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Matriarchy

January 15, 2023

"Gynecocracy" and "Matriarch" redirect here. For the novel, see Gynecocracy (novel). For other uses, see Matriarch (disambiguation).

Matriarchy is a social system in which women hold the primary power positions in roles of authority. In a broader sense it can also extend to moral authority, social privilege and control of property. While those definitions apply in general English, definitions specific to anthropology and feminism differ in some respects.

Nampeyo, of the Hopi-Tewa People, in 1901; with her mother, White Corn; her eldest daughter, Annie Healing; and holding her granddaughter, Rachel

Matriarchies may also be confused with matrilineal, matrilocal, and matrifocal societies.[1] While there are those who may consider any non-patriarchal system to be matriarchal, most academics exclude those systems from matriarchies as strictly defined.

Definitions, connotations, and etymology

According to the Oxford English Dictionary (OED), matriarchy is a "form of social organization in which the mother or oldest female is the head of the family, and descent and relationship are reckoned through the female line; government or rule by a woman or women."[2] A popular definition, according to James Peoples and Garrick Bailey, is "female dominance".[3] Within the academic discipline of cultural anthropology, according to the OED, matriarchy is a "culture or community in which such a system prevails"[2] or a "family, society, organization, etc., dominated by a woman or women."[2] In general anthropology, according to William A. Haviland, matriarchy is "rule by women".[4] A matriarchy is a society in which females, especially mothers, have the central roles of political leadership, moral authority, and control of property, but does not include a society that occasionally is led by a female for nonmatriarchal reasons or an occupation in which females generally predominate without reference to matriarchy, such as prostitution or women's auxiliaries of organizations run by men.[citation needed] According to Lawrence A. Kuzner in 1997, A. R. Radcliffe-Brown argued in 1924 that the definitions of matriarchy and patriarchy had "logical and empirical failings (...) [and] were too vague to be scientifically useful".[5]

Most academics exclude egalitarian nonpatriarchal systems from matriarchies more strictly defined. According to Heide Göttner-Abendroth, a reluctance to accept the existence of matriarchies might be based on a specific culturally biased notion of how to define matriarchy: because in a patriarchy men rule over women, a matriarchy has frequently been conceptualized as women ruling over men,[6][7] while she believed that matriarchies are egalitarian.[6][8]

 
Margot Adler

The word matriarchy, for a society politically led by females, especially mothers, who also control property, is often interpreted to mean the genderal opposite of patriarchy, but it is not an opposite.[9][10][11] According to Peoples and Bailey, the view of anthropologist Peggy Reeves Sanday is that matriarchies are not a mirror form of patriarchies but rather that a matriarchy "emphasizes maternal meanings where 'maternal symbols are linked to social practices influencing the lives of both sexes and where women play a central role in these practices'".[12] Journalist Margot Adler wrote, "literally, ... ["matriarchy"] means government by mothers, or more broadly, government and power in the hands of women."[13] Barbara Love and Elizabeth Shanklin wrote, "by 'matriarchy,' we mean a non-alienated society: a society in which women, those who produce the next generation, define motherhood, determine the conditions of motherhood, and determine the environment in which the next generation is reared."[14] According to Cynthia Eller, "'matriarchy' can be thought of ... as a shorthand description for any society in which women's power is equal or superior to men's and in which the culture centers around values and life events described as 'feminine.'"[15] Eller wrote that the idea of matriarchy mainly rests on two pillars, romanticism and modern social criticism.[16] The notion of matriarchy was meant to describe something like a utopia placed in the past in order to legitimate contemporary social criticism.[citation needed] With respect to a prehistoric matriarchal Golden Age, according to Barbara Epstein, "matriarchy ... means a social system organized around matriliny and goddess worship in which women have positions of power."[17] According to Adler, in the Marxist tradition, it usually refers to a pre-class society "where women and men share equally in production and power."[18]

According to Adler, "a number of feminists note that few definitions of the word [matriarchy], despite its literal meaning, include any concept of power, and they suggest that centuries of oppression have made it impossible for women to conceive of themselves with such power."[18]

Matriarchy has often been presented as negative, in contrast to patriarchy as natural and inevitable for society, thus that matriarchy is hopeless. Love and Shanklin wrote:

When we hear the word "matriarchy", we are conditioned to a number of responses: that matriarchy refers to the past and that matriarchies have never existed; that matriarchy is a hopeless fantasy of female domination, of mothers dominating children, of women being cruel to men. Conditioning us negatively to matriarchy is, of course, in the interests of patriarchs. We are made to feel that patriarchy is natural; we are less likely to question it, and less likely to direct our energies to ending it.[19]

The Matriarchal Studies school led by Göttner-Abendroth calls for an even more inclusive redefinition of the term: Göttner-Abendroth defines Modern Matriarchal Studies as the "investigation and presentation of non-patriarchal societies", effectively defining matriarchy as non-patriarchy.[20] She has also defined matriarchy as characterized by the sharing of power equally between the two genders.[21] According to Diane LeBow, "matriarchal societies are often described as ... egalitarian ...",[22] although anthropologist Ruby Rohrlich has written of "the centrality of women in an egalitarian society."[23][a]

Matriarchy is also the public formation in which the woman occupies the ruling position in a family.[2] Some, including Daniel Moynihan, claimed that there is a matriarchy among Black families in the United States,[24][b] because a quarter of them were headed by single women;[25] thus, families composing a substantial minority of a substantial minority could be enough for the latter to constitute a matriarchy within a larger non-matriarchal society.

Etymologically, it is from Latin māter (genitive mātris), "mother" and Greek ἄρχειν arkhein, "to rule".[26] The notion of matriarchy was defined by Joseph-François Lafitau (1681–1746), who first named it ginécocratie.[27] According to the OED, the earliest known attestation of the word matriarchy is in 1885.[2] By contrast, gynæcocracy, meaning 'rule of women', has been in use since the 17th century, building on the Greek word γυναικοκρατία found in Aristotle and Plutarch.[28][29]

Terms with similar etymology are also used in various social sciences and humanities to describe matriarchal or matriological aspects of social, cultural and political processes.[citation needed] Adjective matriological is derived from the noun matriology that comes from Latin word māter (mother) and Greek word λογος (logos, teaching about).[citation needed] The term matriology was used in theology and history of religion as a designation for the study of particular motherly aspects of various female deities.[citation needed] The term was subsequently borrowed by other social sciences and humanities and its meaning was widened in order to describe and define particular female-dominated and female-centered aspects of cultural and social life.[citation needed] The male alternative for matriology is patriology,[citation needed] with patriarchy being the male alternative to matriarchy[30][pages needed].

Related concepts

In their works, Johann Jakob Bachofen and Lewis Morgan used such terms and expressions as mother-right, female rule, gyneocracy, and female authority. All these terms meant the same: the rule by females (mother or wife).[citation needed] Although Bachofen and Lewis Morgan confined the "mother-right" inside households, it was the basis of female influence upon the whole society.[31] The authors of the classics did not think that gyneocracy meant 'female government' in politics.[citation needed] They were aware of the fact that the sexual structure of government had no relation to domestic rule and to roles of both sexes.[citation needed]

Words beginning with gyn-

A matriarchy is also sometimes called a gynarchy, a gynocracy, a gynecocracy, or a gynocentric society, although these terms do not definitionally emphasize motherhood. Cultural anthropologist Jules de Leeuwe argued that some societies were "mainly gynecocratic"[32] (others being "mainly androcratic").[32][c]

Gynecocracy, gynaecocracy, gynocracy, gyneocracy, and gynarchy generally mean 'government by women over women and men'.[33][34][35][36] All of these words are synonyms in their most important definitions. While these words all share that principal meaning, they differ a little in their additional meanings, so that gynecocracy also means 'women's social supremacy',[37] gynaecocracy also means 'government by one woman', 'female dominance', and, derogatorily, 'petticoat government',[38] and gynocracy also means 'women as the ruling class'.[39] Gyneocracy is rarely used in modern times.[40] None of these definitions are limited to mothers.

Some question whether a queen ruling without a king is sufficient to constitute female government, given the amount of participation of other men in most such governments. One view is that it is sufficient. "By the end of [Queen] Elizabeth's reign, gynecocracy was a fait accompli", according to historian Paula Louise Scalingi.[41][d] Gynecocracy is defined by Scalingi as "government by women",[42] similar to dictionary definitions[34][35][36] (one dictionary adding 'women's social supremacy' to the governing role).[37] Scalingi reported arguments for and against the validity of gynocracy[43] and said, "the humanists treated the question of female rule as part of the larger controversy over sexual equality."[44] Possibly, queenship, because of the power wielded by men in leadership and assisting a queen, leads to queen bee syndrome, contributing to the difficulty of other women in becoming heads of the government.[citation needed]

Some matriarchies have been described by historian Helen Diner as "a strong gynocracy"[45] and "women monopolizing government"[46] and she described matriarchal Amazons as "an extreme, feminist wing"[47][e] of humanity and that North African women "ruled the country politically,"[45] and, according to Adler, Diner "envision[ed] a dominance matriarchy".[48]

Gynocentrism is the 'dominant or exclusive focus on women', is opposed to androcentrism, and "invert[s] ... the privilege of the ... [male/female] binary ...[,] [some feminists] arguing for 'the superiority of values embodied in traditionally female experience'".[49]

Intergenerational relationships

Some people who sought evidence for the existence of a matriarchy often mixed matriarchy with anthropological terms and concepts describing specific arrangements in the field of family relationships and the organization of family life, such as matrilineality and matrilocality. These terms refer to intergenerational relationships (as matriarchy may), but do not distinguish between males and females insofar as they apply to specific arrangements for sons as well as daughters from the perspective of their relatives on their mother's side. Accordingly, these concepts do not represent matriarchy as 'power of women over men'.[50]

Words beginning with matri-

Further information: list of matrilineal or matrilocal societies

Anthropologists have begun to use the term matrifocality.[citation needed] There is some debate concerning the terminological delineation between matrifocality and matriarchy.[citation needed] Matrifocal societies are those in which women, especially mothers, occupy a central position.[citation needed] Anthropologist R. T. Smith refers to matrifocality as the kinship structure of a social system whereby the mothers assume structural prominence.[51] The term does not necessarily imply domination by women or mothers.[51] In addition, some authors depart from the premise of a mother-child dyad as the core of a human group where the grandmother was the central ancestor with her children and grandchildren clustered around her in an extended family.[52]

The term matricentric means 'having a mother as head of the family or household'.[citation needed]

 
Venus von Willendorf, a Venus figurine

Matristic: Feminist scholars and archeologists such as Marija Gimbutas, Gerda Lerner, and Riane Eisler[53] label their notion of a "woman-centered" society surrounding Mother Goddess worship during prehistory (in Paleolithic and Neolithic Europe) and in ancient civilizations by using the term matristic rather than matriarchal. Marija Gimbutas states that she uses "the term matristic simply to avoid the term matriarchy with the understanding that it incorporates matriliny."[54]

Matrilineality, in which descent is traced through the female line, is sometimes conflated with historical matriarchy.[55] Sanday favors redefining and reintroducing the word matriarchy, especially in reference to contemporary matrilineal societies such as the Minangkabau.[56] The 19th-century belief that matriarchal societies existed was due to the transmission of "economic and social power ... through kinship lines"[57] so that "in a matrilineal society all power would be channeled through women. Women may not have retained all power and authority in such societies ..., but they would have been in a position to control and dispense power."[57]

A matrilocal society defines a society in which a couple resides close to the bride's family rather than the bridegroom's family.[58][citation needed]

History and distribution

Most anthropologists hold that there are no known societies that are unambiguously matriarchal.[59][60][61] According to J. M. Adovasio, Olga Soffer, and Jake Page, no true matriarchy is known to have actually existed.[55] Anthropologist Joan Bamberger argued that the historical record contains no primary sources on any society in which women dominated.[62] Anthropologist Donald Brown's list of human cultural universals (viz., features shared by nearly all current human societies) includes men being the "dominant element" in public political affairs,[63] which he asserts is the contemporary opinion of mainstream anthropology.[64] There are some disagreements and possible exceptions. A belief that women's rule preceded men's rule was, according to Haviland, "held by many nineteenth-century intellectuals".[4] The hypothesis survived into the 20th century and was notably advanced in the context of feminism and especially second-wave feminism, but the hypothesis is mostly discredited today, most experts saying that it was never true.[64]

Matriarchs, according to Peoples and Bailey, do exist; there are "individual matriarchs of families and kin groups."[3]

By region and culture

Ancient Near East

The Cambridge Ancient History (1975)[65] stated that "the predominance of a supreme goddess is probably a reflection from the practice of matriarchy which at all times characterized Elamite civilization to a greater or lesser degree".[f]

Europe

Tacitus claimed in his book Germania that in "the nations of the Sitones a woman is the ruling sex."[66][g]

Cucuteni–Trypillia culture has been frequently discussed as a matriarchal society,[67] including its goddess art, connecting the moon, menstrual cycles, agricultural seasons, and life and death.

Anne Helene Gjelstad describes the women on the Estonian islands Kihnu and Manija as "the last matriarchal society in Europe" because "the older women here take care of almost everything on land as their husbands travel the seas".[68][69]

Asia

Burma

Possible matriarchies in Burma are, according to Jorgen Bisch, the Padaungs[70] and, according to Andrew Marshall, the Kayaw.[71]

China
 
Mosuo woman

The Mosuo culture, which is in China near Tibet, is frequently described as matriarchal.[72] The term matrilineal is sometimes used, and, while more accurate, still doesn't reflect the full complexity of their social organization. In fact, it is not easy to categorize Mosuo culture within traditional Western definitions. They have aspects of a matriarchal culture: women are often the head of the house, inheritance is through the female line, and women make business decisions. However, unlike in a true matriarchy, political power tends to be in the hands of males.[73]

India

In India, of communities recognized in the national Constitution as Scheduled Tribes, "some ... [are] matriarchal and matrilineal"[74] "and thus have been known to be more egalitarian".[75] According to interviewer Anuj Kumar, Manipur, India, "has a matriarchal society",[76] but this may not be scholarly. In Kerala, Nairs, Thiyyas, Brahmins of Payyannoor village and Muslims of North Malabar and in Karnataka, Bunts and Billavas used to be matrilineal but are now patriarchal.

Indonesia

Anthropologist Peggy Reeves Sanday said the Minangkabau society may be a matriarchy.[77]

Vietnam

According to William S. Turley, "the role of women in traditional Vietnamese culture was determined [partly] by ... indigenous customs bearing traces of matriarchy",[78] affecting "different social classes"[78] to "varying degrees".[78] Peter C. Phan explains that "the ancient Vietnamese family system was most likely matriarchal, with women ruling over the clan or tribe" until the Vietnamese "adopt[ed] ... the patriarchal system introduced by the Chinese."[79][80] That being said, even after adopting the patriarchal Chinese system, Vietnamese women, especially peasant women, still held a higher position than women in most patriarchal societies.[80][81] According to Chiricosta, the legend of Âu Cơ is said to be evidence of "the presence of an original 'matriarchy' in North Vietnam and [it] led to the double kinship system, which developed there .... [and which] combined matrilineal and patrilineal patterns of family structure and assigned equal importance to both lines."[82][h][i] Chiricosta said that other scholars relied on "this 'matriarchal' aspect of the myth to differentiate Vietnamese society from the pervasive spread of Chinese Confucian patriarchy"[83][j] and that "resistance to China's colonization of Vietnam ... [combined with] the view that Vietnam was originally a matriarchy ... [led to viewing] women's struggles for liberation from (Chinese) patriarchy as a metaphor for the entire nation's struggle for Vietnamese independence."[84] According to Keith Weller Taylor, "the matriarchal flavor of the time is ... attested by the fact that Trung Trac's mother's tomb and spirit temple have survived, although nothing remains of her father",[85] and the "society of the Trung sisters" was "strongly matrilineal".[86] According to Donald M. Seekins, an indication of "the strength of matriarchal values"[87] was that a woman, Trưng Trắc, with her younger sister Trưng Nhị, raised an army of "over 80,000 soldiers ... [in which] many of her officers were women",[87] with which they defeated the Chinese.[87] According to Seekins, "in [the year] 40, Trung Trac was proclaimed queen, and a capital was built for her"[87] and modern Vietnam considers the Trung sisters to be heroines.[87] According to Karen G. Turner, in the third century A.D., Lady Triệu "seem[ed] ... to personify the matriarchal culture that mitigated Confucianized patriarchal norms .... [although] she is also painted as something of a freak ... with her ... savage, violent streak."[88]

Native Americans

Main articles: Gender roles among the indigenous peoples of North America and Native Americans in the United States § Gender roles
 
Girl in the Hopi Reservation

The Hopi (in what is now the Hopi Reservation in northeastern Arizona), according to Alice Schlegel, had as its "gender ideology ... one of female superiority, and it operated within a social actuality of sexual equality."[89] According to LeBow (based on Schlegel's work), in the Hopi, "gender roles ... are egalitarian .... [and] [n]either sex is inferior."[90][k] LeBow concluded that Hopi women "participate fully in ... political decision-making."[91][l] According to Schlegel, "the Hopi no longer live as they are described here"[92] and "the attitude of female superiority is fading".[92] Schlegel said the Hopi "were and still are matrilineal"[93] and "the household ... was matrilocal".[93] Schlegel explains why there was female superiority as that the Hopi believed in "life as the highest good ... [with] the female principle ... activated in women and in Mother Earth ... as its source"[94] and that the Hopi had no need for an army as they did not have rivalries with neighbors.[95] Women were central to institutions of clan and household and predominated "within the economic and social systems (in contrast to male predominance within the political and ceremonial systems)."[95] The Clan Mother, for example, was empowered to overturn land distribution by men if she felt it was unfair[94] since there was no "countervailing ... strongly centralized, male-centered political structure".[94]

The Iroquois Confederacy or League, combining five to six Native American Haudenosaunee nations or tribes before the U.S. became a nation, operated by The Great Binding Law of Peace, a constitution by which women participated in the League's political decision-making, including deciding whether to proceed to war,[96] through what may have been a matriarchy[97] or gyneocracy.[98] According to Doug George-Kanentiio, in this society, mothers exercise central moral and political roles.[99] The dates of this constitution's operation are unknown; the League was formed in approximately 1000–1450, but the constitution was oral until written in about 1880.[100] The League still exists.

George-Kanentiio explains:

In our society, women are the center of all things. Nature, we believe, has given women the ability to create; therefore it is only natural that women be in positions of power to protect this function....We traced our clans through women; a child born into the world assumed the clan membership of its mother. Our young women were expected to be physically strong....The young women received formal instruction in traditional planting....Since the Iroquois were absolutely dependent upon the crops they grew, whoever controlled this vital activity wielded great power within our communities. It was our belief that since women were the givers of life they naturally regulated the feeding of our people....In all countries, real wealth stems from the control of land and its resources. Our Iroquois philosophers knew this as well as we knew natural law. To us it made sense for women to control the land since they were far more sensitive to the rhythms of the Mother Earth. We did not own the land but were custodians of it. Our women decided any and all issues involving territory, including where a community was to be built and how land was to be used....In our political system, we mandated full equality. Our leaders were selected by a caucus of women before the appointments were subject to popular review....Our traditional governments are composed of an equal number of men and women. The men are chiefs and the women clan-mothers....As leaders, the women closely monitor the actions of the men and retain the right to veto any law they deem inappropriate....Our women not only hold the reigns of political and economic power, they also have the right to determine all issues involving the taking of human life. Declarations of war had to be approved by the women, while treaties of peace were subject to their deliberations.[99]

By chronology

Earliest prehistory and undated

The controversy surrounding prehistoric or "primal" matriarchy began in reaction to the book by Bachofen, Mother Right: An Investigation of the Religious and Juridical Character of Matriarchy in the Ancient World, in 1861. Several generations of ethnologists were inspired by his pseudo-evolutionary theory of archaic matriarchy. Following him and Jane Ellen Harrison, several generations of scholars, usually arguing from known myths or oral traditions and examination of Neolithic female cult-figures, suggested that many ancient societies might have been matriarchal, or even that there existed a wide-ranging matriarchal society prior to the ancient cultures of which we are aware. According to Uwe Wesel, Bachofen's myth interpretations have proved to be untenable.[101] The concept was further investigated by Lewis Morgan.[102] Many researchers studied the phenomenon of matriarchy afterward, but the basis was laid by the classics of sociology. The notion of a "woman-centered" society was developed by Bachofen, whose three-volume Myth, Religion, and Mother Right (1861) impacted the way classicists such as Harrison, Arthur Evans, Walter Burkert, and James Mellaart[103] looked at the evidence of matriarchal religion in pre-Hellenic societies.[104] According to historian Susan Mann, as of 2000, "few scholars these days find ... [a "notion of a stage of primal matriarchy"] persuasive."[105]

Kurt Derungs is a non-academic author advocating an "anthropology of landscape" based on allegedly matriarchal traces in toponymy and folklore.[106]

Paleolithic and Neolithic Ages

Friedrich Engels, in 1884, claimed that, in the earliest stages of human social development, there was group marriage and that therefore paternity was disputable, whereas maternity was not, so that a family could be traced only through the female line, and claimed that this was connected with the dominance of women over men or a Mutterrecht, which notion Engels took from Bachofen, who claimed, based on his interpretations of myths, that myths reflected a memory of a time when women dominated over men.[107][108] Engels speculated that the domestication of animals increased wealth claimed by men.[citation needed] Engels said that men wanted control over women for use as laborers and because they wanted to pass on their wealth to their children, requiring monogamy.[citation needed] Engels did not explain how this could happen in a matriarchal society, but said that women's status declined until they became mere objects in the exchange trade between men and patriarchy was established,[citation needed] causing the global defeat of the female sex[109] and the rise of individualism,[110] competition, and dedication to achievement.[citation needed] According to Eller, Engels may have been influenced with respect to women's status by August Bebel,[111] according to whom this matriarchy resulted in communism while patriarchy did not.[112]

Austrian writer Bertha Diener, also known as Helen Diner, wrote Mothers and Amazons (1930), which was the first work to focus on women's cultural history. Hers is regarded as a classic of feminist matriarchal study.[113] Her view is that in the past all human societies were matriarchal; then, at some point, most shifted to patriarchal and degenerated. The controversy was reinforced further by the publication of The White Goddess by Robert Graves (1948) and his later analysis of classical Greek mythology and the vestiges of earlier myths that had been rewritten after a profound change in the religion of Greek civilization that occurred within its very early historical times. From the 1950s, Marija Gimbutas developed a theory of an Old European culture in Neolithic Europe which had matriarchal traits, replaced by the patriarchal system of the Proto-Indo-Europeans with the spread of Indo-European languages beginning in the Bronze Age. According to Epstein, anthropologists in the 20th century said that "the goddess worship or matrilocality that evidently existed in many paleolithic societies was not necessarily associated with matriarchy in the sense of women's power over men. Many societies can be found that exhibit those qualities along with female subordination."[114] From the 1970s, these ideas were taken up by popular writers of second-wave feminism and expanded with the speculations of Margaret Murray on witchcraft, by the Goddess movement, and in feminist Wicca, as well as in works by Eisler, Elizabeth Gould Davis, and Merlin Stone.

"A Golden Age of matriarchy" was, according to Epstein, prominently presented by Charlene Spretnak and "encouraged" by Stone and Eisler,[115] but, at least for the Neolithic Age, has been denounced as feminist wishful thinking in The Inevitability of Patriarchy, Why Men Rule, Goddess Unmasked,[116] and The Myth of Matriarchal Prehistory and is not emphasized in third-wave feminism. According to Eller, Gimbutas had a large part in constructing a myth of historical matriarchy by examining Eastern European cultures that she asserts, by and large, never really bore any resemblance in character to the alleged universal matriarchy suggested by Gimbutas and Graves. She asserts that in "actually documented primitive societies" of recent (historical) times, paternity is never ignored and that the sacred status of goddesses does not automatically increase female social status, and believes that this affirms that utopian matriarchy is simply an inversion of antifeminism.[citation needed]

J.F. del Giorgio insists on a matrifocal, matrilocal, matrilineal Paleolithic society.[117]

Bronze Age

According to Rohrlich, "many scholars are convinced that Crete was a matriarchy, ruled by a queen-priestess"[118] and the "Cretan civilization" was "matriarchal" before "1500 BC," when it was overrun and colonized.[119]

Also according to Rohrlich, "in the early Sumerian city-states 'matriarchy seems to have left something more than a trace.'"[120]

One common misconception among historians of the Bronze Age such as Stone and Eisler is the notion that the Semites were matriarchal while the Indo-Europeans practiced a patriarchal system. An example of this view is found in Stone's When God Was a Woman,[page needed] wherein she makes the case that the worship of Yahweh was an Indo-European invention superimposed on an ancient matriarchal Semitic nation. Evidence from the Amorites and pre-Islamic Arabs, however, indicates that the primitive Semitic family was in fact patriarchal and patrilineal.

However, not all scholars agree. Anthropologist and Biblical scholar Raphael Patai writes in The Hebrew Goddess that the Jewish religion, far from being pure monotheism, contained from earliest times strong polytheistic elements, chief of which was the cult of Asherah, the mother goddess. A story in the Biblical Book of Judges places the worship of Asherah in the 12th century BC. Originally a Canaanite goddess, her worship was adopted by Hebrews who intermarried with Canaanites. She was worshipped in public and was represented by carved wooden poles. Numerous small nude female figurines of clay were found all over ancient Palestine and a seventh-century Hebrew text invokes her aid for a woman giving birth.[121]

Shekinah is the name of the feminine holy spirit who embodies both divine radiance and compassion. She comforts the sick and dejected, accompanies the Jews whenever they are exiled, and intercedes with God to exercise mercy rather than to inflict retribution on sinners. While not a creation of the Hebrew Bible, Shekinah appears in a slightly later Aramaic translation of the Bible in the first or second century C.E., according to Patai. Initially portrayed as the presence of God, she later becomes distinct from God, taking on more physical attributes.[122]

Meanwhile, the Indo-Europeans were known to have practiced multiple succession systems, and there is much better evidence of matrilineal customs among the Indo-European Celts and Germanics than among any ancient Semitic peoples.[where?]

Women were running Sparta while the men were often away fighting. Gorgo, Queen of Sparta, was asked by a woman in Attica something along the lines of, "You Spartan women are the only women that lord it over your men", to which Gorgo replied: "Yes, for we are the only women that are mothers of men!"[123]

Iron Age to Middle Ages

Arising in the period ranging from the Iron Age to the Middle Ages, several early northwestern European mythologies from the Irish (e.g., Macha and Scáthach), the Brittonic (e.g., Rhiannon), and the Germanic (e.g., Grendel's mother and Nerthus) contain ambiguous episodes of primal female power which have been interpreted as folk evidence of a real potential for matriarchal attitudes in pre-Christian European Iron Age societies. Often transcribed from a retrospective, patriarchal, Romanised, and Catholic perspective, they hint at an earlier, culturally disturbing, era when female power could have predominated. The first-century–attested historic British figure of Boudicca indicates that Brittonnic society permitted explicit female autocracy or a form of gender equality in a form which contrasted strongly with the patriarchal structure of Mediterranean civilisation.[citation needed]

20th–21st centuries

The Mosuo people are an ethnic group in southwest China. They are considered one of the most well-known matriarchal societies, although many scholars assert that they are rather matrilineal. As of 2016, the sole heirs in the family are still daughters.[124][125] Since 1990, when foreign tourism became permitted, tourists started visiting the Mosuo people.[124] As pointed out by the Xinhau News Agency, "tourism has become so profitable that many Mosuo families in the area who have opened their homes have become wealthy."[125] Although this revived their economy and lifted many out of poverty, it also altered the fabric of their society to have outsiders present who often look down on the Mosuo's cultural practices.[124]  

In 1995, in Kenya, according to Emily Wax, Umoja, a village only for women from one tribe with about 36 residents, was established under a matriarch.[126] It was founded on an empty piece of land by women who fled their homes after being raped by British soldiers.[127] They formed a safe-haven in rural Samburu County in northern Kenya.[128] Men of the same tribe established a village nearby from which to observe the women's village,[126] the men's leader objecting to the matriarch's questioning the culture[129] and men suing to close the women's village.[129] As of 2019, 48 women, most of whom who have fled gender-based violence like female genital mutilation, assault, rape, and abusive marriages call Umoja home, living with their children in this all female-village.[127] Many of these women faced stigma in their communities following these attacks and had no choice but to flee.[128] Others sought to escape from the nearby Samburu community, which practices child marriage and female genital mutilation.[128]  In the village, the women practice “collective economic cooperation.”[128] The sons are obligated to move out when they turn eighteen.[127] Not only has the Umoja village protected its members, the members have also done extensive work for gender equity in Kenya.[128] The message of the village has spread outside of Kenya as member “Lolosoli’s passion for gender equity in Kenya has carried her to speak on social justice at the United Nations and to participate in an international women’s rights conference in South Africa.”[128]

The Khasi people live in Northeast India in the state of Meghalaya.[130] Although largely considered matrilineal, some women's studies scholars such as Roopleena Banerjee consider the Khasi to be matriarchal.[130] Banerjee asserts that “to assess and account a matriarchal society through the parameters of the patriarchy would be wrong” and that “we should avoid looking at history only through the colonizer/colonized boundaries.”[130] The Khasi people consist of many clans who trace their lineage through the matriarchs of the families.[130] A Khasi husband typically moves into his wife's home, and both wife and husband participate equally in raising their children.[130] A Khasi woman named Passah explains that "[The father] would come to his wife's home late at night... In the morning, he's back at his mother's home to work in the fields,” showing how a man's role consists of supporting his wife and family in Khasi society.[131] Traditionally, the youngest daughter, called the Khadduh, receives and cares for ancestral property.[131][130] As of 2021, the Khasi continue to practice many female-led customs, with wealth and property being passed down through the female side of the family.[131]

Spokespersons for various indigenous peoples at the United Nations and elsewhere have highlighted the central role of women in their societies, referring to them as matriarchies, or as matriarchal in character.[132][133]

Mythology

 
Large stone disk depicting the vanquished Aztec goddess Coyolxāuhqui. The myth surrounding Coyolxāuhqui and her brother Huitzilopochtli has been interpreted by some feminist scholars, such as Cherríe Moraga,[134] as an allegory for a possible real life shift from matriarchy to patriarchy in early Mexica society.

Amazons

A legendary matriarchy related by several writers was Amazon society. According to Phyllis Chesler, "in Amazon societies, women were ... mothers and their society's only political and religious leaders",[135] as well as the only warriors and hunters;[136] "queens were elected"[137] and apparently "any woman could aspire to and achieve full human expression."[138] Herodotus reported that the Sarmatians were descendants of Amazons and Scythians, and that their females observed their ancient maternal customs, "frequently hunting on horseback with their husbands; in war taking the field; and wearing the very same dress as the men". Moreover, said Herodotus, "no girl shall wed till she has killed a man in battle".[139] Amazons came to play a role in Roman historiography. Julius Caesar spoke of the conquest of large parts of Asia by Semiramis and the Amazons.[citation needed] Although Strabo was sceptical about their historicity, the Amazons were taken as historical throughout late Antiquity.[140] Several Church Fathers spoke of the Amazons as a real people.[citation needed] Medieval authors continued a tradition of locating the Amazons in the North, Adam of Bremen placing them at the Baltic Sea and Paulus Diaconus in the heart of Germania.[141]

Greece

Robert Graves suggested that a myth displaced earlier myths that had to change when a major cultural change brought patriarchy to replace a matriarchy.[citation needed] According to this myth, in Greek mythology, Zeus is said to have swallowed his pregnant lover, the titan goddess Metis, who was carrying their daughter, Athena. The mother and child created havoc inside Zeus. Either Hermes or Hephaestus split Zeus's head, allowing Athena, in full battle armor, to burst forth from his forehead. Athena was thus described as being "born" from Zeus. The outcome pleased Zeus as it didn't fulfill the prophecy of Themis which (according to Aeschylus) predicted that Zeus will one day bear a son that would overthrow him.[citation needed]

Celtic myth and society

Main article: Ancient Celtic women § Matriarchy

According to Adler, "there is plenty of evidence of ancient societies where women held greater power than in many societies today. For example, Jean Markale's studies of Celtic societies show that the power of women was reflected not only in myth and legend but in legal codes pertaining to marriage, divorce, property ownership, and the right to rule."[142]

Basque myth and society

The hypothesis of Basque matriarchism or theory of Basque matriarchism is a theoretical proposal launched by Andrés Ortiz-Osés that maintains that the existence of a psychosocial structure centered or focused on the matriarchal-feminine archetype (mother / woman, which finds in the archetype of the great Basque mother Mari, her precipitate as a projection of Mother Earth / nature) that "permeates, coagulates and unites the traditional Basque social group in a way that is different from the patriarchal Indo-European peoples".

This mythical matriarchal conception corresponds to the conception of the Basques, clearly reflected in their mythology. The Earth is the mother of the Sun and the Moon, compared to Indo-European patriarchal conceptions, where the sun is reflected as a God, numen or male spirit. Prayers and greetings were dedicated to these two sisters at dawn and dusk, when they returned to the bosom of Mother Earth.

Franz-Karl Mayr, this philosopher argued that the archetypal background of Basque mythology had to be inscribed in the context of a Paleolithic dominated by the Great Mother, in which the cycle of Mari (goddess) and her metamorphoses offers all a typical symbolism of the matriarchal-naturalistic context. According to the archetype of the Great Mother, this is usually related to fertility cults, as in the case of Mari, who is the determinant of fertility-fecundity, the maker of rain or hail, that on whose telluric forces depend the crops, in space and time, life and death, luck (grace) and misfortune.[143]

Colchis

South America

Bamberger (1974) examines several matriarchal myths from South American cultures and concludes that portraying the women from this matriarchal period as immoral often serves to restrain contemporary women in these societies.[clarification needed] [144]

In feminist thought

For groups and communities without men Separatist Feminism, see Matriarchy (disambiguation).

While matriarchy has mostly fallen out of use for the anthropological description of existing societies, it remains current as a concept in feminism.[145][146]

 
Elizabeth Stanton

In first-wave feminist discourse, either Elizabeth Cady Stanton or Margaret Fuller (it is unclear who was first) introduced the concept of matriarchy[147] and the discourse was joined in by Matilda Joslyn Gage.[148] Victoria Woodhull, in 1871, called for men to open the U.S. government to women or a new constitution and government would be formed in a year;[149] and, on a basis of equality, she ran to be elected president in 1872.[150][151] Charlotte Perkins Gilman, in 1911 and 1914,[152] argued for "a woman-centered, or better mother-centered, world"[153] and described "government by women".[154] She argued that a government led by either sex must be assisted by the other,[155] both genders being "useful ... and should in our governments be alike used",[156] because men and women have different qualities.[157]

Cultural feminism includes "matriarchal worship", according to Prof. James Penner.[158]

In feminist literature, matriarchy and patriarchy are not conceived as simple mirrors of each other.[159] While matriarchy sometimes means "the political rule of women",[160] that meaning is often rejected, on the ground that matriarchy is not a mirroring of patriarchy.[161] Patriarchy is held to be about power over others while matriarchy is held to be about power from within,[159] Starhawk having written on that distinction[159][162] and Adler having argued that matriarchal power is not possessive and not controlling, but is harmonious with nature.[m]

For radical feminists, the importance of matriarchy is that "veneration for the female principle ... somewhat lightens an oppressive system."[164]

Feminist utopias are a form of advocacy. According to Tineke Willemsen, "a feminist utopia would ... be the description of a place where at least women would like to live."[165] Willemsen continues, among "type[s] of feminist utopias[,] ... [one] stem[s] from feminists who emphasize the differences between women and men. They tend to formulate their ideal world in terms of a society where women's positions are better than men's. There are various forms of matriarchy, or even a utopia that resembles the Greek myth of the Amazons.... [V]ery few modern utopias have been developed in which women are absolute autocrats."[166]

A minority of feminists, generally radical,[145][146] have argued that women should govern societies of women and men. In all of these advocacies, the governing women are not limited to mothers:

  • In her book Scapegoat: The Jews, Israel, and Women’s Liberation, Andrea Dworkin stated that she wanted women to have their own country, "Womenland,"[167] which, comparable to Israel, would serve as a "place of potential refuge".[167][168] In the Palestine Solidarity Review, Veronica A. Ouma reviewed the book and argued her view that while Dworkin "pays lip service to the egalitarian nature of ... [stateless] societies [without hierarchies], she envisions a state whereby women either impose gender equality or a state where females rule supreme above males."[169]
  • Starhawk, in The Fifth Sacred Thing (1993), fiction, wrote of "a utopia where women are leading societies but are doing so with the consent of men."[170]
  • Phyllis Chesler wrote in Women and Madness (2005 and 1972) that feminist women must "dominate public and social institutions".[171] She also wrote that women fare better when controlling the means of production[172] and that equality with men should not be supported,[173] even if female domination is no more "just"[173] than male domination.[173] On the other hand, in 1985, she was "probably more of a feminist-anarchist ... more mistrustful of the organisation of power into large bureaucratic states [than she was in 1972]".[174][n] Between Chesler's 1972 and 2005 editions, Dale Spender wrote that Chesler "takes [as] a ... stand [that] .... [e]quality is a spurious goal, and of no use to women: the only way women can protect themselves is if they dominate particular institutions and can use them to serve women's interests. Reproduction is a case in point."[175] Spender wrote Chesler "remarks ... women will be superior".[176]
  • Monique Wittig authored, as fiction (not as fact), Les Guérillères,[177] with her description of an asserted "female State".[178] The work was described by Rohrlich as a "fictional counterpart" to "so-called Amazon societies".[179] Scholarly interpretations of the fictional work include that women win a war against men,[180][181] "reconcil[e]"[182] with "those men of good will who come to join them",[182] exercise feminist autonomy[182] through polyandry,[183] decide how to govern,[182] and rule the men.[184] The women confronting men[185] are, according to Tucker Farley, diverse and thus stronger and more united[186] and, continued Farley, permit a "few ... men, who are willing to accept a feminist society of primitive communism, ... to live."[187] Another interpretation is that the author created an "'open structure' of freedom".[188]
  • Mary Daly wrote of hag-ocracy, "the place we ["women traveling into feminist time/space"] govern",[189][o] and of reversing phallocratic rule[190] in the 1990s (i.e., when published).[191] She considered equal rights as tokenism that works against sisterhood, even as she supported abortion being legal and other reforms.[192] She considered her book female and anti-male.[193]
  • Rasa von Werder has also long advocated for a return to matriarchy, along with associated author William Bond as well.[194]

Some such advocacies are informed by work on past matriarchy:

  • According to Prof. Linda M.G. Zerilli, "an ancient matriarchy ... [was "in early second-wave feminism"] the lost object of women's freedom."[195] Prof. Cynthia Eller found widespread acceptance of matriarchal myth during feminism's second wave.[196] According to Kathryn Rountree, the belief in a prepatriarchal "Golden Age" of matriarchy may have been more specifically about a matrifocal society,[197] although this was believed more in the 1970s than in the 1990s–2000s and was criticized within feminism and within archaeology, anthropology, and theological study as lacking a scholarly basis,[198] and Prof. Harvey C. Mansfield wrote that "the evidence [is] ... of males ruling over all societies at almost all times".[199] Eller said that, other than a few separatist radical lesbian feminists, spiritual feminists would include "a place for men ... in which they can be happy and productive, if not necessarily powerful and in control"[200] and might have social power as well.[201]
  • Jill Johnston envisioned a "return to the former glory and wise equanimity of the matriarchies"[202] in the future[202] and "imagined lesbians as constituting an imaginary radical state, and invoked 'the return to the harmony of statehood and biology....'"[203] Her work inspired efforts at implementation by the Lesbian Organization of Toronto (LOOT) in 1976–1980[204] and in Los Angeles.[205]
  • Elizabeth Gould Davis believed that a "matriarchal counterrevolution [replacing "a[n old] patriarchal revolution"] ... is the only hope for the survival of the human race."[206] She believed that "spiritual force",[207] "mental and spiritual gifts",[207] and "extrasensory perception"[207][p] will be more important and therefore that "woman will ... predominate",[207] and that it is "about ... ["woman" that] the next civilization will ... revolve",[207] as in the kind of past that she believed existed.[207] According to critic Prof. Ginette Castro, Elizabeth Gould Davis used the words matriarchy and gynocracy "interchangeably"[208] and proposed a discourse "rooted in the purest female chauvinism"[209][q] and seemed to support "a feminist counterattack stigmatizing the patriarchal present",[208] "giv[ing] ... in to a revenge-seeking form of feminism",[208] "build[ing] ... her case on the humiliation of men",[208] and "asserti[ng] ... a specifically feminine nature ... [as] morally superior."[208] Castro criticized Elizabeth Gould Davis' essentialism and assertion of superiority as "sexist"[208] and "treason".[208]
  • One organization that was named The Feminists was interested in matriarchy[210] and was one of the largest of the radical feminist women's liberation groups of the 1960s.[211] Two members wanted "the restoration of female rule",[212] but the organization's founder, Ti-Grace Atkinson, would have objected had she remained in the organization, because, according to a historian, "[she] had always doubted that women would wield power differently from men."[213]
 
Robin Morgan
  • Robin Morgan wrote of women fighting for and creating a "gynocratic world".[214]
  • Adler reported, "if feminists have diverse views on the matriarchies of the past, they also are of several minds on the goals for the future. A woman in the coven of Ursa Maior told me, 'right now I am pushing for women's power in any way I can, but I don't know whether my ultimate aim is a society where all human beings are equal, regardless of the bodies they were born into, or whether I would rather see a society where women had institutional authority.'"[215]

Some fiction caricatured the current gender hierarchy by describing a matriarchal alternative without advocating for it. According to Karin Schönpflug, "Gerd Brantenberg's Egalia's Daughters is a caricature of powered gender relations which have been completely reversed, with the female sex on the top and the male sex a degraded, oppressed group";[216] "gender inequality is expressed through power inversion"[217] and "all gender roles are reversed and women rule over a class of intimidated, effeminate men".[218] "Egalia is not a typical example of gender inequality in the sense that a vision of a desirable matriarchy is created; Egalia is more a caricature of male hegemony by twisting gender hierarchy but not really offering a 'better world.'"[218][219]

On egalitarian matriarchy,[220] Heide Göttner-Abendroth's International Academy for Modern Matriarchal Studies and Matriarchal Spirituality (HAGIA) organized conferences in Luxembourg in 2003[221] and Texas in 2005,[222][223] with papers published.[224] Göttner-Abendroth argued that "matriarchies are all egalitarian at least in terms of gender—they have no gender hierarchy .... [, that, f]or many matriarchal societies, the social order is completely egalitarian at both local and regional levels",[225] that, "for our own path toward new egalitarian societies, we can gain ... insight from ... ["tested"] matriarchal patterns",[226] and that "matriarchies are not abstract utopias, constructed according to philosophical concepts that could never be implemented."[227]

According to Eller, "a deep distrust of men's ability to adhere to"[228] future matriarchal requirements may invoke a need "to retain at least some degree of female hegemony to insure against a return to patriarchal control",[228] "feminists ... [having] the understanding that female dominance is better for society—and better for men—than the present world order",[229] as is equalitarianism. On the other hand, Eller continued, if men can be trusted to accept equality, probably most feminists seeking future matriarchy would accept an equalitarian model.[229]

"Demographic[ally]",[230] "feminist matriarchalists run the gamut"[230] but primarily are "in white, well-educated, middle-class circles";[230] many of the adherents are "religiously inclined"[230] while others are "quite secular".[230]

Biology as a ground for holding either males or females superior over the other has been criticized as invalid, such as by Andrea Dworkin[231] and by Robin Morgan.[232] A claim that women have unique characteristics that prevent women's assimilation with men has been apparently rejected by Ti-Grace Atkinson.[233] On the other hand, not all advocates based their arguments on biology or essentialism.

A criticism by Mansfield of choosing who governs according to gender or sex is that the best qualified people should be chosen, regardless of gender or sex.[234] On the other hand, Mansfield considered merit insufficient for office, because a legal right granted by a sovereign (e.g., a king), was more important than merit.[235]

Diversity within a proposed community can, according to Becki L. Ross, make it especially challenging to complete forming the community.[236] However, some advocacy includes diversity, in the views of Dworkin[167] and Farley.[237]

Prof. Christine Stansell, a feminist, wrote that, for feminists to achieve state power, women must democratically cooperate with men. "Women must take their place with a new generation of brothers in a struggle for the world's fortunes. Herland, whether of virtuous matrons or daring sisters, is not an option... [T]he well-being and liberty of women cannot be separated from democracy's survival."[238] (Herland was feminist utopian fiction by Charlotte Perkins Gilman in 1911, featuring a community entirely of women except for three men who seek it out,[239] strong women in a matriarchal utopia[240] expected to last for generations,[241] although Charlotte Perkins Gilman was herself a feminist advocate of society being gender-integrated and of women's freedom.)[242]

Other criticisms of superiority are that it is reverse sexism or discriminatory against men, it is opposed by most people including most feminists, women do not want such a position,[r] governing takes women away from family responsibilities, women are too likely to be unable to serve politically because of menstruation and pregnancy,[248] public affairs are too sordid for women[249] and would cost women their respect[250] and femininity (apparently including fertility),[251] superiority is not traditional,[252][s] women lack the political capacity and authority men have,[t] it is impractical because of a shortage of women with the ability to govern at that level of difficulty[250] as well as the desire and ability to wage war,[u][v][w] women are less aggressive, or less often so, than are men[259] and politics is aggressive,[260] women legislating would not serve men's interests[250][261][262] or would serve only petty interests,[250] it is contradicted by current science on genderal differences,[263] it is unnatural,[264][265][x][267] and, in the views of a playwright and a novelist, "women cannot govern on their own."[268] On the other hand, another view is that "women have 'empire' over men"[269] because of nature and "men ... are actually obeying" women.[269]

Pursuing a future matriarchy would tend to risk sacrificing feminists' position in present social arrangements, and many feminists are not willing to take that chance, according to Eller.[228] "Political feminists tend to regard discussions of what utopia would look like as a good way of setting themselves up for disappointment", according to Eller,[270] and argue that immediate political issues must get the highest priority.[270]

"Matriarchists", as typified by comic character Wonder Woman, were criticized by Kathie Sarachild, Carol Hanisch, and some others.[271]

In religious thought

Exclusionary

Some theologies and theocracies limit or forbid women from being in civil government or public leadership or forbid them from voting,[272] effectively criticizing and forbidding matriarchy. Within none of the following religions is the respective view necessarily universally held:

  • In Islam, some Muslim scholars hold that female political leadership is prohibited, according to Anne Sofie Roald.[273] The prohibition has been attributed to a hadith of Muhammad,[274][y] the founder and last prophet of Islam. The hadith says, according to Roald, "a people which has a woman as leader will never prosper."[274][z] The hadith's transmission, context, and meaning have been questioned, wrote Roald.[278] According to Roald, the prohibition has also been attributed as an extension of a ban on women leading prayers "in mixed gatherings" (which has been challenged)[276] and to a restriction on women traveling (an attribution also challenged).[279] Possibly, Roald noted, the hadith applies only against being head of state and not other high office.[279] One source, wrote Roald, would allow a woman to "occupy every position except that of khalīfa (the leader of all Muslims)."[280] One exception to the head-of-state prohibition was accepted without a general acceptance of women in political leadership, Roald reported.[281] Political activism at lower levels may be more acceptable to Islamist women than top leadership positions, said Roald.[282] The Muslim Brotherhood has stated that women may not be president or head of state but may hold other public offices but, "as for judiciary office, .... [t]he majority of jurispudents ... have forbidden it completely."[283] In a study of 82 Islamists in Europe, according to Roald, 80% said women could not be state leaders but 75% said women could hold other high positions.[284] In 1994, the Muslim Brotherhood said that "social circumstances and traditions" may justify gradualism in the exercise of women's right to hold office (below head of state).[285] Whether the Muslim Brothers still support that statement is unclear.[286] As reported in 1953, Roald reported later, "Islamic organizations held a conference in the office of the Muslim Brothers .... [and] claim[ed] ... that it had been proven that political rights for women were contrary to religion".[287] Some nations have specific bans. In Iran at times, according to Elaheh Rostami Povey, women have been forbidden to fill some political offices because of law or because of judgments made under the Islamic religion.[288] As to Saudi Arabia, according to Asmaa Al-Mohamed, "Saudi women ... are ... not allowed to enter parliament as anything more than advisors; they cannot vote, much less serve as representatives".[289] According to Steven Pinker, in a 2001–2007 Gallup poll of 35 nations having 90% of the world's Muslims, "substantial majorities of both sexes in all the major Muslim countries say that women should be allowed to vote without influence from men ... and to serve in the highest levels of government."[290]
  • In Rabbinical Judaism, among orthodox leaders, a position, beginning before Israel became a modern state, has been that for women to hold public office in Israel would threaten the state's existence, according to educator Tova Hartman,[291] who reports the view has "wide consensus".[292] When Israel ratified the international women's equality agreement known as CEDAW, according to Marsha Freeman, it reserved nonenforcement for any religious communities that forbid women from sitting on religious courts.[293] According to Freeman, "the tribunals that adjudicate marital issues are by religious law and by custom entirely male."[294] "'Men's superiority' is a fundamental tenet in Judaism", according to Irit Umanit.[295] According to Freeman, Likud party-led "governments have been less than hospitable to women's high-level participation."[296]
  • In Buddhism, according to Karma Lekshe Tsomo, some hold that "the Buddha allegedly hesitated to admit women to the Saṅgha ...."[297] "In certain Buddhist countries—Burma, Cambodia, Laos, Sri Lanka, and Thailand—women are categorically denied admission to the Saṅgha, Buddhism's most fundamental institution", according to Tsomo.[298] Tsomo wrote, "throughout history, the support of the Saṅgha has been actively sought as a means of legitimation by those wishing to gain and maintain positions of political power in Buddhist countries."[298]
  • Among Hindus in India, the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh, "India's most extensive all-male Hindu nationalist organization,"[299][aa] has debated whether women can ever be Hindu nationalist political leaders[300] but without coming to a conclusion, according to Paola Bacchetta.[300] The Rashtriya Sevika Samiti, a counterpart organization composed of women,[300] believes that women can be Hindu nationalist political leaders[300] and has trained two in Parliament,[301] but considers women only as exceptions,[302] the norm for such leadership being men.[300]
 
John Knox
  • In Protestant Christianity, considered only historically, in 1558, John Knox (Maria Stuart's subject) wrote The First Blast of the Trumpet against the Monstrous Regiment of Women.[303] According to Scalingi, the work is "perhaps the best known analysis of gynecocracy"[44] and Knox was "the most notorious"[44] writer on the subject.[44] According to an 1878 edition, Knox's objection to any women reigning and having "empire"[ab] over men was theological[305] and it was against nature for women to bear rule, superiority, dominion, or empire above any realm, nation, or city.[ac] Susan M. Felch said that Knox's argument was partly grounded on a statement of the apostle Paul against women teaching or usurping authority over men.[306] According to Maria Zina Gonçalves de Abreu, Knox argued that a woman being a national ruler was unnatural[307] and that women were unfit and ineligible for the post.[307] Kathryn M. Brammall said Knox "considered the rule of female monarchs to be anathema to good government"[308] and that Knox "also attacked those who obeyed or supported female leaders",[309] including men.[309] Robert M. Healey said that Knox objected to women's rule even if men accepted it.[310] On whether Knox personally endorsed what he wrote, according to Felch, Jasper Ridley, in 1968, argued that even Knox may not have personally believed his stated position but may have merely pandered to popular sentiment,[311] itself a point disputed by W. Stanford Reid.[312] On the popularity of Knox's views, Patricia-Ann Lee said Knox's "fierce attack on the legitimacy of female rule ... [was one in which] he said ... little that was unacceptable ... to most of his contemporaries",[313] although Judith M. Richards disagreed on whether the acceptance was quite so widespread.[314] According to David Laing's Preface to Knox's work, Knox's views were agreed with by some people at the time, the Preface saying, "[Knox's] views were in harmony with those of his colleagues ... [Goodman, Whittingham, and Gilby]".[315] Writing in agreement with Knox was Christopher Goodman, who, according to Lee, "considered the woman ruler to be a monster in nature, and used ... scriptural argument to prove that females were barred ... from any political power",[316] even if, according to Richards, the woman was "virtuous".[317] Some views included conditionality; while John Calvin said, according to Healey, "that government by a woman was a deviation from the original and proper order of nature, and therefore among the punishments humanity incurred for original sin",[318][ad] nonetheless Calvin would not always question a woman's right to inherit rule of a realm or principality.[319] Heinrich Bullinger, according to Healey, "held that rule by a woman was contrary to God's law but cautioned against [always] using that reason to oppose such rule".[320] According to Richards, Bullinger said women were normally not to rule.[321] Around 1560, Calvin, in disagreeing with Knox, argued that the existence of the few women who were exceptions showed that theological ground existed for their exceptionalism.[322] Knox's view was much debated in Europe at the time,[323] the issue considered complicated by laws such as on inheritance[314] and since several women were already in office, including as Queens, according to de Abreu.[324] Knox's view is not said to be widely held in modern Protestantism among leadership or laity.

Inclusionary

Main articles: thealogy and Goddess movement

According to Eller, feminist thealogy conceptualized humanity as beginning with "female-ruled or equalitarian societies",[325] until displaced by patriarchies,[326] and that in the millennial future "'gynocentric,' life-loving values"[326] will return to prominence.[326] This, according to Eller, produces "a virtually infinite number of years of female equality or superiority coming both at the beginning and end of historical time".[327]

Among criticisms is that a future matriarchy, according to Eller, as a reflection of spirituality, is conceived as ahistorical,[229] and thus may be unrealistic, unreachable, or even meaningless as a goal to secular feminists.

In popular culture

Ancient theatre

  • As criticism in 390 BC, Aristophanes wrote a play, Ecclesiazusae, about women gaining legislative power and governing Athens, Greece, on a limited principle of equality. In the play, according to Mansfield, Praxagora, a character, argues that women should rule because they are superior to men, not equal, and yet she declines to assert publicly her right to rule, although elected and although acting in office.[328] The play, Mansfield wrote, also suggests that women would rule by not allowing politics, in order to prevent disappointment, and that affirmative action would be applied to heterosexual relationships.[328] In the play, as Mansfield described it, written when Athens was a male-only democracy where women could not vote or rule, women were presented as unassertive and unrealistic, and thus not qualified to govern.[328] The play, according to Sarah Ruden, was a fable on the theme that women should stay home.[329]

Literature

  • Elizabeth Burgoyne Corbett's New Amazonia: A Foretaste of the Future is an early feminist utopian novel (published 1889), which is matriarchal in that all political leadership roles in New Amazonia are required to be held by women, according to Duangrudi Suksang.[330]
  • Roquia Sakhawat Hussain's Sultana's Dream is an early feminist utopia (published 1905) based on advanced science and technology developed by women, set in a society, Ladyland, run by women, where "the power of males is taken away and given to females," and men are secluded and primarily attend to domestic duties, according to Seemin Hasan.[331]
  • Marion Zimmer Bradley's book, The Ruins of Isis (1978), is, according to Batya Weinbaum, set within a "female supremacist world".[332]
  • In Marion Zimmer Bradley's book, The Mists of Avalon (1983), Avalon is an island with a matriarchal culture, according to Ruben Valdes-Miyares.[333]
  • In Orson Scott Card's Speaker for the Dead (1986) and its sequels, the alien pequenino species in every forest are matriarchal.[334]
  • In Sheri S. Tepper's book, The Gate to Women's Country (1988), the only men who live in Women's Country are the "servitors," who are servants to the women, according to Peter Fitting.[335]
  • Élisabeth Vonarburg's book, Chroniques du Pays des Mères (1992) (translated into English as In the Mothers' Land) is set in a matriarchal society where, due to a genetic mutation, women outnumber men by 70 to 1.[336]
  • N. Lee Wood's book Master of None (2004) is set in a "closed matriarchal world where men have no legal rights", according to Publishers Weekly.[337]
  • Wen Spencer's book A Brother's Price (2005) is set in a world where, according to Page Traynor, "women are in charge", "boys are rare and valued but not free", and "boys are kept at home to do the cooking and child caring until the time they marry".[338]
  • Elizabeth Bear's Carnival (2006) introduces New Amazonia, a colony planet with a matriarchal and largely lesbian population who eschew the strict and ruthless population control and environmentalism instituted on Earth. The Amazonians are aggressive, warlike and subjugate the few men they tolerate for reproduction and service, but they are also pragmatic and defensive of their freedom from the male-dominated Coalition that seeks to conquer them.[339]
  • In Naomi Alderman's book, The Power (2016), women develop the ability to release electrical jolts from their fingers, thus leading them to become the dominant gender.[340]
  • Jean M. Auel's Earth's Children (1980–2011).
  • In the SCP Foundation, which is a collaborative online horror fiction website, the Daevites are an ancient society in which women took the roles of both religious and political leaders, and men often take the place of slaves [341]

Film

  • In the 2011 Disney animated film Mars Needs Moms, Mars is ruled by a female Martian known only as The Supervisor, who long ago deemed all male martians to the trash underground and kept all females in functioning society. The film reveals The Supervisor, for an unexplained reason, changed how Martian society was being run (from children being raised by parents) to Martian children being raised by "Nannybots". The Supervisor sacrifices one Earth mother every twenty-five years for that mother's knowledge of order, discipline and control, which is transferred to the Nannybots who raise the female Martians.[citation needed]

Animals

 
European bison social structure has been described as a matriarchy.[by whom?]

Matriarchy may also refer to non-human animal species in which females hold higher status and hierarchical positions, such as among spotted hyenas, elephants, lemurs, naked mole rats,[342] and bonobos.[343] The social structure of European bison herds has also been described by specialists as a matriarchy – the cows of the group lead it as the entire herd follows them to grazing areas.[344] Though heavier and larger than the females, the older and more powerful males of the European bison usually fulfill the role of satellites that hang around the edges of the herd.[345] Apart from the mating season when they begin to compete with each other, European bison bulls serve a more active role in the herd only once a danger to the group's safety appears.[346] In bonobos, even the highest ranking male will sometimes face aggression from females and is occasionally injured by them. Female bonobos secure feeding privileges and exude social confidence while the males generally cower on the sidelines. The only exceptions are males with influential mothers, so even the rank between the males is influenced strongly by females. Females also initiate group travels. [347]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Feminist anthropology, an approach to anthropology that tries to reduces male bias in the field
  2. ^ Black matriarchy, the cultural phenomenon of many Black families being headed by mothers with fathers absent
  3. ^ Androcracy, form of government ruled by males, especially fathers
  4. ^ Queen Elizabeth I, queen regnant of England and Ireland in 1533–1603
  5. ^ Amazon feminism, feminism that emphasizes female physical prowess toward the goal of gender equality
  6. ^ Elamite civilization, an ancient civilization in part of what is now Iran
  7. ^ Sitones, a Germanic or Finnic people who lived in Northern Europe in the first century AD
  8. ^ North Vietnam, sovereign state until merged with South Vietnam in 1976
  9. ^ Patrilineal, belonging to the father's lineage, generally for inheritance
  10. ^ Confucianism, ethics and philosophy derived from Confucius
  11. ^ Gender role, set of norms for a gender in social relationships
  12. ^ Clan Mothers, elder matriarchs of certain Native American clans, who were typically in charge of appointing tribal chiefs
  13. ^ Adler wrote a matriarchy is "a realm where female things are valued and where power is exerted in non-possessive, non-controlling, and organic ways that are harmonious with nature."[163]
  14. ^ Anarcha-feminism, a philosophy combining anarchism and feminism
  15. ^ For another definition of hag by Mary Daly, see Daly, Mary, with Jane Caputi, Websters' First New Intergalactic Wickedary of the English Language (London, Great Britain: Women's Press, 1988 (ISBN 0-7043-4114-X)), p. 137.
  16. ^ Extrasensory perception (ESP), perception sensed by the mind but not originating through recognized physical senses
  17. ^ Chauvinism, partisanship that is extreme and unreasoning and in favor of a group
  18. ^ "Women do not run for office as readily as men do, nor do most women, it seems, call on them to run. It seems that they do not have the same desire to 'run' things as men, to use the word in another political sense that like the first includes standing out in front.... Women are partisan, like men; hence they are political, like men. But not to the same degree. They will readily sail into partisan conflict, but they are not so ready to take the lead and make themselves targets of partisan hostility (though they do write provocative books)."[243] [A] "study .... traces the gender gap ... to 'participatory factors,' such as education and income, that give men greater advantages in civic skills, enabling them to participate politically"[244] "[I]n politics and in other public situations, he ["the manly man"] willingly takes responsibility when others hang back.... His wife and children ... are weaker",[245] "manliness ... is aggression that develops an assertion, a cause it espouses"...[246] "a woman .... may have less ambition or a different ambition, but being a political animal like a man, she too likes to rule, if in her way".[247] See also Schaub (2006).
  19. ^ "Athenians were extreme, but almost no Greeks or Romans thought women should participate in government. There was no approved public forum for any kind of women's self-expression, not even in the arts and religion [perhaps except "priestesses"]."[253][254]
  20. ^ "[according to] Aristotle ....[,] [a]s women do not have the authority, the political capacity, of men, they are, as it were, elbowed out of politics and ushered into the household.... Meanwhile, the male rules because of his greater authority".[255]
  21. ^ "ability to fight .... is an important claim to rule ..., and it is the culmination of the aggressive manly stereotype we are considering", "who can reasonably deny that women are not as accomplished as men in battle either in spirit or in physique? .... Conservatives say that this proves that women are not the same as men", & "manliness is best shown in war, the defense of one's country at its most difficult and dangerous"[256] "there might come a point when ... stronger persons would have to be fought [by women] rather than merely told off.... The very great majority of women would take a pass on the opportunity to be GI Jane. In the NATO countries where women are allowed in combat units they form only 1 percent of the complement.... Whatever their belief about equality, women might reasonably decide they are needed more elsewhere than in combat"[257]
  22. ^ GI Jane is 'a female member of a military'.[258]
  23. ^ NATO, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, which provides collective military defense for member nations
  24. ^ "Mrs. Woodhull offers herself in apparent good faith as a candidate, and perhaps she has a remote impression, or rather hope, that she may be elected, but it seems that she is rather in advance of her time. The public mind is not yet educated to the pitch of universal woman's rights" ... "At present man, in his affection for and kindness toward the weaker sex, is disposed to accord her any reasonable number of privileges. Beyond that stage he pauses, because there seems to him to be something which is unnatural in permitting her to share the turmoil, the excitement, the risks of competition for the glory of governing."[266]
  25. ^ "Koranic verse 4: 34 ... has been used to denounce female leadership"[275] ("4: 34" spaced so in original), but the verse may apply to family life rather than to politics.[276] Roald (2001), pp. 189–190 cites, respectively, Badawi, Jamal, Gender Equity in Islam: Basic Principles (Indianapolis: American Trust Publications, 1995), p. 38 & perhaps passim, and Roald, Anne Sofie, & Pernilla Ouis, Lyssna på männen: att leva i en patriarkalisk muslimsk kontext, in Kvinnovetenskaplig Tidskrift, pp. 91–108 (1997).
  26. ^ Another translation is, "a people which has a woman as a leader will not succeed."[277] The 2001 author's paraphrase of the hadith, "the people who have a female leader will not succeed", is at Roald (2001), p. 185.
  27. ^ Although India is majority Hindu, it is officially secular, per Bacchetta (2002), p. 157.
  28. ^ "I am assured that God hath reueled to some in this our age, that it is more then a monstre in nature, that a woman shall reigne and haue empire aboue man."[304]
  29. ^ "To promote a woman to beare rule, superioritie, dominion or empire aboue any realme, nation, or citie, is repugnant to nature, contumelie to God, a thing most contrarious to his reueled will and approued ordinance, and finallie it is the subuersion of good order, of all equitie and iustice[.]"[305]
  30. ^ Original sin, in Christianity, a state of sin, or violation of God's will, due to Adam's rebellion in the Garden of Eden

References

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  3. ^ a b Peoples & Bailey (2012), p. 259
  4. ^ a b Haviland, William A., Anthropology (Ft. Worth: Harcourt Brace College Publishers, 8th ed. 1997 (ISBN 0-15-503578-9)), p. 579.
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  20. ^ Introduction, in Second World Congress on Matriarchal Studies.
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  252. ^ Mansfield (2006), p. 72 ("the evidence [is] ... of males ruling over all societies at almost all times" & "males ... have dominated all politics we know of") & 58 ("every previous society, including our democracy up to now, has been some kind of patriarchy, permeated by stubborn, self-insistent manliness" (italics omitted)) and see p. 66 (patriarchy as "based on manliness, not merely those governments staffed by males", applicability depending on the antecedent for "here").
  253. ^ Ruden (2010), p. 80 (emphasis in original)
  254. ^ Athenians discussed in the context of play by Aristophanes, Ruden (2010), pp. 78–80
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  263. ^ Mansfield (2006), p. 50 ("our science rather clumsily confirms the stereotype about manliness, the stereotype that stands stubbornly in the way of the gender-neutral society") and see pp. 43–49.
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Further reading

  • Czaplicka, Marie Antoinette, Aboriginal Siberia, a Study in Social Anthropology (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1914)
  • Finley, M.I., The World of Odysseus (London: Pelican Books, 1962)
  • Gimbutas, Marija, The Language of the Goddess (1991)
  • Goldberg, Steven, Why Men Rule: A Theory of Male Dominance (rev. ed. 1993 (ISBN 0-8126-9237-3))
  • Hutton, Ronald, The Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Isles (1993 (ISBN 0-631-18946-7))
  • Lapatin, Kenneth, Mysteries of the Snake Goddess: Art, Desire, and the Forging of History (2002 (ISBN 0-306-81328-9))
  • Lerner, Gerda, The Creation of Feminist Consciousness: From the Middle Ages to Eighteen-Seventy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993 (ISBN 0-19-509060-8))
  • Lerner, Gerda, The Creation of Patriarchy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986 (ISBN 0-19-505185-8))
  • Sukumar, R. (July 2006). "A brief review of the status, distribution and biology of wild Asian elephants Elephas maximus". International Zoo Yearbook. 40 (1): 1–8. doi:10.1111/j.1748-1090.2006.00001.x.
  • Sanday, Peggy Reeves, Women at the Center: Life in a Modern Matriarchy (Cornell University Press, 2002)
  • Schiavoni, Giulio, Bachofen in-attuale? (chapter), in Il matriarcato. Ricerca sulla ginecocrazia del mondo antico nei suoi aspetti religiosi e giuridici (Turin, Italy: Giulio Einaudi editore, 2016) (Johann Jakob Bachofen, editor) (ISBN 978-88-06-229375)
  • Shorrocks, Bryan, The Biology of African Savannahs (Oxford University Press, 2007 (ISBN 0-19-857066-X))
  • Stearns, Peter N., Gender in World History (N.Y.: Routledge, 2000 (ISBN 0-415-22310-5))

External links

January 15, 2023
matriarchy, gynecocracy, matriarch, redirect, here, novel, gynecocracy, novel, other, uses, matriarch, disambiguation, social, system, which, women, hold, primary, power, positions, roles, authority, broader, sense, also, extend, moral, authority, social, priv. Gynecocracy and Matriarch redirect here For the novel see Gynecocracy novel For other uses see Matriarch disambiguation Matriarchy is a social system in which women hold the primary power positions in roles of authority In a broader sense it can also extend to moral authority social privilege and control of property While those definitions apply in general English definitions specific to anthropology and feminism differ in some respects Nampeyo of the Hopi Tewa People in 1901 with her mother White Corn her eldest daughter Annie Healing and holding her granddaughter Rachel Matriarchies may also be confused with matrilineal matrilocal and matrifocal societies 1 While there are those who may consider any non patriarchal system to be matriarchal most academics exclude those systems from matriarchies as strictly defined Contents 1 Definitions connotations and etymology 2 Related concepts 2 1 Words beginning with gyn 2 2 Intergenerational relationships 2 3 Words beginning with matri 3 History and distribution 3 1 By region and culture 3 1 1 Ancient Near East 3 1 2 Europe 3 1 3 Asia 3 1 3 1 Burma 3 1 3 2 China 3 1 3 3 India 3 1 3 4 Indonesia 3 1 3 5 Vietnam 3 1 4 Native Americans 3 2 By chronology 3 2 1 Earliest prehistory and undated 3 2 2 Paleolithic and Neolithic Ages 3 2 3 Bronze Age 3 2 4 Iron Age to Middle Ages 3 2 5 20th 21st centuries 4 Mythology 4 1 Amazons 4 2 Greece 4 3 Celtic myth and society 4 4 Basque myth and society 4 5 Colchis 4 6 South America 5 In feminist thought 6 In religious thought 6 1 Exclusionary 6 2 Inclusionary 7 In popular culture 7 1 Ancient theatre 7 2 Literature 7 3 Film 8 Animals 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 11 1 Bibliography 12 Further reading 13 External linksDefinitions connotations and etymology EditAccording to the Oxford English Dictionary OED matriarchy is a form of social organization in which the mother or oldest female is the head of the family and descent and relationship are reckoned through the female line government or rule by a woman or women 2 A popular definition according to James Peoples and Garrick Bailey is female dominance 3 Within the academic discipline of cultural anthropology according to the OED matriarchy is a culture or community in which such a system prevails 2 or a family society organization etc dominated by a woman or women 2 In general anthropology according to William A Haviland matriarchy is rule by women 4 A matriarchy is a society in which females especially mothers have the central roles of political leadership moral authority and control of property but does not include a society that occasionally is led by a female for nonmatriarchal reasons or an occupation in which females generally predominate without reference to matriarchy such as prostitution or women s auxiliaries of organizations run by men citation needed According to Lawrence A Kuzner in 1997 A R Radcliffe Brown argued in 1924 that the definitions of matriarchy and patriarchy had logical and empirical failings and were too vague to be scientifically useful 5 Most academics exclude egalitarian nonpatriarchal systems from matriarchies more strictly defined According to Heide Gottner Abendroth a reluctance to accept the existence of matriarchies might be based on a specific culturally biased notion of how to define matriarchy because in a patriarchy men rule over women a matriarchy has frequently been conceptualized as women ruling over men 6 7 while she believed that matriarchies are egalitarian 6 8 Margot Adler The word matriarchy for a society politically led by females especially mothers who also control property is often interpreted to mean the genderal opposite of patriarchy but it is not an opposite 9 10 11 According to Peoples and Bailey the view of anthropologist Peggy Reeves Sanday is that matriarchies are not a mirror form of patriarchies but rather that a matriarchy emphasizes maternal meanings where maternal symbols are linked to social practices influencing the lives of both sexes and where women play a central role in these practices 12 Journalist Margot Adler wrote literally matriarchy means government by mothers or more broadly government and power in the hands of women 13 Barbara Love and Elizabeth Shanklin wrote by matriarchy we mean a non alienated society a society in which women those who produce the next generation define motherhood determine the conditions of motherhood and determine the environment in which the next generation is reared 14 According to Cynthia Eller matriarchy can be thought of as a shorthand description for any society in which women s power is equal or superior to men s and in which the culture centers around values and life events described as feminine 15 Eller wrote that the idea of matriarchy mainly rests on two pillars romanticism and modern social criticism 16 The notion of matriarchy was meant to describe something like a utopia placed in the past in order to legitimate contemporary social criticism citation needed With respect to a prehistoric matriarchal Golden Age according to Barbara Epstein matriarchy means a social system organized around matriliny and goddess worship in which women have positions of power 17 According to Adler in the Marxist tradition it usually refers to a pre class society where women and men share equally in production and power 18 According to Adler a number of feminists note that few definitions of the word matriarchy despite its literal meaning include any concept of power and they suggest that centuries of oppression have made it impossible for women to conceive of themselves with such power 18 Matriarchy has often been presented as negative in contrast to patriarchy as natural and inevitable for society thus that matriarchy is hopeless Love and Shanklin wrote When we hear the word matriarchy we are conditioned to a number of responses that matriarchy refers to the past and that matriarchies have never existed that matriarchy is a hopeless fantasy of female domination of mothers dominating children of women being cruel to men Conditioning us negatively to matriarchy is of course in the interests of patriarchs We are made to feel that patriarchy is natural we are less likely to question it and less likely to direct our energies to ending it 19 The Matriarchal Studies school led by Gottner Abendroth calls for an even more inclusive redefinition of the term Gottner Abendroth defines Modern Matriarchal Studies as the investigation and presentation of non patriarchal societies effectively defining matriarchy as non patriarchy 20 She has also defined matriarchy as characterized by the sharing of power equally between the two genders 21 According to Diane LeBow matriarchal societies are often described as egalitarian 22 although anthropologist Ruby Rohrlich has written of the centrality of women in an egalitarian society 23 a Matriarchy is also the public formation in which the woman occupies the ruling position in a family 2 Some including Daniel Moynihan claimed that there is a matriarchy among Black families in the United States 24 b because a quarter of them were headed by single women 25 thus families composing a substantial minority of a substantial minority could be enough for the latter to constitute a matriarchy within a larger non matriarchal society Etymologically it is from Latin mater genitive matris mother and Greek ἄrxein arkhein to rule 26 The notion of matriarchy was defined by Joseph Francois Lafitau 1681 1746 who first named it ginecocratie 27 According to the OED the earliest known attestation of the word matriarchy is in 1885 2 By contrast gynaecocracy meaning rule of women has been in use since the 17th century building on the Greek word gynaikokratia found in Aristotle and Plutarch 28 29 Terms with similar etymology are also used in various social sciences and humanities to describe matriarchal or matriological aspects of social cultural and political processes citation needed Adjective matriological is derived from the noun matriology that comes from Latin word mater mother and Greek word logos logos teaching about citation needed The term matriology was used in theology and history of religion as a designation for the study of particular motherly aspects of various female deities citation needed The term was subsequently borrowed by other social sciences and humanities and its meaning was widened in order to describe and define particular female dominated and female centered aspects of cultural and social life citation needed The male alternative for matriology is patriology citation needed with patriarchy being the male alternative to matriarchy 30 pages needed Related concepts EditIn their works Johann Jakob Bachofen and Lewis Morgan used such terms and expressions as mother right female rule gyneocracy and female authority All these terms meant the same the rule by females mother or wife citation needed Although Bachofen and Lewis Morgan confined the mother right inside households it was the basis of female influence upon the whole society 31 The authors of the classics did not think that gyneocracy meant female government in politics citation needed They were aware of the fact that the sexual structure of government had no relation to domestic rule and to roles of both sexes citation needed Words beginning with gyn Edit A matriarchy is also sometimes called a gynarchy a gynocracy a gynecocracy or a gynocentric society although these terms do not definitionally emphasize motherhood Cultural anthropologist Jules de Leeuwe argued that some societies were mainly gynecocratic 32 others being mainly androcratic 32 c Gynecocracy gynaecocracy gynocracy gyneocracy and gynarchy generally mean government by women over women and men 33 34 35 36 All of these words are synonyms in their most important definitions While these words all share that principal meaning they differ a little in their additional meanings so that gynecocracy also means women s social supremacy 37 gynaecocracy also means government by one woman female dominance and derogatorily petticoat government 38 and gynocracy also means women as the ruling class 39 Gyneocracy is rarely used in modern times 40 None of these definitions are limited to mothers Some question whether a queen ruling without a king is sufficient to constitute female government given the amount of participation of other men in most such governments One view is that it is sufficient By the end of Queen Elizabeth s reign gynecocracy was a fait accompli according to historian Paula Louise Scalingi 41 d Gynecocracy is defined by Scalingi as government by women 42 similar to dictionary definitions 34 35 36 one dictionary adding women s social supremacy to the governing role 37 Scalingi reported arguments for and against the validity of gynocracy 43 and said the humanists treated the question of female rule as part of the larger controversy over sexual equality 44 Possibly queenship because of the power wielded by men in leadership and assisting a queen leads to queen bee syndrome contributing to the difficulty of other women in becoming heads of the government citation needed Some matriarchies have been described by historian Helen Diner as a strong gynocracy 45 and women monopolizing government 46 and she described matriarchal Amazons as an extreme feminist wing 47 e of humanity and that North African women ruled the country politically 45 and according to Adler Diner envision ed a dominance matriarchy 48 Gynocentrism is the dominant or exclusive focus on women is opposed to androcentrism and invert s the privilege of the male female binary some feminists arguing for the superiority of values embodied in traditionally female experience 49 Intergenerational relationships Edit Some people who sought evidence for the existence of a matriarchy often mixed matriarchy with anthropological terms and concepts describing specific arrangements in the field of family relationships and the organization of family life such as matrilineality and matrilocality These terms refer to intergenerational relationships as matriarchy may but do not distinguish between males and females insofar as they apply to specific arrangements for sons as well as daughters from the perspective of their relatives on their mother s side Accordingly these concepts do not represent matriarchy as power of women over men 50 Words beginning with matri Edit Further information list of matrilineal or matrilocal societies Anthropologists have begun to use the term matrifocality citation needed There is some debate concerning the terminological delineation between matrifocality and matriarchy citation needed Matrifocal societies are those in which women especially mothers occupy a central position citation needed Anthropologist R T Smith refers to matrifocality as the kinship structure of a social system whereby the mothers assume structural prominence 51 The term does not necessarily imply domination by women or mothers 51 In addition some authors depart from the premise of a mother child dyad as the core of a human group where the grandmother was the central ancestor with her children and grandchildren clustered around her in an extended family 52 The term matricentric means having a mother as head of the family or household citation needed Venus von Willendorf a Venus figurine Matristic Feminist scholars and archeologists such as Marija Gimbutas Gerda Lerner and Riane Eisler 53 label their notion of a woman centered society surrounding Mother Goddess worship during prehistory in Paleolithic and Neolithic Europe and in ancient civilizations by using the term matristic rather than matriarchal Marija Gimbutas states that she uses the term matristic simply to avoid the term matriarchy with the understanding that it incorporates matriliny 54 Matrilineality in which descent is traced through the female line is sometimes conflated with historical matriarchy 55 Sanday favors redefining and reintroducing the word matriarchy especially in reference to contemporary matrilineal societies such as the Minangkabau 56 The 19th century belief that matriarchal societies existed was due to the transmission of economic and social power through kinship lines 57 so that in a matrilineal society all power would be channeled through women Women may not have retained all power and authority in such societies but they would have been in a position to control and dispense power 57 A matrilocal society defines a society in which a couple resides close to the bride s family rather than the bridegroom s family 58 citation needed History and distribution EditMost anthropologists hold that there are no known societies that are unambiguously matriarchal 59 60 61 According to J M Adovasio Olga Soffer and Jake Page no true matriarchy is known to have actually existed 55 Anthropologist Joan Bamberger argued that the historical record contains no primary sources on any society in which women dominated 62 Anthropologist Donald Brown s list of human cultural universals viz features shared by nearly all current human societies includes men being the dominant element in public political affairs 63 which he asserts is the contemporary opinion of mainstream anthropology 64 There are some disagreements and possible exceptions A belief that women s rule preceded men s rule was according to Haviland held by many nineteenth century intellectuals 4 The hypothesis survived into the 20th century and was notably advanced in the context of feminism and especially second wave feminism but the hypothesis is mostly discredited today most experts saying that it was never true 64 Matriarchs according to Peoples and Bailey do exist there are individual matriarchs of families and kin groups 3 By region and culture Edit Ancient Near East Edit The Cambridge Ancient History 1975 65 stated that the predominance of a supreme goddess is probably a reflection from the practice of matriarchy which at all times characterized Elamite civilization to a greater or lesser degree f Europe Edit Tacitus claimed in his book Germania that in the nations of the Sitones a woman is the ruling sex 66 g Cucuteni Trypillia culture has been frequently discussed as a matriarchal society 67 including its goddess art connecting the moon menstrual cycles agricultural seasons and life and death Anne Helene Gjelstad describes the women on the Estonian islands Kihnu and Manija as the last matriarchal society in Europe because the older women here take care of almost everything on land as their husbands travel the seas 68 69 Asia Edit Burma Edit Possible matriarchies in Burma are according to Jorgen Bisch the Padaungs 70 and according to Andrew Marshall the Kayaw 71 China Edit Mosuo woman The Mosuo culture which is in China near Tibet is frequently described as matriarchal 72 The term matrilineal is sometimes used and while more accurate still doesn t reflect the full complexity of their social organization In fact it is not easy to categorize Mosuo culture within traditional Western definitions They have aspects of a matriarchal culture women are often the head of the house inheritance is through the female line and women make business decisions However unlike in a true matriarchy political power tends to be in the hands of males 73 India Edit In India of communities recognized in the national Constitution as Scheduled Tribes some are matriarchal and matrilineal 74 and thus have been known to be more egalitarian 75 According to interviewer Anuj Kumar Manipur India has a matriarchal society 76 but this may not be scholarly In Kerala Nairs Thiyyas Brahmins of Payyannoor village and Muslims of North Malabar and in Karnataka Bunts and Billavas used to be matrilineal but are now patriarchal Indonesia Edit Anthropologist Peggy Reeves Sanday said the Minangkabau society may be a matriarchy 77 Vietnam Edit According to William S Turley the role of women in traditional Vietnamese culture was determined partly by indigenous customs bearing traces of matriarchy 78 affecting different social classes 78 to varying degrees 78 Peter C Phan explains that the ancient Vietnamese family system was most likely matriarchal with women ruling over the clan or tribe until the Vietnamese adopt ed the patriarchal system introduced by the Chinese 79 80 That being said even after adopting the patriarchal Chinese system Vietnamese women especially peasant women still held a higher position than women in most patriarchal societies 80 81 According to Chiricosta the legend of Au Cơ is said to be evidence of the presence of an original matriarchy in North Vietnam and it led to the double kinship system which developed there and which combined matrilineal and patrilineal patterns of family structure and assigned equal importance to both lines 82 h i Chiricosta said that other scholars relied on this matriarchal aspect of the myth to differentiate Vietnamese society from the pervasive spread of Chinese Confucian patriarchy 83 j and that resistance to China s colonization of Vietnam combined with the view that Vietnam was originally a matriarchy led to viewing women s struggles for liberation from Chinese patriarchy as a metaphor for the entire nation s struggle for Vietnamese independence 84 According to Keith Weller Taylor the matriarchal flavor of the time is attested by the fact that Trung Trac s mother s tomb and spirit temple have survived although nothing remains of her father 85 and the society of the Trung sisters was strongly matrilineal 86 According to Donald M Seekins an indication of the strength of matriarchal values 87 was that a woman Trưng Trắc with her younger sister Trưng Nhị raised an army of over 80 000 soldiers in which many of her officers were women 87 with which they defeated the Chinese 87 According to Seekins in the year 40 Trung Trac was proclaimed queen and a capital was built for her 87 and modern Vietnam considers the Trung sisters to be heroines 87 According to Karen G Turner in the third century A D Lady Triệu seem ed to personify the matriarchal culture that mitigated Confucianized patriarchal norms although she is also painted as something of a freak with her savage violent streak 88 Native Americans Edit Main articles Gender roles among the indigenous peoples of North America and Native Americans in the United States Gender roles Girl in the Hopi Reservation The Hopi in what is now the Hopi Reservation in northeastern Arizona according to Alice Schlegel had as its gender ideology one of female superiority and it operated within a social actuality of sexual equality 89 According to LeBow based on Schlegel s work in the Hopi gender roles are egalitarian and n either sex is inferior 90 k LeBow concluded that Hopi women participate fully in political decision making 91 l According to Schlegel the Hopi no longer live as they are described here 92 and the attitude of female superiority is fading 92 Schlegel said the Hopi were and still are matrilineal 93 and the household was matrilocal 93 Schlegel explains why there was female superiority as that the Hopi believed in life as the highest good with the female principle activated in women and in Mother Earth as its source 94 and that the Hopi had no need for an army as they did not have rivalries with neighbors 95 Women were central to institutions of clan and household and predominated within the economic and social systems in contrast to male predominance within the political and ceremonial systems 95 The Clan Mother for example was empowered to overturn land distribution by men if she felt it was unfair 94 since there was no countervailing strongly centralized male centered political structure 94 The Iroquois Confederacy or League combining five to six Native American Haudenosaunee nations or tribes before the U S became a nation operated by The Great Binding Law of Peace a constitution by which women participated in the League s political decision making including deciding whether to proceed to war 96 through what may have been a matriarchy 97 or gyneocracy 98 According to Doug George Kanentiio in this society mothers exercise central moral and political roles 99 The dates of this constitution s operation are unknown the League was formed in approximately 1000 1450 but the constitution was oral until written in about 1880 100 The League still exists George Kanentiio explains In our society women are the center of all things Nature we believe has given women the ability to create therefore it is only natural that women be in positions of power to protect this function We traced our clans through women a child born into the world assumed the clan membership of its mother Our young women were expected to be physically strong The young women received formal instruction in traditional planting Since the Iroquois were absolutely dependent upon the crops they grew whoever controlled this vital activity wielded great power within our communities It was our belief that since women were the givers of life they naturally regulated the feeding of our people In all countries real wealth stems from the control of land and its resources Our Iroquois philosophers knew this as well as we knew natural law To us it made sense for women to control the land since they were far more sensitive to the rhythms of the Mother Earth We did not own the land but were custodians of it Our women decided any and all issues involving territory including where a community was to be built and how land was to be used In our political system we mandated full equality Our leaders were selected by a caucus of women before the appointments were subject to popular review Our traditional governments are composed of an equal number of men and women The men are chiefs and the women clan mothers As leaders the women closely monitor the actions of the men and retain the right to veto any law they deem inappropriate Our women not only hold the reigns of political and economic power they also have the right to determine all issues involving the taking of human life Declarations of war had to be approved by the women while treaties of peace were subject to their deliberations 99 By chronology Edit Earliest prehistory and undated Edit The controversy surrounding prehistoric or primal matriarchy began in reaction to the book by Bachofen Mother Right An Investigation of the Religious and Juridical Character of Matriarchy in the Ancient World in 1861 Several generations of ethnologists were inspired by his pseudo evolutionary theory of archaic matriarchy Following him and Jane Ellen Harrison several generations of scholars usually arguing from known myths or oral traditions and examination of Neolithic female cult figures suggested that many ancient societies might have been matriarchal or even that there existed a wide ranging matriarchal society prior to the ancient cultures of which we are aware According to Uwe Wesel Bachofen s myth interpretations have proved to be untenable 101 The concept was further investigated by Lewis Morgan 102 Many researchers studied the phenomenon of matriarchy afterward but the basis was laid by the classics of sociology The notion of a woman centered society was developed by Bachofen whose three volume Myth Religion and Mother Right 1861 impacted the way classicists such as Harrison Arthur Evans Walter Burkert and James Mellaart 103 looked at the evidence of matriarchal religion in pre Hellenic societies 104 According to historian Susan Mann as of 2000 few scholars these days find a notion of a stage of primal matriarchy persuasive 105 Kurt Derungs is a non academic author advocating an anthropology of landscape based on allegedly matriarchal traces in toponymy and folklore 106 Paleolithic and Neolithic Ages Edit Friedrich Engels in 1884 claimed that in the earliest stages of human social development there was group marriage and that therefore paternity was disputable whereas maternity was not so that a family could be traced only through the female line and claimed that this was connected with the dominance of women over men or a Mutterrecht which notion Engels took from Bachofen who claimed based on his interpretations of myths that myths reflected a memory of a time when women dominated over men 107 108 Engels speculated that the domestication of animals increased wealth claimed by men citation needed Engels said that men wanted control over women for use as laborers and because they wanted to pass on their wealth to their children requiring monogamy citation needed Engels did not explain how this could happen in a matriarchal society but said that women s status declined until they became mere objects in the exchange trade between men and patriarchy was established citation needed causing the global defeat of the female sex 109 and the rise of individualism 110 competition and dedication to achievement citation needed According to Eller Engels may have been influenced with respect to women s status by August Bebel 111 according to whom this matriarchy resulted in communism while patriarchy did not 112 Austrian writer Bertha Diener also known as Helen Diner wrote Mothers and Amazons 1930 which was the first work to focus on women s cultural history Hers is regarded as a classic of feminist matriarchal study 113 Her view is that in the past all human societies were matriarchal then at some point most shifted to patriarchal and degenerated The controversy was reinforced further by the publication of The White Goddess by Robert Graves 1948 and his later analysis of classical Greek mythology and the vestiges of earlier myths that had been rewritten after a profound change in the religion of Greek civilization that occurred within its very early historical times From the 1950s Marija Gimbutas developed a theory of an Old European culture in Neolithic Europe which had matriarchal traits replaced by the patriarchal system of the Proto Indo Europeans with the spread of Indo European languages beginning in the Bronze Age According to Epstein anthropologists in the 20th century said that the goddess worship or matrilocality that evidently existed in many paleolithic societies was not necessarily associated with matriarchy in the sense of women s power over men Many societies can be found that exhibit those qualities along with female subordination 114 From the 1970s these ideas were taken up by popular writers of second wave feminism and expanded with the speculations of Margaret Murray on witchcraft by the Goddess movement and in feminist Wicca as well as in works by Eisler Elizabeth Gould Davis and Merlin Stone A Golden Age of matriarchy was according to Epstein prominently presented by Charlene Spretnak and encouraged by Stone and Eisler 115 but at least for the Neolithic Age has been denounced as feminist wishful thinking in The Inevitability of Patriarchy Why Men Rule Goddess Unmasked 116 and The Myth of Matriarchal Prehistory and is not emphasized in third wave feminism According to Eller Gimbutas had a large part in constructing a myth of historical matriarchy by examining Eastern European cultures that she asserts by and large never really bore any resemblance in character to the alleged universal matriarchy suggested by Gimbutas and Graves She asserts that in actually documented primitive societies of recent historical times paternity is never ignored and that the sacred status of goddesses does not automatically increase female social status and believes that this affirms that utopian matriarchy is simply an inversion of antifeminism citation needed J F del Giorgio insists on a matrifocal matrilocal matrilineal Paleolithic society 117 Bronze Age Edit This section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed October 2013 Learn how and when to remove this template message According to Rohrlich many scholars are convinced that Crete was a matriarchy ruled by a queen priestess 118 and the Cretan civilization was matriarchal before 1500 BC when it was overrun and colonized 119 Also according to Rohrlich in the early Sumerian city states matriarchy seems to have left something more than a trace 120 One common misconception among historians of the Bronze Age such as Stone and Eisler is the notion that the Semites were matriarchal while the Indo Europeans practiced a patriarchal system An example of this view is found in Stone s When God Was a Woman page needed wherein she makes the case that the worship of Yahweh was an Indo European invention superimposed on an ancient matriarchal Semitic nation Evidence from the Amorites and pre Islamic Arabs however indicates that the primitive Semitic family was in fact patriarchal and patrilineal However not all scholars agree Anthropologist and Biblical scholar Raphael Patai writes in The Hebrew Goddess that the Jewish religion far from being pure monotheism contained from earliest times strong polytheistic elements chief of which was the cult of Asherah the mother goddess A story in the Biblical Book of Judges places the worship of Asherah in the 12th century BC Originally a Canaanite goddess her worship was adopted by Hebrews who intermarried with Canaanites She was worshipped in public and was represented by carved wooden poles Numerous small nude female figurines of clay were found all over ancient Palestine and a seventh century Hebrew text invokes her aid for a woman giving birth 121 Shekinah is the name of the feminine holy spirit who embodies both divine radiance and compassion She comforts the sick and dejected accompanies the Jews whenever they are exiled and intercedes with God to exercise mercy rather than to inflict retribution on sinners While not a creation of the Hebrew Bible Shekinah appears in a slightly later Aramaic translation of the Bible in the first or second century C E according to Patai Initially portrayed as the presence of God she later becomes distinct from God taking on more physical attributes 122 Meanwhile the Indo Europeans were known to have practiced multiple succession systems and there is much better evidence of matrilineal customs among the Indo European Celts and Germanics than among any ancient Semitic peoples where Women were running Sparta while the men were often away fighting Gorgo Queen of Sparta was asked by a woman in Attica something along the lines of You Spartan women are the only women that lord it over your men to which Gorgo replied Yes for we are the only women that are mothers of men 123 Iron Age to Middle Ages Edit Arising in the period ranging from the Iron Age to the Middle Ages several early northwestern European mythologies from the Irish e g Macha and Scathach the Brittonic e g Rhiannon and the Germanic e g Grendel s mother and Nerthus contain ambiguous episodes of primal female power which have been interpreted as folk evidence of a real potential for matriarchal attitudes in pre Christian European Iron Age societies Often transcribed from a retrospective patriarchal Romanised and Catholic perspective they hint at an earlier culturally disturbing era when female power could have predominated The first century attested historic British figure of Boudicca indicates that Brittonnic society permitted explicit female autocracy or a form of gender equality in a form which contrasted strongly with the patriarchal structure of Mediterranean civilisation citation needed 20th 21st centuries Edit The Mosuo people are an ethnic group in southwest China They are considered one of the most well known matriarchal societies although many scholars assert that they are rather matrilineal As of 2016 update the sole heirs in the family are still daughters 124 125 Since 1990 when foreign tourism became permitted tourists started visiting the Mosuo people 124 As pointed out by the Xinhau News Agency tourism has become so profitable that many Mosuo families in the area who have opened their homes have become wealthy 125 Although this revived their economy and lifted many out of poverty it also altered the fabric of their society to have outsiders present who often look down on the Mosuo s cultural practices 124 In 1995 in Kenya according to Emily Wax Umoja a village only for women from one tribe with about 36 residents was established under a matriarch 126 It was founded on an empty piece of land by women who fled their homes after being raped by British soldiers 127 They formed a safe haven in rural Samburu County in northern Kenya 128 Men of the same tribe established a village nearby from which to observe the women s village 126 the men s leader objecting to the matriarch s questioning the culture 129 and men suing to close the women s village 129 As of 2019 48 women most of whom who have fled gender based violence like female genital mutilation assault rape and abusive marriages call Umoja home living with their children in this all female village 127 Many of these women faced stigma in their communities following these attacks and had no choice but to flee 128 Others sought to escape from the nearby Samburu community which practices child marriage and female genital mutilation 128 In the village the women practice collective economic cooperation 128 The sons are obligated to move out when they turn eighteen 127 Not only has the Umoja village protected its members the members have also done extensive work for gender equity in Kenya 128 The message of the village has spread outside of Kenya as member Lolosoli s passion for gender equity in Kenya has carried her to speak on social justice at the United Nations and to participate in an international women s rights conference in South Africa 128 The Khasi people live in Northeast India in the state of Meghalaya 130 Although largely considered matrilineal some women s studies scholars such as Roopleena Banerjee consider the Khasi to be matriarchal 130 Banerjee asserts that to assess and account a matriarchal society through the parameters of the patriarchy would be wrong and that we should avoid looking at history only through the colonizer colonized boundaries 130 The Khasi people consist of many clans who trace their lineage through the matriarchs of the families 130 A Khasi husband typically moves into his wife s home and both wife and husband participate equally in raising their children 130 A Khasi woman named Passah explains that The father would come to his wife s home late at night In the morning he s back at his mother s home to work in the fields showing how a man s role consists of supporting his wife and family in Khasi society 131 Traditionally the youngest daughter called the Khadduh receives and cares for ancestral property 131 130 As of 2021 the Khasi continue to practice many female led customs with wealth and property being passed down through the female side of the family 131 Spokespersons for various indigenous peoples at the United Nations and elsewhere have highlighted the central role of women in their societies referring to them as matriarchies or as matriarchal in character 132 133 Mythology Edit Large stone disk depicting the vanquished Aztec goddess Coyolxauhqui The myth surrounding Coyolxauhqui and her brother Huitzilopochtli has been interpreted by some feminist scholars such as Cherrie Moraga 134 as an allegory for a possible real life shift from matriarchy to patriarchy in early Mexica society Amazons Edit A legendary matriarchy related by several writers was Amazon society According to Phyllis Chesler in Amazon societies women were mothers and their society s only political and religious leaders 135 as well as the only warriors and hunters 136 queens were elected 137 and apparently any woman could aspire to and achieve full human expression 138 Herodotus reported that the Sarmatians were descendants of Amazons and Scythians and that their females observed their ancient maternal customs frequently hunting on horseback with their husbands in war taking the field and wearing the very same dress as the men Moreover said Herodotus no girl shall wed till she has killed a man in battle 139 Amazons came to play a role in Roman historiography Julius Caesar spoke of the conquest of large parts of Asia by Semiramis and the Amazons citation needed Although Strabo was sceptical about their historicity the Amazons were taken as historical throughout late Antiquity 140 Several Church Fathers spoke of the Amazons as a real people citation needed Medieval authors continued a tradition of locating the Amazons in the North Adam of Bremen placing them at the Baltic Sea and Paulus Diaconus in the heart of Germania 141 Greece Edit Robert Graves suggested that a myth displaced earlier myths that had to change when a major cultural change brought patriarchy to replace a matriarchy citation needed According to this myth in Greek mythology Zeus is said to have swallowed his pregnant lover the titan goddess Metis who was carrying their daughter Athena The mother and child created havoc inside Zeus Either Hermes or Hephaestus split Zeus s head allowing Athena in full battle armor to burst forth from his forehead Athena was thus described as being born from Zeus The outcome pleased Zeus as it didn t fulfill the prophecy of Themis which according to Aeschylus predicted that Zeus will one day bear a son that would overthrow him citation needed Celtic myth and society Edit Main article Ancient Celtic women Matriarchy According to Adler there is plenty of evidence of ancient societies where women held greater power than in many societies today For example Jean Markale s studies of Celtic societies show that the power of women was reflected not only in myth and legend but in legal codes pertaining to marriage divorce property ownership and the right to rule 142 Basque myth and society Edit The hypothesis of Basque matriarchism or theory of Basque matriarchism is a theoretical proposal launched by Andres Ortiz Oses that maintains that the existence of a psychosocial structure centered or focused on the matriarchal feminine archetype mother woman which finds in the archetype of the great Basque mother Mari her precipitate as a projection of Mother Earth nature that permeates coagulates and unites the traditional Basque social group in a way that is different from the patriarchal Indo European peoples This mythical matriarchal conception corresponds to the conception of the Basques clearly reflected in their mythology The Earth is the mother of the Sun and the Moon compared to Indo European patriarchal conceptions where the sun is reflected as a God numen or male spirit Prayers and greetings were dedicated to these two sisters at dawn and dusk when they returned to the bosom of Mother Earth Franz Karl Mayr this philosopher argued that the archetypal background of Basque mythology had to be inscribed in the context of a Paleolithic dominated by the Great Mother in which the cycle of Mari goddess and her metamorphoses offers all a typical symbolism of the matriarchal naturalistic context According to the archetype of the Great Mother this is usually related to fertility cults as in the case of Mari who is the determinant of fertility fecundity the maker of rain or hail that on whose telluric forces depend the crops in space and time life and death luck grace and misfortune 143 Colchis Edit South America Edit Bamberger 1974 examines several matriarchal myths from South American cultures and concludes that portraying the women from this matriarchal period as immoral often serves to restrain contemporary women in these societies clarification needed 144 In feminist thought EditFor groups and communities without men Separatist Feminism see Matriarchy disambiguation While matriarchy has mostly fallen out of use for the anthropological description of existing societies it remains current as a concept in feminism 145 146 Elizabeth Stanton In first wave feminist discourse either Elizabeth Cady Stanton or Margaret Fuller it is unclear who was first introduced the concept of matriarchy 147 and the discourse was joined in by Matilda Joslyn Gage 148 Victoria Woodhull in 1871 called for men to open the U S government to women or a new constitution and government would be formed in a year 149 and on a basis of equality she ran to be elected president in 1872 150 151 Charlotte Perkins Gilman in 1911 and 1914 152 argued for a woman centered or better mother centered world 153 and described government by women 154 She argued that a government led by either sex must be assisted by the other 155 both genders being useful and should in our governments be alike used 156 because men and women have different qualities 157 Cultural feminism includes matriarchal worship according to Prof James Penner 158 In feminist literature matriarchy and patriarchy are not conceived as simple mirrors of each other 159 While matriarchy sometimes means the political rule of women 160 that meaning is often rejected on the ground that matriarchy is not a mirroring of patriarchy 161 Patriarchy is held to be about power over others while matriarchy is held to be about power from within 159 Starhawk having written on that distinction 159 162 and Adler having argued that matriarchal power is not possessive and not controlling but is harmonious with nature m For radical feminists the importance of matriarchy is that veneration for the female principle somewhat lightens an oppressive system 164 Feminist utopias are a form of advocacy According to Tineke Willemsen a feminist utopia would be the description of a place where at least women would like to live 165 Willemsen continues among type s of feminist utopias one stem s from feminists who emphasize the differences between women and men They tend to formulate their ideal world in terms of a society where women s positions are better than men s There are various forms of matriarchy or even a utopia that resembles the Greek myth of the Amazons V ery few modern utopias have been developed in which women are absolute autocrats 166 A minority of feminists generally radical 145 146 have argued that women should govern societies of women and men In all of these advocacies the governing women are not limited to mothers In her book Scapegoat The Jews Israel and Women s Liberation Andrea Dworkin stated that she wanted women to have their own country Womenland 167 which comparable to Israel would serve as a place of potential refuge 167 168 In the Palestine Solidarity Review Veronica A Ouma reviewed the book and argued her view that while Dworkin pays lip service to the egalitarian nature of stateless societies without hierarchies she envisions a state whereby women either impose gender equality or a state where females rule supreme above males 169 Starhawk in The Fifth Sacred Thing 1993 fiction wrote of a utopia where women are leading societies but are doing so with the consent of men 170 Phyllis Chesler wrote in Women and Madness 2005 and 1972 that feminist women must dominate public and social institutions 171 She also wrote that women fare better when controlling the means of production 172 and that equality with men should not be supported 173 even if female domination is no more just 173 than male domination 173 On the other hand in 1985 she was probably more of a feminist anarchist more mistrustful of the organisation of power into large bureaucratic states than she was in 1972 174 n Between Chesler s 1972 and 2005 editions Dale Spender wrote that Chesler takes as a stand that e quality is a spurious goal and of no use to women the only way women can protect themselves is if they dominate particular institutions and can use them to serve women s interests Reproduction is a case in point 175 Spender wrote Chesler remarks women will be superior 176 Monique Wittig authored as fiction not as fact Les Guerilleres 177 with her description of an asserted female State 178 The work was described by Rohrlich as a fictional counterpart to so called Amazon societies 179 Scholarly interpretations of the fictional work include that women win a war against men 180 181 reconcil e 182 with those men of good will who come to join them 182 exercise feminist autonomy 182 through polyandry 183 decide how to govern 182 and rule the men 184 The women confronting men 185 are according to Tucker Farley diverse and thus stronger and more united 186 and continued Farley permit a few men who are willing to accept a feminist society of primitive communism to live 187 Another interpretation is that the author created an open structure of freedom 188 Mary Daly wrote of hag ocracy the place we women traveling into feminist time space govern 189 o and of reversing phallocratic rule 190 in the 1990s i e when published 191 She considered equal rights as tokenism that works against sisterhood even as she supported abortion being legal and other reforms 192 She considered her book female and anti male 193 Rasa von Werder has also long advocated for a return to matriarchy along with associated author William Bond as well 194 Some such advocacies are informed by work on past matriarchy According to Prof Linda M G Zerilli an ancient matriarchy was in early second wave feminism the lost object of women s freedom 195 Prof Cynthia Eller found widespread acceptance of matriarchal myth during feminism s second wave 196 According to Kathryn Rountree the belief in a prepatriarchal Golden Age of matriarchy may have been more specifically about a matrifocal society 197 although this was believed more in the 1970s than in the 1990s 2000s and was criticized within feminism and within archaeology anthropology and theological study as lacking a scholarly basis 198 and Prof Harvey C Mansfield wrote that the evidence is of males ruling over all societies at almost all times 199 Eller said that other than a few separatist radical lesbian feminists spiritual feminists would include a place for men in which they can be happy and productive if not necessarily powerful and in control 200 and might have social power as well 201 Jill Johnston envisioned a return to the former glory and wise equanimity of the matriarchies 202 in the future 202 and imagined lesbians as constituting an imaginary radical state and invoked the return to the harmony of statehood and biology 203 Her work inspired efforts at implementation by the Lesbian Organization of Toronto LOOT in 1976 1980 204 and in Los Angeles 205 Elizabeth Gould Davis believed that a matriarchal counterrevolution replacing a n old patriarchal revolution is the only hope for the survival of the human race 206 She believed that spiritual force 207 mental and spiritual gifts 207 and extrasensory perception 207 p will be more important and therefore that woman will predominate 207 and that it is about woman that the next civilization will revolve 207 as in the kind of past that she believed existed 207 According to critic Prof Ginette Castro Elizabeth Gould Davis used the words matriarchy and gynocracy interchangeably 208 and proposed a discourse rooted in the purest female chauvinism 209 q and seemed to support a feminist counterattack stigmatizing the patriarchal present 208 giv ing in to a revenge seeking form of feminism 208 build ing her case on the humiliation of men 208 and asserti ng a specifically feminine nature as morally superior 208 Castro criticized Elizabeth Gould Davis essentialism and assertion of superiority as sexist 208 and treason 208 One organization that was named The Feminists was interested in matriarchy 210 and was one of the largest of the radical feminist women s liberation groups of the 1960s 211 Two members wanted the restoration of female rule 212 but the organization s founder Ti Grace Atkinson would have objected had she remained in the organization because according to a historian she had always doubted that women would wield power differently from men 213 Robin Morgan Robin Morgan wrote of women fighting for and creating a gynocratic world 214 Adler reported if feminists have diverse views on the matriarchies of the past they also are of several minds on the goals for the future A woman in the coven of Ursa Maior told me right now I am pushing for women s power in any way I can but I don t know whether my ultimate aim is a society where all human beings are equal regardless of the bodies they were born into or whether I would rather see a society where women had institutional authority 215 Some fiction caricatured the current gender hierarchy by describing a matriarchal alternative without advocating for it According to Karin Schonpflug Gerd Brantenberg s Egalia s Daughters is a caricature of powered gender relations which have been completely reversed with the female sex on the top and the male sex a degraded oppressed group 216 gender inequality is expressed through power inversion 217 and all gender roles are reversed and women rule over a class of intimidated effeminate men 218 Egalia is not a typical example of gender inequality in the sense that a vision of a desirable matriarchy is created Egalia is more a caricature of male hegemony by twisting gender hierarchy but not really offering a better world 218 219 On egalitarian matriarchy 220 Heide Gottner Abendroth s International Academy for Modern Matriarchal Studies and Matriarchal Spirituality HAGIA organized conferences in Luxembourg in 2003 221 and Texas in 2005 222 223 with papers published 224 Gottner Abendroth argued that matriarchies are all egalitarian at least in terms of gender they have no gender hierarchy that f or many matriarchal societies the social order is completely egalitarian at both local and regional levels 225 that for our own path toward new egalitarian societies we can gain insight from tested matriarchal patterns 226 and that matriarchies are not abstract utopias constructed according to philosophical concepts that could never be implemented 227 According to Eller a deep distrust of men s ability to adhere to 228 future matriarchal requirements may invoke a need to retain at least some degree of female hegemony to insure against a return to patriarchal control 228 feminists having the understanding that female dominance is better for society and better for men than the present world order 229 as is equalitarianism On the other hand Eller continued if men can be trusted to accept equality probably most feminists seeking future matriarchy would accept an equalitarian model 229 Demographic ally 230 feminist matriarchalists run the gamut 230 but primarily are in white well educated middle class circles 230 many of the adherents are religiously inclined 230 while others are quite secular 230 Biology as a ground for holding either males or females superior over the other has been criticized as invalid such as by Andrea Dworkin 231 and by Robin Morgan 232 A claim that women have unique characteristics that prevent women s assimilation with men has been apparently rejected by Ti Grace Atkinson 233 On the other hand not all advocates based their arguments on biology or essentialism A criticism by Mansfield of choosing who governs according to gender or sex is that the best qualified people should be chosen regardless of gender or sex 234 On the other hand Mansfield considered merit insufficient for office because a legal right granted by a sovereign e g a king was more important than merit 235 Diversity within a proposed community can according to Becki L Ross make it especially challenging to complete forming the community 236 However some advocacy includes diversity in the views of Dworkin 167 and Farley 237 Prof Christine Stansell a feminist wrote that for feminists to achieve state power women must democratically cooperate with men Women must take their place with a new generation of brothers in a struggle for the world s fortunes Herland whether of virtuous matrons or daring sisters is not an option T he well being and liberty of women cannot be separated from democracy s survival 238 Herland was feminist utopian fiction by Charlotte Perkins Gilman in 1911 featuring a community entirely of women except for three men who seek it out 239 strong women in a matriarchal utopia 240 expected to last for generations 241 although Charlotte Perkins Gilman was herself a feminist advocate of society being gender integrated and of women s freedom 242 Other criticisms of superiority are that it is reverse sexism or discriminatory against men it is opposed by most people including most feminists women do not want such a position r governing takes women away from family responsibilities women are too likely to be unable to serve politically because of menstruation and pregnancy 248 public affairs are too sordid for women 249 and would cost women their respect 250 and femininity apparently including fertility 251 superiority is not traditional 252 s women lack the political capacity and authority men have t it is impractical because of a shortage of women with the ability to govern at that level of difficulty 250 as well as the desire and ability to wage war u v w women are less aggressive or less often so than are men 259 and politics is aggressive 260 women legislating would not serve men s interests 250 261 262 or would serve only petty interests 250 it is contradicted by current science on genderal differences 263 it is unnatural 264 265 x 267 and in the views of a playwright and a novelist women cannot govern on their own 268 On the other hand another view is that women have empire over men 269 because of nature and men are actually obeying women 269 Pursuing a future matriarchy would tend to risk sacrificing feminists position in present social arrangements and many feminists are not willing to take that chance according to Eller 228 Political feminists tend to regard discussions of what utopia would look like as a good way of setting themselves up for disappointment according to Eller 270 and argue that immediate political issues must get the highest priority 270 Matriarchists as typified by comic character Wonder Woman were criticized by Kathie Sarachild Carol Hanisch and some others 271 In religious thought EditExclusionary Edit Some theologies and theocracies limit or forbid women from being in civil government or public leadership or forbid them from voting 272 effectively criticizing and forbidding matriarchy Within none of the following religions is the respective view necessarily universally held In Islam some Muslim scholars hold that female political leadership is prohibited according to Anne Sofie Roald 273 The prohibition has been attributed to a hadith of Muhammad 274 y the founder and last prophet of Islam The hadith says according to Roald a people which has a woman as leader will never prosper 274 z The hadith s transmission context and meaning have been questioned wrote Roald 278 According to Roald the prohibition has also been attributed as an extension of a ban on women leading prayers in mixed gatherings which has been challenged 276 and to a restriction on women traveling an attribution also challenged 279 Possibly Roald noted the hadith applies only against being head of state and not other high office 279 One source wrote Roald would allow a woman to occupy every position except that of khalifa the leader of all Muslims 280 One exception to the head of state prohibition was accepted without a general acceptance of women in political leadership Roald reported 281 Political activism at lower levels may be more acceptable to Islamist women than top leadership positions said Roald 282 The Muslim Brotherhood has stated that women may not be president or head of state but may hold other public offices but as for judiciary office t he majority of jurispudents have forbidden it completely 283 In a study of 82 Islamists in Europe according to Roald 80 said women could not be state leaders but 75 said women could hold other high positions 284 In 1994 the Muslim Brotherhood said that social circumstances and traditions may justify gradualism in the exercise of women s right to hold office below head of state 285 Whether the Muslim Brothers still support that statement is unclear 286 As reported in 1953 Roald reported later Islamic organizations held a conference in the office of the Muslim Brothers and claim ed that it had been proven that political rights for women were contrary to religion 287 Some nations have specific bans In Iran at times according to Elaheh Rostami Povey women have been forbidden to fill some political offices because of law or because of judgments made under the Islamic religion 288 As to Saudi Arabia according to Asmaa Al Mohamed Saudi women are not allowed to enter parliament as anything more than advisors they cannot vote much less serve as representatives 289 According to Steven Pinker in a 2001 2007 Gallup poll of 35 nations having 90 of the world s Muslims substantial majorities of both sexes in all the major Muslim countries say that women should be allowed to vote without influence from men and to serve in the highest levels of government 290 In Rabbinical Judaism among orthodox leaders a position beginning before Israel became a modern state has been that for women to hold public office in Israel would threaten the state s existence according to educator Tova Hartman 291 who reports the view has wide consensus 292 When Israel ratified the international women s equality agreement known as CEDAW according to Marsha Freeman it reserved nonenforcement for any religious communities that forbid women from sitting on religious courts 293 According to Freeman the tribunals that adjudicate marital issues are by religious law and by custom entirely male 294 Men s superiority is a fundamental tenet in Judaism according to Irit Umanit 295 According to Freeman Likud party led governments have been less than hospitable to women s high level participation 296 In Buddhism according to Karma Lekshe Tsomo some hold that the Buddha allegedly hesitated to admit women to the Saṅgha 297 In certain Buddhist countries Burma Cambodia Laos Sri Lanka and Thailand women are categorically denied admission to the Saṅgha Buddhism s most fundamental institution according to Tsomo 298 Tsomo wrote throughout history the support of the Saṅgha has been actively sought as a means of legitimation by those wishing to gain and maintain positions of political power in Buddhist countries 298 Among Hindus in India the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh India s most extensive all male Hindu nationalist organization 299 aa has debated whether women can ever be Hindu nationalist political leaders 300 but without coming to a conclusion according to Paola Bacchetta 300 The Rashtriya Sevika Samiti a counterpart organization composed of women 300 believes that women can be Hindu nationalist political leaders 300 and has trained two in Parliament 301 but considers women only as exceptions 302 the norm for such leadership being men 300 John Knox In Protestant Christianity considered only historically in 1558 John Knox Maria Stuart s subject wrote The First Blast of the Trumpet against the Monstrous Regiment of Women 303 According to Scalingi the work is perhaps the best known analysis of gynecocracy 44 and Knox was the most notorious 44 writer on the subject 44 According to an 1878 edition Knox s objection to any women reigning and having empire ab over men was theological 305 and it was against nature for women to bear rule superiority dominion or empire above any realm nation or city ac Susan M Felch said that Knox s argument was partly grounded on a statement of the apostle Paul against women teaching or usurping authority over men 306 According to Maria Zina Goncalves de Abreu Knox argued that a woman being a national ruler was unnatural 307 and that women were unfit and ineligible for the post 307 Kathryn M Brammall said Knox considered the rule of female monarchs to be anathema to good government 308 and that Knox also attacked those who obeyed or supported female leaders 309 including men 309 Robert M Healey said that Knox objected to women s rule even if men accepted it 310 On whether Knox personally endorsed what he wrote according to Felch Jasper Ridley in 1968 argued that even Knox may not have personally believed his stated position but may have merely pandered to popular sentiment 311 itself a point disputed by W Stanford Reid 312 On the popularity of Knox s views Patricia Ann Lee said Knox s fierce attack on the legitimacy of female rule was one in which he said little that was unacceptable to most of his contemporaries 313 although Judith M Richards disagreed on whether the acceptance was quite so widespread 314 According to David Laing s Preface to Knox s work Knox s views were agreed with by some people at the time the Preface saying Knox s views were in harmony with those of his colleagues Goodman Whittingham and Gilby 315 Writing in agreement with Knox was Christopher Goodman who according to Lee considered the woman ruler to be a monster in nature and used scriptural argument to prove that females were barred from any political power 316 even if according to Richards the woman was virtuous 317 Some views included conditionality while John Calvin said according to Healey that government by a woman was a deviation from the original and proper order of nature and therefore among the punishments humanity incurred for original sin 318 ad nonetheless Calvin would not always question a woman s right to inherit rule of a realm or principality 319 Heinrich Bullinger according to Healey held that rule by a woman was contrary to God s law but cautioned against always using that reason to oppose such rule 320 According to Richards Bullinger said women were normally not to rule 321 Around 1560 Calvin in disagreeing with Knox argued that the existence of the few women who were exceptions showed that theological ground existed for their exceptionalism 322 Knox s view was much debated in Europe at the time 323 the issue considered complicated by laws such as on inheritance 314 and since several women were already in office including as Queens according to de Abreu 324 Knox s view is not said to be widely held in modern Protestantism among leadership or laity Inclusionary Edit Main articles thealogy and Goddess movement According to Eller feminist thealogy conceptualized humanity as beginning with female ruled or equalitarian societies 325 until displaced by patriarchies 326 and that in the millennial future gynocentric life loving values 326 will return to prominence 326 This according to Eller produces a virtually infinite number of years of female equality or superiority coming both at the beginning and end of historical time 327 Among criticisms is that a future matriarchy according to Eller as a reflection of spirituality is conceived as ahistorical 229 and thus may be unrealistic unreachable or even meaningless as a goal to secular feminists In popular culture EditAncient theatre Edit As criticism in 390 BC Aristophanes wrote a play Ecclesiazusae about women gaining legislative power and governing Athens Greece on a limited principle of equality In the play according to Mansfield Praxagora a character argues that women should rule because they are superior to men not equal and yet she declines to assert publicly her right to rule although elected and although acting in office 328 The play Mansfield wrote also suggests that women would rule by not allowing politics in order to prevent disappointment and that affirmative action would be applied to heterosexual relationships 328 In the play as Mansfield described it written when Athens was a male only democracy where women could not vote or rule women were presented as unassertive and unrealistic and thus not qualified to govern 328 The play according to Sarah Ruden was a fable on the theme that women should stay home 329 Literature Edit Elizabeth Burgoyne Corbett s New Amazonia A Foretaste of the Future is an early feminist utopian novel published 1889 which is matriarchal in that all political leadership roles in New Amazonia are required to be held by women according to Duangrudi Suksang 330 Roquia Sakhawat Hussain s Sultana s Dream is an early feminist utopia published 1905 based on advanced science and technology developed by women set in a society Ladyland run by women where the power of males is taken away and given to females and men are secluded and primarily attend to domestic duties according to Seemin Hasan 331 Marion Zimmer Bradley s book The Ruins of Isis 1978 is according to Batya Weinbaum set within a female supremacist world 332 In Marion Zimmer Bradley s book The Mists of Avalon 1983 Avalon is an island with a matriarchal culture according to Ruben Valdes Miyares 333 In Orson Scott Card s Speaker for the Dead 1986 and its sequels the alien pequenino species in every forest are matriarchal 334 In Sheri S Tepper s book The Gate to Women s Country 1988 the only men who live in Women s Country are the servitors who are servants to the women according to Peter Fitting 335 Elisabeth Vonarburg s book Chroniques du Pays des Meres 1992 translated into English as In the Mothers Land is set in a matriarchal society where due to a genetic mutation women outnumber men by 70 to 1 336 N Lee Wood s book Master of None 2004 is set in a closed matriarchal world where men have no legal rights according to Publishers Weekly 337 Wen Spencer s book A Brother s Price 2005 is set in a world where according to Page Traynor women are in charge boys are rare and valued but not free and boys are kept at home to do the cooking and child caring until the time they marry 338 Elizabeth Bear s Carnival 2006 introduces New Amazonia a colony planet with a matriarchal and largely lesbian population who eschew the strict and ruthless population control and environmentalism instituted on Earth The Amazonians are aggressive warlike and subjugate the few men they tolerate for reproduction and service but they are also pragmatic and defensive of their freedom from the male dominated Coalition that seeks to conquer them 339 In Naomi Alderman s book The Power 2016 women develop the ability to release electrical jolts from their fingers thus leading them to become the dominant gender 340 Jean M Auel s Earth s Children 1980 2011 In the SCP Foundation which is a collaborative online horror fiction website the Daevites are an ancient society in which women took the roles of both religious and political leaders and men often take the place of slaves 341 Film Edit In the 2011 Disney animated film Mars Needs Moms Mars is ruled by a female Martian known only as The Supervisor who long ago deemed all male martians to the trash underground and kept all females in functioning society The film reveals The Supervisor for an unexplained reason changed how Martian society was being run from children being raised by parents to Martian children being raised by Nannybots The Supervisor sacrifices one Earth mother every twenty five years for that mother s knowledge of order discipline and control which is transferred to the Nannybots who raise the female Martians citation needed Animals Edit European bison social structure has been described as a matriarchy by whom Matriarchy may also refer to non human animal species in which females hold higher status and hierarchical positions such as among spotted hyenas elephants lemurs naked mole rats 342 and bonobos 343 The social structure of European bison herds has also been described by specialists as a matriarchy the cows of the group lead it as the entire herd follows them to grazing areas 344 Though heavier and larger than the females the older and more powerful males of the European bison usually fulfill the role of satellites that hang around the edges of the herd 345 Apart from the mating season when they begin to compete with each other European bison bulls serve a more active role in the herd only once a danger to the group s safety appears 346 In bonobos even the highest ranking male will sometimes face aggression from females and is occasionally injured by them Female bonobos secure feeding privileges and exude social confidence while the males generally cower on the sidelines The only exceptions are males with influential mothers so even the rank between the males is influenced strongly by females Females also initiate group travels 347 See also EditAlain Danielou Catalhoyuk denials of matriarchy Female cosmetic coalitions Marianismo Menstrual synchrony Patriarchs Bible Matriarchs Bissagos Islands Trưng sisters Portals Society Politics Feminism ReligionNotes Edit Feminist anthropology an approach to anthropology that tries to reduces male bias in the field Black matriarchy the cultural phenomenon of many Black families being headed by mothers with fathers absent Androcracy form of government ruled by males especially fathers Queen Elizabeth I queen regnant of England and Ireland in 1533 1603 Amazon feminism feminism that emphasizes female physical prowess toward the goal of gender equality Elamite civilization an ancient civilization in part of what is now Iran Sitones a Germanic or Finnic people who lived in Northern Europe in the first century AD North Vietnam sovereign state until merged with South Vietnam in 1976 Patrilineal belonging to the father s lineage generally for inheritance Confucianism ethics and philosophy derived from Confucius Gender role set of norms for a gender in social relationships Clan Mothers elder matriarchs of certain Native American clans who were typically in charge of appointing tribal chiefs Adler wrote a matriarchy is a realm where female things are valued and where power is exerted in non possessive non controlling and organic ways that are harmonious with nature 163 Anarcha feminism a philosophy combining anarchism and feminism For another definition of hag by Mary Daly see Daly Mary with Jane Caputi Websters First New Intergalactic Wickedary of the English Language London Great Britain Women s Press 1988 ISBN 0 7043 4114 X p 137 Extrasensory perception ESP perception sensed by the mind but not originating through recognized physical senses Chauvinism partisanship that is extreme and unreasoning and in favor of a group Women do not run for office as readily as men do nor do most women it seems call on them to run It seems that they do not have the same desire to run things as men to use the word in another political sense that like the first includes standing out in front Women are partisan like men hence they are political like men But not to the same degree They will readily sail into partisan conflict but they are not so ready to take the lead and make themselves targets of partisan hostility though they do write provocative books 243 A study traces the gender gap to participatory factors such as education and income that give men greater advantages in civic skills enabling them to participate politically 244 I n politics and in other public situations he the manly man willingly takes responsibility when others hang back His wife and children are weaker 245 manliness is aggression that develops an assertion a cause it espouses 246 a woman may have less ambition or a different ambition but being a political animal like a man she too likes to rule if in her way 247 See also Schaub 2006 Athenians were extreme but almost no Greeks or Romans thought women should participate in government There was no approved public forum for any kind of women s self expression not even in the arts and religion perhaps except priestesses 253 254 according to Aristotle a s women do not have the authority the political capacity of men they are as it were elbowed out of politics and ushered into the household Meanwhile the male rules because of his greater authority 255 ability to fight is an important claim to rule and it is the culmination of the aggressive manly stereotype we are considering who can reasonably deny that women are not as accomplished as men in battle either in spirit or in physique Conservatives say that this proves that women are not the same as men amp manliness is best shown in war the defense of one s country at its most difficult and dangerous 256 there might come a point when stronger persons would have to be fought by women rather than merely told off The very great majority of women would take a pass on the opportunity to be GI Jane In the NATO countries where women are allowed in combat units they form only 1 percent of the complement Whatever their belief about equality women might reasonably decide they are needed more elsewhere than in combat 257 GI Jane is a female member of a military 258 NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization which provides collective military defense for member nations Mrs Woodhull offers herself in apparent good faith as a candidate and perhaps she has a remote impression or rather hope that she may be elected but it seems that she is rather in advance of her time The public mind is not yet educated to the pitch of universal woman s rights At present man in his affection for and kindness toward the weaker sex is disposed to accord her any reasonable number of privileges Beyond that stage he pauses because there seems to him to be something which is unnatural in permitting her to share the turmoil the excitement the risks of competition for the glory of governing 266 Koranic verse 4 34 has been used to denounce female leadership 275 4 34 spaced so in original but the verse may apply to family life rather than to politics 276 Roald 2001 pp 189 190 cites respectively Badawi Jamal Gender Equity in Islam Basic Principles Indianapolis American Trust Publications 1995 p 38 amp perhaps passim and Roald Anne Sofie amp Pernilla Ouis Lyssna pa mannen att leva i en patriarkalisk muslimsk kontext in Kvinnovetenskaplig Tidskrift pp 91 108 1997 Another translation is a people which has a woman as a leader will not succeed 277 The 2001 author s paraphrase of the hadith the people who have a female leader will not succeed is at Roald 2001 p 185 Although India is majority Hindu it is officially secular per Bacchetta 2002 p 157 I am assured that God hath reueled to some in this our age that it is more then a monstre in nature that a woman shall reigne and haue empire aboue man 304 To promote a woman to beare rule superioritie dominion or empire aboue any realme nation or citie is repugnant to nature contumelie to God a thing most contrarious to his reueled will and approued ordinance and finallie it is the subuersion of good order of all equitie and iustice 305 Original sin in Christianity a state of sin or violation of God s will due to Adam s rebellion in the Garden of EdenReferences Edit Women at the Center Life in a Modern Matriarchy Cornell University Press 2002 a b c d e Oxford English Dictionary online entry matriarchy as accessed November 3 2013 subscription may be required or content may be available in libraries a b Peoples amp Bailey 2012 p 259 a b Haviland William A Anthropology Ft Worth Harcourt Brace College Publishers 8th ed 1997 ISBN 0 15 503578 9 p 579 Kuznar Lawrence A Reclaiming a Scientific Anthropology Walnut Creek Calif AltaMira Press div of Sage Publications pbk 1997 ISBN 0 7619 9114 X a b Gottner Abendroth Heide Matriarchal Society Definition and Theory Archived from the original on April 19 2013 See also Sanday Peggy Reeves Women at the Center Life in a Modern Matriarchy Cornell University Press 2002 matriarchies are not a mirror form of patriarchies but rather a matriarchy emphasizes maternal meanings where maternal symbols are linked to social practices influencing the lives of both sexes and where women play a central role in these practices page needed dd Gottner Abendroth Heide 2017 Matriarchal studies Past debates and new foundations Asian Journal of Women s Studies 23 1 2 6 doi 10 1080 12259276 2017 1283843 S2CID 218768965 Lepowsky M A Fruit of the Motherland Gender in an Egalitarian Society U S Columbia University Press 1993 Compare in Oxford English Dictionary online entry patriarchy to entry matriarchy both as accessed November 3 2013 Subscription may be required or content may be available in libraries Eller 1995 pp 161 162 amp 184 amp n 84 p 184 n 84 probably citing Spretnak Charlene ed Politics of Women s Spirituality Essays on the Rise of Spiritual Power Within the Feminist Movement Garden City New York Anchor Books 1982 p xiii Spretnak Charlene Introduction Goettner Abendroth 2009a pp 1 2 Peoples amp Bailey 2012 pp 258 259 Adler 2006 p 193 italics so in original Love amp Shanklin 1983 p 275 Eller 2000 pp 12 13 Eller 2011 page needed Epstein 1991 p 173 and see p 172 a b Adler 2006 p 194 Love amp Shanklin 1983 Introduction in Second World Congress on Matriarchal Studies DeMott Tom The Investigator review of Bennholdt Thomsen Veronika Cornelia Giebeler Brigitte Holzer amp Marina Meneses Juchitan City of Women Mexico Consejo Editorial 1994 as accessed Feb 6 2011 LeBow 1984 Rohrlich 1977 p 37 Office of Policy Planning and Review Daniel Patrick Moynihan principal author The Negro Family The Case For National Action U S Department of Labor 1965 Archived April 28 2014 at the Wayback Machine esp Chapter IV The Tangle of Pathology authorship per History at the Department of Labor In Depth Research all as accessed November 2 2013 Donovan 2000 p 171 citing Moynihan Daniel The Negro Family The Case for National Action 1965 In this analysis Moynihan asserted that since a fourth of black families were headed by single women black society was a matriarchy and t his situation undermined the confidence and manhood of black men and therefore prevented their competing successfully in the white work world and citing hooks bell either Ain t I a Woman Black Women and Feminism Boston South End 1981 or Feminist Theory From Margin to Center Boston South End 1984 probably former pp 181 187 freedom came to be seen by some black militants as a liberation from the oppression caused by black women hooks bell pp 180 181 many black men absorbed the Moynihan ideology and this misogyny itself became absorbed into the black freedom movement and included this Moynihan s view as a case of American neo Freudian revisionism where women who evidenced the slightest degree of independence were perceived as castrating threats to the male identity and see hooks bell p 79 matriarchy Online Etymology Dictionary Edvard Westermarck 1921 The History of Human Marriage Vol 3 London Macmillan p 108 Liddell Henry George amp Robert Scott An Intermediate Greek English Lexicon for gynaikokratia Liddell Henry George amp Robert Scott A Greek English Lexicon for gy naiko kra teomai Grafton Anthony 2013 The Classical Tradition Cambridge Harvard University Press ISBN 9781782684039 Banerjee Roopleena 2015 Matriarchy and Contemporary Khasi Society Proceedings of the Indian History Congress 76 918 930 ISSN 2249 1937 JSTOR 44156662 a b Leeuwe Jules de untitled comment November 18 1977 emphases so in original as a response to and with Leacock Eleanor Women s Status in Egalitarian Society Implications for Social Evolution in Current Anthropology vol 33 no 1 supp Inquiry and Debate in the Human Sciences Contributions from Current Anthropology 1960 1990 February 1992 ISSN 0011 3204 amp E ISSN 1537 5382 p 241 OED 1993 entries gynaecocracy gynocracy gynarchy amp gyneocracy a b Webster s Third New International Dictionary of the English Language Unabridged G amp C Merriam Merriam Webster 1966 entries gynecocracy gynocracy amp gynarchy a b The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language Boston Mass Houghton Mifflin 3d ed 1992 ISBN 0 395 44895 6 entries gynecocracy gynocracy amp gynarchy a b Random House Webster s Unabridged Dictionary N Y Random House 2d ed 2001 ISBN 0 375 42566 7 entries gynecocracy amp gynarchy a b Webster s Third New International Dictionary of the English Language Unabridged G amp C Merriam Merriam Webster 1966 entry gynecocracy OED 1993 gynaecocracy OED 1993 gynocracy OED 1993 gyneocracy Scalingi 1978 p 72 Scalingi 1978 p 59 Scalingi 1978 p 60 amp passim a b c d Scalingi 1978 p 60 a b Diner 1965 p 173 Diner 1965 p 136 Diner 1965 p 123 and see p 122 Adler 2006 p 195 Latter quotation Davis Debra Diane 2000 Breaking up at totality A rhetoric of laughter Carbondale Illinois Southern Illinois University Press p 137 and see pp 136 137 amp 143 ISBN 978 0809322282 brackets in title so in original amp quoting Young Iris Marion 1985 Humanism gynocentrism and feminist politics Women s Studies International Forum 8 3 173 183 doi 10 1016 0277 5395 85 90040 8 Ferraro Gary Wenda Trevathan amp Janet Levy Anthropology An Applied Perspective Minneapolis West Publishing Co 1992 p 360 title or year verification needed a b Smith R T Matrifocality in Smelser amp Baltes eds International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences 2002 vol 14 p 9416 ff Ruether Rosemary Radford Goddesses and the Divine Feminine A Western Religious History p 18 Eisler Riane The Chalice and the Blade as cited at the author s website Archived February 2 2010 at the Wayback Machine as accessed Jan 26 2011 Gimbutas Marija 1991 The Civilization of the Goddess The World of Old Europe Harper p 324 a b Adovasio J M Olga Soffer amp Jake Page The Invisible Sex Uncovering the True Roles of Women in Prehistory Smithsonian Books amp Collins HarperCollinsPublishers 1st Smithsonian Books ed 2007 ISBN 978 0 06 117091 1 pp 251 255 esp p 255 Sanday Peggy Reeves Woman at the Center Life in a Modern Matriarchy Cornell University Press 2004 ISBN 0 8014 8906 7 page needed a b Eller 1995 p 152 and see pp 158 161 Young Katherine 2010 Sanctifying Misandry Goddess Ideology and the Fall of Man Canada McGill Queen s University Press pp 33 34 ISBN 978 0 7735 3615 9 Goldberg Steven The Inevitability of Patriarchy William Morrow amp Co 1973 page needed Eller 2000 page needed Encyclopaedia Britannica describes this view as consensus listing matriarchy as a hypothetical social system Encyclopaedia Britannica 2007 entry Matriarchy Bamberger Joan The Myth of Matriarchy Why Men Rule in Primitive Society in M Rosaldo amp L Lamphere Women Culture and Society Stanford Calif Stanford University Press 1974 p 263 Brown Donald E Human Universals Philadelphia Temple University Press 1991 p 137 a b The view of matriarchy as constituting a stage of cultural development now is generally discredited Furthermore the consensus among modern anthropologists and sociologists is that a strictly matriarchal society never existed Encyclopaedia Britannica 2007 entry Matriarchy The Cambridge Ancient History reprinted 2000 c 1975 vol 2 pt 2 p 400 Tacitus Cornelius Germania A D 98 Archived September 7 2013 at the Wayback Machine as accessed June 8 2013 paragraph 45 Paragraph 45 6 Suionibus Sithonum gentes continuantur cetera similes uno differunt quod femina dominatur in tantum non modo a libertate sed etiam a servitute degenerant Hic Suebiae finis citation needed Ciuk Krzysztok 2008 Mysteries of ancient Ukraine the remarkable Trypilian culture 5400 2700 BC Toronto Royal Ontario Museum ISBN 9780888544650 Gjelstad Anne Helene January 2020 Big heart strong hands ISBN 9781911306566 The Guardian Where women rule the last matriarchy in Europe in pictures 2020 02 26 Bisch Jorgen Why Buddha Smiles p 71 Ahu Ho Gong Padaung chief no man can be chief over women I am chief of the men But women well Women only do what they themselves wish amp it is the same with women all over the world pp 52 53 amp no man can rule over women They just do what they themselves want page needed Marshall Andrew The Trouser People A Story of Burma in the Shadow of the Empire ISBN 1 58243 120 5 p 213 Kayaw societies are strictly matriarchal MacKinnon Mark In China a Matriarchy Under Threat in The Globe and Mail Toronto Ontario Canada August 15 2011 11 55p Lugu Lake Mosuo Cultural Development Association The Mosuo Matriarchal Matrilineal Culture 2006 Archived January 12 2018 at the Wayback Machine retrieved July 10 2011 Sinha Mukherjee Sucharita 2013 Women s Empowerment and Gender Bias in the Birth and Survival of Girls in Urban India Feminist Economics 19 1 28 doi 10 1080 13545701 2012 752312 S2CID 155056803 citing Srinivas Mysore Narasimhachar The Cohesive Role of Sanskritization and Other Essays Delhi Oxford University Press 1989 amp Agarwal Bina A Field of One s Own Gender and Land Rights in South Asia Cambridge Cambridge University Press 1994 Mukherjee Sucharita Sinha 2013 Women s Empowerment and Gender Bias in the Birth and Survival of Girls in Urban India Feminist Economics 19 1 28 doi 10 1080 13545701 2012 752312 S2CID 155056803 Kumar Anuj Let s Anger Her sic in The Hindu July 25 2012 as accessed September 29 2012 whether statement was by Kumar or Kom is unknown Sanday Peggy Reeves Women at the Center Life in a Modern Matriarchy Cornell University Press 2002 page needed a b c Turley William S September 1972 Women in the Communist Revolution in Vietnam Asian Survey 12 9 793 805 doi 10 2307 2642829 JSTOR 2642829 Phan 2005 p 12 and see pp 13 amp 32 the three persons apparently being the sisters Trung Trac and Trung Nhi in A D 40 per p 12 amp Trieu Au in A D 248 per p 13 a b Phan 2005 p 32 Phan 2005 p 33 Chiricosta Alessandra Following the Trail of the Fairy Bird The Search For a Uniquely Vietnamese Women s Movement in Roces amp Edwards 2010 pp 125 126 single quotation marks so in original Roces amp Edwards 2010 p 125 single quotation marks so in original Roces amp Edwards 2010 p 125 parentheses so in original Taylor 1983 p 39 n 176 omitted Both quotations Taylor 1983 p 338 a b c d e Seekins Donald M Trung Sisters Rebellion of 39 43 in Sandler Stanley ed Ground Warfare An International Encyclopedia Santa Barbara California ABC Clio hardcover 2002 ISBN 1 57607 344 0 vol 3 p 898 Turner Karen G Vietnam as a Women s War in Young Marilyn B amp Robert Buzzanco eds A Companion to the Vietnam War Malden Massachusetts Blackwell hardback 2002 ISBN 0 631 21013 X pp 95 96 but see p 107 Schlegel 1984 p 44 and see pp 44 52 LeBow 1984 p 8 LeBow 1984 p 18 a b Schlegel 1984 p 44 n 1 a b Schlegel 1984 p 45 a b c Schlegel 1984 p 50 a b Schlegel 1984 p 49 Jacobs 1991 pp 498 509 Jacobs 1991 pp 506 507 Jacobs 1991 pp 505 amp 506 quoting Carr L The Social and Political Position of Women Among the Huron Iroquois Tribes Report of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology p 223 1884 a b George Kanentiio Doug Iroquois Culture amp Commentary New Mexico Clear Light Publishers 2000 pp 53 55 Jacobs 1991 p 498 amp n 6 Wesel Uwe Der Mythos vom Matriarchat Uber Bachofens Mutterrecht und die Stellung von Frauen in fruhen Gesellschaften Frankfurt M Suhrkamp 1980 page needed Morgan L Ancient Society Or Researches in the Lines of Human Progress from Savagery through Barbarism to Civilization Ruether Rosemary Radford Goddesses and the Divine Feminine A Western Religious History p 15 Bachofen Johann Jakob Myth Religion and Mother Right page needed Mann Susan November 2000 Presidential Address Myths of Asian Womanhood The Journal of Asian Studies 59 4 835 862 doi 10 2307 2659214 JSTOR 2659214 S2CID 161399752 von Stuckrad Kocku 2005 Constructing Femininity the Lilith Case In Platzner Robert Leonard ed Gender Tradition and Renewal Peter Lang pp 67 92 ISBN 978 3 906769 64 6 Engels 1984 page needed Bachofen Johann Jakob Das Mutterrecht Eine Untersuchung uber die Gynaikokratie der alten Welt nach ihrer religiosen und rechtlichen Natur Eine Auswahl herausgegeben von Hans Jurgen Heinrichs Frankfurt M Suhrkamp 1975 1861 page needed Engels 1984 p 70 Engels 1984 p 204 Eller 2011 p 115 Bebel August Die Frau und der Sozialismus Als Beitrag zur Emanzipation unserer Gesellschaft bearbeitet und kommentiert von Monika Seifert Stuttgart Dietz 1974 1st published 1879 p 63 Elizabeth A Sackler Center for Feminist Art The Dinner Party Heritage Floor Helen Diner Brooklyn N Y Brooklyn Museum last updated March 27 2007 as accessed March 2008 amp November 15 2013 Epstein 1991 p 173 Epstein 1991 pp 172 173 Davis Philip G Goddess Unmasked N Y Spence Publishing 1998 ISBN 0 9653208 9 8 Sheaffer R Skeptical Inquirer 1999 review del Giorgio J F The Oldest Europeans A J Place 2006 ISBN 978 980 6898 00 4 Rohrlich 1977 p 36 and see p 37 Minoan matriarchate subquoting at p 37 n 7 Thomson George The Prehistoric Aegean N Y Citadel Press 1965 p 450 Baruch Elaine Hoffman Introduction in Pt Four Visions of Utopia in Rohrlich 1984 p 207 matriarchal societies particularly Minoan Crete and Rohrlich 1984 p 6 the Minoan matriarchy amp Minoan Crete Three quotations Rohrlich 1977 p 37 Rohrlich 1977 p 39 quoting Thomson George The Prehistoric Aegean N Y Citadel Press 1965 p 160 Patai 1990 pp 38 39 Patai 1990 pp 96 111 Plutarch Sayings of Spartans Lycurgus penelope uchicago edu Retrieved February 21 2019 a b c The Place In China Where The Women Lead NPR Retrieved May 11 2021 a b Mosuo People Maintain Rare Matriarchal Society 2 Xinhua News Agency CEIS Jun 11 2000 p 1 ProQuest Web 18 Apr 2021 a b Wax Emily A Place Where Women Rule in The Washington Post July 9 2005 p 1 online as accessed October 13 2013 a b c Karimi Faith January 30 2019 She grew up in a community where women rule and men are banned CNN a b c d e f In Kenya s Umoja Village a sisterhood preserves the past prepares the future NBC News Retrieved May 11 2021 a b Wax Emily A Place Where Women Rule in The Washington Post July 9 2005 p 2 online as accessed October 13 2013 a b c d e f Banerjee Roopleena 2015 Matriarchy and Contemporary Khasi Society Proceedings of the Indian History Congress 76 918 930 JSTOR 44156662 a b c Rathnayake Zinara Khasis India s indigenous matrilineal society www bbc com Retrieved May 17 2021 Tamang Stella Indigenous Affairs vols 1 2 no 4 p 46 Six Nations Women s Traditional Council Fire Report to CEDAW p 2 West Duran Alan Herrera Sobek Maria Salgado Cesar A 2004 Latino and Latina Writers Cuban and Cuban American authors Dominican and other authors Puerto Rican authors Volume 2 Charles Scribner s Sons p 354 ISBN 978 0 684 31294 1 Retrieved October 8 2020 Chesler 2005 pp 335 336 italics omitted Chesler 2005 pp 335 336 Chesler 2005 p 336 Chesler 2005 p 336 italics omitted History of Iran Histories of Herodotus Book 4 www iranchamber com Retrieved August 30 2020 Strabo 5 504 Ukert F A Die Amazonen Abhandlungen der philosophisch philologischen Classe der Koniglich Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften 1849 63 Adler 2006 p 196 italics so in original p 196 n 20 citing Markale Jean Women of the Celts London Gordon Cremonesi 1975 Jose Miguel de Barandiaran Euskal Herriko Mitoak Gipuzkoako Kutxa p 63 Bamberger Joan The Myth of Matriarchy Why Men Rule in Primitive Society in M Rosaldo amp L Lamphere Women Culture and Society Stanford Calif Stanford University Press 1974 p 279 a b Weisberg D Kelly ed Applications of Feminist Legal Theory to Women s Lives Sex Violence Work and Reproduction Philadelphia Temple University Press 1996 ISBN 1 56639 423 6 p 9 women must organize against patriarchy as a class but see p 11 some radical feminists opt for anarchistic violent methods a b Dale Jennifer amp Peggy Foster Feminists and State Welfare London Routledge and Kegan Paul 1986 ISBN 0 7102 0278 4 p 52 radical feminist theory could indeed be said to point in the direction of matriarchy and see pp 52 53 political separatism Donovan 2000 p 55 amp n 15 citing Stanton Elizabeth Cady Address Washington Woman s Rights Convention 1869 in History of Woman Suffrage vol 2 pp 351 353 Donovan 2000 p 57 citing Gage Matilda Joslyn Woman Church and State A Historical Account of the Status of Women through the Christian Ages with Reminiscences of the Matriarchate Watertown Mass Persephone Press 1980 1893 p 21 A Lecture on Constitutional Equality also known as The Great Secession Speech speech to Woman s Suffrage Convention New York May 11 1871 excerpt quoted in Gabriel 1998 pp 86 87 Gabriel 1998 passim esp pp 54 57 Underhill Lois Beachy The Woman Who Ran for President The Many Lives of Victoria Woodhull Bridgehampton N Y Bridge Works 1st ed 1995 ISBN 1 882593 10 3 passim esp ch 8 The dates are those of two original editions of the same work both cited herein Donovan 2000 p 61 citing Gilman 2001 passim Donovan 2000 p 62 citing Gilman 2001 p 190 Gilman 2001 p 177 and see p 153 Gilman 2001 p 153 Gilman 2001 pp 153 177 Penner James Pinks Pansies and Punks The Rhetoric of Masculinity in American Literary Culture Bloomington Ind Indiana University Press 2011 ISBN 978 0 253 22251 0 p 235 a b c Eller 1991 p 287 Eller 2000 p 12 Eller 2000 p 12 quoting also Mary Daly matriarchy was not patriarchy spelled with an m probably per Eller 2000 p 12 n 3 in Daly Mary Beyond God the Father p 94 Starhawk Dreaming the Dark Magic Sex and Politics Boston Mass Beacon Press 15th Anniversary ed 1997 original 1982 ISBN 0 8070 1037 5 ch 1 original 1982 ed cited in Eller 1991 p 287 Adler 2006 p 187 as quoted in Eller 1991 p 287 Castro 1990 p 42 Willemsen 1997 p 5 Willemsen 1997 p 6 See also Poldervaart 1997 p 182 Tineke Willemsen distinghuishes sic in her article three large classes of utopias 2 feminists who emphasize the difference between women and men in rights and possibilities in these utopias women have a better position than men or feminine qualities are more valued than masculine ones a b c Quotation Take No Prisoners in The Guardian May 13 2000 as accessed Sep 6 2010 Other than quotation Dworkin Andrea Scapegoat The Jews Israel and Women s Liberation N Y Free Press 2000 ISBN 0 684 83612 2 p 246 and see pp 248 amp 336 Ouma Veronica A Dworkin s Scapegoating in Palestine Solidarity Review PSR Fall 2005 Archived December 8 2010 at the Wayback Machine as accessed Oct 21 2010 PSR was challenged on its reliability in Frantzman Seth J Do Arabs and Jews Realize How Much They Look Alike in The Jerusalem Post Jun 10 2009 11 43 p m op ed opinion as accessed May 15 2011 Schonpflug 2008 p 22 Chesler 2005 p 347 italics so in original and see pp 296 335 336 337 338 340 341 345 346 347 amp 348 349 and see also pp 294 295 Chesler 2005 p 337 and see p 340 a b c Chesler 2005 p 338 Chesler Phyllis in Spender 1985 p 214 reply from Phyllis Chesler to Dale Spender Spender 1985 p 151 emphasis in original Spender 1985 p 151 Wittig 1985 passim and see pp 114 115 127 131 amp 134 135 Wittig 1985 pp 114 115 Both quotations Rohrlich 1984 p xvii Moi Toril Sexual Textual Politics Feminist Literary Theory London Routledge 2d ed 2002 ISBN 0 415 28012 5 p 78 Auerbach Nina Communities of Women An Idea in Fiction Cambridge MA Harvard University Press 1978 ISBN 0 674 15168 2 p 186 a b c d Porter 1992 p 267 Wittig 1985 p 112 Zerilli 2005 p 80 quoting Porter 1992 p 261 Farley 1984 pp 237 238 Farley 1984 p 238 and see Baruch Elaine Hoffman Introduction in Pt Four Visions of Utopia in Rohrlich 1984 p 205 Farley 1984 p 238 Zerilli 2005 p 80 purportedly quoting within the quotation Porter 1992 p 261 Daly 1990 p 15 Daly 1990 p xxvi Daly 1990 p xxxiii Daly 1990 p 375 amp fnn and see p 384 Daly 1990 p 29 Embodiment of God University of Mother God Church Retrieved April 25 2022 Zerilli 2005 p 101 Eller 2000 p 3 Rountree 2001 p 6 Rountree 2001 pp 5 9 amp passim Mansfield 2006 p 72 Eller 1995 pp 183 184 Eller 1995 p 184 a b Johnston Jill Lesbian Nation The Feminist Solution N Y Simon amp Schuster 1973 SBN not ISBN 671 21433 0 p 248 and see pp 248 249 Franklin Kris amp Sara E Chinn Lesbians Legal Theory and Other Superheroes in Review of Law amp Social Change vol XXV 1999 pp 310 311 as accessed at a prior URL October 21 2010 citing in n 45 Lesbian Nation p 15 Ross 1995 passim esp pp 8 amp 15 16 amp also pp 19 71 111 204 205 212 219 amp 231 Ross 1995 p 204 citing McCoy Sherry Hicks Maureen 1979 A Psychological Retrospective on Power in the Contemporary Lesbian Feminist Community Frontiers 4 3 65 69 doi 10 2307 3346152 JSTOR 3346152 Davis 1971 p 18 a b c d e f Davis 1971 p 339 a b c d e f g Castro 1990 p 35 and see pp 26 27 32 36 amp 42 Castro 1990 p 36 Echols 1989 pp 183 184 Tong Rosemarie Putnam Feminist Thought A More Comprehensive Introduction Boulder Colorado Westview Press 2d ed 1998 ISBN 0 8133 3295 8 p 23 Echols 1989 p 184 quoting Barbara Mehrhof and Pam Kearon Full names per Echols 1989 pp 407 409 amp memberships per Echols 1989 pp 388 383 amp 382 See also p 253 moved toward matriarchalism Echols 1989 pp 183 184 foundership per Echols 1989 p 388 Morgan Robin Going Too Far The Personal Chronicle of a Feminist N Y Random House 1st ed 1977 ISBN 0 394 48227 1 p 187 italics so in original Adler 2006 p 198 Maior so in original Schonpflug 2008 p 108 citing Gerd Brantenberg Egalia s Daughters Norwegian original published in 1977 Schonpflug 2008 p 19 a b Schonpflug 2008 p 20 Egalia s Daughters as fiction WorldCat entry as accessed August 29 2012 Matriarchal Studies International Academy HAGIA Archived July 19 2011 at the Wayback Machine as accessed January 30 2011 1st World Congress on Matriarchal Studies also known as Societies in Balance Archived February 17 2011 at the Wayback Machine both as accessed January 29 2011 Societies of Peace 2nd World Congress on Matriarchal Studies home page Archived December 18 2014 at the Wayback Machine as accessed January 29 2011 For a review of the conferences esp that of 2005 by a participant see Mukhim Patricia Khasi Matriliny Has Many Parallels October 15 2005 as accessed February 6 2011 also published in The Statesman India October 15 2005 Goettner Abendroth 2009a passim Goettner Abendroth 2009b p 23 Goettner Abendroth 2009b p 25 and see p 24 and in Goettner Abendroth 2009a Introduction amp pts I amp VIII Goettner Abendroth 2009b p 25 emphasis so in original a b c Eller 1991 p 290 a b c Eller 1991 p 291 a b c d e Eller 2000 p 10 whether author s data global unspecified Dworkin Andrea Biological Superiority The World s Most Dangerous and Deadly Idea 1977 from Dworkin Andrea Letters From a War Zone Writings 1976 1989 Pt III Take Back the Day as accessed December 25 2010 first published in Heresies No 6 on Women and Violence vol 2 no 2 Summer 1978 Morgan Robin The Demon Lover On the Sexuality of Terrorism N Y Norton 1989 ISBN 0 393 30677 1 rev ed 2000 ISBN 0 7434 5293 3 p 27 pagination per edition at Amazon com Badinter Elisabeth trans Julia Borossa Dead End Feminism Polity 2006 ISBN 0 7456 3381 1 amp ISBN 978 0 7456 3381 7 p 32 in Google Books as accessed December 4 2010 no source cited for Ti Grace Atkinson s statement Amazon Continues Odyssey in off our backs December 1979 interview mentioning female nationalism relevant herein insofar as the female nationalism is matriarchal amp women as nation Atkinson Ti Grace Amazon Odyssey N Y Links 1974 SBN not ISBN 0 8256 3023 1 may preclude female nationalism relevant herein insofar as female nationalism is matriarchal also there exists not read by this Wikipedia editor Atkinson Ti Grace Le Nationalisme Feminin in Nouvelle Questions Feministes 6 7 Spring 1984 pp 35 54 French Eng trans Female Nationalism unpublished was held by author relevant herein insofar as female nationalism is matriarchal cited by Ringelheim Joan 1985 Women and the Holocaust A Reconsideration of Research Signs 10 4 741 761 doi 10 1086 494181 JSTOR 3174312 S2CID 144580658 Viewpoint also in Rittner Carol amp John K Roth eds Different Voices Women and the Holocaust N Y Paragon House 1993 pp 373 418 amp by Weiss Penny A amp Marilyn Friedman Feminism amp Community Temple University Press 1995 ISBN 1 56639 277 2 amp ISBN 978 1 56639 277 8 p 330 Mansfield 2006 pp 241 242 citing Plato Republic Mansfield 2006 pp 173 174 amp nn 14 16 17 amp 19 citing Hobbes Leviathan ch 10 14 15 amp 21 Tuck Richard Natural Rights Theories Cambridge Cambridge University Press 1979 ch 6 amp Tarcov Nathan Locke s Education for Liberty Chicago University of Chicago Press 1984 p 38 Ross 1995 p 208 Farley 1984 p 238 respecting Wittig Monique Les Guerilleres Stansell Christine 2010 The Feminist Promise 1792 to the Present 1st ed N Y Modern Library Random House p 394 ISBN 978 0 679 64314 2 Bartkowski Frances Feminist Utopias Lincoln University of Nebraska Press 1989 ISBN 0 8032 1205 4 ch 1 Donovan 2000 p 48 Schonpflug 2008 p 21 and see p 20 21 Gilman Charlotte Perkins What is Feminism in The Sunday Herald vol CXL no 65 September 3 1916 Extra ed Magazine p 7 of of The Boston Herald Boston Mass on genderal integration essential duty of the female is in choosing a father for her children amp women will always love men both per col 2 amp closer union deeper attachment between men and women per col 3 on freedom women s full economic independence and freedom now allowed our girls per col 1 freedom several references per col 2 amp feminism will set free four fifths of its labor amp comparative freedom of action possible to women today 1916 both per col 3 microfilm Bell amp Howell Mansfield 2006 pp 80 81 Mansfield 2006 pp 79 80 Mansfield 2006 p 17 Mansfield 2006 p 49 and see also pp 170 171 amp 204 206 Mansfield 2006 p 161 Roald 2001 p 195 Donovan 2000 p 30 citing Grimke Sarah M Letters on Equality of the Sexes and the Condition of Woman N Y Burt Franklin 1970 1838 p 81 objecting to women participating in government reflecting perhaps the Victorian notion that public affairs were too sordid for women a b c d Herzog 1998 pp 424 425 Richards 1997 p 120 but see pp 120 121 Mansfield 2006 p 72 the evidence is of males ruling over all societies at almost all times amp males have dominated all politics we know of amp 58 every previous society including our democracy up to now has been some kind of patriarchy permeated by stubborn self insistent manliness italics omitted and see p 66 patriarchy as based on manliness not merely those governments staffed by males applicability depending on the antecedent for here Ruden 2010 p 80 emphasis in original Athenians discussed in the context of play by Aristophanes Ruden 2010 pp 78 80 Mansfield 2006 p 210 Mansfield 2006 p 75 Mansfield 2006 p 76 Random House Historical Dictionary of American Slang N Y Random House 1st ed 1994 ISBN 0 394 54427 7 vol 1 p 892 col 2 earliest example dated 1944 Mansfield 2006 pp 63 64 Mansfield 2006 p 62 Roald 2001 p 269 Not absolutely but relatively so Mansfield 2006 p 80 n 51 successful ambition in women i e women holding office makes them more womanish in the sense of representing women s views Mansfield 2006 p 50 our science rather clumsily confirms the stereotype about manliness the stereotype that stands stubbornly in the way of the gender neutral society and see pp 43 49 Mansfield 2006 pp 205 206 Schussler Fiorenza Elisabeth The Praxis of Coequal Discipleship in Horsley Richard A ed Paul and Empire Religion and Power in Roman Imperial Society Harrisburg Pennsylvania Trinity Press Intntl 1997 ISBN 1 56338 217 2 pp 238 239 probably from Schussler Fiorenza Elisabeth In Memory of Her Crossroad Publishing 1983 amp edited quoting Aristotle Politics I 1254b the male is by nature superior and the female inferior the male ruler and the female subject Editorial New York Herald May 27 1870 p 6 as quoted in Gabriel 1998 pp 56 57 Herzog 1998 p 440 Mansfield 2006 p 131 citing Oscar Wilde playwright per p 126 and Henry James novelist per p 127 a b Mansfield 2006 p 195 citing Jean Jacques Rousseau per pp 194 195 a b Eller 1995 p 207 Siegel Deborah Sisterhood Interrupted From Radical Women to Grrls Gone Wild N Y Palgrave Macmillan 2007 ISBN 978 1 4039 8204 9 p 65 Holy Scripture inculcates for women a sphere higher than and apart from that of public life because as women they find a full measure of duties cares and responsibilities and are unwilling to bear additional burdens unsuited to their physical organization a signed petition against female suffrage January 1871 in Gabriel 1998 p 83 citing The Press Philadelphia January 14 1871 p 8 Roald 2001 p 185 a b Roald 2001 pp 186 187 Roald 2001 pp 189 190 a b Roald 2001 p 190 Roald 2001 p 188 Roald 2001 pp 186 189 a b Roald 2001 p 196 Roald 2001 pp 196 197 Roald 2001 pp 185 186 Roald 2001 p 186 amp ch 8 passim Ikhwan web Muslim Brotherhood on Muslim women in Islamic Society October 29 2005 trans as accessed March 5 2011 The Woman s Right to Vote Be Elected and Occupy Public and Governmental Posts sub Thirdly Women s Holding of Public Office Roald 2001 p 198 for study details see Roald 2001 ch 3 e g quantity of 82 per p 64 Roald 2001 p 197 quoting The Muslim Brotherhood The Role of Women in Islamic Society According to the Muslim Brotherhood London International Islamic Forum 1994 14 The document stating it was not available at its official English language website advanced search page as accessed March 5 2011 search for Role of Women in Islamic Society without quotation marks yielding no results but a document with similar relevant effect is Ikhwan web Muslim Brotherhood on Muslim women in Islamic Society October 29 2005 trans as accessed March 5 2011 social circumstances and traditions as justifying gradualism per A General Remark Roald 2001 p 34 citing Shafiq Duriyya al Kitab al abiyad lil huquq al mar a al misriyya The White Paper on the Rights of the Egyptian Woman Cairo n p 1953 bibliographic information partly per Roald 2001 p 25 n 27 Rostami Povey Elaheh Feminist Contestations of Institutional Domains in Iran in Feminist Review no 69 pp 49 amp 53 Winter 2001 Al Mohamed Asmaa Saudi Women s Rights Stuck at a Red Light Arab Insight World Security Institute January 8 2008 Archived July 4 2008 at the Wayback Machine p 46 as accessed December 28 2010 Pinker Steven The Better Angels of Our Nature Why Violence Has Declined N Y Viking hardback 2011 ISBN 978 0 670 02295 3 pp 366 367 and see pp 414 415 Hartman 2007 p 105 attributing the argument to Rav Kook or Rabbi Abraham Isaac Hacohen Kook a significant spiritual leader of the early twentieth century Hartman 2007 p 101 citing at Hartman 2007 pp 101 102 Kook Rav Open Letter to the Honorable Committee of the Mizrahi Association 1919 In the Torah in the Prophets and in the Writings in the Halacha and in the Aggadah we hear that the duty of fixed public service falls upon men Hartman 2007 p 106 Freeman 2003 pp 59 amp 65 Freeman 2003 p 65 the tribunals are discussed in the context of the marital law regime in each religion including Judaism Umanit 2003 p 133 Freeman 2003 p 60 Tsomo 1999 pp 6 7 a b Tsomo 1999 p 5 Bacchetta 2002 p 157 a b c d e Bacchetta 2002 p 168 Bacchetta 2002 p 168 the 2 being Uma Bharati and Sadhvi Rithambara both associated with the Bharatiya Janata Party BJP all according to Bacchetta Bacchetta 2002 p 168 amp n 76 citing Kelkar Kakshmibai Stri Ek Urja Kendra Strivishayak Vicharon Ka Sankalan Nagpur Sevika Prakashan n d ch 2 de Abreu 2003 p 167 Knox 1878 italicization and boldface if any removed a b Knox 1878 Felch 1995 p 806 a b de Abreu 2003 p 169 Brammall 1996 p 19 a b Brammall 1996 p 20 Healey 1994 p 376 Ridley Jasper John Knox N Y Oxford University Press 1968 p 267 as cited in Felch 1995 p 805 Reid W Stanford Trumpeter of God A Biography of John Knox N Y Scribner 1974 p 145 as cited in Felch 1995 p 805 Lee 1990 p 242 a b Richards 1997 p 116 Laing David Preface from extract in Knox 1878 Lee 1990 pp 250 249 citing Goodman Christopher How Superior Powers Ought to be Obeyd N Y reprint 1931 originally 1558 chap on gynecocracy Richards 1997 p 117 Healey 1994 pp 372 373 Healey 1994 pp 372 373 Healey 1994 p 373 Richards 1997 p 115 There were occasionally women so endowed that the singular good qualities which shone forth in them made it evident that they were raised up by Divine authority Calvin letter to William Cecil on or after January 29 1559 probably 1560 in Knox 1878 citing at Preface n 1 for letter Zurich Letters 2d ser p 35 Calvin reviser Commentaries on Isaiah sometime in 1551 1559 approximate title de Abreu 2003 pp 168 170 171 e g citing Aylmer AElmer John An Harborowe for Faithfull and Trewe Subiects agaynst the late blowne Blast concerninge the Gouernment of Wemen wherin be confuted all such reasons as a straunger of late made in that behalfe with a briefe exhortation to obedience 1559 de Abreu 2003 p 170 Eller 1991 p 281 and see pp 282 amp 287 a b c Eller 1991 p 281 Eller 1991 p 282 a b c Mansfield 2006 pp 73 74 amp n 37 citing Strauss Leo Socrates and Aristophanes N Y Basic Books 1966 ch 9 and Saxonhouse Arlene W Fear of Diversity Chicago University of Chicago Press 1992 ch 1 Ruden 2010 p 79 Suksang Duangrudi Overtaking Patriarchy Corbett s and Dixie s Visions of Women in Utopian Studies vol 4 no 2 1993 pp 74 93 available via JStor Hasan Seemin Feminism and Feminist Utopia in Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain sSultana s Dream in Kidwai A R ed Behind the Veil Representation of Muslim Woman in Indian Writings in English 1950 2000 APH Publishing Corp 2007 Sultana s Dream Digital library upenn edu Weinbaum Batya Sex Role Reversal in the Thirties Leslie F Stone s The Conquest of Gola in Science Fiction Studies vol 24 no 3 November 1997 pp 471 482 available via JStor www depauw edu sfs backissues 73 weinbaum73 htm alternative availability Valdes Miyares Ruben Morgan s Queendom The Other Arthurian Myth in Alvarez Faedo Maria Jose ed Avalon Revisited Reworkings of the Arthurian Myth Peter Lang International Academic Publishers 2007 Bright Hub Education book summary Fitting Peter 1992 Reconsiderations of the Separatist Paradigm in Recent Feminist Science Fiction Science Fiction Studies 19 1 32 48 JSTOR 4240119 Vonarburg 1992 Publishers Weekly book review reviewed September 27 2004 Traynor Page A Brother s Price in RT Book Reviews review Newitz Annalee May 6 2008 Environmental Fascists Fight Gun Loving Lesbians for Alien Technology io9 Retrieved January 19 2016 Steele Francesca October 15 2016 The Power by Naomi Alderman The Times Daevite Hub SCP Foundation The SCP Foundation 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1979 Drawing Down the Moon Witches Druids Goddess Worshippers and Other Pagans in America New York NY Penguin Books ISBN 978 0 14 303819 1 Bacchetta Paola 2002 Hindu nationalist women on the use of the feminine symbolic to temporarily displace male authority In Laurie L Patton ed Jewels of Authority Women and Textual Tradition in Hindu India New York NY Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 513478 0 Brammall Kathryn M 1996 Monstrous metamorphosis nature morality and the rhetoric of monstrosity in Tudor England The Sixteenth Century Journal 27 1 3 21 doi 10 2307 2544266 JSTOR 2544266 Castro Ginette 1990 American Feminism a Contemporary History Translated by Elizabeth Loverde Bagwell New York NY New York University Press ISBN 978 0 8147 1448 5 translated from Radioscopie du feminisme americain Paris France Presses de la Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques 1984 Chesler Phyllis 2005 Women and Madness New York NY Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 978 1 4039 6897 5 Daly Mary 1990 1978 Gyn Ecology the Metaethics of Radical Feminism Boston MA Beacon Press ISBN 978 0 8070 1413 4 Davis Elizabeth Gould 1971 The First Sex New York NY G P Putnam s Sons LCCN 79 150582 Diner Helen 1965 Mothers and Amazons The First Feminine History of Culture Edited and translated by John Philip Lundin New York NY Julian Press Donovan Josephine 2000 Feminist Theory The Intellectual Traditions 3rd ed New York NY Continuum ISBN 978 0 8264 1248 5 Echols Alice 1989 Daring to Be Bad Radical Feminism in America 1967 1975 Minneapolis MN University of Minnesota Press ISBN 978 0 8166 1787 6 Eller Cynthia 1991 Relativizing the patriarchy the sacred history of the feminist spirituality movement History of Religions 30 3 279 295 doi 10 1086 463229 S2CID 162395492 Eller Cynthia 1995 Living in the Lap of the Goddess The Feminist Spirituality Movement in America Boston MA Beacon Press ISBN 978 0 8070 6507 5 Eller Cynthia 2000 The Myth of Matriarchal Prehistory Why an Invented Past Won t Give Women a Future 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Publications ISBN 978 0 9782233 5 9 Hartman Tova 2007 Feminism Encounters Traditional Judaism Resistance and Accommodation Waltham MA Brandeis University Press ISBN 978 1 58465 659 3 Healey Robert M 1994 Waiting for Deborah John Knox and Four Ruling Queens The Sixteenth Century Journal 25 2 371 386 doi 10 2307 2542887 JSTOR 2542887 Herzog Don 1998 Poisoning the Minds of the Lower Orders Princeton NJ Princeton University Press ISBN 978 0 691 04831 4 Jacobs Renee E 1991 Iroquois Great Law of Peace and the United States Constitution How the Founding Fathers Ignored the Clan Mothers American Indian Law Review 16 2 497 531 doi 10 2307 20068706 JSTOR 20068706 Knox John 1878 1558 Edward Arber ed The First Blast of the Trumpet against the monstruous regiment of Women English Scholar s Library Vol 2 LeBow Diane 1984 Rethinking matriliny among the Hopi In Ruby Rohrlich Elaine Hoffman Baruch eds Women in Search of Utopia Mavericks and Mythmakers New York NY Schocken Books pp 8 20 ISBN 978 0 8052 0762 0 Lee Patricia Ann 1990 A bodye politique to governe Aylmer Knox and the debate on queenship The Historian 52 2 242 261 doi 10 1111 j 1540 6563 1990 tb00780 x Love Barbara Shanklin Elizabeth 1983 The answer is matriarchy In Joyce Trebilcot ed Mothering Essays in Feminist Theory New Jersey Rowman amp Allenheld Mansfield Harvey Claflin 2006 Manliness New Haven CT Yale University Press ISBN 978 0 300 10664 0 The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary 4th ed Oxford Oxford University Press 1993 ISBN 978 0 19 861271 1 Patai Raphael 1990 The Hebrew Goddess 3rd ed Detroit Wayne State University Press Peoples James Bailey Garrick 2012 Humanity An Introduction to Cultural Anthropology 9th ed Australia Wadsworth ISBN 978 1 111 30152 1 Phan Peter C 2005 Vietnamese American Catholics Mahwah NJ Paulist Press ISBN 978 0 8091 4352 8 Poldervaart Saskia 1997 Utopianism and feminism some conclusions In Alkeline van Lenning Marrie Bekker Ine Vanwesenbeeck eds Feminist Utopias In a Postmodern Era Tilburg University Press pp 177 194 ISBN 978 90 361 9747 2 Porter Laurence M 1992 Feminist fantasy and open structure in Monique Wittig s Les Guerilleres In Donald E Morse Marshall B Tymn Csilla Bertha eds The Celebration of the Fantastic Selected Papers from the Tenth Anniversary International Conference on the Fantastic in the Arts Westport CT Greenwood Press pp 261 270 ISBN 978 0 313 27814 3 Roald Anne Sofie 2001 Women in Islam The Western Experience London Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 24896 9 Richards Judith M 1997 To promote a woman to beare rule talking of queens in mid Tudor England The Sixteenth Century Journal 28 1 101 121 doi 10 2307 2543225 JSTOR 2543225 Roces Mina Edwards Louise P eds 2010 Women s Movements in Asia Feminisms and Transnational Activism Abingdon Routledge ISBN 9780415487030 Rohrlich Ruby 1977 Women in transition Crete and Sumer In Renate Bridenthal Claudia Koontz eds Becoming Visible Women in European History Boston MA Houghton Mifflin pp 36 59 ISBN 9780395244777 Rohrlich Ruby 1984 Introduction In Ruby Rohrlich Elaine Hoffman Baruch eds Women in Search of Utopia Mavericks and Mythmakers New York NY Schocken Books ISBN 978 0 8052 0762 0 Ross Becki L 1995 The House That Jill Built A Lesbian Nation in Formation Toronto University of Toronto Press ISBN 978 0 8020 7479 9 Rountree Kathryn 2001 The past is a foreigners country goddess feminists archaeologists and the appropriation of prehistory Journal of Contemporary Religion 16 1 5 27 doi 10 1080 13537900123321 S2CID 144309885 Ruden Sarah 2010 Paul Among the People The Apostle Reinterpreted and Reimagined in his Own Time New York NY Pantheon Books ISBN 978 0 375 42501 1 Schaller George B 1972 The Serengeti lion A study of predator prey relations Chicago University of Chicago Press ISBN 978 0 226 73639 6 Scalingi Paula Louise 1978 The Scepter or the Distaff The Question of Female Sovereignty 1516 1607 The Historian 41 1 59 75 doi 10 1111 j 1540 6563 1978 tb01228 x Schaub Diana 2006 Man s field a review of Manliness by Harvey C Mansfield Claremont Review of Books VI 2 Schlegel Alice 1984 Hopi gender ideology of female superiority Quarterly Journal of Ideology A Critique of the Conventional Wisdom VIII 4 Schonpflug Karin 2008 Feminism Economics and Utopia Time Travelling Through Paradigms London Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 41784 6 Spender Dale 1985 For the Record The Making and Meaning of Feminist Knowledge London The Women s Press ISBN 978 0 7043 2862 4 Sukumar Raman September 11 2003 The Living Elephants Evolutionary Ecology Behaviour and Conservation Oxford University Press USA ISBN 978 0 19 510778 4 OCLC 935260783 Taylor Keith Weller 1983 The Birth of Vietnam Berkeley CA University of California Press ISBN 978 0 520 04428 9 Tsomo Karma Lekshe 1999 Mahaprajapati s legacy the Buddhist women s movement an introduction In Karma Lekshe Tsomo ed Buddhist Women Across Cultures Realizations Albany NY State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0 7914 4138 1 Umanit Irit 2003 Violence against women In Kalpana Misra Melanie S Rich eds Jewish Feminism in Israel Hanover NH University Press of New England ISBN 978 1 58465 325 7 Vonarburg Elisabeth 1992 In the mother s land Translated by Jane Brierley New York NY Bantam Books ISBN 978 0 5532 9962 5 Willemsen Tineke M 1997 Feminism and utopias an introduction In Alkeline van Lenning Marrie Bekker Ine Vanwesenbeeck eds Feminist Utopias In a Postmodern Era Tilburg University Press pp 1 10 ISBN 978 90 361 9747 2 Wittig Monique 1985 1969 Les Guerilleres Translated by David Le Vay Boston MA Beacon Press ISBN 978 0 8070 6301 9 Zerilli Linda M G 2005 Feminism and the Abyss of Freedom Chicago IL University of Chicago Press ISBN 978 0 226 98133 8 Further reading EditCzaplicka Marie Antoinette Aboriginal Siberia a Study in Social Anthropology Oxford Clarendon Press 1914 Finley M I The World of Odysseus London Pelican Books 1962 Gimbutas Marija The Language of the Goddess 1991 Goldberg Steven Why Men Rule A Theory of Male Dominance rev ed 1993 ISBN 0 8126 9237 3 Hutton Ronald The Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Isles 1993 ISBN 0 631 18946 7 Lapatin Kenneth Mysteries of the Snake Goddess Art Desire and the Forging of History 2002 ISBN 0 306 81328 9 Lerner Gerda The Creation of Feminist Consciousness From the Middle Ages to Eighteen Seventy Oxford Oxford University Press 1993 ISBN 0 19 509060 8 Lerner Gerda The Creation of Patriarchy Oxford Oxford University Press 1986 ISBN 0 19 505185 8 Sukumar R July 2006 A brief review of the status distribution and biology of wild Asian elephants Elephas maximus International Zoo Yearbook 40 1 1 8 doi 10 1111 j 1748 1090 2006 00001 x Sanday Peggy Reeves Women at the Center Life in a Modern Matriarchy Cornell University Press 2002 Schiavoni Giulio Bachofen in attuale chapter in Il matriarcato Ricerca sulla ginecocrazia del mondo antico nei suoi aspetti religiosi e giuridici Turin Italy Giulio Einaudi editore 2016 Johann Jakob Bachofen editor ISBN 978 88 06 229375 Shorrocks Bryan The Biology of African Savannahs Oxford University Press 2007 ISBN 0 19 857066 X Stearns Peter N Gender in World History N Y Routledge 2000 ISBN 0 415 22310 5 External links Editmatriarchy matriarchate gynecocracy or gynocracy at Wikipedia s sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons Texts from Wikisource Knight Chris http www chrisknight co uk wp content uploads 2007 09 Early Human Kinship Was Matrilineal1 pdf Early Human Kinship was Matrilineal 2008 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Matriarchy amp oldid 1131047556, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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