic in the oceans than fish by 2050 See also Plastic pollution Marine debris and Great Pacific garbage patch Because the chemical structure of most plastics renders them durable they are resistant to many natural degradation processes Much of this material may persist for centuries or longer given the demonstrated persistence of structurally similar natural materials such as amber There are differing estimates of how much plastic waste has been produced in the last century By one estimate one billion tons of plastic waste have been discarded since the 1950s 49 Others estimate a cumulative human production of 8 3 billion tons of plastic of which 6 3 billion tons is waste with only 9 getting recycled 50 It is estimated that this waste is made up of 81 polymer resin 13 polymer fibres and 32 additives In 2018 more than 343 million tonnes of plastic waste were generated 90 of which was composed of post consumer plastic waste industrial agricultural commercial and municipal plastic waste The rest was pre consumer waste from resin production and manufacturing of plastic products e g materials rejected due to unsuitable colour hardness or processing characteristics 2 The Ocean Conservancy reported that China Indonesia Philippines Thailand and Vietnam dump more plastic into the sea than all other countries combined 51 The rivers Yangtze Indus Yellow Hai Nile Ganges Pearl Amur Niger and Mekong transport 88 to 95 of the global plastics load into the sea 52 53 verify quote punctuation The presence of plastics particularly microplastics within the food chain is increasing In the 1960s microplastics were observed in the guts of seabirds and since then have been found in increasing concentrations 54 The long term effects of plastics in the food chain are poorly understood In 2009 it was estimated that 10 of modern waste was plastic 55 although estimates vary according to region 54 Meanwhile 50 to 80 of debris in marine areas is plastic 54 Plastic is often used in agriculture There is more plastic in the soil that in the oceans The presence of plastic in the environment hurt ecosystems and human health 56 Research on the environmental impacts has typically focused on the disposal phase However the production of plastics is also responsible for substantial environmental health and socioeconomic impacts 57 Prior to the Montreal Protocol CFCs had been commonly used in the manufacture of the plastic polystyrene the production of which had contributed to depletion of the ozone layer Efforts to minimize environmental impact of plastics may include lowering of plastics production and use waste and recycling policies and the proactive development and deployment of alternatives to plastics such as for sustainable packaging Microplastics This section is an excerpt from Microplastics edit Microplastics in sediments from four rivers in Germany Note the diverse shapes indicated by white arrowheads The white bars represent 1 mm for scale source source source source source source source source source source source source source source source source Photodegraded Plastic Straw A light touch breaks larger straw into microplastics Microplastics are fragments of any type of plastic less than 5 mm 0 20 in in length according to the U S National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration NOAA 58 59 and the European Chemicals Agency 60 They cause pollution by entering natural ecosystems from a variety of sources including cosmetics clothing food packaging and industrial processes The term macroplastics is used to differentiate microplastics from larger plastic waste such as plastic bottles Two classifications of microplastics are currently recognized Primary microplastics include any plastic fragments or particles that are already 5 0 mm in size or less before entering the environment These include microfibers from clothing microbeads and plastic pellets also known as nurdles 61 62 63 Secondary microplastics arise from the degradation breakdown of larger plastic products through natural weathering processes after entering the environment Such sources of secondary microplastics include water and soda bottles fishing nets plastic bags microwave containers tea bags and tire wear 64 63 65 66 Both types are recognized to persist in the environment at high levels particularly in aquatic and marine ecosystems where they cause water pollution 67 35 of all ocean microplastics come from textiles clothing primarily due to the erosion of polyester acrylic or nylon based clothing often during the washing process 68 However microplastics also accumulate in the air and terrestrial ecosystems Because plastics degrade slowly often over hundreds to thousands of years 69 70 microplastics have a high probability of ingestion incorporation into and accumulation in the bodies and tissues of many organisms The toxic chemicals that come from both the ocean and runoff can also biomagnify up the food chain 71 72 In terrestrial ecosystems microplastics have been demonstrated to reduce the viability of soil ecosystems and reduce weight of earthworms 73 74 The cycle and movement of microplastics in the environment are not fully known but research is currently underway to investigate the phenomenon Deep layer ocean sediment surveys in China 2020 show the presence of plastics in deposition layers far older than the invention of plastics leading to suspected underestimation of microplastics in surface sample ocean surveys 75 Microplastics have also been found in the high mountains at great distances from their source 76 Microplastics have also been found in human blood though their effects are largely unknown 77 78 Decomposition of plastics Main article Polymer degradation Plastics degrade by a variety of processes the most significant of which is usually photo oxidation Their chemical structure determines their fate Polymers marine degradation takes much longer as a result of the saline environment and cooling effect of the sea contributing to the persistence of plastic debris in certain environments 54 Recent studies have shown however that plastics in the ocean decompose faster than had been previously thought due to exposure to the sun rain and other environmental conditions resulting in the release of toxic chemicals such as bisphenol A However due to the increased volume of plastics in the ocean decomposition has slowed down 79 The Marine Conservancy has predicted the decomposition rates of several plastic products It is estimated that a foam plastic cup will take 50 years a plastic beverage holder will take 400 years a disposable diaper will take 450 years and fishing line will take 600 years to degrade 80 Microbial species capable of degrading plastics are known to science some of which are potentially useful for disposal of certain classes of plastic waste In 1975 a team of Japanese scientists studying ponds containing waste water from a nylon factory discovered a strain of Flavobacterium that digests certain byproducts of nylon 6 manufacture such as the linear dimer of 6 aminohexanoate 81 Nylon 4 polybutyrolactam can be degraded by the ND 10 and ND 11 strands of Pseudomonas sp found in sludge resulting in GABA g aminobutyric acid as a byproduct 82 Several species of soil fungi can consume polyurethane 83 including two species of the Ecuadorian fungus Pestalotiopsis They can consume polyurethane both aerobically and anaerobically such as at the bottom of landfills 84 Methanogenic microbial consortia degrade styrene using it as a carbon source 85 Pseudomonas putida can convert styrene oil into various biodegradable plastic biodegradable polyhydroxyalkanoates 86 87 Microbial communities isolated from soil samples mixed with starch have been shown to be capable of degrading polypropylene 88 The fungus Aspergillus fumigatus effectively degrades plasticized PVC 89 45 46 Phanerochaete chrysosporium has been grown on PVC in a mineral salt agar 89 76 lt ref gt P chrysosporium Lentinus tigrinus A niger and A sydowii can also effectively degrade PVC 89 122 Phenol formaldehyde commonly known as Bakelite is degraded by the white rot fungus P chrysosporium 90 Acinetobacter has been found to partially degrade low molecular weight polyethylene oligomers 82 When used in combination Pseudomonas fluorescens and Sphingomonas can degrade over 40 of the weight of plastic bags in less than three months 91 The thermophilic bacterium Brevibacillus borstelensis strain 707 was isolated from a soil sample and found capable of using low density polyethylene as a sole carbon source when incubated at 50 C Pre exposure of the plastic to ultraviolet radiation broke chemical bonds and aided biodegradation the longer the period of UV exposure the greater the promotion of the degradation 92 Hazardous molds have been found aboard space stations that degrade rubber into a digestible form 93 Several species of yeasts bacteria algae and lichens have been found growing on synthetic polymer artifacts in museums and at archaeological sites 94 In the plastic polluted waters of the Sargasso Sea bacteria have been found that consume various types of plastic however it is unknown to what extent these bacteria effectively clean up poisons rather than simply release them into the marine microbial ecosystem Plastic eating microbes also have been found in landfills 95 Nocardia can degrade PET with an esterase enzyme 96 The fungus Geotrichum candidum found in Belize has been found to consume the polycarbonate plastic found in CDs 97 98 Futuro houses are made of fiberglass reinforced polyesters polyester polyurethane and PMMA One such house was found to be harmfully degraded by Cyanobacteria and Archaea 99 100 Manual material triage for recycling Recycling This section is an excerpt from Plastic recycling edit Plastic recycling Clockwise from top left Sorting plastic waste at a single stream recycling centreBaled colour sorted used bottlesRecovered HDPE ready for recyclingA watering can made from recycled bottles Plastic recycling is the processing of plastic waste into other products 101 102 103 Recycling can reduce dependence on landfill conserve resources and protect the environment from plastic pollution and greenhouse gas emissions 104 105 Recycling rates lag those of other recoverable materials such as aluminium glass and paper Through 2015 the world produced some 6 3 billion tonnes of plastic waste only 9 of which has been recycled and only 1 has been recycled more than once 106 Additionally 12 was incinerated and the remaining 79 sent to landfill or to the environment including the ocean 106 Almost all plastic is not biodegradable and absent recyling spreads across the environment 107 108 where it can cause harm For example as of 2015 approximately 8 million tons of waste plastic enter the oceans annually damaging the ecosystem and forming ocean garbage patches 109 Almost all recycling is mechanical melting and reforming plastic into other items This can cause polymer degradation at a molecular level and requires that waste be sorted by colour and polymer type before processing which is complicated and expensive Errors can lead to material with inconsistent properties rendering it unappealing to industry 110 In feedstock recycling waste plastic is converted into its starting chemicals which can then become fresh plastic This involves higher energy and capital costs Alternatively plastic can be burned in place of fossil fuels In some countries it is the dominant form of plastic waste disposal particularly where landfill diversion policies are in place Plastic recycling is low in the waste hierarchy It has been advocated since the early 1970s 111 but due to economic and technical challenges did not impact plastic waste to any significant extent until the late 1980s The plastics industry has been criticised for lobbying for expansion of recycling programs even while research showed that most plastic could not be economically recycled 112 113 Pyrolysis By heating to above 500 C in the absence of oxygen pyrolysis plastics can be broken down into simpler hydrocarbons These can be reused as starting materials for new plastics 114 They can also be used as fuels 115 Climate change According to the OECD plastic contributed greenhouse gases in the equivalent of 1 8 billion tons of carbon dioxide CO2 to the atmosphere in 2019 3 4 of global emissions 116 They say that by 2060 plastic could emit 4 3 billion tons of greenhouse gas emissions a year The effect of plastics on global warming is mixed Plastics are generally made from petroleum thus the production of plastics creates further emissions However due to the lightness and durability of plastic versus glass or metal plastic may lower energy consumption For example packaging beverages in PET plastic rather than glass or metal is estimated to save 52 in transportation energy 4 Production of plastics Production of plastics from crude oil requires 7 9 to 13 7 kWh lb taking into account the average efficiency of US utility stations of 35 Producing silicon and semiconductors for modern electronic equipment is even more energy consuming 29 2 to 29 8 kWh lb for silicon and about 381 kWh lb for semiconductors 117 This is much higher than the energy needed to produce many other materials For example to produce iron from iron ore requires 2 5 3 2 kWh lb of energy glass from sand etc 2 3 4 4 kWh lb steel from iron 2 5 6 4 kWh lb and paper from timber 3 2 6 4 kWh lb 118 Incineration of plastics Quickly burning plastics at very high temperatures breaks down many toxic components such as dioxins and furans This approach is widely used in municipal solid waste incineration Municipal solid waste incinerators also normally treat the flue gas to decrease pollutants further which is needed because uncontrolled incineration of plastic produces carcinogenic polychlorinated dibenzo p dioxins 119 Open air burning of plastic occurs at lower temperatures and normally releases such toxic fumes In the European Union municipal waste incineration is regulated by the Industrial Emissions Directive 120 which stipulates a minimum temperature of 850 C for at least two seconds 121 HistorySee also Timeline of plastic development The development of plastics has evolved from the use of naturally plastic materials e g gums and shellac to the use of the chemical modification of those materials e g natural rubber cellulose collagen and milk proteins and finally to completely synthetic plastics e g bakelite epoxy and PVC Early plastics were bio derived materials such as egg and blood proteins which are organic polymers In around 1600 BC Mesoamericans used natural rubber for balls bands and figurines 4 Treated cattle horns were used as windows for lanterns in the Middle Ages Materials that mimicked the properties of horns were developed by treating milk proteins with lye In the nineteenth century as chemistry developed during the Industrial Revolution many materials were reported The development of plastics accelerated with Charles Goodyear s 1839 discovery of vulcanization to harden natural rubber Plaque commemorating Parkes at the Birmingham Science Museum Parkesine invented by Alexander Parkes in 1855 and patented the following year 122 is considered the first man made plastic It was manufactured from cellulose the major component of plant cell walls treated with nitric acid as a solvent The output of the process commonly known as cellulose nitrate or pyroxilin could be dissolved in alcohol and hardened into a transparent and elastic material that could be molded when heated 123 By incorporating pigments into the product it could be made to resemble ivory Parkesine was unveiled at the 1862 International Exhibition in London and garnered for Parkes the bronze medal 124 In 1893 French chemist Auguste Trillat discovered the means to insolubilize casein milk proteins by immersion in formaldehyde producing material marketed as galalith 125 In 1897 mass printing press owner Wilhelm Krische of Hanover Germany was commissioned to develop an alternative to blackboards 125 The resultant horn like plastic made from casein was developed in cooperation with the Austrian chemist Friedrich Adolph Spitteler 1846 1940 Although unsuitable for the intended purpose other uses would be discovered 125 The world s first fully synthetic plastic was Bakelite invented in New York in 1907 by Leo Baekeland 5 who coined the term plastics 6 Many chemists have contributed to the materials science of plastics including Nobel laureate Hermann Staudinger who has been called the father of polymer chemistry and Herman Mark known as the father of polymer physics 7 After World War I improvements in chemistry led to an explosion of new forms of plastics with mass production beginning in the 1940s and 1950s 55 Among the earliest examples in the wave of new polymers were polystyrene first produced by BASF in the 1930s 4 and polyvinyl chloride first created in 1872 but commercially produced in the late 1920s 4 In 1923 Durite Plastics Inc was the first manufacturer of phenol furfural resins 126 In 1933 polyethylene was discovered by Imperial Chemical Industries ICI researchers Reginald Gibson and Eric Fawcett 4 The discovery of polyethylene terephthalate is credited to employees of the Calico Printers Association in the UK in 1941 it was licensed to DuPont for the US and ICI otherwise and as one of the few plastics appropriate as a replacement for glass in many circumstances resulting in widespread use for bottles in Europe 4 In 1954 polypropylene was discovered by Giulio Natta and began to be manufactured in 1957 4 Also in 1954 expanded polystyrene used for building insulation packaging and cups was invented by Dow Chemical 4 PolicySee also Global plastic pollution treaty Work is currently underway to develop a global treaty on plastic pollution On March 2 2022 UN Member States voted at the resumed fifth UN Environment Assembly UNEA 5 2 to establish an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee INC with the mandate of advancing a legally binding international agreement on plastics 127 The resolution is entitled End plastic pollution Towards an international legally binding instrument The mandate specifies that the INC must begin its work by the end of 2022 with the goal of completing a draft global legally binding agreement by the end of 2024 128 See alsoBiodegradable plastic Bioplastic Corn construction Films Light activated resin Microplastics nurdles Molding process Injection molding Rotational molding Organic light emitting diode Organisms breaking down plastic Plastic film Plastic pollution Plastic recycling Plastics engineering Plastics extrusion Plasticulture Progressive bag alliance Refill scheme Roll to roll processing Self healing plastic Thermal cleaning Thermoforming Timeline of materials technology Plastic pollutionReferences Life Cycle of a Plastic Product Americanchemistry com Archived from the original on 2010 03 17 Retrieved 2011 07 01 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Environment U N 2021 10 21 Drowning in Plastics Marine Litter and Plastic Waste Vital Graphics UNEP UN Environment Programme Retrieved 2022 03 21 The environmental impacts of plastics and micro plastics use waste and pollution EU and national measures PDF europarl europa eu October 2020 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint url status link a b c d e f g h i j k l Andrady AL Neal MA July 2009 Applications and societal benefits of plastics Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series B Biological Sciences 364 1526 1977 84 doi 10 1098 rstb 2008 0304 PMC 2873019 PMID 19528050 a b American Chemical Society National Historic 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Patents for inventions UK Patent office p 255 Dictionary Definition of celluloid Websters online dictionary org Archived from the original on 2009 12 11 Retrieved 2011 10 26 Fenichell S 1996 Plastic the making of a synthetic century New York HarperBusiness p 17 ISBN 978 0 88730 732 4 a b c Trimborn C August 2004 Jewelry Stone Make of Milk GZ Art Design Retrieved 2010 05 17 Historical Overview and Industrial Development International Furan Chemicals Inc Retrieved 4 May 2014 Geddie John Brock Joe 2022 03 02 Biggest green deal since Paris UN agrees plastic treaty roadmap Reuters Retrieved 2022 08 03 Historic day in the campaign to beat plastic pollution Nations commit to develop a legally binding agreement UN Environment 2022 03 02 Retrieved 2022 08 03 Substantial parts of this text originated from An Introduction to Plastics v1 0 by Greg Goebel 1 March 2001 which is in the public domain Sources This article incorporates text from a free content work Licensed under Cc BY SA 3 0 IGO license statement permission Text taken from Drowning in Plastics Marine Litter and Plastic Waste Vital Graphics United Nations Environment Programme To learn how to add open license text to Wikipedia articles please see this how to page For information on reusing text from Wikipedia please see the terms of use External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Plastics Wikiquote has quotations related to Plastic J Harry Dubois Collection on the History of Plastics ca 1900 1975 Archives Center National Museum of American History Smithsonian Institution Archived from the original on 2006 02 12 Material Properties of Plastics Mechanical Thermal amp Electrical Properties Plastics International Archived from the original on 2017 03 24 Plastics Historical Society History of plastics Society of the Plastics Industry plasticsindustry org Archived from the original on 2009 07 06 Knight L 17 May 2014 A brief history of plastics natural and synthetic BBC Magazine Timeline of important milestone of plastic injection moulding and plastics Tangram Technology Ltd 27 June 2014 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Plastic amp oldid 1144519423, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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