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Mangrove forest

Mangrove forests, also called mangrove swamps, mangrove thickets or mangals, are productive wetlands that occur in coastal intertidal zones.[1][2] Mangrove forests grow mainly at tropical and subtropical latitudes because mangroves cannot withstand freezing temperatures. There are about 80 different species of mangroves, all of which grow in areas with low-oxygen soil, where slow-moving waters allow fine sediments to accumulate.[3]

Many mangrove forests can be recognised by their dense tangle of prop roots that make the trees appear to be standing on stilts above the water. This tangle of roots allows the trees to handle the daily rise and fall of tides, as most mangroves get flooded at least twice per day. The roots slow the movement of tidal waters, causing sediments to settle out of the water and build up the muddy bottom. Mangrove forests stabilise the coastline, reducing erosion from storm surges, currents, waves, and tides. The intricate root system of mangroves also makes these forests attractive to fish and other organisms seeking food and shelter from predators.[3]

Mangrove forests live at the interface between the land, the ocean, and the atmosphere, and are centres for the flow of energy and matter between these systems. They have attracted much research interest because of the various ecological functions of the mangrove ecosystems, including runoff and flood prevention, storage and recycling of nutrients and wastes, cultivation and energy conversion.[4] The forests are major blue carbon systems, storing considerable amounts of carbon in marine sediments, thus becoming important regulators of climate change.[5] Marine microorganisms are key parts of these mangrove ecosystems. However, much remains to be discovered about how mangrove microbiomes contribute to high ecosystem productivity and efficient cycling of elements.[6]

Overview edit

External videos
  Mangrove Photography Awards 2020
Mangrove Action Project

There are about 80 different species of mangrove trees. All of these trees grow in areas with low-oxygen soil, where slow-moving waters allow fine sediments to accumulate. Mangrove forests grow only at tropical and subtropical latitudes near the equator because they cannot withstand freezing temperatures.[7] Many mangrove forests can be recognised by their dense tangle of prop roots that make the trees appear to be standing on stilts above the water. This tangle of roots allows the trees to handle the daily rise and fall of tides, which means that most mangroves get flooded at least twice per day. The roots slow the movement of tidal waters, causing sediments to settle out of the water and build up the muddy bottom. Mangrove forests stabilise the coastline, reducing erosion from storm surges, currents, waves, and tides. The intricate root system of mangroves makes these forests attractive to fishes and other organisms seeking food and shelter from predators.[8]

The main contribution of mangroves to the larger ecosystem comes from litter fall from the trees, which is then decomposed by primary consumers. Bacteria and protozoans colonise the plant litter and break it down chemically into organic compounds, minerals, carbon dioxide, and nitrogenous wastes.[8] The intertidal existence to which these trees are adapted represents the major limitation to the number of species able to thrive in their habitat. High tide brings in salt water, and when the tide recedes, solar evaporation of the seawater in the soil leads to further increases in salinity. The return of tide can flush out these soils, bringing them back to salinity levels comparable to that of seawater.[9][10] At low tide, organisms are exposed to increases in temperature and reduced moisture before being then cooled and flooded by the tide. Thus, for a plant to survive in this environment, it must tolerate broad ranges of salinity, temperature, and moisture, as well as several other key environmental factors—thus only a select few species make up the mangrove tree community.[10][9]

A mangrove swamp typically features only a small number of tree species. It is not uncommon for a mangrove forest in the Caribbean to feature only three or four tree species. For comparison, a tropical rainforest biome may contain thousands of tree species, but this is not to say mangrove forests lack diversity. Though the trees are few in species, the ecosystem that these trees create provides a habitat for a great variety of other species, including as many as 174 species of marine megafauna.[11]

 
Mangrove ecosystem in the coastal intertidal zone [12]
Seagrass and oyster beds can inhabit the shallow subtidal zone

Mangrove plants require a number of physiological adaptations to overcome the problems of low environmental oxygen levels, high salinity, and frequent tidal flooding. Each species has its own solutions to these problems; this may be the primary reason why, on some shorelines, mangrove tree species show distinct zonation. Small environmental variations within a mangal may lead to greatly differing methods for coping with the environment. Therefore, the mix of species is partly determined by the tolerances of individual species to physical conditions, such as tidal flooding and salinity, but may also be influenced by other factors, such as crabs preying on plant seedlings.[13]

Once established, mangrove roots provide an oyster habitat and slow water flow, thereby enhancing sediment deposition in areas where it is already occurring. The fine, anoxic sediments under mangroves act as sinks for a variety of heavy (trace) metals which colloidal particles in the sediments have concentrated from the water. Mangrove removal disturbs these underlying sediments, often creating problems of trace metal contamination of seawater and organisms of the area.[14]

Mangrove swamps protect coastal areas from erosion, storm surge (especially during tropical cyclones), and tsunamis.[15][16][17] They limit high-energy wave erosion mainly during events such as storm surges and tsunamis.[18] The mangroves' massive root systems are efficient at dissipating wave energy.[19] Likewise, they slow down tidal water enough so that its sediment is deposited as the tide comes in, leaving all except fine particles when the tide ebbs.[20] In this way, mangroves build their environments.[15] Because of the uniqueness of mangrove ecosystems and the protection against erosion they provide, they are often the object of conservation programs,[10] including national biodiversity action plans.[16]

Distribution edit

 
Global distribution of mangrove forests, 2011 [21] (click to enlarge)
 
Diversity of mangroves is greatest in Southeast Asia
Distribution of delta, estuary, lagoon and open coast mangrove types
in (i) South Asia, (ii) Southeast Asia and (iii) East Asia [22]
Bar charts show percentage change in area between 1996 and 2016

Worldwide there are about 80 described species of mangroves that live along marine coasts. About 60 of these species are true mangroves which live only in the intertidal zone between high and low tides.[23] "Mangroves once covered three-quarters of the world's tropical coastlines, with Southeast Asia hosting the greatest diversity. Only 12 species live in the Americas. Mangroves range in size from small bushes to the 60-meter giants found in Ecuador. Within a given mangrove forest, different species occupy distinct niches. Those that can handle tidal soakings grow in the open sea, in sheltered bays, and on fringe islands. Trees adapted to drier, less salty soil can be found farther from the shoreline. Some mangroves flourish along riverbanks far inland, as long as the freshwater current is met by ocean tides."[23]

 
Mangroves dominate in tropical regions and salt marshes in temperate regions
orange: mangroves dominate                             green: salt marshes dominate

Mangroves can be found in 118 countries and territories in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world.[21] The largest percentage of mangroves is found between the 5° N and 5° S latitudes. Approximately 75% of world's mangroves are found in just 15 countries.[21] Estimates of mangrove area based on remote sensing and global data tend to be lower than estimates based on literature and surveys for comparable periods.[9]

In 2018, the Global Mangrove Watch Initiative released a global baseline based on remote sensing and global data for 2010.[21] They estimated the total mangrove forest area of the world as of 2010 at 137,600 km2 (53,100 sq mi), spanning 118 countries and territories.[9][24] Following the conventions for identifying geographic regions from the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, researchers reported that Asia has the largest share (38.7%) of the world's mangroves, followed by Latin America and the Caribbean (20.3%), Africa (20.0%), Oceania (11.9%), and Northern America (8.4%).[24]

Sundarbans edit

The largest mangrove forest in the world is in the Sundarbans. The Sundarban forest lies in the vast delta on the Bay of Bengal formed by the super confluence of the Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers with distributaries of the Ganges. The seasonally flooded Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests lie inland from the mangrove forests on the coastal fringe. The forest covers 10,000 km2 (3,900 sq mi) of which about 6,000 km2 (2,300 sq mi) are in Bangladesh.[25]

The Sundarbans is intersected by a complex network of tidal waterways, mudflats and small islands of salt-tolerant mangrove forests. The interconnected network of waterways makes almost every portion of the forest accessible by boat. The area is known as an important habitat for the endangered Bengal tiger, as well as numerous fauna including species of birds, spotted deer, crocodiles and snakes. The fertile soils of the delta have been subject to intensive human use for centuries, and the ecoregion has been mostly converted to intensive agriculture, with few enclaves of forest remaining.[26] Additionally, the Sundarbans serves a crucial function as a protective barrier for millions of inhabitants against floods that result from cyclones.

Four protected areas in the Sundarbans are listed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites.[27] Despite these protections, the Indian Sundarbans were assessed as endangered in 2020 under the IUCN Red List of Ecosystems framework.[28] There is a consistent pattern of depleted biodiversity or loss of species and the ecological quality of the forest is declining.[29]

Ecosystem edit

The unique ecosystem found in the intricate mesh of mangrove roots offers a quiet marine habitat for young organisms.[30] In areas where roots are permanently submerged, the organisms they host include algae, barnacles, oysters, sponges, and bryozoa, which all require a hard surface for anchoring while they filter-feed. Shrimp and mud lobsters use the muddy bottoms as their home.[31] Mangrove crabs eat the mangrove leaves, adding nutrients to the mangal mud for other bottom feeders.[32] In at least some cases, the export of carbon fixed in mangroves is important in coastal food webs.[33] Mangrove plantations host several commercially important species of fish and crustaceans.[34]

In Puerto Rico, the red, white, and black mangroves occupy different ecological niches and have slightly different chemical compositions, so the carbon content varies between the species, as well between the different tissues of the plant (e.g., leaf matter versus roots).[35] There is a clear succession of these three trees from the lower elevations, which are dominated by red mangroves, to farther inland with a higher concentration of white mangroves.[35]

Mangrove forests are an important part of the cycling and storage of carbon in tropical coastal ecosystems.[35] Knowing this, scientists seek to reconstruct the environment and investigate changes to the coastal ecosystem over thousands of years using sediment cores.[36] However, an additional complication is the imported marine organic matter that also gets deposited in the sediment through the tidal flushing of mangrove forests.[35]

Mangrove forests can decay into peat deposits because of fungal and bacterial processes as well as by the action of termites.[35] It becomes peat in good geochemical, sedimentary, and tectonic conditions.[35] The nature of these deposits depends on the environment and the types of mangroves involved. Termites process fallen leaf litter, root systems and wood from mangroves into peat to build their nests.[35] Termites stabilise the chemistry of this peat and represent approximately 2% of above ground carbon storage in mangroves.[35] As the nests are buried over time this carbon is stored in the sediment, and the carbon cycle continues.[35]

Mangroves are an important source of blue carbon. Globally, mangroves stored 4.19 Gt (9.2×1012 lb) of carbon in 2012.[37] Two percent of global mangrove carbon was lost between 2000 and 2012, equivalent to a maximum potential of 0.316996250 Gt (6.9885710×1011 lb) of CO2 emissions.[37] Globally, mangroves have been shown to provide measurable economic protections to coastal communities affected by tropical storms.[38]

Biodiversity edit

Birds edit

Heterogeneity in landscape ecology is a measure of how different parts of a landscape are from one another. It can manifest in an ecosystem from the abiotic or biotic characteristics of the environment. For example, coastal mangrove forests are located at the land-sea interface, so their functioning is influenced by abiotic factors such as tides, as well as biotic factors such as the extent and configuration of adjacent vegetation.[39] For forest birds, tidal inundation means that the availability of many mangrove resources fluctuates daily, suggesting foraging flexibility is likely to be important. Mangroves also offer estuarine prey items, such as mudskippers and crabs, that are not found in terrestrial forest types. Further, mangroves are often situated in a complex mosaic of adjacent vegetation types such as grasslands, saltmarshes, and woodlands, and this can mean that flexibility in foraging strategy and choice of foraging habitat may be advantageous for highly mobile forest birds.[39] Relative to other forest types, mangroves support few bird species that are obligate habitat (mangrove) specialists and instead host many species with generalised foraging niches.[40][39]

Bird sanctuaries

Mangrove forests are home and sanctuaries for many of aquatic bird species, including:

Fish edit

The intricate root system of mangrove forests makes them attractive to adult fish seeking food and juvenile fish seeking shelter.[3]

Mangrove crab holobiont edit

Mangrove forests are among the more productive and diverse ecosystems on the planet, despite limited nitrogen availability. Under such conditions, animal-microbe associations (holobionts) are often key to ecosystem functioning. An example is the role of fiddler crabs and their carapace-associated microbial biofilm as hotspots of microbial nitrogen transformations and sources of nitrogen within the mangrove ecosystem.[41]

Among coastal ecosystems, mangrove forests are of great importance as they account for three quarters of the tropical coastline and provide different ecosystem services.[42][43] Mangrove ecosystems generally act as a net sink of carbon, although they release organic matter to the sea in the form of dissolved refractory macromolecules, leaves, branches and other debris.[44][45] In pristine environments, mangroves are among the most productive ecosystems on the planet, despite growing in tropical waters that are often nutrient depleted.[46] The refractory nature of the organic matter produced and retained in mangroves can slow the recycling of nutrients, particularly of nitrogen.[44][47] Nitrogen limitation in such systems may be overcome by microbial nitrogen fixation when combined with high rates of bioturbation by macrofauna, such as crabs and lobsters.[48][49][41]

Bioturbation by macrofauna affect nitrogen availability and multiple nitrogen related microbial processes through sediment reworking, burrow construction and bioirrigation, feeding and excretion.[50] Macrofauna mix old and fresh organic matter, extend oxic–anoxic sediment interfaces, increase the availability of energy-yielding electron acceptors and increase nitrogen turnover via direct excretion.[51][52] Thus, macrofauna may alleviate nitrogen limitation by priming the remineralisation of refractory nitrogen (that is, the nitrogen that can't be biologically decomposed), reducing plant-microbe competition.[53][54] Such activity ultimately promotes nitrogen recycling, plant assimilation and high nitrogen retention, as well as favours its loss by stimulating coupled nitrification and denitrification.[55][41]

 
Nitrogen cycling in a mangrove fiddler crab holobiont[41]
Dry weight of crab biofilm and mean dry weight of incubated crab expressed as µmol nitrogen per crab per day
 
The scorpion mud lobster is found in some mangrove swamps. It lives in burrows up to 2 m (6.6 ft) deep, and is active at night. Its burrowing is important for the recycling of nutrients, bringing organic matter up from deep sediments.[56][57]

Mangrove sediments are highly bioturbated by decapods such as crabs.[58] Crab populations continuously rework sediment by constructing burrows, creating new niches, transporting or selectively grazing on sediment microbial communities.[58][59][60][61] In addition, crabs can affect organic matter turnover by assimilating leaves and producing finely fragmented faeces, or by carrying them into their burrows.[62][63] Therefore, crabs are considered important ecosystem engineers shaping biogeochemical processes in intertidal muddy banks of mangroves.[64][65] In contrast to burrowing polychaetes or amphipods, the abundant Ocipodid crabs, mainly represented by fiddler crabs, do not permanently ventilate their burrows. These crabs may temporarily leave their burrows for surface activities,[61] or otherwise plug their burrow entrance during tidal inundation in order to trap air.[66] A recent study showed that these crabs can be associated with a diverse microbial community, either on their carapace or in their gut.[60][41]

The exoskeleton of living animals, such as shells or carapaces, offers a habitat for microbial biofilms which are actively involved in different N-cycling pathways such as nitrification, denitrification and dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium (DNRA).[67][68][69][70][71][72] Colonizing the carapace of crabs may be advantageous for specific bacteria, because of host activities such as respiration, excretion, feeding and horizontal and vertical migrations.[73] However, the ecological interactions between fiddler crabs and bacteria, their regulation and significance as well as their implications at scales spanning from the single individual to the ecosystem are not well understood.[60][74][41]

Biogeochemistry edit

Carbon cycle edit

 
Fate of mangrove primary production[76]
A.) Fate of mangrove primary production and importance of each component, as a percentage of net mangrove primary productivity.[77][78]
B.) Isotopic profile of sediments across the transition from mangrove to intertidal mudflats and seagrass beds, illustrating the retention of mangrove productivity within the forest.

Mangrove forests are amongst the world's most productive marine ecosystems,[78] with net primary productivity (NPP) in the order of 208 Tg C yr−1.[77] Mangrove forests achieve a steady state once the forest reaches maximum biomass at around 20–30 years through a constant process of mortality and renewal [79] so, assuming the living biomass is not becoming more carbon dense, then carbon has to be lost at a rate equal to the amount of carbon fixed as NPP. Hence this productivity is either retained within the mangrove forest, as a standing stock of live material such as wood, buried in sediments, or exported to neighbouring habitats as litter, particulate and dissolved organic carbon (POC and DOC) and dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC), or lost to the atmosphere.[77][80][78][76]

The out-welling hypothesis argues that export of locally derived POC and DOC is an important ecosystem function of mangroves, which drives detrital based food webs in adjacent coastal habitats.[81][82] Export of mangrove carbon has been estimated to make a significant trophic contribution to adjacent ecosystems.[83][84][85][86] The theory of outwelling is supported by mass balance evaluations that show the amount of carbon fixed by mangroves normally greatly exceeds the amount stored within the forest,[78][87] although the scale of outwelling varies considerably between forests,[88] due to differences in coastal geomorphology, tidal regimes, freshwater flow and productivity.[89][90][76]

 
Pathways for the nitrogen cycle in mangrove forests[91][92]
Black arrows indicate nitrogen pathways. Blue arrows indicate the direction where increased environmental factors (salinity, carbon source, nitrogen source) may affect nitrogen pathways.

In the 1990s, global estimates could account for 48% of the total global mangrove primary production of 218 ± 72 million tons C yr−1 (see diagram on the right). By incorporating information on carbon burial, CO2 efflux and carbon outwelled as leaf litter, POC and DOC, the remaining 52% was thought outwelled as DIC, though there was insufficient data to confirm this.[77] More recent assessments of DIC export at two sites in Australia [80][93] supported the estimates of Bouillon et al. in 2008,[77] although in 2014 Alongi suggested that only 40% of NPP was exported as DIC.[78][76]

Nitrogen assimilation edit

Mangrove forests and coastal marshes are typically considered N-limited ecosystems because of their high primary production.[94][95] Therefore, mangrove plants are highly efficient at utilising soil nitrogen, making them an important sink for excess nitrogen from upstream.[96][46] However, different mangrove species may still utilise nitrogen at different efficiencies,[97] even though they share similar nitrogen pathways (see diagram on right). Reported nitrogen assimilation rates in mangrove plants ranged from 2 to 8 μmol g−1 h−1 under ambient nitrogen conditions,[98] and 19 to 251 μmol g−1 h−1 when the nitrogen supply was unlimited.[99][92]

In addition to species variation, different environmental conditions can also affect the nitrogen assimilation rates in mangrove plants. Because Cl ions can reduce protein synthesis and nitrogen assimilation,[100] soil pore water salinity appears to be a negative factor that significantly alters the nitrogen uptake rates of mangrove plants.[99][101][92]

Exploitation and conservation edit

 
Mangrove roots act as a net, retaining waste. Mayotte at low tide
 
Mangroves in West Bali National Park, Indonesia

Adequate data is only available for about half of the global area of mangroves. However, of those areas for which data has been collected, it appears that 35% of the mangroves have been destroyed.[102] Since the 1980s, around 2% of mangrove area is estimated to be lost each year.[103] Assessments of global variation in mangrove loss indicates that national regulatory quality mediates how different drivers and pressures influence loss rates.[104]

Shrimp farming causes approximately a quarter of the destruction of mangrove forests.[105][106] Likewise, the 2010 update of the World Mangrove Atlas indicated that approximately one fifth of the world's mangrove ecosystems have been lost since 1980,[107] although this rapid loss rate appears to have decreased since 2000 with global losses estimated at between 0.16% and 0.39% annually between 2000 and 2012.[108] Despite global loss rates decreasing since 2000, Southeast Asia remains an area of concern with loss rates between 3.6% and 8.1% between 2000 and 2012.[108] By far the most damaging form of shrimp farming is when a closed ponds system (non-integrated multi-trophic aquaculture) is used, as these require destruction of a large part of the mangrove, and use antibiotics and disinfectants to suppress diseases that occur in this system, and which may also leak into the surrounding environment. Far less damage occurs when integrated mangrove-shrimp aquaculture is used, as this is connected to the sea and subjected to the tides, and less diseases occur, and as far less mangrove is destroyed for it.[109]

Grassroots efforts to protect mangroves from development and from citizens cutting down the mangroves for charcoal production,[110][111] cooking, heating and as a building material are becoming more popular. Solar cookers are distributed by many non-government organizations as a low-cost alternative to wood and charcoal stoves. These may help in reducing the demand for charcoal.

  • In Thailand, community management has been effective in restoring damaged mangroves.[112] Also, production of mangrove honey is practiced, as a way to generate sustainable income for nearby people, keeping them from destroying the mangrove and generate a short-term revenue.[113][114]
  • In Madagascar, honey is also produced in mangroves as a source of (non-destructive) income generation. In addition, silk pods from endemic silkworm species are also collected in the Madagascar mangroves for wild silk production.[115][111]
  • In the Bahamas, for example, active efforts to save mangroves are occurring on the islands of Bimini and Great Guana Cay.
  • In Trinidad and Tobago as well, efforts are underway to protect a mangrove threatened by the construction of a steel mill and a port.[citation needed]
  • Within northern Ecuador, mangrove regrowth is reported in almost all estuaries and stems primarily from local actors responding to earlier periods of deforestation in the Esmeraldas region.[116]

Mangroves have been reported to be able to help buffer against tsunami, cyclones, and other storms, and as such may be considered a flagship system for ecosystem-based adaptation to the impacts of climate change. One village in Tamil Nadu was protected from tsunami destruction—the villagers in Naluvedapathy planted 80,244 saplings to get into the Guinness Book of World Records. This created a kilometre-wide belt of trees of various varieties. When the 2004 tsunami struck, much of the land around the village was flooded, but the village suffered minimal damage.[117]

 
Shrimp ponds in mangrove forests like these leave massive amounts of water pollution and compounds the negative effects of deoxygenation in mangrove forests.

Ocean deoxygenation edit

Compared to seagrass meadows and coral reefs, hypoxia is more common on a regular basis in mangrove ecosystems, through ocean deoxygenation is compounding the negative effects by anthropogenic nutrient inputs and land use modification.[118]

Like seagrass, mangrove trees transport oxygen to roots of rhizomes, reduce sulfide concentrations, and alter microbial communities. Dissolved oxygen is more readily consumed in the interior of the mangrove forest. Anthropogenic inputs may push the limits of survival in many mangrove microhabitats. For example, shrimp ponds constructed in mangrove forests are considered the greatest anthropogenic threat to mangrove ecosystems. These shrimp ponds reduce estuary circulation and water quality which leads to the promotion of diel-cycling hypoxia. When the quality of the water degrades, the shrimp ponds are quickly abandoned leaving massive amounts of wastewater. This is a major source of water pollution that promotes ocean deoxygenation in the adjacent habitats.[118][119]

Due to these frequent hypoxic conditions, the water does not provide habitats to fish. When exposed to extreme hypoxia, ecosystem function can completely collapse. Extreme deoxygenation will affect the local fish populations, which are an essential food source. The environmental costs of shrimp farms in the mangrove forests grossly outweigh the economic benefits of them. Cessation of shrimp production and restoration of these areas reduce eutrophication and anthropogenic hypoxia.[118]

Reforestation edit

 
Mangroves in Bohol, Philippines
 
Mangroves in Karachi, Pakistan

In some areas, mangrove reforestation and mangrove restoration is also underway. Red mangroves are the most common choice for cultivation, used particularly in marine aquariums in a sump to reduce nitrates and other nutrients in the water. Mangroves also appear in home aquariums, and as ornamental plants, such as in Japan.[citation needed]

External videos
  Restoring The Natural Mangrove Forest
Mangrove Action Project

The Manzanar Mangrove Initiative is an ongoing experiment in Arkiko, Eritrea, part of the Manzanar Project founded by Gordon H. Sato, establishing new mangrove plantations on the coastal mudflats. Initial plantings failed, but observation of the areas where mangroves did survive by themselves led to the conclusion that nutrients in water flow from inland were important to the health of the mangroves. Trials with the Eritrean Ministry of Fisheries followed, and a planting system was designed to provide the nitrogen, phosphorus, and iron missing from seawater.[120][121]

The propagules are planted inside a reused galvanized steel can with the bottom knocked out; a small piece of iron and a pierced plastic bag with fertilizer containing nitrogen and phosphorus are buried with the propagule. As of 2007, after six years of planting, 700,000 mangroves are growing; providing stock feed for sheep and habitat for oysters, crabs, other bivalves, and fish.[120][121]

Another method of restoring mangroves is by using quadcopters (which are able to carry and deposit seed pods). According to Irina Fedorenko, an amount of work equivalent to weeks of planting using traditional methods can be done by a drone in days, and at a fraction of the cost.[122]

Seventy percent of mangrove forests have been lost in Java, Indonesia. Mangroves formerly protected the island's coastal land from flooding and erosion.[123] Wetlands International, an NGC based in the Netherlands, in collaboration with nine villages in Demak where lands and homes had been flooded, began reviving mangrove forests in Java. Wetlands International introduced the idea of developing tropical versions of techniques traditionally used by the Dutch to catch sediment in North Sea coastal salt marshes.[123] Originally, the villagers constructed a sea barrier by hammering two rows of vertical bamboo poles into the seabed and filling the gaps with brushwood held in place with netting. Later the bamboo was replaced by PVC pipes filled with concrete. As sediment gets deposited around the brushwood, it serves to catch floating mangrove seeds and provide them with a stable base to germinate, take root and regrow. This creates a green belt of protection around the islands. As the mangroves mature, more sediment is held in the catchment area; the process is repeated until a mangrove forest has been restored. Eventually the protective structures will not be needed.[123] By late 2018, 16 km (9.9 mi) of brushwood barriers along the coastline had been completed.[123]

A concern over reforestation is that although it supports increases in mangrove area it may actually result in a decrease in global mangrove functionality and poor restoration processes may result in longer term depletion of the mangrove resource.[124]

National and international studies edit

In terms of local and national studies of mangrove loss, the case of Belize's mangroves is illustrative in its contrast to the global picture. A recent, satellite-based study[125]—funded by the World Wildlife Fund and conducted by the Water Center for the Humid Tropics of Latin America and the Caribbean (CATHALAC)—indicates Belize's mangrove cover declined by a mere 2% over a 30-year period. The study was born out of the need to verify the popular conception that mangrove clearing in Belize was rampant.[126]

Instead, the assessment showed, between 1980 and 2010, under 16 km2 (6.2 sq mi) of mangroves had been cleared, although clearing of mangroves near Belize's main coastal settlements (e.g. Belize City and San Pedro) was relatively high. The rate of loss of Belize's mangroves—at 0.07% per year between 1980 and 2010—was much lower than Belize's overall rate of forest clearing (0.6% per year in the same period).[127] These findings can also be interpreted to indicate Belize's mangrove regulations (under the nation's)[128] have largely been effective. Nevertheless, the need to protect Belize's mangroves is imperative, as a 2009 study by the World Resources Institute (WRI) indicates the ecosystems contribute US$174 to US$249 million per year to Belize's national economy.[129]

From 1990, in Tanzania, Adelaida K. Semesi led aresearch programme which resulted in Tanzania being one of the first countries to have an environemntal management plan for mangroves.[130] Nicknamed "mama mikoko" ("mama mangroves" in Swahili),[131][132] Semesi also was a Council Member for the International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems.[133]

External videos
  NASA and Mangroves – YouTube

In May 2019, ORNL DAAC News announced that NASA's Carbon Monitoring System (CMS), using new satellite-based maps of global mangrove forests across 116 countries, had created a new dataset to characterize the "distribution, biomass, and canopy height of mangrove-forested wetlands".[134][135] Mangrove forests move carbon dioxide "from the atmosphere into long-term storage" in greater quantities than other forests, making them "among the planet's best carbon scrubbers" according to a NASA-led study.[135][136]

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ Luo, L.; Gu, J.-D. (2018). "Nutrient limitation status in a subtropical mangrove ecosystem revealed by analysis of enzymatic stoichiometry and microbial abundance for sediment carbon cycling". International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation. 128: 3–10. doi:10.1016/j.ibiod.2016.04.023.
  2. ^ Tue, N. T.; Ngoc, N. T.; Quy, T. D.; Hamaoka, H.; Nhuan, M. T.; Omori, K. (2012). "A cross-system analysis of sedimentary organic carbon in the mangrove ecosystems of Xuan Thuy National Park, Vietnam". Journal of Sea Research. 67 (1): 69–76. Bibcode:2012JSR....67...69T. doi:10.1016/j.seares.2011.10.006.
  3. ^ a b c What is a mangrove forest? National Ocean Service, NOAA. Updated: 25 March 2021. Retrieved: 4 October 2021.   This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  4. ^ De Groot, R.S. (1992). Functions of Nature: Evaluation of Nature in Environmental Planning, Management and Decision Making. Wolters-Noordhoff. ISBN 9789001355944.
  5. ^ Alongi, D. M.; Murdiyarso, D.; Fourqurean, J. W.; Kauffman, J. B.; Hutahaean, A.; Crooks, S.; Lovelock, C. E.; Howard, J.; Herr, D.; Fortes, M.; Pidgeon, E.; Wagey, T. (2016). "Indonesia's blue carbon: A globally significant and vulnerable sink for seagrass and mangrove carbon". Wetlands Ecology and Management. 24: 3–13. doi:10.1007/s11273-015-9446-y. S2CID 4983675.
  6. ^ Lin, X.; Hetharua, B.; Lin, L.; Xu, H.; Zheng, T.; He, Z.; Tian, Y. (2018). "Mangrove Sediment Microbiome: Adaptive Microbial Assemblages and Their Routed Biogeochemical Processes in Yunxiao Mangrove National Nature Reserve, China". Microbial Ecology. 78 (1): 57–69. doi:10.1007/s00248-018-1261-6. PMID 30284602. S2CID 52917236.
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External links edit

  •   Media related to Mangrove forests at Wikimedia Commons

mangrove, forest, also, called, mangrove, swamps, mangrove, thickets, mangals, productive, wetlands, that, occur, coastal, intertidal, zones, grow, mainly, tropical, subtropical, latitudes, because, mangroves, cannot, withstand, freezing, temperatures, there, . Mangrove forests also called mangrove swamps mangrove thickets or mangals are productive wetlands that occur in coastal intertidal zones 1 2 Mangrove forests grow mainly at tropical and subtropical latitudes because mangroves cannot withstand freezing temperatures There are about 80 different species of mangroves all of which grow in areas with low oxygen soil where slow moving waters allow fine sediments to accumulate 3 Many mangrove forests can be recognised by their dense tangle of prop roots that make the trees appear to be standing on stilts above the water This tangle of roots allows the trees to handle the daily rise and fall of tides as most mangroves get flooded at least twice per day The roots slow the movement of tidal waters causing sediments to settle out of the water and build up the muddy bottom Mangrove forests stabilise the coastline reducing erosion from storm surges currents waves and tides The intricate root system of mangroves also makes these forests attractive to fish and other organisms seeking food and shelter from predators 3 Mangrove forests live at the interface between the land the ocean and the atmosphere and are centres for the flow of energy and matter between these systems They have attracted much research interest because of the various ecological functions of the mangrove ecosystems including runoff and flood prevention storage and recycling of nutrients and wastes cultivation and energy conversion 4 The forests are major blue carbon systems storing considerable amounts of carbon in marine sediments thus becoming important regulators of climate change 5 Marine microorganisms are key parts of these mangrove ecosystems However much remains to be discovered about how mangrove microbiomes contribute to high ecosystem productivity and efficient cycling of elements 6 Contents 1 Overview 2 Distribution 2 1 Sundarbans 3 Ecosystem 4 Biodiversity 4 1 Birds 4 2 Fish 4 3 Mangrove crab holobiont 5 Biogeochemistry 5 1 Carbon cycle 5 2 Nitrogen assimilation 6 Exploitation and conservation 6 1 Ocean deoxygenation 7 Reforestation 8 National and international studies 9 See also 10 References 11 External linksOverview editExternal videos nbsp Mangrove Photography Awards 2020 Mangrove Action ProjectThere are about 80 different species of mangrove trees All of these trees grow in areas with low oxygen soil where slow moving waters allow fine sediments to accumulate Mangrove forests grow only at tropical and subtropical latitudes near the equator because they cannot withstand freezing temperatures 7 Many mangrove forests can be recognised by their dense tangle of prop roots that make the trees appear to be standing on stilts above the water This tangle of roots allows the trees to handle the daily rise and fall of tides which means that most mangroves get flooded at least twice per day The roots slow the movement of tidal waters causing sediments to settle out of the water and build up the muddy bottom Mangrove forests stabilise the coastline reducing erosion from storm surges currents waves and tides The intricate root system of mangroves makes these forests attractive to fishes and other organisms seeking food and shelter from predators 8 The main contribution of mangroves to the larger ecosystem comes from litter fall from the trees which is then decomposed by primary consumers Bacteria and protozoans colonise the plant litter and break it down chemically into organic compounds minerals carbon dioxide and nitrogenous wastes 8 The intertidal existence to which these trees are adapted represents the major limitation to the number of species able to thrive in their habitat High tide brings in salt water and when the tide recedes solar evaporation of the seawater in the soil leads to further increases in salinity The return of tide can flush out these soils bringing them back to salinity levels comparable to that of seawater 9 10 At low tide organisms are exposed to increases in temperature and reduced moisture before being then cooled and flooded by the tide Thus for a plant to survive in this environment it must tolerate broad ranges of salinity temperature and moisture as well as several other key environmental factors thus only a select few species make up the mangrove tree community 10 9 A mangrove swamp typically features only a small number of tree species It is not uncommon for a mangrove forest in the Caribbean to feature only three or four tree species For comparison a tropical rainforest biome may contain thousands of tree species but this is not to say mangrove forests lack diversity Though the trees are few in species the ecosystem that these trees create provides a habitat for a great variety of other species including as many as 174 species of marine megafauna 11 nbsp Mangrove ecosystem in the coastal intertidal zone 12 Seagrass and oyster beds can inhabit the shallow subtidal zoneMangrove plants require a number of physiological adaptations to overcome the problems of low environmental oxygen levels high salinity and frequent tidal flooding Each species has its own solutions to these problems this may be the primary reason why on some shorelines mangrove tree species show distinct zonation Small environmental variations within a mangal may lead to greatly differing methods for coping with the environment Therefore the mix of species is partly determined by the tolerances of individual species to physical conditions such as tidal flooding and salinity but may also be influenced by other factors such as crabs preying on plant seedlings 13 Once established mangrove roots provide an oyster habitat and slow water flow thereby enhancing sediment deposition in areas where it is already occurring The fine anoxic sediments under mangroves act as sinks for a variety of heavy trace metals which colloidal particles in the sediments have concentrated from the water Mangrove removal disturbs these underlying sediments often creating problems of trace metal contamination of seawater and organisms of the area 14 Mangrove swamps protect coastal areas from erosion storm surge especially during tropical cyclones and tsunamis 15 16 17 They limit high energy wave erosion mainly during events such as storm surges and tsunamis 18 The mangroves massive root systems are efficient at dissipating wave energy 19 Likewise they slow down tidal water enough so that its sediment is deposited as the tide comes in leaving all except fine particles when the tide ebbs 20 In this way mangroves build their environments 15 Because of the uniqueness of mangrove ecosystems and the protection against erosion they provide they are often the object of conservation programs 10 including national biodiversity action plans 16 Distribution edit nbsp Global distribution of mangrove forests 2011 21 click to enlarge nbsp Diversity of mangroves is greatest in Southeast AsiaDistribution of delta estuary lagoon and open coast mangrove typesin i South Asia ii Southeast Asia and iii East Asia 22 Bar charts show percentage change in area between 1996 and 2016Main article Mangrove tree distribution Further information List of mangrove ecoregions Worldwide there are about 80 described species of mangroves that live along marine coasts About 60 of these species are true mangroves which live only in the intertidal zone between high and low tides 23 Mangroves once covered three quarters of the world s tropical coastlines with Southeast Asia hosting the greatest diversity Only 12 species live in the Americas Mangroves range in size from small bushes to the 60 meter giants found in Ecuador Within a given mangrove forest different species occupy distinct niches Those that can handle tidal soakings grow in the open sea in sheltered bays and on fringe islands Trees adapted to drier less salty soil can be found farther from the shoreline Some mangroves flourish along riverbanks far inland as long as the freshwater current is met by ocean tides 23 nbsp Mangroves dominate in tropical regions and salt marshes in temperate regionsorange mangroves dominate green salt marshes dominateMangroves can be found in 118 countries and territories in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world 21 The largest percentage of mangroves is found between the 5 N and 5 S latitudes Approximately 75 of world s mangroves are found in just 15 countries 21 Estimates of mangrove area based on remote sensing and global data tend to be lower than estimates based on literature and surveys for comparable periods 9 In 2018 the Global Mangrove Watch Initiative released a global baseline based on remote sensing and global data for 2010 21 They estimated the total mangrove forest area of the world as of 2010 at 137 600 km2 53 100 sq mi spanning 118 countries and territories 9 24 Following the conventions for identifying geographic regions from the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands researchers reported that Asia has the largest share 38 7 of the world s mangroves followed by Latin America and the Caribbean 20 3 Africa 20 0 Oceania 11 9 and Northern America 8 4 24 Sundarbans edit The largest mangrove forest in the world is in the Sundarbans The Sundarban forest lies in the vast delta on the Bay of Bengal formed by the super confluence of the Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers with distributaries of the Ganges The seasonally flooded Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests lie inland from the mangrove forests on the coastal fringe The forest covers 10 000 km2 3 900 sq mi of which about 6 000 km2 2 300 sq mi are in Bangladesh 25 The Sundarbans is intersected by a complex network of tidal waterways mudflats and small islands of salt tolerant mangrove forests The interconnected network of waterways makes almost every portion of the forest accessible by boat The area is known as an important habitat for the endangered Bengal tiger as well as numerous fauna including species of birds spotted deer crocodiles and snakes The fertile soils of the delta have been subject to intensive human use for centuries and the ecoregion has been mostly converted to intensive agriculture with few enclaves of forest remaining 26 Additionally the Sundarbans serves a crucial function as a protective barrier for millions of inhabitants against floods that result from cyclones Four protected areas in the Sundarbans are listed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites 27 Despite these protections the Indian Sundarbans were assessed as endangered in 2020 under the IUCN Red List of Ecosystems framework 28 There is a consistent pattern of depleted biodiversity or loss of species and the ecological quality of the forest is declining 29 nbsp Map of the Sundarbans nbsp Bengal tiger in the Sunderbans nbsp Channel in low tideEcosystem editThe unique ecosystem found in the intricate mesh of mangrove roots offers a quiet marine habitat for young organisms 30 In areas where roots are permanently submerged the organisms they host include algae barnacles oysters sponges and bryozoa which all require a hard surface for anchoring while they filter feed Shrimp and mud lobsters use the muddy bottoms as their home 31 Mangrove crabs eat the mangrove leaves adding nutrients to the mangal mud for other bottom feeders 32 In at least some cases the export of carbon fixed in mangroves is important in coastal food webs 33 Mangrove plantations host several commercially important species of fish and crustaceans 34 In Puerto Rico the red white and black mangroves occupy different ecological niches and have slightly different chemical compositions so the carbon content varies between the species as well between the different tissues of the plant e g leaf matter versus roots 35 There is a clear succession of these three trees from the lower elevations which are dominated by red mangroves to farther inland with a higher concentration of white mangroves 35 Mangrove forests are an important part of the cycling and storage of carbon in tropical coastal ecosystems 35 Knowing this scientists seek to reconstruct the environment and investigate changes to the coastal ecosystem over thousands of years using sediment cores 36 However an additional complication is the imported marine organic matter that also gets deposited in the sediment through the tidal flushing of mangrove forests 35 Mangrove forests can decay into peat deposits because of fungal and bacterial processes as well as by the action of termites 35 It becomes peat in good geochemical sedimentary and tectonic conditions 35 The nature of these deposits depends on the environment and the types of mangroves involved Termites process fallen leaf litter root systems and wood from mangroves into peat to build their nests 35 Termites stabilise the chemistry of this peat and represent approximately 2 of above ground carbon storage in mangroves 35 As the nests are buried over time this carbon is stored in the sediment and the carbon cycle continues 35 Mangroves are an important source of blue carbon Globally mangroves stored 4 19 Gt 9 2 1012 lb of carbon in 2012 37 Two percent of global mangrove carbon was lost between 2000 and 2012 equivalent to a maximum potential of 0 316996250 Gt 6 9885710 1011 lb of CO2 emissions 37 Globally mangroves have been shown to provide measurable economic protections to coastal communities affected by tropical storms 38 Biodiversity editBirds edit Heterogeneity in landscape ecology is a measure of how different parts of a landscape are from one another It can manifest in an ecosystem from the abiotic or biotic characteristics of the environment For example coastal mangrove forests are located at the land sea interface so their functioning is influenced by abiotic factors such as tides as well as biotic factors such as the extent and configuration of adjacent vegetation 39 For forest birds tidal inundation means that the availability of many mangrove resources fluctuates daily suggesting foraging flexibility is likely to be important Mangroves also offer estuarine prey items such as mudskippers and crabs that are not found in terrestrial forest types Further mangroves are often situated in a complex mosaic of adjacent vegetation types such as grasslands saltmarshes and woodlands and this can mean that flexibility in foraging strategy and choice of foraging habitat may be advantageous for highly mobile forest birds 39 Relative to other forest types mangroves support few bird species that are obligate habitat mangrove specialists and instead host many species with generalised foraging niches 40 39 nbsp Mangrove forests host many bird species with generalised foraging niches nbsp Mangrove fantail nbsp Mangrove hummingbird nbsp Mangrove kingfishers are found particularly in mangrove zones nbsp Mangrove black hawk nbsp Brown pelicans fish and nest in mangrove forests nbsp Little blue heron The water is reflecting green mangrove trees nbsp Three great egrets fishing along a mangrove shore nbsp Pelicans and cormorants high in the mangrove trees Bird sanctuariesMangrove forests are home and sanctuaries for many of aquatic bird species including Pulicat Lake Bird Sanctuary Mangalavanam Bird Sanctuary Salim Ali Bird Sanctuary Pichavaram Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary Sundarbans National ParkFish edit The intricate root system of mangrove forests makes them attractive to adult fish seeking food and juvenile fish seeking shelter 3 nbsp Mangrove jack nbsp Mangrove snapper swimming among mangrove roots nbsp Old World silversides schooling among mangrove roots nbsp Barracuda lurks among mangrove root nbsp Yellow seahorses breed and give birth in Asia s flooded mangrove forests Tangled roots and submerged branches offer shadowy shelter to pregnant dads and their offspring nbsp Mudskippers can be found in mangrove swamps nbsp Mangrove whipray Mangrove crab holobiont edit Mangrove forests are among the more productive and diverse ecosystems on the planet despite limited nitrogen availability Under such conditions animal microbe associations holobionts are often key to ecosystem functioning An example is the role of fiddler crabs and their carapace associated microbial biofilm as hotspots of microbial nitrogen transformations and sources of nitrogen within the mangrove ecosystem 41 Among coastal ecosystems mangrove forests are of great importance as they account for three quarters of the tropical coastline and provide different ecosystem services 42 43 Mangrove ecosystems generally act as a net sink of carbon although they release organic matter to the sea in the form of dissolved refractory macromolecules leaves branches and other debris 44 45 In pristine environments mangroves are among the most productive ecosystems on the planet despite growing in tropical waters that are often nutrient depleted 46 The refractory nature of the organic matter produced and retained in mangroves can slow the recycling of nutrients particularly of nitrogen 44 47 Nitrogen limitation in such systems may be overcome by microbial nitrogen fixation when combined with high rates of bioturbation by macrofauna such as crabs and lobsters 48 49 41 Bioturbation by macrofauna affect nitrogen availability and multiple nitrogen related microbial processes through sediment reworking burrow construction and bioirrigation feeding and excretion 50 Macrofauna mix old and fresh organic matter extend oxic anoxic sediment interfaces increase the availability of energy yielding electron acceptors and increase nitrogen turnover via direct excretion 51 52 Thus macrofauna may alleviate nitrogen limitation by priming the remineralisation of refractory nitrogen that is the nitrogen that can t be biologically decomposed reducing plant microbe competition 53 54 Such activity ultimately promotes nitrogen recycling plant assimilation and high nitrogen retention as well as favours its loss by stimulating coupled nitrification and denitrification 55 41 nbsp Nitrogen cycling in a mangrove fiddler crab holobiont 41 Dry weight of crab biofilm and mean dry weight of incubated crab expressed as µmol nitrogen per crab per day nbsp The scorpion mud lobster is found in some mangrove swamps It lives in burrows up to 2 m 6 6 ft deep and is active at night Its burrowing is important for the recycling of nutrients bringing organic matter up from deep sediments 56 57 Mangrove sediments are highly bioturbated by decapods such as crabs 58 Crab populations continuously rework sediment by constructing burrows creating new niches transporting or selectively grazing on sediment microbial communities 58 59 60 61 In addition crabs can affect organic matter turnover by assimilating leaves and producing finely fragmented faeces or by carrying them into their burrows 62 63 Therefore crabs are considered important ecosystem engineers shaping biogeochemical processes in intertidal muddy banks of mangroves 64 65 In contrast to burrowing polychaetes or amphipods the abundant Ocipodid crabs mainly represented by fiddler crabs do not permanently ventilate their burrows These crabs may temporarily leave their burrows for surface activities 61 or otherwise plug their burrow entrance during tidal inundation in order to trap air 66 A recent study showed that these crabs can be associated with a diverse microbial community either on their carapace or in their gut 60 41 The exoskeleton of living animals such as shells or carapaces offers a habitat for microbial biofilms which are actively involved in different N cycling pathways such as nitrification denitrification and dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium DNRA 67 68 69 70 71 72 Colonizing the carapace of crabs may be advantageous for specific bacteria because of host activities such as respiration excretion feeding and horizontal and vertical migrations 73 However the ecological interactions between fiddler crabs and bacteria their regulation and significance as well as their implications at scales spanning from the single individual to the ecosystem are not well understood 60 74 41 nbsp Artist impression of small blue soldier crabs marching across a mangrove flat 75 nbsp Mangrove crab possibly Neosarmatium asiaticum nbsp Mangrove tree crab Aratus pisoniiBiogeochemistry editFurther information Marine biogeochemistry Carbon cycle edit nbsp Fate of mangrove primary production 76 A Fate of mangrove primary production and importance of each component as a percentage of net mangrove primary productivity 77 78 B Isotopic profile of sediments across the transition from mangrove to intertidal mudflats and seagrass beds illustrating the retention of mangrove productivity within the forest Mangrove forests are amongst the world s most productive marine ecosystems 78 with net primary productivity NPP in the order of 208 Tg C yr 1 77 Mangrove forests achieve a steady state once the forest reaches maximum biomass at around 20 30 years through a constant process of mortality and renewal 79 so assuming the living biomass is not becoming more carbon dense then carbon has to be lost at a rate equal to the amount of carbon fixed as NPP Hence this productivity is either retained within the mangrove forest as a standing stock of live material such as wood buried in sediments or exported to neighbouring habitats as litter particulate and dissolved organic carbon POC and DOC and dissolved inorganic carbon DIC or lost to the atmosphere 77 80 78 76 The out welling hypothesis argues that export of locally derived POC and DOC is an important ecosystem function of mangroves which drives detrital based food webs in adjacent coastal habitats 81 82 Export of mangrove carbon has been estimated to make a significant trophic contribution to adjacent ecosystems 83 84 85 86 The theory of outwelling is supported by mass balance evaluations that show the amount of carbon fixed by mangroves normally greatly exceeds the amount stored within the forest 78 87 although the scale of outwelling varies considerably between forests 88 due to differences in coastal geomorphology tidal regimes freshwater flow and productivity 89 90 76 nbsp Pathways for the nitrogen cycle in mangrove forests 91 92 Black arrows indicate nitrogen pathways Blue arrows indicate the direction where increased environmental factors salinity carbon source nitrogen source may affect nitrogen pathways In the 1990s global estimates could account for 48 of the total global mangrove primary production of 218 72 million tons C yr 1 see diagram on the right By incorporating information on carbon burial CO2 efflux and carbon outwelled as leaf litter POC and DOC the remaining 52 was thought outwelled as DIC though there was insufficient data to confirm this 77 More recent assessments of DIC export at two sites in Australia 80 93 supported the estimates of Bouillon et al in 2008 77 although in 2014 Alongi suggested that only 40 of NPP was exported as DIC 78 76 Nitrogen assimilation edit Mangrove forests and coastal marshes are typically considered N limited ecosystems because of their high primary production 94 95 Therefore mangrove plants are highly efficient at utilising soil nitrogen making them an important sink for excess nitrogen from upstream 96 46 However different mangrove species may still utilise nitrogen at different efficiencies 97 even though they share similar nitrogen pathways see diagram on right Reported nitrogen assimilation rates in mangrove plants ranged from 2 to 8 mmol g 1 h 1 under ambient nitrogen conditions 98 and 19 to 251 mmol g 1 h 1 when the nitrogen supply was unlimited 99 92 In addition to species variation different environmental conditions can also affect the nitrogen assimilation rates in mangrove plants Because Cl ions can reduce protein synthesis and nitrogen assimilation 100 soil pore water salinity appears to be a negative factor that significantly alters the nitrogen uptake rates of mangrove plants 99 101 92 Exploitation and conservation edit nbsp Mangrove roots act as a net retaining waste Mayotte at low tide nbsp Mangroves in West Bali National Park IndonesiaAdequate data is only available for about half of the global area of mangroves However of those areas for which data has been collected it appears that 35 of the mangroves have been destroyed 102 Since the 1980s around 2 of mangrove area is estimated to be lost each year 103 Assessments of global variation in mangrove loss indicates that national regulatory quality mediates how different drivers and pressures influence loss rates 104 Shrimp farming causes approximately a quarter of the destruction of mangrove forests 105 106 Likewise the 2010 update of the World Mangrove Atlas indicated that approximately one fifth of the world s mangrove ecosystems have been lost since 1980 107 although this rapid loss rate appears to have decreased since 2000 with global losses estimated at between 0 16 and 0 39 annually between 2000 and 2012 108 Despite global loss rates decreasing since 2000 Southeast Asia remains an area of concern with loss rates between 3 6 and 8 1 between 2000 and 2012 108 By far the most damaging form of shrimp farming is when a closed ponds system non integrated multi trophic aquaculture is used as these require destruction of a large part of the mangrove and use antibiotics and disinfectants to suppress diseases that occur in this system and which may also leak into the surrounding environment Far less damage occurs when integrated mangrove shrimp aquaculture is used as this is connected to the sea and subjected to the tides and less diseases occur and as far less mangrove is destroyed for it 109 Grassroots efforts to protect mangroves from development and from citizens cutting down the mangroves for charcoal production 110 111 cooking heating and as a building material are becoming more popular Solar cookers are distributed by many non government organizations as a low cost alternative to wood and charcoal stoves These may help in reducing the demand for charcoal In Thailand community management has been effective in restoring damaged mangroves 112 Also production of mangrove honey is practiced as a way to generate sustainable income for nearby people keeping them from destroying the mangrove and generate a short term revenue 113 114 In Madagascar honey is also produced in mangroves as a source of non destructive income generation In addition silk pods from endemic silkworm species are also collected in the Madagascar mangroves for wild silk production 115 111 In the Bahamas for example active efforts to save mangroves are occurring on the islands of Bimini and Great Guana Cay In Trinidad and Tobago as well efforts are underway to protect a mangrove threatened by the construction of a steel mill and a port citation needed Within northern Ecuador mangrove regrowth is reported in almost all estuaries and stems primarily from local actors responding to earlier periods of deforestation in the Esmeraldas region 116 Mangroves have been reported to be able to help buffer against tsunami cyclones and other storms and as such may be considered a flagship system for ecosystem based adaptation to the impacts of climate change One village in Tamil Nadu was protected from tsunami destruction the villagers in Naluvedapathy planted 80 244 saplings to get into the Guinness Book of World Records This created a kilometre wide belt of trees of various varieties When the 2004 tsunami struck much of the land around the village was flooded but the village suffered minimal damage 117 nbsp Shrimp ponds in mangrove forests like these leave massive amounts of water pollution and compounds the negative effects of deoxygenation in mangrove forests Ocean deoxygenation edit Compared to seagrass meadows and coral reefs hypoxia is more common on a regular basis in mangrove ecosystems through ocean deoxygenation is compounding the negative effects by anthropogenic nutrient inputs and land use modification 118 Like seagrass mangrove trees transport oxygen to roots of rhizomes reduce sulfide concentrations and alter microbial communities Dissolved oxygen is more readily consumed in the interior of the mangrove forest Anthropogenic inputs may push the limits of survival in many mangrove microhabitats For example shrimp ponds constructed in mangrove forests are considered the greatest anthropogenic threat to mangrove ecosystems These shrimp ponds reduce estuary circulation and water quality which leads to the promotion of diel cycling hypoxia When the quality of the water degrades the shrimp ponds are quickly abandoned leaving massive amounts of wastewater This is a major source of water pollution that promotes ocean deoxygenation in the adjacent habitats 118 119 Due to these frequent hypoxic conditions the water does not provide habitats to fish When exposed to extreme hypoxia ecosystem function can completely collapse Extreme deoxygenation will affect the local fish populations which are an essential food source The environmental costs of shrimp farms in the mangrove forests grossly outweigh the economic benefits of them Cessation of shrimp production and restoration of these areas reduce eutrophication and anthropogenic hypoxia 118 Reforestation edit nbsp Mangroves in Bohol Philippines nbsp Mangroves in Karachi PakistanMain article Mangrove restoration In some areas mangrove reforestation and mangrove restoration is also underway Red mangroves are the most common choice for cultivation used particularly in marine aquariums in a sump to reduce nitrates and other nutrients in the water Mangroves also appear in home aquariums and as ornamental plants such as in Japan citation needed External videos nbsp Restoring The Natural Mangrove Forest Mangrove Action ProjectThe Manzanar Mangrove Initiative is an ongoing experiment in Arkiko Eritrea part of the Manzanar Project founded by Gordon H Sato establishing new mangrove plantations on the coastal mudflats Initial plantings failed but observation of the areas where mangroves did survive by themselves led to the conclusion that nutrients in water flow from inland were important to the health of the mangroves Trials with the Eritrean Ministry of Fisheries followed and a planting system was designed to provide the nitrogen phosphorus and iron missing from seawater 120 121 The propagules are planted inside a reused galvanized steel can with the bottom knocked out a small piece of iron and a pierced plastic bag with fertilizer containing nitrogen and phosphorus are buried with the propagule As of 2007 update after six years of planting 700 000 mangroves are growing providing stock feed for sheep and habitat for oysters crabs other bivalves and fish 120 121 Another method of restoring mangroves is by using quadcopters which are able to carry and deposit seed pods According to Irina Fedorenko an amount of work equivalent to weeks of planting using traditional methods can be done by a drone in days and at a fraction of the cost 122 Seventy percent of mangrove forests have been lost in Java Indonesia Mangroves formerly protected the island s coastal land from flooding and erosion 123 Wetlands International an NGC based in the Netherlands in collaboration with nine villages in Demak where lands and homes had been flooded began reviving mangrove forests in Java Wetlands International introduced the idea of developing tropical versions of techniques traditionally used by the Dutch to catch sediment in North Sea coastal salt marshes 123 Originally the villagers constructed a sea barrier by hammering two rows of vertical bamboo poles into the seabed and filling the gaps with brushwood held in place with netting Later the bamboo was replaced by PVC pipes filled with concrete As sediment gets deposited around the brushwood it serves to catch floating mangrove seeds and provide them with a stable base to germinate take root and regrow This creates a green belt of protection around the islands As the mangroves mature more sediment is held in the catchment area the process is repeated until a mangrove forest has been restored Eventually the protective structures will not be needed 123 By late 2018 16 km 9 9 mi of brushwood barriers along the coastline had been completed 123 A concern over reforestation is that although it supports increases in mangrove area it may actually result in a decrease in global mangrove functionality and poor restoration processes may result in longer term depletion of the mangrove resource 124 National and international studies editIn terms of local and national studies of mangrove loss the case of Belize s mangroves is illustrative in its contrast to the global picture A recent satellite based study 125 funded by the World Wildlife Fund and conducted by the Water Center for the Humid Tropics of Latin America and the Caribbean CATHALAC indicates Belize s mangrove cover declined by a mere 2 over a 30 year period The study was born out of the need to verify the popular conception that mangrove clearing in Belize was rampant 126 Instead the assessment showed between 1980 and 2010 under 16 km2 6 2 sq mi of mangroves had been cleared although clearing of mangroves near Belize s main coastal settlements e g Belize City and San Pedro was relatively high The rate of loss of Belize s mangroves at 0 07 per year between 1980 and 2010 was much lower than Belize s overall rate of forest clearing 0 6 per year in the same period 127 These findings can also be interpreted to indicate Belize s mangrove regulations under the nation s 128 have largely been effective Nevertheless the need to protect Belize s mangroves is imperative as a 2009 study by the World Resources Institute WRI indicates the ecosystems contribute US 174 to US 249 million per year to Belize s national economy 129 From 1990 in Tanzania Adelaida K Semesi led aresearch programme which resulted in Tanzania being one of the first countries to have an environemntal management plan for mangroves 130 Nicknamed mama mikoko mama mangroves in Swahili 131 132 Semesi also was a Council Member for the International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems 133 External videos nbsp NASA and Mangroves YouTubeIn May 2019 ORNL DAAC News announced that NASA s Carbon Monitoring System CMS using new satellite based maps of global mangrove forests across 116 countries had created a new dataset to characterize the distribution biomass and canopy height of mangrove forested wetlands 134 135 Mangrove forests move carbon dioxide from the atmosphere into long term storage in greater quantities than other forests making them among the planet s best carbon scrubbers according to a NASA led study 135 136 See also editEcological values of mangroves Mangrove restoration Mangrove tree distribution Freshwater swamp forestReferences edit Luo L Gu J D 2018 Nutrient limitation status in a subtropical mangrove ecosystem revealed by analysis of enzymatic stoichiometry and microbial abundance for sediment carbon cycling International Biodeterioration amp Biodegradation 128 3 10 doi 10 1016 j ibiod 2016 04 023 Tue 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