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Jackie Robinson

March 14, 2023

For other people named Jackie Robinson, see Jackie Robinson (disambiguation).

Jack Roosevelt Robinson (January 31, 1919 – October 24, 1972) was an American professional baseball player who became the first African American to play in Major League Baseball (MLB) in the modern era.[2] Robinson broke the baseball color line when he started at first base for the Brooklyn Dodgers on April 15, 1947.[3] When the Dodgers signed Robinson, it heralded the end of racial segregation in professional baseball that had relegated black players to the Negro leagues since the 1880s.[4] Robinson was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1962.[5]

Jackie Robinson
Robinson with the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1954
Second baseman
Born: (1919-01-31)January 31, 1919
Cairo, Georgia, U.S.
Died: October 24, 1972(1972-10-24) (aged 53)
Stamford, Connecticut, U.S.
Batted: Right
Threw: Right
Professional debut
NgL: 1945, for the Kansas City Monarchs
MLB: April 15, 1947, for the Brooklyn Dodgers
Last MLB appearance
October 10, 1956, for the Brooklyn Dodgers
MLB statistics
Batting average.313
Home runs141
Runs batted in761
Teams
Negro leagues
Major League Baseball
Career highlights and awards
Member of the National
Baseball Hall of Fame
Induction1962
Vote77.5% (first ballot)
Military career
AllegianceUnited States
Service/branchUnited States Army
Years of service1942–1944
RankSecond lieutenant
Unit761st Tank Battalion

During his 10-year MLB career, Robinson won the inaugural Rookie of the Year Award in 1947, was an All-Star for six consecutive seasons from 1949 through 1954, and won the National League Most Valuable Player Award in 1949—the first black player so honored.[6][7] Robinson played in six World Series and contributed to the Dodgers' 1955 World Series championship.

In 1997, MLB retired his uniform number 42 across all major league teams; he was the first professional athlete in any sport to be so honored. MLB also adopted a new annual tradition, "Jackie Robinson Day", for the first time on April 15, 2004, on which every player on every team wears No. 42.

Robinson's character, his use of nonviolence, and his talent challenged the traditional basis of segregation that had then marked many other aspects of American life. He influenced the culture of and contributed significantly to the civil rights movement.[8][9] Robinson also was the first black television analyst in MLB and the first black vice president of a major American corporation, Chock full o'Nuts. In the 1960s, he helped establish the Freedom National Bank, an African-American-owned financial institution based in Harlem, New York. After his death in 1972, Robinson was posthumously awarded the Congressional Gold Medal and Presidential Medal of Freedom in recognition of his achievements on and off the field.

Early life

Family and personal life

Jack Roosevelt Robinson was born on January 31, 1919, into a family of sharecroppers in Cairo, Georgia. He was the youngest of five children born to Mallie (McGriff) and Jerry Robinson, after siblings Edgar, Frank, Matthew (nicknamed "Mack"), and Willa Mae.[10][11][12] His middle name was in honor of former President Theodore Roosevelt, who died 25 days before Robinson was born.[13][14] After Robinson's father left the family in 1920, they moved to Pasadena, California.[15][16][17]

The extended Robinson family established itself on a residential plot containing two small houses at 121 Pepper Street in Pasadena. Robinson's mother worked various odd jobs to support the family.[18] Growing up in relative poverty in an otherwise affluent community, Robinson and his minority friends were excluded from many recreational opportunities.[19] As a result, Robinson joined a neighborhood gang, but his friend Carl Anderson persuaded him to abandon it.[19][20][21]

John Muir High School

In 1935, Robinson graduated from Washington Junior High School and enrolled at John Muir High School (Muir Tech).[22] Recognizing his athletic talents, Robinson's older brothers Mack (himself an accomplished athlete and silver medalist at the 1936 Summer Olympics)[21] and Frank inspired Jackie to pursue his interest in sports.[23][24]

At Muir Tech, Robinson played numerous sports at the varsity level and lettered in four of them: football, basketball, track, and baseball.[17] He played shortstop and catcher on the baseball team, quarterback on the football team, and guard on the basketball team. With the track and field squad, he won awards in the broad jump. He was also a member of the tennis team.[25]

In 1936, Robinson won the junior boys singles championship in the annual Pacific Coast Negro Tennis Tournament and earned a place on the Pomona annual baseball tournament all-star team, which included future Hall of Famers Ted Williams and Bob Lemon.[26] In late January 1937, the Pasadena Star-News newspaper reported that Robinson "for two years has been the outstanding athlete at Muir, starring in football, basketball, track, baseball and tennis."[27]

Pasadena Junior College

After Muir, Robinson attended Pasadena Junior College (PJC), where he continued his athletic career by participating in basketball, football, baseball, and track.[28] On the football team, he played quarterback and safety. He was a shortstop and leadoff hitter for the baseball team,[17] and he broke an American junior college broad-jump record held by his brother Mack with a jump of 25 ft. 6+1⁄2 in. on May 7, 1938.[29] As at Muir High School, most of Jackie's teammates were white.[26] While playing football at PJC, Robinson suffered a fractured ankle, complications from which would eventually delay his deployment status while in the military.[30][31] In 1938, he was elected to the All-Southland Junior College Team for baseball and selected as the region's Most Valuable Player.[24][32]

That year, Robinson was one of 10 students named to the school's Order of the Mast and Dagger (Omicron Mu Delta), awarded to students performing "outstanding service to the school and whose scholastic and citizenship record is worthy of recognition."[33] Also while at PJC, he was elected to the Lancers, a student-run police organization responsible for patrolling various school activities.[34]

An incident at PJC illustrated Robinson's impatience with authority figures he perceived as racist—a character trait that would resurface repeatedly in his life. On January 25, 1938, he was arrested after vocally disputing the detention of a black friend by police.[35] Robinson received a two-year suspended sentence, but the incident—along with other rumored run-ins between Robinson and police—gave Robinson a reputation for combativeness in the face of racial antagonism.[36] While at PJC, he was motivated by a preacher (the Rev. Karl Downs) to attend church on a regular basis, and Downs became a confidant for Robinson, a Christian.[37] Toward the end of his PJC tenure, Frank Robinson (to whom Robinson felt closest among his three brothers) was killed in a motorcycle accident. The event motivated Jackie to pursue his athletic career at the nearby University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), where he could remain closer to Frank's family.[24][38]

UCLA and afterward

 
Robinson doing the long jump for UCLA

After graduating from PJC in spring 1939,[39] Robinson enrolled at UCLA, where he became the school's first athlete to win varsity letters in four sports: baseball, basketball, football, and track.[40][41]

He was one of four black players on the Bruins' 1939 football team; the others were Woody Strode, Kenny Washington, and Ray Bartlett. Washington, Strode, and Robinson made up three of the team's four backfield players.[42] At a time when only a few black students played mainstream college football, this made UCLA college football's most integrated team.[43][44] They went undefeated with four ties at 6–0–4.[45] Robinson finished the season with 12.2 yards per attempt on 42 carries, which is the school football record for highest rushing yards per carry in a season as of 2022. Robinson also led the NCAA in punt return average in the 1939 and 1940 seasons.[46]

In track and field, Robinson won the 1940 NCAA championship in the long jump at 24 ft 10+1⁄4 in (7.58 m).[47] Baseball was Robinson's "worst sport" at UCLA; he hit .097 in his only season, although in his first game he went 4-for-4 and twice stole home.[48]

While a senior at UCLA, Robinson met his future wife, Rachel Isum (b.1922), a UCLA freshman who was familiar with Robinson's athletic career at PJC.[49] He played football as a senior, but the 1940 Bruins won only one game.[50] In the spring, Robinson left college just shy of graduation, despite the reservations of his mother and Isum.[51] He took a job as an assistant athletic director with the government's National Youth Administration (NYA) in Atascadero, California.[52][53][54]

After the government ceased NYA operations, Robinson traveled to Honolulu in the fall of 1941 to play football for the semi-professional, racially integrated Honolulu Bears.[52][54] After a short season, Robinson returned to California in December 1941 to pursue a career as running back for the Los Angeles Bulldogs of the Pacific Coast Football League.[55] By that time, however, the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor had taken place, which drew the United States into World War II and ended Robinson's nascent football career.[52]

Military career

In 1942, Robinson was drafted and assigned to a segregated Army cavalry unit at Fort Riley (in Kansas).[56] Having the requisite qualifications, Robinson and several other black soldiers applied for admission to an Officer Candidate School (OCS) then located at Fort Riley.[56][57] Although the Army's initial July 1941 guidelines for OCS had been drafted as race neutral, few black applicants were admitted into OCS until after subsequent directives by Army leadership.[58] As a result, the applications of Robinson and his colleagues were delayed for several months.[59] After protests by heavyweight boxing champion Joe Louis (then stationed at Fort Riley) and with the help of Truman Gibson (then an assistant civilian aide to the Secretary of War),[60] the men were accepted into OCS.[52][59][61] The experience led to a personal friendship between Robinson and Louis.[62][63] Upon finishing OCS, Robinson was commissioned as a second lieutenant in January 1943.[41] Shortly afterward, Robinson and Isum were formally engaged.[59]

 
Robinson, wearing his Army uniform, receives a military salute from his nephew Frank during a visit to his home in Pasadena, California, circa 1943.

After receiving his commission, Robinson was reassigned to Fort Hood, Texas, where he joined the 761st "Black Panthers" Tank Battalion. While at Fort Hood, Robinson often used his weekend leave to visit the Rev. Karl Downs, President of Sam Huston College (now Huston–Tillotson University) in nearby Austin, Texas; in California, Downs had been Robinson's pastor at Scott United Methodist Church while Robinson attended PJC.[35][64]

An event on July 6, 1944, derailed Robinson's military career.[65] While awaiting results of hospital tests on the ankle he had injured in junior college, Robinson boarded an Army bus with a fellow officer's wife; although the Army had commissioned its own unsegregated bus line, the bus driver ordered Robinson to move to the back of the bus.[66][67][68] Robinson refused. The driver backed down, but after reaching the end of the line, summoned the military police, who took Robinson into custody.[66][69] When Robinson later confronted the investigating duty officer about racist questioning by the officer and his assistant, the officer recommended Robinson be court-martialed.[66][70]

After Robinson's commander in the 761st, Paul L. Bates, refused to authorize the legal action,[71] Robinson was summarily transferred to the 758th Battalion—where the commander quickly consented to charge Robinson with multiple offenses, including, among other charges, public drunkenness, even though Robinson did not drink.[66][72]

By the time of the court-martial in August 1944, the charges against Robinson had been reduced to two counts of insubordination during questioning.[66] Robinson was acquitted by an all-white panel of nine officers.[66]

Although his former unit, the 761st Tank Battalion, became the first black tank unit to see combat in World War II, Robinson's court-martial proceedings prohibited him from being deployed overseas; thus, he never saw combat action.[73]

After his acquittal, he was transferred to Camp Breckinridge, Kentucky, where he served as a coach for army athletics until receiving an honorable discharge in November 1944.[74] While there, Robinson met a former player for the Kansas City Monarchs of the Negro American League, who encouraged Robinson to write the Monarchs and ask for a tryout.[75] Robinson took the former player's advice and wrote to Monarchs co-owner Thomas Baird.[76]

Post-military

After his discharge, Robinson briefly returned to his old football club, the Los Angeles Bulldogs.[55] Robinson then accepted an offer from his old friend and pastor Rev. Karl Downs to be the athletic director at Samuel Huston College in Austin, then of the Southwestern Athletic Conference.[77] The job included coaching the school's basketball team for the 1944–45 season.[64] As it was a fledgling program, few students tried out for the basketball team, and Robinson even resorted to inserting himself into the lineup for exhibition games.[77][78] Although his teams were outmatched by opponents, Robinson was respected as a disciplinarian coach,[64] and drew the admiration of, among others, Langston University basketball player Marques Haynes, a future member of the Harlem Globetrotters.[79]

Playing career

Negro leagues and major league prospects

 
Robinson during his stint in the Negro leagues with the Kansas City Monarchs

In early 1945, while Robinson was at Sam Huston College, the Kansas City Monarchs sent him a written offer to play professional baseball in the Negro leagues.[64][80] Robinson accepted a contract for $400 per month.[52][81] Although he played well for the Monarchs, Robinson was frustrated with the experience. He had grown used to a structured playing environment in college, and the Negro leagues' disorganization and embrace of gambling interests appalled him.[82][83] The hectic travel schedule also placed a burden on his relationship with Isum, with whom he could now communicate only by letter.[84] In all, Robinson played 47 games at shortstop for the Monarchs, hitting .387 with five home runs, and registering 13 stolen bases.[85] He also appeared in the 1945 East–West All-Star Game, going hitless in five at-bats.[86]

During the season, Robinson pursued potential major league interests. No black man had played in the major leagues since Moses Fleetwood Walker in 1884, but the Boston Red Sox nevertheless held a tryout at Fenway Park for Robinson and other black players on April 16.[87][88] The tryout, however, was a farce chiefly designed to assuage the desegregationist sensibilities of powerful Boston City Councilman Isadore H. Y. Muchnick.[89] Even with the stands limited to management, Robinson was subjected to racial epithets.[90] He left the tryout humiliated,[87] and more than 14 years later, in July 1959, the Red Sox became the final major league team to integrate its roster.[91]

Other teams, however, had more serious interest in signing a black ballplayer. In the mid-1940s, Branch Rickey, club president and general manager of the Brooklyn Dodgers, began to scout the Negro leagues for a possible addition to the Dodgers' roster. Rickey selected Robinson from a list of promising black players and interviewed him for possible assignment to Brooklyn's International League farm club, the Montreal Royals.[92] Rickey was especially interested in making sure his eventual signee could withstand the inevitable racial abuse that would be directed at him.[9][93] In a famous three-hour exchange on August 28, 1945,[94] Rickey asked Robinson if he could face the racial animus without taking the bait and reacting angrily—a concern given Robinson's prior arguments with law enforcement officials at PJC and in the military.[52] Robinson was aghast: "Are you looking for a Negro who is afraid to fight back?"[93][95] Rickey replied that he needed a Negro player "with guts enough not to fight back."[93][95] After obtaining a commitment from Robinson to "turn the other cheek" to racial antagonism, Rickey agreed to sign him to a contract for $600 a month, equal to $9,031 today.[96][97] Rickey did not offer compensation to the Monarchs, instead believing all Negro league players were free agents due to the contracts not containing a reserve clause.[98] Among those with whom Rickey discussed prospects was Wendell Smith, writer for the black weekly Pittsburgh Courier, who, according to Cleveland Indians owner and team president Bill Veeck, "influenced Rickey to take Jack Robinson, for which he's never completely gotten credit."[99]

Although he required Robinson to keep the arrangement a secret for the time being, Rickey committed to formally signing Robinson before November 1, 1945.[100] On October 23, it was publicly announced that Robinson would be assigned to the Royals for the 1946 season.[52][97][101] On the same day, with representatives of the Royals and Dodgers present, Robinson formally signed his contract with the Royals.[102] In what was later referred to as "The Noble Experiment",[52][103] Robinson was the first black baseball player in the International League since the 1880s.[104] He was not necessarily the best player in the Negro leagues,[105] and black talents Satchel Paige and Josh Gibson were upset when Robinson was selected first.[106] Larry Doby, who broke the color line in the American League the same year as Robinson, said, "One of the things that was disappointing and disheartening to a lot of the black players at the time was that Jack was not the best player. The best was Josh Gibson. I think that's one of the reasons why Josh died so early—he was heartbroken."[107]

Rickey's offer allowed Robinson to leave behind the Monarchs and their grueling bus rides, and he went home to Pasadena. That September, he signed with Chet Brewer's Kansas City Royals, a post-season barnstorming team in the California Winter League.[108] Later that off-season, he briefly toured South America with another barnstorming team, while his fiancée Isum pursued nursing opportunities in New York City.[109] On February 10, 1946, Robinson and Isum were married by their old friend, the Rev. Karl Downs.[52][110][111]

Minor leagues

In 1946, Robinson arrived at Daytona Beach, Florida, for spring training with the Montreal Royals of the Class AAA International League. Clay Hopper, the manager of the Royals, asked Rickey to assign Robinson to any other Dodger affiliate, but Rickey refused.[112]

 
Robinson with the Montreal Royals in July 1946, the year before he was called up to the Majors

Robinson's presence was controversial in racially segregated Florida. He was not allowed to stay with his white teammates at the team hotel, and instead lodged at the home of Joe and Dufferin Harris, a politically active African American couple who introduced the Robinsons to civil rights activist Mary McLeod Bethune.[113][114][115] Since the Dodgers organization did not own a spring training facility,[116] scheduling was subject to the whim of area localities, several of which turned down any event involving Robinson or Johnny Wright, another black player whom Rickey had signed to the Dodgers' organization in January. In Sanford, Florida, the police chief threatened to cancel games if Robinson and Wright did not cease training activities there; as a result, Robinson was sent back to Daytona Beach.[117][118] In Jacksonville, the stadium was padlocked shut without warning on game day, by order of the city's Parks and Public Property director.[119][120] In DeLand, a scheduled day game was postponed, ostensibly because of issues with the stadium's electrical lighting.[121][122]

After much lobbying of local officials by Rickey himself, the Royals were allowed to host a game involving Robinson in Daytona Beach.[123][124] Robinson made his Royals debut at Daytona Beach's City Island Ballpark on March 17, 1946, in an exhibition game against the team's parent club, the Dodgers. Robinson thus became the first black player to openly play for a minor league team against a major league team since the de facto baseball color line had been implemented in the 1880s.[4]

 
Robinson (holding bats) playing in Montreal

Later in spring training, after some less-than-stellar performances, Robinson was shifted from shortstop to second base, allowing him to make shorter throws to first base.[72] Robinson's performance soon rebounded. On April 18, 1946, Roosevelt Stadium hosted the Jersey City Giants' season opener against the Montreal Royals, marking the professional debut of the Royals' Jackie Robinson and the first time the color barrier had been broken in a game between two minor league clubs.[125] Pitching against Robinson was Warren Sandel who had played against him when they both lived in California. During Robinson's first at bat, the Jersey City catcher, Dick Bouknight, demanded that Sandel throw at Robinson, but Sandel refused. Although Sandel induced Robinson to ground out at his first at bat, Robinson ended up with four hits in his five trips to the plate; his first hit was a three-run home run in the game's third inning.[126] He also scored four runs, drove in three, and stole two bases in the Royals' 14–1 victory.[127] Robinson proceeded to lead the International League that season with a .349 batting average and .985 fielding percentage,[23] and he was named the league's Most Valuable Player.[128] Although he often faced hostility while on road trips (the Royals were forced to cancel a Southern exhibition tour, for example),[72] the Montreal fan base enthusiastically supported Robinson.[129][130] Whether fans supported or opposed it, Robinson's presence on the field was a boon to attendance; more than one million people went to games involving Robinson in 1946, an astounding figure by International League standards.[131] In the fall of 1946, following the baseball season, Robinson returned home to California and briefly played professional basketball for the short-lived Los Angeles Red Devils.[132][133]

Major leagues

Breaking the color barrier (1947)

In 1947, the Dodgers called Robinson up to the major leagues six days before the start of the season. With Eddie Stanky entrenched at second base for the Dodgers, Robinson played his initial major league season as a first baseman.[93] Robinson made his debut in a Dodgers uniform wearing number 42 on April 11, 1947, in a preseason exhibition game against the New York Yankees at Ebbets Field with 24,237 in attendance.[134] On April 15, Robinson made his major league debut at the relatively advanced age of 28 at Ebbets Field before a crowd of 26,623 spectators, more than 14,000 of whom were black.[135] Although he failed to get a base hit, he walked and scored a run in the Dodgers' 5–3 victory.[135] Robinson became the first player since 1884 to openly break the major league baseball color line.[136] Black fans began flocking to see the Dodgers when they came to town, abandoning their Negro league teams.[106]

Robinson's promotion met a generally positive, although mixed, reception among newspapers and white major league players.[131][137] However, racial tension existed in the Dodger clubhouse.[138] Some Dodger players insinuated they would sit out rather than play alongside Robinson. The brewing mutiny ended when Dodgers management took a stand for Robinson. Manager Leo Durocher informed the team, "I do not care if the guy is yellow or black, or if he has stripes like a fuckin' zebra. I'm the manager of this team, and I say he plays. What's more, I say he can make us all rich. And if any of you cannot use the money, I will see that you are all traded."[139]

Robinson was also derided by opposing teams.[140] According to a press report, the St. Louis Cardinals threatened to strike if Robinson played and spread the walkout across the entire National League.[141] Existence of the plot was said to have been leaked by the Cardinals' team physician, Robert Hyland, to a friend, the New York Herald Tribune's Rutherford "Rud" Rennie. The reporter, concerned about protecting Hyland's anonymity and job, in turn leaked it to his Tribune colleague and editor, Stanley Woodward, whose own subsequent reporting with other sources protected Hyland.[142][143][144] The Woodward article made national headlines. After it was published, National League President Ford Frick and Baseball Commissioner Happy Chandler let it be known that any striking players would be suspended. "You will find that the friends that you think you have in the press box will not support you, that you will be outcasts," Frick was quoted as saying. "I do not care if half the league strikes. Those who do it will encounter quick retribution. All will be suspended and I don't care if it wrecks the National League for five years. This is the United States of America and one citizen has as much right to play as another."[144][145][146][147] Woodward's article received the E. P. Dutton Award in 1947 for Best Sports Reporting.[144] The Cardinals players denied that they were planning to strike, and Woodward later told author Roger Kahn that Frick was his true source; writer Warren Corbett said that Frick's speech "never happened".[141] Regardless, the report led to Robinson receiving increased support from the sports media. Even The Sporting News, a publication that had backed the color line, came out against the idea of a strike.[141]

Robinson nonetheless became the target of rough physical play by opponents (particularly the Cardinals). At one time, he received a seven-inch gash in his leg from Enos Slaughter.[148] On April 22, 1947, during a game between the Dodgers and the Philadelphia Phillies, Phillies players and manager Ben Chapman called Robinson a "nigger" from their dugout and yelled that he should "go back to the cotton fields".[149][150] Rickey later recalled that Chapman "did more than anybody to unite the Dodgers. When he poured out that string of unconscionable abuse, he solidified and united thirty men."[151]

However, Robinson received significant encouragement from several major league players. Robinson named Lee "Jeep" Handley, who played for the Phillies at the time, as the first opposing player to wish him well.[152] Dodgers teammate Pee Wee Reese once came to Robinson's defense with the famous line, "You can hate a man for many reasons. Color is not one of them."[153] In 1947 or 1948, Reese is said to have put his arm around Robinson in response to fans who shouted racial slurs at Robinson before a game in Boston or Cincinnati.[154][155] A statue by sculptor William Behrends, unveiled at KeySpan Park on November 1, 2005, depicts Reese with his arm around Robinson.[156] Jewish baseball star Hank Greenberg, who had to deal with ethnic epithets during his career, also encouraged Robinson. Following an incident where Greenberg collided with Robinson at first base, he "whispered a few words into Robinson's ear", which Robinson later characterized as "words of encouragement."[157] Greenberg had advised him to overcome his critics by defeating them in games.[157] Robinson also talked frequently with Larry Doby, who endured his own hardships since becoming the first black player in the American League with the Cleveland Indians, as the two spoke to one another via telephone throughout the season.[158]

Robinson finished the season having played in 151 games for the Dodgers, with a batting average of .297, an on-base percentage of .383, and a .427 slugging percentage. He had 175 hits (scoring 125 runs) including 31 doubles, 5 triples, and 12 home runs, driving in 48 runs for the year. Robinson led the league in sacrifice hits, with 28, and in stolen bases, with 29.[159] His cumulative performance earned him the inaugural Major League Baseball Rookie of the Year Award (separate National and American League Rookie of the Year honors were not awarded until 1949).[160]

MVP, Congressional testimony, and film biography (1948–1950)

Further information: Paul Robeson Congressional hearings

Following Stanky's trade to the Boston Braves in March 1948, Robinson took over second base, where he logged a .980 fielding percentage that year (second in the National League at the position, fractionally behind Stanky).[161] Robinson had a batting average of .296 and 22 stolen bases for the season.[162] In a 12–7 win against the St. Louis Cardinals on August 29, 1948, he hit for the cycle—a home run, a triple, a double, and a single in the same game.[163] The Dodgers briefly moved into first place in the National League in late August 1948, but they ultimately finished third as the Braves went on to win the league title and lose to the Cleveland Indians in the World Series.[164]

 
Robinson in 1950

Racial pressure on Robinson eased in 1948 when a number of other black players entered the major leagues. Larry Doby (who broke the color barrier in the American League on July 5, 1947, just 11 weeks after Robinson) and Satchel Paige played for the Cleveland Indians, and the Dodgers had three other black players besides Robinson.[161] In February 1948, he signed a $12,500 contract (equal to $140,980 today) with the Dodgers; while a significant amount, this was less than Robinson made in the off-season from a vaudeville tour, where he answered pre-set baseball questions and a speaking tour of the South. Between the tours, he underwent surgery on his right ankle. Because of his off-season activities, Robinson reported to training camp 30 pounds (14 kg) overweight. He lost the weight during training camp, but dieting left him weak at the plate.[165] In 1948, Wendell Smith's book, Jackie Robinson: My Own Story, was released.[166]

In the spring of 1949, Robinson turned to Hall of Famer George Sisler, working as an advisor to the Dodgers, for batting help. At Sisler's suggestion, Robinson spent hours at a batting tee, learning to hit the ball to right field.[167] Sisler taught Robinson to anticipate a fastball, on the theory that it is easier to subsequently adjust to a slower curveball.[167] Robinson also noted that "Sisler showed me how to stop lunging, how to check my swing until the last fraction of a second".[167] The tutelage helped Robinson raise his batting average from .296 in 1948 to .342 in 1949.[167] In addition to his improved batting average, Robinson stole 37 bases that season, was second place in the league for both doubles and triples, and registered 124 runs batted in with 122 runs scored.[93] For the performance Robinson earned the Most Valuable Player Award for the National League.[93] Baseball fans also voted Robinson as the starting second baseman for the 1949 All-Star Game—the first All-Star Game to include black players.[168][169]

That year, a song about Robinson by Buddy Johnson, "Did You See Jackie Robinson Hit That Ball?", reached number 13 on the charts; Count Basie recorded a famous version.[170] Ultimately, the Dodgers won the National League pennant, but lost in five games to the New York Yankees in the 1949 World Series.[161]

Summer 1949 brought an unwanted distraction for Robinson. In July, he was called to testify before the United States House of Representatives' Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC) concerning statements made that April by black athlete and actor Paul Robeson. Robinson was reluctant to testify, but he eventually agreed to do so, fearing it might negatively affect his career if he declined.[171]

 
Lobby card for The Jackie Robinson Story, 1950, with Minor Watson (left, playing Dodgers president Branch Rickey) and Robinson

In 1950, Robinson led the National League in double plays made by a second baseman with 133.[163] His salary that year was the highest any Dodger had been paid to that point: $35,000[172] ($394,198 in 2021 dollars[173]). He finished the year with 99 runs scored, a .328 batting average, and 12 stolen bases.[162] The year saw the release of a film biography of Robinson's life, The Jackie Robinson Story, in which Robinson played himself,[174] and actress Ruby Dee played Rachel "Rae" (Isum) Robinson.[175] The project had been previously delayed when the film's producers refused to accede to demands of two Hollywood studios that the movie include scenes of Robinson being tutored in baseball by a white man.[176] The New York Times wrote that Robinson, "doing that rare thing of playing himself in the picture's leading role, displays a calm assurance and composure that might be envied by many a Hollywood star."[177]

Robinson's Hollywood exploits, however, did not sit well with Dodgers co-owner Walter O'Malley, who referred to Robinson as "Rickey's prima donna".[178] In late 1950, Rickey's contract as the Dodgers' team President expired. Weary of constant disagreements with O'Malley, and with no hope of being re-appointed as President of the Dodgers, Rickey cashed out his one-quarter financial interest in the team, leaving O'Malley in full control of the franchise.[179] Rickey shortly thereafter became general manager of the Pittsburgh Pirates. Robinson was disappointed at the turn of events and wrote a sympathetic letter to Rickey, whom he considered a father figure, stating, "Regardless of what happens to me in the future, it all can be placed on what you have done and, believe me, I appreciate it."[180][181][182]

Pennant races and outside interests (1951–1953)

Before the 1951 season, O'Malley reportedly offered Robinson the job of manager of the Montreal Royals, effective at the end of Robinson's playing career. O'Malley was quoted in the Montreal Standard as saying, "Jackie told me that he would be both delighted and honored to tackle this managerial post"—although reports differed as to whether a position was ever formally offered.[183][184]

During the 1951 season, Robinson led the National League in double plays made by a second baseman for the second year in a row, with 137.[163] He also kept the Dodgers in contention for the 1951 pennant. During the last game of the regular season, in the 13th inning, he had a hit to tie the game and then hit a home run in the 14th inning, which proved to be the winning margin. This forced a best-of-three playoff series against the crosstown rival New York Giants.[185]

 
Jackie Robinson comic book, issue No. 5, 1951

Despite Robinson's regular-season heroics, on October 3, 1951, the Dodgers lost the pennant on Bobby Thomson's famous home run, known as the Shot Heard 'Round the World. Overcoming his dejection, Robinson dutifully observed Thomson's feet to ensure he touched all the bases. Dodgers sportscaster Vin Scully later noted that the incident showed "how much of a competitor Robinson was."[186] He finished the season with 106 runs scored, a batting average of .335, and 25 stolen bases.[162]

Robinson had what was an average year for him in 1952.[187] He finished the year with 104 runs, a .308 batting average, and 24 stolen bases.[162] He did, however, record a career-high on-base percentage of .436.[162] The Dodgers improved on their performance from the year before, winning the National League pennant before losing the 1952 World Series to the New York Yankees in seven games. That year, on the television show Youth Wants to Know, Robinson challenged the Yankees' general manager, George Weiss, on the racial record of his team, which had yet to sign a black player.[188] Sportswriter Dick Young, whom Robinson had described as a "bigot", said, "If there was one flaw in Jackie, it was the common one. He believed that everything unpleasant that happened to him happened because of his blackness."[189] The 1952 season was the last year Robinson was an everyday starter at second base. Afterward, Robinson played variously at first, second, and third bases, shortstop, and in the outfield, with Jim Gilliam, another black player, taking over everyday second base duties.[162] Robinson's interests began to shift toward the prospect of managing a major league team. He had hoped to gain experience by managing in the Puerto Rican Winter League, but according to the New York Post, Commissioner Happy Chandler denied the request.[190]

In 1953, Robinson had 109 runs, a .329 batting average, and 17 steals,[162] leading the Dodgers to another National League pennant (and another World Series loss to the Yankees, this time in six games). Robinson's continued success spawned a string of death threats.[191] He was not dissuaded, however, from addressing racial issues publicly. That year, he served as editor for Our Sports magazine, a periodical focusing on Negro sports issues; contributions to the magazine included an article on golf course segregation by Robinson's old friend Joe Louis.[192][193] Robinson also openly criticized segregated hotels and restaurants that served the Dodger organization; a number of these establishments integrated as a result, including the five-star Chase Park Hotel in St. Louis.[148][194]

World Championship and retirement (1954–1956)

In 1954, Robinson had 62 runs scored, a .311 batting average, and 7 steals. His best day at the plate was on June 17, when he hit two home runs and two doubles.[162][163] The following autumn, Robinson won his only championship when the Dodgers beat the New York Yankees in the 1955 World Series. Although the team enjoyed ultimate success, 1955 was the worst year of Robinson's individual career. He hit .256 and stole only 12 bases. The Dodgers tried Robinson in the outfield and as a third baseman, both because of his diminishing abilities and because Gilliam was established at second base.[195] Robinson, then 36 years old,[196] missed 49 games and did not play in Game 7 of the World Series.[186] Robinson missed the game because manager Walter Alston decided to play Gilliam at second and Don Hoak at third base. That season, the Dodgers' Don Newcombe became the first black major league pitcher to win twenty games in a year.[197]

In 1956, Robinson had 61 runs scored, a .275 batting average, and 12 steals.[162] By then, he had begun to exhibit the effects of diabetes and to lose interest in the prospect of playing or managing professional baseball.[190] Robinson ended his major league career when he struck out to end Game 7 of the 1956 World Series.[198] After the season, the Dodgers traded Robinson to the arch-rival New York Giants for Dick Littlefield and $35,000 cash (equal to $348,843 today). The trade, however, was never completed; unbeknownst to the Dodgers, Robinson had already agreed with the president of Chock full o'Nuts to quit baseball and become an executive with the company.[199] Since Robinson had sold exclusive rights to any retirement story to Look magazine two years previously,[199] his retirement decision was revealed through the magazine, instead of through the Dodgers organization.[200]

Legacy

 
Robinson and his son David are interviewed during the March on Washington, August 28, 1963.
Further information: History of baseball in the United States § Racial integration in baseball

Robinson's major league debut brought an end to approximately sixty years of segregation in professional baseball, known as the baseball color line.[136] After World War II, several other forces were also leading the country toward increased equality for blacks, including their accelerated migration to the North, where their political clout grew, and President Harry Truman's desegregation of the military in 1948.[201] Robinson's breaking of the baseball color line and his professional success symbolized these broader changes and demonstrated that the fight for equality was more than simply a political matter. Civil rights movement leader Martin Luther King Jr. said that he was "a legend and a symbol in his own time", and that he "challenged the dark skies of intolerance and frustration."[202] According to historian Doris Kearns Goodwin, Robinson's "efforts were a monumental step in the civil-rights revolution in America ... [His] accomplishments allowed black and white Americans to be more respectful and open to one another and more appreciative of everyone's abilities."[203]

Beginning his major league career at the relatively advanced age of 28, he played only ten seasons from 1947 to 1956, all of them for the Brooklyn Dodgers.[204] During his career, the Dodgers played in six World Series, and Robinson himself played in six All-Star Games.[7] In 1999, he was posthumously named to the Major League Baseball All-Century Team.[205]

Robinson's career is generally considered to mark the beginning of the post–"long ball" era in baseball, in which a reliance on raw power-hitting gave way to balanced offensive strategies that used footspeed to create runs through aggressive baserunning.[206] Robinson exhibited the combination of hitting ability and speed which exemplified the new era. He scored more than 100 runs in six of his ten seasons (averaging more than 110 runs from 1947 to 1953), had a .311 career batting average, a .409 career on-base percentage, a .474 slugging percentage, and substantially more walks than strikeouts (740 to 291).[162][204][207] Robinson was one of only two players during the span of 1947–56 to accumulate at least 125 steals while registering a slugging percentage over .425 (Minnie Miñoso was the other).[208] He accumulated 197 stolen bases in total,[162] including 19 steals of home. None of the latter were double steals (in which a player stealing home is assisted by a player stealing another base at the same time).[209] Robinson has been referred to by author David Falkner as "the father of modern base-stealing".[210]

I'm not concerned with your liking or disliking me ... all I ask is that you respect me as a human being.

—Robinson, on his legacy[153]

Historical statistical analysis indicates Robinson was an outstanding fielder throughout his ten years in the major leagues and at virtually every position he played.[211] After playing his rookie season at first base,[93] Robinson spent most of his career as a second baseman.[212] He led the league in fielding among second basemen in 1950 and 1951.[213][214] Toward the end of his career, he played about 2,000 innings at third base and about 1,175 innings in the outfield, excelling at both.[211]

Assessing himself, Robinson said, "I'm not concerned with your liking or disliking me ... all I ask is that you respect me as a human being."[153] Regarding Robinson's qualities on the field, Leo Durocher said, "Ya want a guy that comes to play. This guy didn't just come to play. He come to beat ya. He come to stuff the goddamn bat right up your ass."[215]

Portrayals on stage, film and television

 
Depiction of Robinson in lobby card for the 1950 film The Jackie Robinson Story

Robinson portrayed himself in the 1950 motion picture The Jackie Robinson Story.[216] Other portrayals include:

Robinson was also the subject of a 2016 PBS documentary, Jackie Robinson, which was directed by Ken Burns and features Jamie Foxx doing voice-over as Robinson.[229]

Post-baseball life

Robinson once told future Hall of Fame inductee Hank Aaron that "the game of baseball is great, but the greatest thing is what you do after your career is over."[230] Robinson retired from baseball at age 37 on January 5, 1957.[231] Later that year, after he complained of numerous physical ailments, he was diagnosed with diabetes, a disease that also afflicted his brothers.[232] Although Robinson adopted an insulin injection regimen, the state of medicine at the time could not prevent the continued deterioration of Robinson's physical condition from the disease.[233]

In October 1959, Robinson entered the Greenville Municipal Airport's whites-only waiting room. Airport police asked Robinson to leave, but he refused. At a National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) speech in Greenville, South Carolina, Robinson urged "complete freedom" and encouraged black citizens to vote and to protest their second-class citizenship. The following January, approximately 1,000 people marched on New Year's Day to the airport,[234][235] which was desegregated shortly thereafter.[236]

In his first year of eligibility for the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1962,[73] Robinson encouraged voters to consider only his on-field qualifications, rather than his cultural impact on the game.[237] He was elected on the first ballot, becoming the first black player inducted into the Cooperstown museum.[23]

 
Robinson as an ABC sports announcer, 1965

In 1965, Robinson served as an analyst for ABC's Major League Baseball Game of the Week telecasts, the first black person to do so.[238] In 1966, Robinson was hired as general manager for the short-lived Brooklyn Dodgers of the Continental Football League.[239][240] In 1972, he served as a part-time commentator on Montreal Expos telecasts.[241]

On June 4, 1972, the Dodgers retired his uniform number, 42, alongside those of Roy Campanella (39) and Sandy Koufax (32).[242] From 1957 to 1964, Robinson was the vice president for personnel at Chock full o'Nuts; he was the first black person to serve as vice president of a major American corporation.[23][243] Robinson always considered his business career as advancing the cause of black people in commerce and industry.[244] Robinson also chaired the NAACP's million-dollar Freedom Fund Drive in 1957, and served on the organization's board until 1967.[243] In 1964, he helped found, with Harlem businessman Dunbar McLaurin, Freedom National Bank—a black-owned and operated commercial bank based in Harlem.[243] He also served as the bank's first chairman of the board.[245] In 1970, Robinson established the Jackie Robinson Construction Company to build housing for low-income families.[243][246]

Robinson was active in politics throughout his post-baseball life. He identified himself as a political independent,[247][248] although he held conservative opinions on several issues, including the Vietnam War (he once wrote to Martin Luther King Jr. to defend the Johnson Administration's military policy).[249] After supporting Richard Nixon in his 1960 presidential race against John F. Kennedy, Robinson later praised Kennedy effusively for his stance on civil rights.[250] Robinson was angered by the 1964 presidential election candidacy of conservative Republican Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona, who had opposed the Civil Rights Act of 1964.[251] He became one of six national directors for Nelson Rockefeller's unsuccessful campaign to be nominated as the Republican candidate for the election.[243] After the party nominated Goldwater instead, Robinson left the party's convention commenting that he now had "a better understanding of how it must have felt to be a Jew in Hitler's Germany".[252] He later became special assistant for community affairs when Rockefeller was re-elected governor of New York in 1966 and in 1971 was appointed to the New York State Athletic Commission by Rockefeller.[243][253] In 1968 he broke with the Republican party and supported Hubert Humphrey against Nixon in that year's presidential election.[200]

 
A still from a color movie featuring Robinson in the 1960s in The Torch of Friendship promo[254]

Robinson protested against the major leagues' ongoing lack of minority managers and central office personnel, and he turned down an invitation to appear in an old-timers' game at Yankee Stadium in 1969.[255] He made his final public appearance on October 15, 1972, nine days before his death,[256] throwing the ceremonial first pitch before Game 2 of the World Series at Riverfront Stadium in Cincinnati. He gratefully accepted a plaque honoring the twenty-fifth anniversary of his MLB debut, but also commented, "I'm going to be tremendously more pleased and more proud when I look at that third base coaching line one day and see a black face managing in baseball."[257][258] This wish was only fulfilled after Robinson's death: following the 1974 season, the Cleveland Indians gave their managerial post to Frank Robinson (no relation to Jackie), a Hall of Fame-bound player who would go on to manage three other teams. Despite the success of these two Robinsons and other black players, the number of African-American players in Major League Baseball has declined since the 1970s.[259][260]

Family life and death

After Robinson's retirement from baseball, his wife Rachel Robinson pursued a career in academic nursing. She became an assistant professor at the Yale School of Nursing and director of nursing at the Connecticut Mental Health Center.[261] She also served on the board of the Freedom National Bank until it closed in 1990.[262] She and Jackie had three children: Jackie Robinson Jr. (1946–1971), Sharon Robinson (b. 1950), and David Robinson (b. 1952).[263]

 
Robinson's family gravesite in Cypress Hills Cemetery. Robinson is buried alongside his mother-in-law Zellee Isum and his son Jackie Robinson Jr.

Robinson's eldest son, Jackie Robinson Jr., had emotional trouble during his childhood and entered special education at an early age.[264] He enlisted in the Army in search of a disciplined environment, served in the Vietnam War, and was wounded in action on November 19, 1965.[265] After his discharge, he struggled with drug problems. Robinson Jr. eventually completed the treatment program at Daytop Village in Seymour, Connecticut, and became a counselor at the institution.[266] On June 17, 1971, he was killed in an automobile accident at age 24.[267][268] The experience with his son's drug addiction turned Robinson Sr. into an avid anti-drug crusader toward the end of his life.[269]

Robinson did not outlive his son by very long. In 1968, he suffered a heart attack. Complications from heart disease and diabetes weakened Robinson and made him almost blind by middle age. On October 24, 1972, Robinson died of a heart attack at his home on 95 Cascade Road in North Stamford, Connecticut; he was 53 years old.[93][267] Robinson's funeral service on October 27, 1972, at Upper Manhattan's Riverside Church in Morningside Heights, attracted 2,500 mourners.[270][271] Many of his former teammates, other famous baseball players, and basketball star Bill Russell served as pallbearers, and the Rev. Jesse Jackson gave the eulogy.[270][272] Tens of thousands of people lined the subsequent procession route to Robinson's interment site at Cypress Hills Cemetery in Brooklyn, New York, where he was buried next to his son Jackie and mother-in-law Zellee Isum.[270] Twenty-five years after Robinson's death, the Interboro Parkway was renamed the Jackie Robinson Parkway in his memory. This parkway bisects the cemetery in close proximity to Robinson's gravesite.[273]

After Robinson's death, his widow founded the Jackie Robinson Foundation, and she remains an officer as of 2021.[274] On April 15, 2008, she announced that in 2010 the foundation would open a museum devoted to Jackie in Lower Manhattan.[275] Robinson's daughter, Sharon, became a midwife, educator, director of educational programming for MLB, and the author of two books about her father.[276] His youngest son, David, who has ten children, is a coffee grower and social activist in Tanzania.[277][278][279]

Awards and recognition

 
 
The number 42 worn by Robinson on a plaque at Monument Park (left), and Jackie Robinson Rotunda inside Citi Field (right)

According to a poll conducted in 1947, Robinson was the second most popular man in the country, behind Bing Crosby.[280] In 1999, he was named by Time on its list of the 100 most influential people of the 20th century.[281] Also in 1999, he ranked number 44 on the Sporting News list of Baseball's 100 Greatest Players[282] and was elected to the Major League Baseball All-Century Team as the top vote-getter among second basemen.[283] Baseball writer Bill James, in The New Bill James Historical Baseball Abstract, ranked Robinson as the 32nd greatest player of all time strictly on the basis of his performance on the field, noting that he was one of the top players in the league throughout his career.[284] Robinson was among the 25 charter members of UCLA's Athletics Hall of Fame in 1984.[48] In 2002, Molefi Kete Asante included Robinson on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans.[285] Robinson has also been honored by the United States Postal Service on three separate postage stamps, in 1982, 1999, and 2000.[286]

The City of Pasadena has recognized Robinson with a baseball diamond and stadium named Jackie Robinson Field in Brookside Park next to the Rose Bowl,[287] and with the Jackie Robinson Center (a community outreach center providing health services).[288] In 1997, a $325,000 bronze sculpture (equal to $548,606 today) by artists Ralph Helmick, Stu Schecter, and John Outterbridge depicting oversized nine-foot busts of Robinson and his brother Mack was erected at Garfield Avenue, across from the main entrance of Pasadena City Hall; a granite footprint lists multiple donors to the commission project, which was organized by the Robinson Memorial Foundation and supported by members of the Robinson family.[289][290]

 
Jackie Robinson Stadium, with the No. 42 on the center field wall

Major League Baseball has honored Robinson many times since his death. In 1987, both the National and American League Rookie of the Year Awards were renamed the "Jackie Robinson Award" in honor of the first recipient (Robinson's Major League Rookie of the Year Award in 1947 encompassed both leagues).[291][292] On April 15, 1997, Robinson's jersey number, 42, was retired throughout Major League Baseball, the first time any jersey number had been retired throughout one of the four major American sports leagues. Under the terms of the retirement, a grandfather clause allowed the handful of players who wore number 42 to continue doing so in tribute to Robinson, until such time as they subsequently changed teams or jersey numbers.[293] This affected players such as the Mets' Butch Huskey and Boston's Mo Vaughn. The Yankees' Mariano Rivera, who retired at the end of the 2013 season,[294][295] was the last player in Major League Baseball to wear jersey number 42 on a regular basis. Since 1997, only Wayne Gretzky's number 99, retired by the NHL in 2000, and Bill Russell's number 6, retired by the NBA in 2022, have been retired league-wide in any of the four major sports.[296][297] There have also been calls for MLB to retire number 21 league-wide in honor of Roberto Clemente, a sentiment opposed by the Robinson family.[298]

As an exception to the retired-number policy, MLB began honoring Robinson by allowing players to wear number 42 on April 15, Jackie Robinson Day, which is an annual observance that started in 2004.[299][300] For the 60th anniversary of Robinson's major league debut, MLB invited players to wear the number 42 on Jackie Robinson Day in 2007.[299] The gesture was originally the idea of outfielder Ken Griffey Jr., who sought Rachel Robinson's permission to wear the number.[301] After Griffey received her permission, Commissioner Bud Selig not only allowed Griffey to wear the number, but also extended an invitation to all major league teams to do the same.[302] Ultimately, more than 200 players wore number 42, including the entire rosters of the Los Angeles Dodgers, New York Mets, Houston Astros, Philadelphia Phillies, St. Louis Cardinals, Milwaukee Brewers, and Pittsburgh Pirates.[299] The tribute was continued in 2008, when, during games on April 15, all members of the Mets, Cardinals, Washington Nationals, and Tampa Bay Rays wore Robinson's number 42.[303][304] On June 25, 2008, MLB installed a new plaque for Robinson at the Baseball Hall of Fame commemorating his off-the-field impact on the game as well as his playing statistics.[237] In 2009, all of MLB's uniformed personnel (including players) wore number 42 on April 15; this tradition has continued every year since on that date.[305]

 
Front of the Jackie Robinson Museum, 2022

At the November 2006 groundbreaking for Citi Field, the new ballpark for the New York Mets, it was announced that the main entrance, modeled on the one in Brooklyn's old Ebbets Field, would be called the Jackie Robinson Rotunda. The rotunda was dedicated at the opening of Citi Field on April 16, 2009.[306] It honors Robinson with large quotations spanning the inner curve of the facade and features a large freestanding statue of his number, 42, which has become an attraction in itself. Mets owner Fred Wilpon announced that the Mets—in conjunction with Citigroup and the Jackie Robinson Foundation—will created the Jackie Robinson Museum and Learning Center, located at the headquarters of the Jackie Robinson Foundation at One Hudson Square, along Canal Street in lower Manhattan. Along with the museum, scholarships will be awarded to "young people who live by and embody Jackie's ideals."[307][308][309] The museum opened in 2023.[310][311] At Dodger Stadium in Los Angeles, a statue of Robinson was introduced in 2017.[312] The New York Yankees honor Robinson with a plaque in Monument Park.[313]

Since 2004, the Aflac National High School Baseball Player of the Year has been presented the "Jackie Robinson Award".[314]

Robinson has also been recognized outside of baseball. In December 1956, the NAACP recognized him with the Spingarn Medal, which it awards annually for the highest achievement by an African-American.[243] President Ronald Reagan posthumously awarded Robinson the Presidential Medal of Freedom on March 26, 1984,[315] and on March 2, 2005, President George W. Bush gave Robinson's widow the Congressional Gold Medal, the highest civilian award bestowed by Congress; Robinson was only the second baseball player to receive the award, after Roberto Clemente.[316] On August 20, 2007, California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and his wife, Maria Shriver, announced that Robinson was inducted into the California Hall of Fame, located at The California Museum for History, Women and the Arts in Sacramento.[317]

 
Rachel Robinson (holding the award) accepts the posthumous Congressional Gold Medal for her husband from President George W. Bush in a March 2, 2005, ceremony in the Capitol Rotunda. Also pictured are Nancy Pelosi and Dennis Hastert.

A number of buildings have been named in Robinson's honor. The UCLA Bruins baseball team plays in Jackie Robinson Stadium,[318] which, because of the efforts of Jackie's brother Mack, features a memorial statue of Robinson by sculptor Richard H. Ellis.[319] The stadium also unveiled a new mural of Robinson by Mike Sullivan on April 14, 2013. City Island Ballpark in Daytona Beach, Florida was renamed Jackie Robinson Ballpark in 1990 and a statue of Robinson with two children stands in front of the ballpark. His wife Rachel was present for the dedication on September 15. 1990.[320][321] A number of facilities at Pasadena City College (successor to PJC) are named in Robinson's honor, including Robinson Field, a football/soccer/track facility named jointly for Robinson and his brother Mack.[322] The New York Public School system has named a middle school after Robinson,[323] and Dorsey High School plays at a Los Angeles football stadium named after him.[324] His home in Brooklyn, the Jackie Robinson House, was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1976,[325] and Brooklyn residents sought to turn his home into a city landmark.[326] In 1978, Colonial Park in Harlem was renamed after Robinson.[327][328] Robinson also has an asteroid named after him, 4319 Jackierobinson.[329] In 1997, the United States Mint issued a Jackie Robinson commemorative silver dollar, and five-dollar gold coin.[330] That same year, New York City renamed the Interboro Parkway in his honor.[331] A statue of Robinson at Journal Square Transportation Center in Jersey City, New Jersey, was dedicated in 1998.[332]

 
Statue of Robinson (1998) at Journal Square, Jersey City

In 2011, the U.S. placed a plaque at Robinson's Montreal home to honor the ending of segregation in baseball.[333] The house, at 8232 avenue de Gaspé near Jarry Park, was Robinson's residence when he played for the Montreal Royals during 1946. In a letter read during the ceremony, Rachel Robinson, Jackie's widow, wrote: "I remember Montreal and that house very well and have always had warm feeling for that great city. Before Jack and I moved to Montreal, we had just been through some very rough treatment in the racially biased South during spring training in Florida. In the end, Montreal was the perfect place for him to get his start. We never had a threatening or unpleasant experience there. The people were so welcoming and saw Jack as a player and as a man."[334]

On November 22, 2014, UCLA announced that it would officially retire the number 42 across all university sports, effective immediately. While Robinson wore several different numbers during his UCLA career, the school chose 42 because it had become indelibly identified with him.[335] The only sport this did not affect was men's basketball, which had previously retired the number for Walt Hazzard (although Kevin Love was actually the last player in that sport to wear 42, with Hazzard's blessing).[336][337][338][339] In a move paralleling that of MLB when it retired the number, UCLA allowed three athletes (in women's soccer, softball, and football) who were already wearing 42 to continue to do so for the remainder of their UCLA careers. The school also announced it would prominently display the number at all of its athletic venues.[335]

A jersey that Robinson brought home with him after his rookie season ended in 1947 was sold at an auction for $2.05 million on November 19, 2017. The price was the highest ever paid for a post-World War II jersey.[340]

See also

References

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  13. ^ Eig, p. 7.
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  336. ^ (PDF). UCLA Athletic Department. 2011. pp. 116–118. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 7, 2012. Retrieved July 4, 2019.
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  340. ^ "Rare Jackie Robinson jersey sold for $2.05 million". The Spokesman-Review. Associated Press. November 20, 2017. Retrieved December 9, 2017.

Bibliography

  • Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem; Walton, Anthony (2004). Brothers in Arms: The Epic Story of the 761st Tank Battalion, WWII's Forgotten Heroes. Broadway Books. ISBN 978-0-385-50338-9.
  • Bigelow, Barbara Carlisle, ed. (1994). Contemporary Black Biography: Profiles from the International Black Community. Vol. 6. Detroit: Gale Research. ISBN 978-0-8103-8558-0.
  • Bogle, Donald (2001). "Black Odds and Ends". Toms, Coons, Mulattoes, Mammies & Bucks: An Interpretive History of Blacks in American Films (4th ed.). New York: Continuum. ISBN 978-0-8264-1267-6.
  • Bryant, Howard (2002). Shut Out: A Story of Race and Baseball in Boston. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-92779-6. (2002 CASEY Award winner).
  • Dorinson, Joseph; Warmund, Joram, eds. (1999). Jackie Robinson: Race, Sports, and the American Dream. Armonk, New York: M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 978-0-7656-0317-3.
  • Duberman, Martin (1989). "The Right to Travel". Paul Robeson. New York: Knopf. ISBN 978-0-394-52780-2.
  • Editors of Time for Kids; with Patrick, Denise Lewis (2005). Jackie Robinson: Strong Inside and Out. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-057601-1.
  • Eig, Jonathan (2007). Opening Day: The Story of Jackie Robinson's First Season. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-9460-7. (2007 CASEY Award nominee).
  • Erskine, Carl with Burton Rocks (2005). "Wait Till Next Year". What I Learned from Jackie Robinson: A Teammate's Reflections On and Off the Field. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-145085-0.
  • Falkner, David (1995). Great Time Coming: The Life of Jackie Robinson, from Baseball to Birmingham. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-79336-4.
  • Giglio, James N. (2001). Musial: From Stash to Stan the Man. Columbia, Mo.: University of Missouri Press. ISBN 978-0-8262-6313-1.
  • Gutman, Dan (1999). Jackie & Me: A Baseball Card Adventure. New York: Avon. ISBN 978-0-380-80084-1.
  • James, Bill; Mary A. Wirth (1988). Bill James Historical Baseball Abstract. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-0-394-75805-3.
  • Kahn, Roger (2014). Rickey & Robinson: The True, Untold Story of the Integration of Baseball. New York: Rodale Press. ISBN 978-1-62336-297-3.
  • Kirsch, George B., Othello Harris, and Claire Elaine Nolte, eds. (2000). "The Right to Travel". Encyclopedia of Ethnicity and Sports in the United States. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood. ISBN 978-0-313-29911-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link)
  • Kirwin, Bill (2005). Out of the Shadows: African American Baseball from the Cuban Giants to Jackie Robinson. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-7825-7.
  • Lamb, Chris (2006). Blackout: The Untold Story of Jackie Robinson's First Spring Training. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-8047-2.
  • Linge, Mary Kay (2007). Jackie Robinson: A Biography. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-33828-1.
  • Loewen, James W. (1995). Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-1-56584-100-0.
  • Long, Michael G., ed. (2007). First Class Citizenship: the Civil Rights Letters of Jackie Robinson. New York: Henry Holt. ISBN 978-0-8050-8710-9.
  • Mallett, Ashley; Ian Chappell (2007). "Heroes have heroes too". Chappelli Speaks Out. Crow's Nest, New South Wales: Allen & Unwin. p. 235. ISBN 978-1-74175-036-2., quoting Kahn, Roger (2000) [1972]. "The Lion at Dusk". The Boys of Summer (1st Perennial Classics ed.). New York: Perennial. ISBN 978-0-06-095634-9.
  • McNeil, William F. (2000). The Dodgers Encyclopedia. Sports Publishing. ISBN 978-1-58261-316-1.
  • Nemec, David; Flatow, Scott (2008). Great Baseball Feats, Facts & Firsts (expanded & updated ed.). New York: Signet. ISBN 978-0-451-22363-0.
  • Nogowski, John (2005). Last Time Out: Big-League Farewells of Baseball's Greats. Lanham, Maryland: Taylor Trade. ISBN 978-1-58979-080-3.
  • Rampersad, Arnold (1997). Jackie Robinson: A Biography. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-679-44495-4. (1997 CASEY Award nominee).
  • Robertson, John G.; Saunders, Andy (2016). The Games That Changed Baseball: Milestones in Major League History. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland. ISBN 978-1-4766-6226-8.
  • Robinson, Jackie; as told to Duckett, Alfred (1995) [1972]. I Never Had It Made. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-055597-9.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  • Robinson, Rachel; with Daniels, Lee (1996). Jackie Robinson: An Intimate Portrait. New York: Harry N. Abrams. ISBN 978-0-8109-3792-5. (1996 CASEY Award nominee).
  • Robinson, Sharon (2001). Jackie's Nine: Jackie Robinson's Values to Live By. New York: Scholastic. ISBN 978-0-439-23764-2.
  • Robinson, Sharon (2004). Promises To Keep: How Jackie Robinson Changed America. New York: Scholastic. ISBN 978-0-439-42592-6.
  • Santella, Andrew (1996). Jackie Robinson Breaks the Color Line. Children's Press. ISBN 978-0-516-06637-0.
  • Simon, Scott (2002). Jackie Robinson and the Integration of Baseball. Hoboken: Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-26153-7.
  • Stout, Glenn; Richard A. Johnson (phot. ed.) (2004). The Dodgers: 120 Years of Dodgers Baseball. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-618-21355-9.
  • Tygiel, Jules (1983). Baseball's Great Experiment: Jackie Robinson and His Legacy. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-503300-7. (1983 CASEY Award nominee).
  • Tygiel, Jules (2002). Extra Bases: Reflections on Jackie Robinson, Race, and Baseball History. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-9447-9.
  • Williams, Pat; with Sielski, Mike (2005). How to Be Like Jackie Robinson: Life Lessons from Baseball's Greatest Hero. Deerfield Beach, Florida: HCI. ISBN 978-0-7573-0173-5.

Further reading

  • Robinson, Jackie; Jules Tygiel, eds. (1997). The Jackie Robinson Reader: Perspectives on an American Hero. Dutton Penguin. ISBN 978-0-525-94096-8.

External links

 
Wikiquote has quotations related to Jackie Robinson.
 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Jackie Robinson.
  • Official website
  • Jackie Robinson at the Baseball Hall of Fame
  • Career statistics and player information from MLB, or ESPN, or Baseball Reference, or Fangraphs, or Baseball Reference (Minors), or Retrosheet, or Seamheads
  • Jackie Robinson at IMDb
  • His life is retold in the radio drama "The Rhyme of the Ancient Dodger ", a presentation from Destination Freedom

March 14, 2023
jackie, robinson, other, people, named, disambiguation, jack, roosevelt, robinson, january, 1919, october, 1972, american, professional, baseball, player, became, first, african, american, play, major, league, baseball, modern, robinson, broke, baseball, color. For other people named Jackie Robinson see Jackie Robinson disambiguation Jack Roosevelt Robinson January 31 1919 October 24 1972 was an American professional baseball player who became the first African American to play in Major League Baseball MLB in the modern era 2 Robinson broke the baseball color line when he started at first base for the Brooklyn Dodgers on April 15 1947 3 When the Dodgers signed Robinson it heralded the end of racial segregation in professional baseball that had relegated black players to the Negro leagues since the 1880s 4 Robinson was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1962 5 Jackie RobinsonRobinson with the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1954Second basemanBorn 1919 01 31 January 31 1919Cairo Georgia U S Died October 24 1972 1972 10 24 aged 53 Stamford Connecticut U S Batted RightThrew RightProfessional debutNgL 1945 for the Kansas City MonarchsMLB April 15 1947 for the Brooklyn DodgersLast MLB appearanceOctober 10 1956 for the Brooklyn DodgersMLB statisticsBatting average 313Home runs141Runs batted in761TeamsNegro leaguesKansas City Monarchs 1945 Major League BaseballBrooklyn Dodgers 1947 1956 Career highlights and awardsNgL All Star 1945 6 All Star 1949 1954 World Series champion 1955 NL MVP 1949 MLB Rookie of the Year 1947 NL batting champion 1949 2 NL stolen base leader 1947 1949 Los Angeles Dodgers No 42 retired No 42 retired by all MLB teams UCLA Bruins No 42 retired 1 Monument Park honoree Major League Baseball All Century TeamMember of the NationalBaseball Hall of FameInduction1962Vote77 5 first ballot Military careerAllegianceUnited StatesService wbr branchUnited States ArmyYears of service1942 1944RankSecond lieutenantUnit761st Tank BattalionDuring his 10 year MLB career Robinson won the inaugural Rookie of the Year Award in 1947 was an All Star for six consecutive seasons from 1949 through 1954 and won the National League Most Valuable Player Award in 1949 the first black player so honored 6 7 Robinson played in six World Series and contributed to the Dodgers 1955 World Series championship In 1997 MLB retired his uniform number 42 across all major league teams he was the first professional athlete in any sport to be so honored MLB also adopted a new annual tradition Jackie Robinson Day for the first time on April 15 2004 on which every player on every team wears No 42 Robinson s character his use of nonviolence and his talent challenged the traditional basis of segregation that had then marked many other aspects of American life He influenced the culture of and contributed significantly to the civil rights movement 8 9 Robinson also was the first black television analyst in MLB and the first black vice president of a major American corporation Chock full o Nuts In the 1960s he helped establish the Freedom National Bank an African American owned financial institution based in Harlem New York After his death in 1972 Robinson was posthumously awarded the Congressional Gold Medal and Presidential Medal of Freedom in recognition of his achievements on and off the field Contents 1 Early life 1 1 Family and personal life 1 2 John Muir High School 1 3 Pasadena Junior College 1 4 UCLA and afterward 2 Military career 3 Post military 4 Playing career 4 1 Negro leagues and major league prospects 4 2 Minor leagues 4 3 Major leagues 4 3 1 Breaking the color barrier 1947 4 3 2 MVP Congressional testimony and film biography 1948 1950 4 3 3 Pennant races and outside interests 1951 1953 4 3 4 World Championship and retirement 1954 1956 5 Legacy 5 1 Portrayals on stage film and television 6 Post baseball life 7 Family life and death 8 Awards and recognition 9 See also 10 References 10 1 Bibliography 11 Further reading 12 External linksEarly lifeFamily and personal life Jack Roosevelt Robinson was born on January 31 1919 into a family of sharecroppers in Cairo Georgia He was the youngest of five children born to Mallie McGriff and Jerry Robinson after siblings Edgar Frank Matthew nicknamed Mack and Willa Mae 10 11 12 His middle name was in honor of former President Theodore Roosevelt who died 25 days before Robinson was born 13 14 After Robinson s father left the family in 1920 they moved to Pasadena California 15 16 17 The extended Robinson family established itself on a residential plot containing two small houses at 121 Pepper Street in Pasadena Robinson s mother worked various odd jobs to support the family 18 Growing up in relative poverty in an otherwise affluent community Robinson and his minority friends were excluded from many recreational opportunities 19 As a result Robinson joined a neighborhood gang but his friend Carl Anderson persuaded him to abandon it 19 20 21 John Muir High School In 1935 Robinson graduated from Washington Junior High School and enrolled at John Muir High School Muir Tech 22 Recognizing his athletic talents Robinson s older brothers Mack himself an accomplished athlete and silver medalist at the 1936 Summer Olympics 21 and Frank inspired Jackie to pursue his interest in sports 23 24 At Muir Tech Robinson played numerous sports at the varsity level and lettered in four of them football basketball track and baseball 17 He played shortstop and catcher on the baseball team quarterback on the football team and guard on the basketball team With the track and field squad he won awards in the broad jump He was also a member of the tennis team 25 In 1936 Robinson won the junior boys singles championship in the annual Pacific Coast Negro Tennis Tournament and earned a place on the Pomona annual baseball tournament all star team which included future Hall of Famers Ted Williams and Bob Lemon 26 In late January 1937 the Pasadena Star News newspaper reported that Robinson for two years has been the outstanding athlete at Muir starring in football basketball track baseball and tennis 27 Pasadena Junior College After Muir Robinson attended Pasadena Junior College PJC where he continued his athletic career by participating in basketball football baseball and track 28 On the football team he played quarterback and safety He was a shortstop and leadoff hitter for the baseball team 17 and he broke an American junior college broad jump record held by his brother Mack with a jump of 25 ft 6 1 2 in on May 7 1938 29 As at Muir High School most of Jackie s teammates were white 26 While playing football at PJC Robinson suffered a fractured ankle complications from which would eventually delay his deployment status while in the military 30 31 In 1938 he was elected to the All Southland Junior College Team for baseball and selected as the region s Most Valuable Player 24 32 That year Robinson was one of 10 students named to the school s Order of the Mast and Dagger Omicron Mu Delta awarded to students performing outstanding service to the school and whose scholastic and citizenship record is worthy of recognition 33 Also while at PJC he was elected to the Lancers a student run police organization responsible for patrolling various school activities 34 An incident at PJC illustrated Robinson s impatience with authority figures he perceived as racist a character trait that would resurface repeatedly in his life On January 25 1938 he was arrested after vocally disputing the detention of a black friend by police 35 Robinson received a two year suspended sentence but the incident along with other rumored run ins between Robinson and police gave Robinson a reputation for combativeness in the face of racial antagonism 36 While at PJC he was motivated by a preacher the Rev Karl Downs to attend church on a regular basis and Downs became a confidant for Robinson a Christian 37 Toward the end of his PJC tenure Frank Robinson to whom Robinson felt closest among his three brothers was killed in a motorcycle accident The event motivated Jackie to pursue his athletic career at the nearby University of California Los Angeles UCLA where he could remain closer to Frank s family 24 38 UCLA and afterward Robinson doing the long jump for UCLA After graduating from PJC in spring 1939 39 Robinson enrolled at UCLA where he became the school s first athlete to win varsity letters in four sports baseball basketball football and track 40 41 He was one of four black players on the Bruins 1939 football team the others were Woody Strode Kenny Washington and Ray Bartlett Washington Strode and Robinson made up three of the team s four backfield players 42 At a time when only a few black students played mainstream college football this made UCLA college football s most integrated team 43 44 They went undefeated with four ties at 6 0 4 45 Robinson finished the season with 12 2 yards per attempt on 42 carries which is the school football record for highest rushing yards per carry in a season as of 2022 Robinson also led the NCAA in punt return average in the 1939 and 1940 seasons 46 In track and field Robinson won the 1940 NCAA championship in the long jump at 24 ft 10 1 4 in 7 58 m 47 Baseball was Robinson s worst sport at UCLA he hit 097 in his only season although in his first game he went 4 for 4 and twice stole home 48 While a senior at UCLA Robinson met his future wife Rachel Isum b 1922 a UCLA freshman who was familiar with Robinson s athletic career at PJC 49 He played football as a senior but the 1940 Bruins won only one game 50 In the spring Robinson left college just shy of graduation despite the reservations of his mother and Isum 51 He took a job as an assistant athletic director with the government s National Youth Administration NYA in Atascadero California 52 53 54 After the government ceased NYA operations Robinson traveled to Honolulu in the fall of 1941 to play football for the semi professional racially integrated Honolulu Bears 52 54 After a short season Robinson returned to California in December 1941 to pursue a career as running back for the Los Angeles Bulldogs of the Pacific Coast Football League 55 By that time however the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor had taken place which drew the United States into World War II and ended Robinson s nascent football career 52 Military careerIn 1942 Robinson was drafted and assigned to a segregated Army cavalry unit at Fort Riley in Kansas 56 Having the requisite qualifications Robinson and several other black soldiers applied for admission to an Officer Candidate School OCS then located at Fort Riley 56 57 Although the Army s initial July 1941 guidelines for OCS had been drafted as race neutral few black applicants were admitted into OCS until after subsequent directives by Army leadership 58 As a result the applications of Robinson and his colleagues were delayed for several months 59 After protests by heavyweight boxing champion Joe Louis then stationed at Fort Riley and with the help of Truman Gibson then an assistant civilian aide to the Secretary of War 60 the men were accepted into OCS 52 59 61 The experience led to a personal friendship between Robinson and Louis 62 63 Upon finishing OCS Robinson was commissioned as a second lieutenant in January 1943 41 Shortly afterward Robinson and Isum were formally engaged 59 Robinson wearing his Army uniform receives a military salute from his nephew Frank during a visit to his home in Pasadena California circa 1943 After receiving his commission Robinson was reassigned to Fort Hood Texas where he joined the 761st Black Panthers Tank Battalion While at Fort Hood Robinson often used his weekend leave to visit the Rev Karl Downs President of Sam Huston College now Huston Tillotson University in nearby Austin Texas in California Downs had been Robinson s pastor at Scott United Methodist Church while Robinson attended PJC 35 64 An event on July 6 1944 derailed Robinson s military career 65 While awaiting results of hospital tests on the ankle he had injured in junior college Robinson boarded an Army bus with a fellow officer s wife although the Army had commissioned its own unsegregated bus line the bus driver ordered Robinson to move to the back of the bus 66 67 68 Robinson refused The driver backed down but after reaching the end of the line summoned the military police who took Robinson into custody 66 69 When Robinson later confronted the investigating duty officer about racist questioning by the officer and his assistant the officer recommended Robinson be court martialed 66 70 After Robinson s commander in the 761st Paul L Bates refused to authorize the legal action 71 Robinson was summarily transferred to the 758th Battalion where the commander quickly consented to charge Robinson with multiple offenses including among other charges public drunkenness even though Robinson did not drink 66 72 By the time of the court martial in August 1944 the charges against Robinson had been reduced to two counts of insubordination during questioning 66 Robinson was acquitted by an all white panel of nine officers 66 Although his former unit the 761st Tank Battalion became the first black tank unit to see combat in World War II Robinson s court martial proceedings prohibited him from being deployed overseas thus he never saw combat action 73 After his acquittal he was transferred to Camp Breckinridge Kentucky where he served as a coach for army athletics until receiving an honorable discharge in November 1944 74 While there Robinson met a former player for the Kansas City Monarchs of the Negro American League who encouraged Robinson to write the Monarchs and ask for a tryout 75 Robinson took the former player s advice and wrote to Monarchs co owner Thomas Baird 76 Post militaryAfter his discharge Robinson briefly returned to his old football club the Los Angeles Bulldogs 55 Robinson then accepted an offer from his old friend and pastor Rev Karl Downs to be the athletic director at Samuel Huston College in Austin then of the Southwestern Athletic Conference 77 The job included coaching the school s basketball team for the 1944 45 season 64 As it was a fledgling program few students tried out for the basketball team and Robinson even resorted to inserting himself into the lineup for exhibition games 77 78 Although his teams were outmatched by opponents Robinson was respected as a disciplinarian coach 64 and drew the admiration of among others Langston University basketball player Marques Haynes a future member of the Harlem Globetrotters 79 Playing careerNegro leagues and major league prospects Robinson during his stint in the Negro leagues with the Kansas City Monarchs In early 1945 while Robinson was at Sam Huston College the Kansas City Monarchs sent him a written offer to play professional baseball in the Negro leagues 64 80 Robinson accepted a contract for 400 per month 52 81 Although he played well for the Monarchs Robinson was frustrated with the experience He had grown used to a structured playing environment in college and the Negro leagues disorganization and embrace of gambling interests appalled him 82 83 The hectic travel schedule also placed a burden on his relationship with Isum with whom he could now communicate only by letter 84 In all Robinson played 47 games at shortstop for the Monarchs hitting 387 with five home runs and registering 13 stolen bases 85 He also appeared in the 1945 East West All Star Game going hitless in five at bats 86 During the season Robinson pursued potential major league interests No black man had played in the major leagues since Moses Fleetwood Walker in 1884 but the Boston Red Sox nevertheless held a tryout at Fenway Park for Robinson and other black players on April 16 87 88 The tryout however was a farce chiefly designed to assuage the desegregationist sensibilities of powerful Boston City Councilman Isadore H Y Muchnick 89 Even with the stands limited to management Robinson was subjected to racial epithets 90 He left the tryout humiliated 87 and more than 14 years later in July 1959 the Red Sox became the final major league team to integrate its roster 91 Other teams however had more serious interest in signing a black ballplayer In the mid 1940s Branch Rickey club president and general manager of the Brooklyn Dodgers began to scout the Negro leagues for a possible addition to the Dodgers roster Rickey selected Robinson from a list of promising black players and interviewed him for possible assignment to Brooklyn s International League farm club the Montreal Royals 92 Rickey was especially interested in making sure his eventual signee could withstand the inevitable racial abuse that would be directed at him 9 93 In a famous three hour exchange on August 28 1945 94 Rickey asked Robinson if he could face the racial animus without taking the bait and reacting angrily a concern given Robinson s prior arguments with law enforcement officials at PJC and in the military 52 Robinson was aghast Are you looking for a Negro who is afraid to fight back 93 95 Rickey replied that he needed a Negro player with guts enough not to fight back 93 95 After obtaining a commitment from Robinson to turn the other cheek to racial antagonism Rickey agreed to sign him to a contract for 600 a month equal to 9 031 today 96 97 Rickey did not offer compensation to the Monarchs instead believing all Negro league players were free agents due to the contracts not containing a reserve clause 98 Among those with whom Rickey discussed prospects was Wendell Smith writer for the black weekly Pittsburgh Courier who according to Cleveland Indians owner and team president Bill Veeck influenced Rickey to take Jack Robinson for which he s never completely gotten credit 99 Although he required Robinson to keep the arrangement a secret for the time being Rickey committed to formally signing Robinson before November 1 1945 100 On October 23 it was publicly announced that Robinson would be assigned to the Royals for the 1946 season 52 97 101 On the same day with representatives of the Royals and Dodgers present Robinson formally signed his contract with the Royals 102 In what was later referred to as The Noble Experiment 52 103 Robinson was the first black baseball player in the International League since the 1880s 104 He was not necessarily the best player in the Negro leagues 105 and black talents Satchel Paige and Josh Gibson were upset when Robinson was selected first 106 Larry Doby who broke the color line in the American League the same year as Robinson said One of the things that was disappointing and disheartening to a lot of the black players at the time was that Jack was not the best player The best was Josh Gibson I think that s one of the reasons why Josh died so early he was heartbroken 107 Rickey s offer allowed Robinson to leave behind the Monarchs and their grueling bus rides and he went home to Pasadena That September he signed with Chet Brewer s Kansas City Royals a post season barnstorming team in the California Winter League 108 Later that off season he briefly toured South America with another barnstorming team while his fiancee Isum pursued nursing opportunities in New York City 109 On February 10 1946 Robinson and Isum were married by their old friend the Rev Karl Downs 52 110 111 Minor leagues In 1946 Robinson arrived at Daytona Beach Florida for spring training with the Montreal Royals of the Class AAA International League Clay Hopper the manager of the Royals asked Rickey to assign Robinson to any other Dodger affiliate but Rickey refused 112 Robinson with the Montreal Royals in July 1946 the year before he was called up to the Majors Robinson s presence was controversial in racially segregated Florida He was not allowed to stay with his white teammates at the team hotel and instead lodged at the home of Joe and Dufferin Harris a politically active African American couple who introduced the Robinsons to civil rights activist Mary McLeod Bethune 113 114 115 Since the Dodgers organization did not own a spring training facility 116 scheduling was subject to the whim of area localities several of which turned down any event involving Robinson or Johnny Wright another black player whom Rickey had signed to the Dodgers organization in January In Sanford Florida the police chief threatened to cancel games if Robinson and Wright did not cease training activities there as a result Robinson was sent back to Daytona Beach 117 118 In Jacksonville the stadium was padlocked shut without warning on game day by order of the city s Parks and Public Property director 119 120 In DeLand a scheduled day game was postponed ostensibly because of issues with the stadium s electrical lighting 121 122 After much lobbying of local officials by Rickey himself the Royals were allowed to host a game involving Robinson in Daytona Beach 123 124 Robinson made his Royals debut at Daytona Beach s City Island Ballpark on March 17 1946 in an exhibition game against the team s parent club the Dodgers Robinson thus became the first black player to openly play for a minor league team against a major league team since the de facto baseball color line had been implemented in the 1880s 4 Robinson holding bats playing in Montreal Later in spring training after some less than stellar performances Robinson was shifted from shortstop to second base allowing him to make shorter throws to first base 72 Robinson s performance soon rebounded On April 18 1946 Roosevelt Stadium hosted the Jersey City Giants season opener against the Montreal Royals marking the professional debut of the Royals Jackie Robinson and the first time the color barrier had been broken in a game between two minor league clubs 125 Pitching against Robinson was Warren Sandel who had played against him when they both lived in California During Robinson s first at bat the Jersey City catcher Dick Bouknight demanded that Sandel throw at Robinson but Sandel refused Although Sandel induced Robinson to ground out at his first at bat Robinson ended up with four hits in his five trips to the plate his first hit was a three run home run in the game s third inning 126 He also scored four runs drove in three and stole two bases in the Royals 14 1 victory 127 Robinson proceeded to lead the International League that season with a 349 batting average and 985 fielding percentage 23 and he was named the league s Most Valuable Player 128 Although he often faced hostility while on road trips the Royals were forced to cancel a Southern exhibition tour for example 72 the Montreal fan base enthusiastically supported Robinson 129 130 Whether fans supported or opposed it Robinson s presence on the field was a boon to attendance more than one million people went to games involving Robinson in 1946 an astounding figure by International League standards 131 In the fall of 1946 following the baseball season Robinson returned home to California and briefly played professional basketball for the short lived Los Angeles Red Devils 132 133 Major leagues Breaking the color barrier 1947 In 1947 the Dodgers called Robinson up to the major leagues six days before the start of the season With Eddie Stanky entrenched at second base for the Dodgers Robinson played his initial major league season as a first baseman 93 Robinson made his debut in a Dodgers uniform wearing number 42 on April 11 1947 in a preseason exhibition game against the New York Yankees at Ebbets Field with 24 237 in attendance 134 On April 15 Robinson made his major league debut at the relatively advanced age of 28 at Ebbets Field before a crowd of 26 623 spectators more than 14 000 of whom were black 135 Although he failed to get a base hit he walked and scored a run in the Dodgers 5 3 victory 135 Robinson became the first player since 1884 to openly break the major league baseball color line 136 Black fans began flocking to see the Dodgers when they came to town abandoning their Negro league teams 106 Robinson s promotion met a generally positive although mixed reception among newspapers and white major league players 131 137 However racial tension existed in the Dodger clubhouse 138 Some Dodger players insinuated they would sit out rather than play alongside Robinson The brewing mutiny ended when Dodgers management took a stand for Robinson Manager Leo Durocher informed the team I do not care if the guy is yellow or black or if he has stripes like a fuckin zebra I m the manager of this team and I say he plays What s more I say he can make us all rich And if any of you cannot use the money I will see that you are all traded 139 Robinson was also derided by opposing teams 140 According to a press report the St Louis Cardinals threatened to strike if Robinson played and spread the walkout across the entire National League 141 Existence of the plot was said to have been leaked by the Cardinals team physician Robert Hyland to a friend the New York Herald Tribune s Rutherford Rud Rennie The reporter concerned about protecting Hyland s anonymity and job in turn leaked it to his Tribune colleague and editor Stanley Woodward whose own subsequent reporting with other sources protected Hyland 142 143 144 The Woodward article made national headlines After it was published National League President Ford Frick and Baseball Commissioner Happy Chandler let it be known that any striking players would be suspended You will find that the friends that you think you have in the press box will not support you that you will be outcasts Frick was quoted as saying I do not care if half the league strikes Those who do it will encounter quick retribution All will be suspended and I don t care if it wrecks the National League for five years This is the United States of America and one citizen has as much right to play as another 144 145 146 147 Woodward s article received the E P Dutton Award in 1947 for Best Sports Reporting 144 The Cardinals players denied that they were planning to strike and Woodward later told author Roger Kahn that Frick was his true source writer Warren Corbett said that Frick s speech never happened 141 Regardless the report led to Robinson receiving increased support from the sports media Even The Sporting News a publication that had backed the color line came out against the idea of a strike 141 Robinson nonetheless became the target of rough physical play by opponents particularly the Cardinals At one time he received a seven inch gash in his leg from Enos Slaughter 148 On April 22 1947 during a game between the Dodgers and the Philadelphia Phillies Phillies players and manager Ben Chapman called Robinson a nigger from their dugout and yelled that he should go back to the cotton fields 149 150 Rickey later recalled that Chapman did more than anybody to unite the Dodgers When he poured out that string of unconscionable abuse he solidified and united thirty men 151 However Robinson received significant encouragement from several major league players Robinson named Lee Jeep Handley who played for the Phillies at the time as the first opposing player to wish him well 152 Dodgers teammate Pee Wee Reese once came to Robinson s defense with the famous line You can hate a man for many reasons Color is not one of them 153 In 1947 or 1948 Reese is said to have put his arm around Robinson in response to fans who shouted racial slurs at Robinson before a game in Boston or Cincinnati 154 155 A statue by sculptor William Behrends unveiled at KeySpan Park on November 1 2005 depicts Reese with his arm around Robinson 156 Jewish baseball star Hank Greenberg who had to deal with ethnic epithets during his career also encouraged Robinson Following an incident where Greenberg collided with Robinson at first base he whispered a few words into Robinson s ear which Robinson later characterized as words of encouragement 157 Greenberg had advised him to overcome his critics by defeating them in games 157 Robinson also talked frequently with Larry Doby who endured his own hardships since becoming the first black player in the American League with the Cleveland Indians as the two spoke to one another via telephone throughout the season 158 Robinson finished the season having played in 151 games for the Dodgers with a batting average of 297 an on base percentage of 383 and a 427 slugging percentage He had 175 hits scoring 125 runs including 31 doubles 5 triples and 12 home runs driving in 48 runs for the year Robinson led the league in sacrifice hits with 28 and in stolen bases with 29 159 His cumulative performance earned him the inaugural Major League Baseball Rookie of the Year Award separate National and American League Rookie of the Year honors were not awarded until 1949 160 MVP Congressional testimony and film biography 1948 1950 Further information Paul Robeson Congressional hearings Following Stanky s trade to the Boston Braves in March 1948 Robinson took over second base where he logged a 980 fielding percentage that year second in the National League at the position fractionally behind Stanky 161 Robinson had a batting average of 296 and 22 stolen bases for the season 162 In a 12 7 win against the St Louis Cardinals on August 29 1948 he hit for the cycle a home run a triple a double and a single in the same game 163 The Dodgers briefly moved into first place in the National League in late August 1948 but they ultimately finished third as the Braves went on to win the league title and lose to the Cleveland Indians in the World Series 164 Robinson in 1950 Racial pressure on Robinson eased in 1948 when a number of other black players entered the major leagues Larry Doby who broke the color barrier in the American League on July 5 1947 just 11 weeks after Robinson and Satchel Paige played for the Cleveland Indians and the Dodgers had three other black players besides Robinson 161 In February 1948 he signed a 12 500 contract equal to 140 980 today with the Dodgers while a significant amount this was less than Robinson made in the off season from a vaudeville tour where he answered pre set baseball questions and a speaking tour of the South Between the tours he underwent surgery on his right ankle Because of his off season activities Robinson reported to training camp 30 pounds 14 kg overweight He lost the weight during training camp but dieting left him weak at the plate 165 In 1948 Wendell Smith s book Jackie Robinson My Own Story was released 166 In the spring of 1949 Robinson turned to Hall of Famer George Sisler working as an advisor to the Dodgers for batting help At Sisler s suggestion Robinson spent hours at a batting tee learning to hit the ball to right field 167 Sisler taught Robinson to anticipate a fastball on the theory that it is easier to subsequently adjust to a slower curveball 167 Robinson also noted that Sisler showed me how to stop lunging how to check my swing until the last fraction of a second 167 The tutelage helped Robinson raise his batting average from 296 in 1948 to 342 in 1949 167 In addition to his improved batting average Robinson stole 37 bases that season was second place in the league for both doubles and triples and registered 124 runs batted in with 122 runs scored 93 For the performance Robinson earned the Most Valuable Player Award for the National League 93 Baseball fans also voted Robinson as the starting second baseman for the 1949 All Star Game the first All Star Game to include black players 168 169 That year a song about Robinson by Buddy Johnson Did You See Jackie Robinson Hit That Ball reached number 13 on the charts Count Basie recorded a famous version 170 Ultimately the Dodgers won the National League pennant but lost in five games to the New York Yankees in the 1949 World Series 161 Summer 1949 brought an unwanted distraction for Robinson In July he was called to testify before the United States House of Representatives Committee on Un American Activities HUAC concerning statements made that April by black athlete and actor Paul Robeson Robinson was reluctant to testify but he eventually agreed to do so fearing it might negatively affect his career if he declined 171 Lobby card for The Jackie Robinson Story 1950 with Minor Watson left playing Dodgers president Branch Rickey and Robinson In 1950 Robinson led the National League in double plays made by a second baseman with 133 163 His salary that year was the highest any Dodger had been paid to that point 35 000 172 394 198 in 2021 dollars 173 He finished the year with 99 runs scored a 328 batting average and 12 stolen bases 162 The year saw the release of a film biography of Robinson s life The Jackie Robinson Story in which Robinson played himself 174 and actress Ruby Dee played Rachel Rae Isum Robinson 175 The project had been previously delayed when the film s producers refused to accede to demands of two Hollywood studios that the movie include scenes of Robinson being tutored in baseball by a white man 176 The New York Times wrote that Robinson doing that rare thing of playing himself in the picture s leading role displays a calm assurance and composure that might be envied by many a Hollywood star 177 Robinson s Hollywood exploits however did not sit well with Dodgers co owner Walter O Malley who referred to Robinson as Rickey s prima donna 178 In late 1950 Rickey s contract as the Dodgers team President expired Weary of constant disagreements with O Malley and with no hope of being re appointed as President of the Dodgers Rickey cashed out his one quarter financial interest in the team leaving O Malley in full control of the franchise 179 Rickey shortly thereafter became general manager of the Pittsburgh Pirates Robinson was disappointed at the turn of events and wrote a sympathetic letter to Rickey whom he considered a father figure stating Regardless of what happens to me in the future it all can be placed on what you have done and believe me I appreciate it 180 181 182 Pennant races and outside interests 1951 1953 Before the 1951 season O Malley reportedly offered Robinson the job of manager of the Montreal Royals effective at the end of Robinson s playing career O Malley was quoted in the Montreal Standard as saying Jackie told me that he would be both delighted and honored to tackle this managerial post although reports differed as to whether a position was ever formally offered 183 184 During the 1951 season Robinson led the National League in double plays made by a second baseman for the second year in a row with 137 163 He also kept the Dodgers in contention for the 1951 pennant During the last game of the regular season in the 13th inning he had a hit to tie the game and then hit a home run in the 14th inning which proved to be the winning margin This forced a best of three playoff series against the crosstown rival New York Giants 185 Jackie Robinson comic book issue No 5 1951 Despite Robinson s regular season heroics on October 3 1951 the Dodgers lost the pennant on Bobby Thomson s famous home run known as the Shot Heard Round the World Overcoming his dejection Robinson dutifully observed Thomson s feet to ensure he touched all the bases Dodgers sportscaster Vin Scully later noted that the incident showed how much of a competitor Robinson was 186 He finished the season with 106 runs scored a batting average of 335 and 25 stolen bases 162 Robinson had what was an average year for him in 1952 187 He finished the year with 104 runs a 308 batting average and 24 stolen bases 162 He did however record a career high on base percentage of 436 162 The Dodgers improved on their performance from the year before winning the National League pennant before losing the 1952 World Series to the New York Yankees in seven games That year on the television show Youth Wants to Know Robinson challenged the Yankees general manager George Weiss on the racial record of his team which had yet to sign a black player 188 Sportswriter Dick Young whom Robinson had described as a bigot said If there was one flaw in Jackie it was the common one He believed that everything unpleasant that happened to him happened because of his blackness 189 The 1952 season was the last year Robinson was an everyday starter at second base Afterward Robinson played variously at first second and third bases shortstop and in the outfield with Jim Gilliam another black player taking over everyday second base duties 162 Robinson s interests began to shift toward the prospect of managing a major league team He had hoped to gain experience by managing in the Puerto Rican Winter League but according to the New York Post Commissioner Happy Chandler denied the request 190 In 1953 Robinson had 109 runs a 329 batting average and 17 steals 162 leading the Dodgers to another National League pennant and another World Series loss to the Yankees this time in six games Robinson s continued success spawned a string of death threats 191 He was not dissuaded however from addressing racial issues publicly That year he served as editor for Our Sports magazine a periodical focusing on Negro sports issues contributions to the magazine included an article on golf course segregation by Robinson s old friend Joe Louis 192 193 Robinson also openly criticized segregated hotels and restaurants that served the Dodger organization a number of these establishments integrated as a result including the five star Chase Park Hotel in St Louis 148 194 World Championship and retirement 1954 1956 In 1954 Robinson had 62 runs scored a 311 batting average and 7 steals His best day at the plate was on June 17 when he hit two home runs and two doubles 162 163 The following autumn Robinson won his only championship when the Dodgers beat the New York Yankees in the 1955 World Series Although the team enjoyed ultimate success 1955 was the worst year of Robinson s individual career He hit 256 and stole only 12 bases The Dodgers tried Robinson in the outfield and as a third baseman both because of his diminishing abilities and because Gilliam was established at second base 195 Robinson then 36 years old 196 missed 49 games and did not play in Game 7 of the World Series 186 Robinson missed the game because manager Walter Alston decided to play Gilliam at second and Don Hoak at third base That season the Dodgers Don Newcombe became the first black major league pitcher to win twenty games in a year 197 In 1956 Robinson had 61 runs scored a 275 batting average and 12 steals 162 By then he had begun to exhibit the effects of diabetes and to lose interest in the prospect of playing or managing professional baseball 190 Robinson ended his major league career when he struck out to end Game 7 of the 1956 World Series 198 After the season the Dodgers traded Robinson to the arch rival New York Giants for Dick Littlefield and 35 000 cash equal to 348 843 today The trade however was never completed unbeknownst to the Dodgers Robinson had already agreed with the president of Chock full o Nuts to quit baseball and become an executive with the company 199 Since Robinson had sold exclusive rights to any retirement story to Look magazine two years previously 199 his retirement decision was revealed through the magazine instead of through the Dodgers organization 200 Legacy Robinson and his son David are interviewed during the March on Washington August 28 1963 Further information History of baseball in the United States Racial integration in baseball Robinson s major league debut brought an end to approximately sixty years of segregation in professional baseball known as the baseball color line 136 After World War II several other forces were also leading the country toward increased equality for blacks including their accelerated migration to the North where their political clout grew and President Harry Truman s desegregation of the military in 1948 201 Robinson s breaking of the baseball color line and his professional success symbolized these broader changes and demonstrated that the fight for equality was more than simply a political matter Civil rights movement leader Martin Luther King Jr said that he was a legend and a symbol in his own time and that he challenged the dark skies of intolerance and frustration 202 According to historian Doris Kearns Goodwin Robinson s efforts were a monumental step in the civil rights revolution in America His accomplishments allowed black and white Americans to be more respectful and open to one another and more appreciative of everyone s abilities 203 Beginning his major league career at the relatively advanced age of 28 he played only ten seasons from 1947 to 1956 all of them for the Brooklyn Dodgers 204 During his career the Dodgers played in six World Series and Robinson himself played in six All Star Games 7 In 1999 he was posthumously named to the Major League Baseball All Century Team 205 Robinson s career is generally considered to mark the beginning of the post long ball era in baseball in which a reliance on raw power hitting gave way to balanced offensive strategies that used footspeed to create runs through aggressive baserunning 206 Robinson exhibited the combination of hitting ability and speed which exemplified the new era He scored more than 100 runs in six of his ten seasons averaging more than 110 runs from 1947 to 1953 had a 311 career batting average a 409 career on base percentage a 474 slugging percentage and substantially more walks than strikeouts 740 to 291 162 204 207 Robinson was one of only two players during the span of 1947 56 to accumulate at least 125 steals while registering a slugging percentage over 425 Minnie Minoso was the other 208 He accumulated 197 stolen bases in total 162 including 19 steals of home None of the latter were double steals in which a player stealing home is assisted by a player stealing another base at the same time 209 Robinson has been referred to by author David Falkner as the father of modern base stealing 210 I m not concerned with your liking or disliking me all I ask is that you respect me as a human being Robinson on his legacy 153 Historical statistical analysis indicates Robinson was an outstanding fielder throughout his ten years in the major leagues and at virtually every position he played 211 After playing his rookie season at first base 93 Robinson spent most of his career as a second baseman 212 He led the league in fielding among second basemen in 1950 and 1951 213 214 Toward the end of his career he played about 2 000 innings at third base and about 1 175 innings in the outfield excelling at both 211 Assessing himself Robinson said I m not concerned with your liking or disliking me all I ask is that you respect me as a human being 153 Regarding Robinson s qualities on the field Leo Durocher said Ya want a guy that comes to play This guy didn t just come to play He come to beat ya He come to stuff the goddamn bat right up your ass 215 Portrayals on stage film and television Depiction of Robinson in lobby card for the 1950 film The Jackie Robinson Story Robinson portrayed himself in the 1950 motion picture The Jackie Robinson Story 216 Other portrayals include John Lafayette in the 1978 ABC television special A Home Run for Love broadcast as an ABC Afterschool Special 217 David Alan Grier in the 1981 Broadway production of the musical The First 218 219 220 Michael David Gordon in the 1989 Off Broadway production of the musical Play to Win 221 Andre Braugher in the 1990 TNT television movie The Court Martial of Jackie Robinson 222 223 Blair Underwood in the 1996 HBO television movie Soul of the Game 224 225 Antonio Todd in Colors a 2005 episode of the CBS television series Cold Case 226 Chadwick Boseman in the 2013 motion picture 42 227 Robert Hamilton in Sundown a 2020 episode of the HBO television series Lovecraft Country 228 Robinson was also the subject of a 2016 PBS documentary Jackie Robinson which was directed by Ken Burns and features Jamie Foxx doing voice over as Robinson 229 Post baseball lifeRobinson once told future Hall of Fame inductee Hank Aaron that the game of baseball is great but the greatest thing is what you do after your career is over 230 Robinson retired from baseball at age 37 on January 5 1957 231 Later that year after he complained of numerous physical ailments he was diagnosed with diabetes a disease that also afflicted his brothers 232 Although Robinson adopted an insulin injection regimen the state of medicine at the time could not prevent the continued deterioration of Robinson s physical condition from the disease 233 In October 1959 Robinson entered the Greenville Municipal Airport s whites only waiting room Airport police asked Robinson to leave but he refused At a National Association for the Advancement of Colored People NAACP speech in Greenville South Carolina Robinson urged complete freedom and encouraged black citizens to vote and to protest their second class citizenship The following January approximately 1 000 people marched on New Year s Day to the airport 234 235 which was desegregated shortly thereafter 236 In his first year of eligibility for the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1962 73 Robinson encouraged voters to consider only his on field qualifications rather than his cultural impact on the game 237 He was elected on the first ballot becoming the first black player inducted into the Cooperstown museum 23 Robinson as an ABC sports announcer 1965 In 1965 Robinson served as an analyst for ABC s Major League Baseball Game of the Week telecasts the first black person to do so 238 In 1966 Robinson was hired as general manager for the short lived Brooklyn Dodgers of the Continental Football League 239 240 In 1972 he served as a part time commentator on Montreal Expos telecasts 241 On June 4 1972 the Dodgers retired his uniform number 42 alongside those of Roy Campanella 39 and Sandy Koufax 32 242 From 1957 to 1964 Robinson was the vice president for personnel at Chock full o Nuts he was the first black person to serve as vice president of a major American corporation 23 243 Robinson always considered his business career as advancing the cause of black people in commerce and industry 244 Robinson also chaired the NAACP s million dollar Freedom Fund Drive in 1957 and served on the organization s board until 1967 243 In 1964 he helped found with Harlem businessman Dunbar McLaurin Freedom National Bank a black owned and operated commercial bank based in Harlem 243 He also served as the bank s first chairman of the board 245 In 1970 Robinson established the Jackie Robinson Construction Company to build housing for low income families 243 246 Robinson was active in politics throughout his post baseball life He identified himself as a political independent 247 248 although he held conservative opinions on several issues including the Vietnam War he once wrote to Martin Luther King Jr to defend the Johnson Administration s military policy 249 After supporting Richard Nixon in his 1960 presidential race against John F Kennedy Robinson later praised Kennedy effusively for his stance on civil rights 250 Robinson was angered by the 1964 presidential election candidacy of conservative Republican Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona who had opposed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 251 He became one of six national directors for Nelson Rockefeller s unsuccessful campaign to be nominated as the Republican candidate for the election 243 After the party nominated Goldwater instead Robinson left the party s convention commenting that he now had a better understanding of how it must have felt to be a Jew in Hitler s Germany 252 He later became special assistant for community affairs when Rockefeller was re elected governor of New York in 1966 and in 1971 was appointed to the New York State Athletic Commission by Rockefeller 243 253 In 1968 he broke with the Republican party and supported Hubert Humphrey against Nixon in that year s presidential election 200 A still from a color movie featuring Robinson in the 1960s in The Torch of Friendship promo 254 Robinson protested against the major leagues ongoing lack of minority managers and central office personnel and he turned down an invitation to appear in an old timers game at Yankee Stadium in 1969 255 He made his final public appearance on October 15 1972 nine days before his death 256 throwing the ceremonial first pitch before Game 2 of the World Series at Riverfront Stadium in Cincinnati He gratefully accepted a plaque honoring the twenty fifth anniversary of his MLB debut but also commented I m going to be tremendously more pleased and more proud when I look at that third base coaching line one day and see a black face managing in baseball 257 258 This wish was only fulfilled after Robinson s death following the 1974 season the Cleveland Indians gave their managerial post to Frank Robinson no relation to Jackie a Hall of Fame bound player who would go on to manage three other teams Despite the success of these two Robinsons and other black players the number of African American players in Major League Baseball has declined since the 1970s 259 260 Family life and deathAfter Robinson s retirement from baseball his wife Rachel Robinson pursued a career in academic nursing She became an assistant professor at the Yale School of Nursing and director of nursing at the Connecticut Mental Health Center 261 She also served on the board of the Freedom National Bank until it closed in 1990 262 She and Jackie had three children Jackie Robinson Jr 1946 1971 Sharon Robinson b 1950 and David Robinson b 1952 263 Robinson s family gravesite in Cypress Hills Cemetery Robinson is buried alongside his mother in law Zellee Isum and his son Jackie Robinson Jr Robinson s eldest son Jackie Robinson Jr had emotional trouble during his childhood and entered special education at an early age 264 He enlisted in the Army in search of a disciplined environment served in the Vietnam War and was wounded in action on November 19 1965 265 After his discharge he struggled with drug problems Robinson Jr eventually completed the treatment program at Daytop Village in Seymour Connecticut and became a counselor at the institution 266 On June 17 1971 he was killed in an automobile accident at age 24 267 268 The experience with his son s drug addiction turned Robinson Sr into an avid anti drug crusader toward the end of his life 269 Robinson did not outlive his son by very long In 1968 he suffered a heart attack Complications from heart disease and diabetes weakened Robinson and made him almost blind by middle age On October 24 1972 Robinson died of a heart attack at his home on 95 Cascade Road in North Stamford Connecticut he was 53 years old 93 267 Robinson s funeral service on October 27 1972 at Upper Manhattan s Riverside Church in Morningside Heights attracted 2 500 mourners 270 271 Many of his former teammates other famous baseball players and basketball star Bill Russell served as pallbearers and the Rev Jesse Jackson gave the eulogy 270 272 Tens of thousands of people lined the subsequent procession route to Robinson s interment site at Cypress Hills Cemetery in Brooklyn New York where he was buried next to his son Jackie and mother in law Zellee Isum 270 Twenty five years after Robinson s death the Interboro Parkway was renamed the Jackie Robinson Parkway in his memory This parkway bisects the cemetery in close proximity to Robinson s gravesite 273 After Robinson s death his widow founded the Jackie Robinson Foundation and she remains an officer as of 2021 274 On April 15 2008 she announced that in 2010 the foundation would open a museum devoted to Jackie in Lower Manhattan 275 Robinson s daughter Sharon became a midwife educator director of educational programming for MLB and the author of two books about her father 276 His youngest son David who has ten children is a coffee grower and social activist in Tanzania 277 278 279 Awards and recognition The number 42 worn by Robinson on a plaque at Monument Park left and Jackie Robinson Rotunda inside Citi Field right According to a poll conducted in 1947 Robinson was the second most popular man in the country behind Bing Crosby 280 In 1999 he was named by Time on its list of the 100 most influential people of the 20th century 281 Also in 1999 he ranked number 44 on the Sporting News list of Baseball s 100 Greatest Players 282 and was elected to the Major League Baseball All Century Team as the top vote getter among second basemen 283 Baseball writer Bill James in The New Bill James Historical Baseball Abstract ranked Robinson as the 32nd greatest player of all time strictly on the basis of his performance on the field noting that he was one of the top players in the league throughout his career 284 Robinson was among the 25 charter members of UCLA s Athletics Hall of Fame in 1984 48 In 2002 Molefi Kete Asante included Robinson on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans 285 Robinson has also been honored by the United States Postal Service on three separate postage stamps in 1982 1999 and 2000 286 The City of Pasadena has recognized Robinson with a baseball diamond and stadium named Jackie Robinson Field in Brookside Park next to the Rose Bowl 287 and with the Jackie Robinson Center a community outreach center providing health services 288 In 1997 a 325 000 bronze sculpture equal to 548 606 today by artists Ralph Helmick Stu Schecter and John Outterbridge depicting oversized nine foot busts of Robinson and his brother Mack was erected at Garfield Avenue across from the main entrance of Pasadena City Hall a granite footprint lists multiple donors to the commission project which was organized by the Robinson Memorial Foundation and supported by members of the Robinson family 289 290 Jackie Robinson Stadium with the No 42 on the center field wall Major League Baseball has honored Robinson many times since his death In 1987 both the National and American League Rookie of the Year Awards were renamed the Jackie Robinson Award in honor of the first recipient Robinson s Major League Rookie of the Year Award in 1947 encompassed both leagues 291 292 On April 15 1997 Robinson s jersey number 42 was retired throughout Major League Baseball the first time any jersey number had been retired throughout one of the four major American sports leagues Under the terms of the retirement a grandfather clause allowed the handful of players who wore number 42 to continue doing so in tribute to Robinson until such time as they subsequently changed teams or jersey numbers 293 This affected players such as the Mets Butch Huskey and Boston s Mo Vaughn The Yankees Mariano Rivera who retired at the end of the 2013 season 294 295 was the last player in Major League Baseball to wear jersey number 42 on a regular basis Since 1997 only Wayne Gretzky s number 99 retired by the NHL in 2000 and Bill Russell s number 6 retired by the NBA in 2022 have been retired league wide in any of the four major sports 296 297 There have also been calls for MLB to retire number 21 league wide in honor of Roberto Clemente a sentiment opposed by the Robinson family 298 As an exception to the retired number policy MLB began honoring Robinson by allowing players to wear number 42 on April 15 Jackie Robinson Day which is an annual observance that started in 2004 299 300 For the 60th anniversary of Robinson s major league debut MLB invited players to wear the number 42 on Jackie Robinson Day in 2007 299 The gesture was originally the idea of outfielder Ken Griffey Jr who sought Rachel Robinson s permission to wear the number 301 After Griffey received her permission Commissioner Bud Selig not only allowed Griffey to wear the number but also extended an invitation to all major league teams to do the same 302 Ultimately more than 200 players wore number 42 including the entire rosters of the Los Angeles Dodgers New York Mets Houston Astros Philadelphia Phillies St Louis Cardinals Milwaukee Brewers and Pittsburgh Pirates 299 The tribute was continued in 2008 when during games on April 15 all members of the Mets Cardinals Washington Nationals and Tampa Bay Rays wore Robinson s number 42 303 304 On June 25 2008 MLB installed a new plaque for Robinson at the Baseball Hall of Fame commemorating his off the field impact on the game as well as his playing statistics 237 In 2009 all of MLB s uniformed personnel including players wore number 42 on April 15 this tradition has continued every year since on that date 305 Front of the Jackie Robinson Museum 2022 At the November 2006 groundbreaking for Citi Field the new ballpark for the New York Mets it was announced that the main entrance modeled on the one in Brooklyn s old Ebbets Field would be called the Jackie Robinson Rotunda The rotunda was dedicated at the opening of Citi Field on April 16 2009 306 It honors Robinson with large quotations spanning the inner curve of the facade and features a large freestanding statue of his number 42 which has become an attraction in itself Mets owner Fred Wilpon announced that the Mets in conjunction with Citigroup and the Jackie Robinson Foundation will created the Jackie Robinson Museum and Learning Center located at the headquarters of the Jackie Robinson Foundation at One Hudson Square along Canal Street in lower Manhattan Along with the museum scholarships will be awarded to young people who live by and embody Jackie s ideals 307 308 309 The museum opened in 2023 310 311 At Dodger Stadium in Los Angeles a statue of Robinson was introduced in 2017 312 The New York Yankees honor Robinson with a plaque in Monument Park 313 Since 2004 the Aflac National High School Baseball Player of the Year has been presented the Jackie Robinson Award 314 Robinson has also been recognized outside of baseball In December 1956 the NAACP recognized him with the Spingarn Medal which it awards annually for the highest achievement by an African American 243 President Ronald Reagan posthumously awarded Robinson the Presidential Medal of Freedom on March 26 1984 315 and on March 2 2005 President George W Bush gave Robinson s widow the Congressional Gold Medal the highest civilian award bestowed by Congress Robinson was only the second baseball player to receive the award after Roberto Clemente 316 On August 20 2007 California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and his wife Maria Shriver announced that Robinson was inducted into the California Hall of Fame located at The California Museum for History Women and the Arts in Sacramento 317 Rachel Robinson holding the award accepts the posthumous Congressional Gold Medal for her husband from President George W Bush in a March 2 2005 ceremony in the Capitol Rotunda Also pictured are Nancy Pelosi and Dennis Hastert A number of buildings have been named in Robinson s honor The UCLA Bruins baseball team plays in Jackie Robinson Stadium 318 which because of the efforts of Jackie s brother Mack features a memorial statue of Robinson by sculptor Richard H Ellis 319 The stadium also unveiled a new mural of Robinson by Mike Sullivan on April 14 2013 City Island Ballpark in Daytona Beach Florida was renamed Jackie Robinson Ballpark in 1990 and a statue of Robinson with two children stands in front of the ballpark His wife Rachel was present for the dedication on September 15 1990 320 321 A number of facilities at Pasadena City College successor to PJC are named in Robinson s honor including Robinson Field a football soccer track facility named jointly for Robinson and his brother Mack 322 The New York Public School system has named a middle school after Robinson 323 and Dorsey High School plays at a Los Angeles football stadium named after him 324 His home in Brooklyn the Jackie Robinson House was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1976 325 and Brooklyn residents sought to turn his home into a city landmark 326 In 1978 Colonial Park in Harlem was renamed after Robinson 327 328 Robinson also has an asteroid named after him 4319 Jackierobinson 329 In 1997 the United States Mint issued a Jackie Robinson commemorative silver dollar and five dollar gold coin 330 That same year New York City renamed the Interboro Parkway in his honor 331 A statue of Robinson at Journal Square Transportation Center in Jersey City New Jersey was dedicated in 1998 332 Statue of Robinson 1998 at Journal Square Jersey City In 2011 the U S placed a plaque at Robinson s Montreal home to honor the ending of segregation in baseball 333 The house at 8232 avenue de Gaspe near Jarry Park was Robinson s residence when he played for the Montreal Royals during 1946 In a letter read during the ceremony Rachel Robinson Jackie s widow wrote I remember Montreal and that house very well and have always had warm feeling for that great city Before Jack and I moved to Montreal we had just been through some very rough treatment in the racially biased South during spring training in Florida In the end Montreal was the perfect place for him to get his start We never had a threatening or unpleasant experience there The people were so welcoming and saw Jack as a player and as a man 334 On November 22 2014 UCLA announced that it would officially retire the number 42 across all university sports effective immediately While Robinson wore several different numbers during his UCLA career the school chose 42 because it had become indelibly identified with him 335 The only sport this did not affect was men s basketball which had previously retired the number for Walt Hazzard although Kevin Love was actually the last player in that sport to wear 42 with Hazzard s blessing 336 337 338 339 In a move paralleling that of MLB when it retired the number UCLA allowed three athletes in women s soccer softball and football who were already wearing 42 to continue to do so for the remainder of their UCLA careers The school also announced it would prominently display the number at all of its athletic venues 335 A jersey that Robinson brought home with him after his rookie season ended in 1947 was sold at an auction for 2 05 million on November 19 2017 The price was the highest ever paid for a post World War II jersey 340 See also Baseball portal Georgia state portal Biography portalCivil Rights Game including MLB Beacon Awards DHL Hometown Heroes Glass ceiling List of African American firsts List of first black Major League Baseball players List of Major League Baseball annual stolen base leaders List of Major League Baseball batting champions List of Major League Baseball career stolen bases leaders List of Major League Baseball players who spent their entire career with one franchise List of Major League Baseball players to hit for the cycle List of Major League Baseball retired numbers List of NCAA major college football yearly rushing leaders List of NCAA major college yearly punt and kickoff return leaders List of Negro league baseball players who played in Major League Baseball List of sports desegregation firsts List of University of California Los Angeles people Los Angeles Dodgers award winners and league leadersReferences UCLA retires No 42 for all teams ESPN Associated Press November 22 2014 Retrieved November 23 2014 Lamb p 6 Boston Braves at Brooklyn Dodgers Box Score April 15 1947 Baseball Reference com Retrieved April 11 2019 a b Loewen p 163 Jackie Robinson National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum Retrieved April 16 2015 Nemec amp Flatow p 201 a b Jackie Robinson statistics and history Baseball Reference com Retrieved September 4 2009 Glasser Ira 2003 Branch Rickey and Jackie Robinson precursors of the civil rights movement World amp I 18 3 257 273 Retrieved September 14 2009 a b Hill Justice B April 15 2008 One meeting two men a changed world MLB com Archived from the original on April 15 2008 Retrieved January 5 2018 Rampersad Arnold In Pharaoh s Land Cairo Georgia 1919 1920 The New York Times Retrieved February 1 2015 Rampersad p 15 Bigelow p 225 Eig p 7 White House dream team Jackie Roosevelt Robinson Whitehousekids gov January 20 2002 Retrieved September 14 2009 Rampersad pp 15 18 Biography Official Site of Jackie Robinson Archived from the original on April 15 2009 Retrieved April 9 2009 a b c Robinson Jackie 1995 p 9 Eig p 8 a b Robinson Rachel p 17 Rampersad pp 33 35 a b Eig p 10 Rampersad p 36 a b c d Jackie Robinson biography The Biography Channel Archived from the original on June 10 2011 Retrieved September 12 2009 a b c Robinson Rachel p 20 Rampersad pp 36 37 a b Rampersad p 37 Rampersad p 39 Rampersad pp 40 41 Glick Shav March 31 1997 Robinson a Baseball Star That s Only a Quarter of Story Los Angeles Times Retrieved October 18 2021 Falkner p 44 Stone Bob November 23 1945 Sports Jackie Robinson Yank the Army Weekly PDF Vol 4 no 23 p 23 Rampersad p 54 Rampersad pp 59 60 Rampersad p 47 a b Linge p 18 Rampersad pp 50 51 Rampersad pp 52 53 Falkner p 51 Falkner p 49 Eig p 11 a b Breaking the color line 1940 1946 Baseball the Color Line and Jackie Robinson Library of Congress Retrieved September 12 2009 Violett B J 1997 Teammates Recall Jackie Robinson s Legacy UCLA Today Archived from the original on March 6 2010 Retrieved October 12 2008 Washington Kenny Encyclopaedia Britannica Archived from the original on January 6 2009 Retrieved May 5 2019 Demas Lane 2007 Beyond Jackie Robinson racial integration in American college football and new directions in sport history History Compass 5 2 675 690 doi 10 1111 j 1478 0542 2007 00412 x Stefani Raymond March 17 2015 The Interrelated Back Stories of Kenny Washington Reintegrating the NFL in 1946 and Jackie Robinson Integrating Major League Baseball in 1947 The Sport Journal Retrieved November 25 2017 Wittry Andy April 14 2022 Jackie Robinson s football career at UCLA hinted at greatness to come and a Toy Story character National Collegiate Athletic Association Retrieved June 8 2022 Outdoor Track and Field Division I Men s PDF National Collegiate Athletic Association p 8 Retrieved March 10 2013 a b Greenwald Dave February 1 2005 Alumnus Jackie Robinson honored by Congress UCLA Athletics Archived from the original on December 10 2008 Retrieved November 19 2017 Robinson Jackie 1995 pp 10 11 Linge p 27 Sources point to various reasons for Robinson s departure from UCLA Family sources cite financial concerns Biography Official Site of Jackie Robinson Archived from the original on April 15 2009 Retrieved April 9 2009 In addition Robinson himself cited his growing disillusionment about the value of a college degree for a black man of his era Robinson Jackie 1995 p 11 Other sources suggest that Robinson was uninterested in academics and behind on class work at the time he left UCLA Falkner p 45 Eig p 13 a b c d e f g h i Black History Biographies Jackie Robinson Gale Cengage Learning Archived from the original on January 15 2009 Retrieved November 24 2008 Linge p xiii a b Robinson Jackie 1995 p 12 a b Gill Bob 1987 Jackie Robinson Pro Football Prelude PDF The Coffin Corner 9 3 1 2 Archived from the original PDF on November 27 2010 Retrieved May 27 2009 a b United States v 2LT Jack R Robinson The National WWII Museum February 5 2021 Retrieved July 29 2021 Linge p 33 MacGregor Morris J 1981 Chapter 2 World War II The Army Integration of the Armed Forces 1940 65 Washington D C G P O ISBN 978 1 153 75539 9 n 94 Archived from the original on July 27 2010 a b c Robinson Jackie 1995 p 13 Library of Congress Truman K Gibson Papers Library of Congress Archived from the original on May 9 2009 Retrieved May 22 2009 Goldstein Richard January 2 2006 Truman K Gibson who fought Army segregation is dead at 93 The New York Times Retrieved September 13 2009 Rampersad p 91 Editors of Time for Kids p 11 a b c d Enders Eric April 15 1997 Jackie Robinson College Basketball Coach Austin American Statesman Archived from the original on October 17 2009 Retrieved April 8 2009 Vernon John 2008 Jim Crow meet Lieutenant Robinson Prologue Magazine Vol 40 no 1 Retrieved January 20 2019 a b c d e f Tygiel Jules August September 1984 The Court Martial of Jackie Robinson American Heritage Archived from the original on November 19 2008 Retrieved November 25 2008 also published at Tygiel 2002 pp 14 23 Linge p 37 Robinson Jackie 1995 p 18 Robinson Jackie 1995 p 19 Robinson Jackie 1995 pp 20 21 Abdul Jabber amp Walton p 57 a b c Jackie Makes Good Time August 26 1946 Archived from the original on March 12 2010 Retrieved July 21 2021 a b Featured Baseball Personalities Jackie Robinson Historic Baseball Resources Library of Congress Archived from the original on October 10 2008 Retrieved October 6 2008 McElderry Michael 2002 Jackie Robinson A Register of His Papers in the Library of Congress Library of Congress Archived from the original on November 12 2008 Retrieved November 24 2008 Robinson Jackie 1995 p 23 Rampersad p 113 a b Rampersad p 114 Eig p 16 Tramel Jimmie June 25 2008 Globetrotting tales Tulsa World Retrieved May 5 2019 Eig p 17 Robinson Jackie 1995 p 24 Tygiel p 63 Bryant p 30 Robinson Jackie 1995 p 25 Lester Larry Sammy J Miller 2000 Black Baseball in Kansas City Arcadia Publishing p 55 ISBN 978 0 7385 0842 9 Lester Larry 2002 Black Baseball s National Showcase The East West All Star Game 1933 1953 University of 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ISBN 978 0 313 37513 2 Moore Joseph Thomas 1988 Pride and Prejudice The Biography of Larry Doby New York Praeger Publishers p 40 ISBN 978 0 275 92984 8 Rampersad pp 127 128 Lamb p 43 Rampersad p 129 Tygiel p 79 Pennington Bill July 27 2006 Breaking a barrier 60 years before Robinson The New York Times Retrieved September 13 2009 Ribowsky Mark 2000 Don t look back Satchel Paige in the shadows of baseball Da Capo Press p 313 ISBN 978 0 306 80963 7 a b Paige Satchel David Lipman 1993 Maybe I ll pitch forever a great baseball player tells the hilarious story behind the legend U of Nebraska Press pp xi xii ISBN 978 0 8032 8732 7 Moore Joseph Thomas 1988 Pride and Prejudice The Biography of Larry Doby New York Praeger Publishers p 30 ISBN 978 0 275 92984 8 Tygiel 2002 p 28 Robinson Jackie 1995 p 37 Linge p 49 Robinson Jackie 1995 p 38 Lamb Chris April 7 2013 Opinion The redemption of Clay Hopper Montreal Gazette Archived from the original on April 5 2013 Retrieved April 13 2013 Lamb p 93 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summer of 1946 a b Swaine Rick SABR Biography of Jackie Robinson Society for American Baseball Research Retrieved May 27 2009 Tygiel pp 163 164 Rampersad pp 158 159 Robinson makes debut Philadelphia Inquirer Philadelphia Pennsylvania April 12 1947 p 14 a b McNeil p 357 a b Kirsch Harris amp Nolte pp 12 336 For a general survey of the media reaction to Robinson at various phases of his career see www umass edu and subpages Retrieved on July 8 2009 Jackie Robinson breaks major league color barrier History Channel Retrieved October 21 2011 Kirwin p 198 Giglio pp 150 151 a b c Corbett Warren Spring 2017 The Strike Against Jackie Robinson Truth or Myth Baseball Research Journal Vol 46 no 1 pp 88 93 ISSN 0734 6891 Retrieved January 20 2019 Kahn pp 259 267 Krell David 2015 Our Bums The Brooklyn Dodgers in History Memory and Popular Culture New York McFarland pp 93 94 ISBN 978 1 4766 1973 6 a b c Giglio pp 152 153 Kirwin p 199 Eig p 95 Bryant p 70 a b Wormser Richard 2002 Jackie Robinson integrates Baseball Public Broadcasting Service Retrieved September 14 2009 Williams and Sielski p 9 Burns Ken writer and director 1994 Baseball Part 6 Television production Public Broadcasting Service Event occurs at minute 120 Burns Ken writer and director 1994 Baseball Part 6 Television production Public Broadcasting Service Event occurs at minute 122 Astor Gerald 1988 The Baseball Hall of Fame 50th Anniversary Book Prentice Hall Press pp 221 222 ISBN 978 0 13 056573 0 a b c Newman Mark April 13 2007 1947 A time for change MLB com Archived from the original on April 7 2009 Retrieved May 5 2019 Barra Allen April 24 2007 Debunkers Strike Out The Village Voice Retrieved December 2 2020 Posnanski Joe April 27 2016 The Embrace NBC Sports Retrieved December 2 2020 Sandomir Richard June 1 2008 From Clay to Bronze to the Hall The New York Times Retrieved July 12 2009 a b Mathews Jack January 12 2000 Greenberg A Home Run New York Daily News Archived from the original on July 6 2010 Retrieved 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0 8262 1555 0 In addition to Robinson the 1949 All Star game featured Larry Doby Roy Campanella and Don Newcombe See Johnson Chuck July 13 1999 An All Star Game for all USA Today Archived from the original on July 18 2009 Retrieved October 7 2017 Paul Humphrey ed 2003 1995 America in the 20th Century 1940 1949 Vol 5 2nd ed Tarrytown New York Marshall Cavendish p 709 ISBN 978 0 7614 7369 5 Did You See Jackie Robinson Hit That Ball Library of Congress Archived from the original on October 9 2006 Retrieved April 16 2019 Duberman pp 361 362 Santella p 17 1634 1699 McCusker J J 1997 How Much Is That in Real Money A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States Addenda et Corrigenda PDF American Antiquarian Society 1700 1799 McCusker J J 1992 How Much Is That in Real Money A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States PDF American Antiquarian Society 1800 present Federal Reserve Bank of 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Sports and the American Dream p 154 The Legacy of Race Through Time New York Daily News April 13 1997 Archived from the original on April 8 2010 Retrieved October 28 2008 Falkner p 213 a b Tygiel 2002 p 34 Long pp 10 11 Jackie Robinson and baseball highlights 1860s 1960s Library of Congress September 26 2002 Archived from the original on August 10 2009 Retrieved September 13 2009 Robinson as a Dodger 1947 1956 Baseball the Color Line and Jackie Robinson Library of Congress Retrieved September 12 2009 Erskine and Rocks pp 61 74 Eig p 269 Shaikin Bill April 14 2020 It s Jackie Robinson Day on Wednesday Here s how you can watch him play Los Angeles Times Retrieved September 4 2020 Nemec amp Flatow p 198 Nogowski pp 43 44 49 a b Linge p 114 a b Bloom Barry M June 4 2007 Jackie Robinson Gone but not forgotten MLB com Archived from the original on March 2 2008 Retrieved May 5 2019 Klarman Michael J May 17 2004 Better Late Than Never The New York Times Retrieved September 16 2009 Robinson Rachel John Kerry March 2 2005 A pioneer in civil rights The Boston Globe Retrieved April 17 2020 Williams and Sielski pp 211 212 a b Kindred Dave July 1999 The No 1 Most Significant Development in the 20th Century The Sporting News Archived from the original on October 12 1999 Retrieved October 31 2008 The All Century Team MLB com 1999 Archived from the original on December 18 2009 Retrieved June 20 2022 Shiner David Jackie Robinson and the Third Age of Modern Baseball Jackie Robinson Race Sports and the American Dream pp 151 152 Simon Mark April 16 2004 Remembering Jackie Robinson ESPN Retrieved October 31 2008 Camps Mark April 7 1997 By The Numbers Robinson Was All Around Player San Francisco Chronicle Retrieved July 12 2009 Williams and Sielski p 97 Falkner p 171 a b James and Wirth pp 502 503 Singer Tom The pioneer MLB com Retrieved October 12 2008 1950 Standard Fielding Baseball Reference com Retrieved July 12 2009 1951 Standard Fielding Baseball Reference com Retrieved July 12 2009 Mallett and Chappell p 393 The Jackie Robinson Story Overview MSN com Archived from the original on April 6 2013 Retrieved November 19 2019 Homerun for Love A 1978 Overview TCM com Retrieved March 24 2013 Jackie is The First again Sports Illustrated November 30 1981 Retrieved May 5 2019 Rich Frank November 18 1981 STAGE First Baseball Musical The New York Times Retrieved March 24 2013 Smith Sid April 11 1993 Jackie Robinson and the Great American Pastime Chicago Tribune Retrieved March 24 2013 Bruckner D J R July 21 1989 Review Theater Play to Win a Musical About the Integration of Baseball The New York Times Retrieved January 6 2016 The Court Martial of Jackie Robinson Overview MSN com Archived from the original on April 12 2013 Retrieved November 19 2019 Hal Erickson 2014 The Court Martial of Jackie Robinson 1990 Movies amp TV Dept The New York Times Archived from the original on January 3 2014 Retrieved December 9 2019 Soul of the Game Overview MSN com Archived from the original on April 11 2013 Retrieved November 19 2019 James Caryn April 20 1996 TELEVISION REVIEW Across the Color Line With Satchel Paige The New York Times Retrieved March 24 2013 Cold Case Colors TV com Archived from the original on January 3 2014 Retrieved June 20 2022 Lumenick Lou April 11 2013 42 is an inspiring tribute to Jackie Robinson New York Post Retrieved September 19 2017 Lovecraft Country Sundown IMDb com Retrieved February 14 2021 Lloyd Robert April 11 2016 Review Ken Burns Jackie Robinson documentary is a lump in the throat trip that goes beyond baseball Los Angeles Times Retrieved April 17 2020 Patrick Dan November 7 2016 Just My Type Sports Illustrated p 27 Jackie Robinson Career Chronology BaseballLibrary com Archived from the original on January 8 2012 Retrieved May 4 2009 Rampersad pp 319 320 Rampersad p 320 Jan 1 1960 Greenville Airport Protest Zinn Education Project Retrieved June 19 2020 Jackie Robinson urged blacks to work toward complete freedom during 1959 Greenville visit The Greenville News July 12 2019 Retrieved May 24 2020 History museum exhibit explores Greenville s civil rights struggles successes The Greenville News January 17 2014 Retrieved June 19 2020 a b Robinson honored with new Hall of Fame plaque ESPN June 25 2008 Retrieved October 31 2008 Smith Curt 2005 The New Kids in Town Cable s Rise 1980 89 Voices of Summer Ranking Baseball s 101 All Time Best Announcers New York Carroll amp Graf p 316 ISBN 978 0 7867 1446 9 A Roundup of the Sports Information of the Week Sports Illustrated May 9 1966 Archived from the original on January 12 2012 Retrieved May 5 2019 Hired Jackie Robinson 47 former Brooklyn Dodger baseball star as general manager of the new Brooklyn Dodger professional football team of the Continental League People Sports Illustrated May 16 1966 Archived from the original on January 12 2012 Retrieved May 5 2019 Snyder Brodie June 3 1972 Expos on English TV The picture clears up Montreal Gazette Dodgers Retired Numbers MLB com 2008 Retrieved November 24 2008 a b c d e f g Robinson s later career 1957 1972 Baseball the Color Line and Jackie Robinson Library of Congress Archived from the original on September 3 2009 Retrieved November 22 2015 Long p 174 Robinson Rachel p 190 Falkner p 340 Robinson p 139 Long p 43 Long pp 255 257 Long pp 171 172 Burns Sarah 2017 Seeking a More Authentic Jackie Robinson In Simons William M ed The Cooperstown Symposium on Baseball and American Culture 2015 2016 Jefferson North Carolina McFarland ISBN 978 1 4766 2886 8 Unpaginated version consulted online via Google Books Greenberg Cheryl Lynn 2010 Troubling the Waters Black Jewish Relations in the American Century Princeton University Press p 235 ISBN 978 0 691 14616 4 Robinson Is Appointed To Athletic Commission The New York Times May 6 1971 The Torch of Friendship Florida Memory State Archives of Florida Retrieved June 8 2016 Schmidt Michael S Keh Andrew August 11 2010 Baseball s Praised Diversity Is Stranded at First Base The New York Times Retrieved August 12 2010 Remembering Jackie National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum Retrieved April 1 2022 Helyar John April 9 2007 Robinson would have mixed view of today s game ESPN Retrieved October 7 2008 Linge p 148 Stone Larry August 28 2005 The changing face of baseball African American players on the decline The Seattle Times Retrieved May 6 2017 Less than 9 Percent of Players Black ESPN April 21 2011 Retrieved April 21 2011 Lee Cynthia May 5 2009 Rachel Robinson to receive UCLA s highest honor UCLA Today Archived from the original on May 13 2009 Retrieved May 27 2009 Robinson Rachel p 192 Featured bio Jackie Robinson Biography Channel Retrieved September 27 2009 Robinson Rachel p 194 Robinson Rachel p 200 Robinson Rachel p 201 a b Anderson Dave October 25 1972 Jackie Robinson First Black in Major Leagues Dies The New York Times Archived from the original on October 15 2009 Retrieved June 11 2022 Robinson Rachel p 202 Rampersad pp 438 443 a b c Linge p 149 Cady Steve October 28 1972 Jackie Goes Home to Brooklyn The New York Times p 25 Russell remembers Robinson Boston com April 12 2007 Retrieved August 29 2022 Copquin Claudia Gryvatz Kenneth T Jackson 2007 The neighborhoods of Queens Yale University Press p 76 ISBN 978 0 300 11299 3 Board of Directors Jackie Robinson Foundation Retrieved May 29 2021 Baseball remembers Jackie Robinson The New York Times April 16 2008 Retrieved September 27 2009 The books are Robinson Sharon 2001 and Robinson Sharon 2004 See Henneman Heidi Baseball legend s daughter pitches father s fundamental ideals to kids BookPage com Archived from the original on May 9 2008 Retrieved May 27 2009 Lambert Pam May 5 2003 Field of Dreams People Magazine Archived from the original on February 4 2009 Retrieved March 7 2022 Duke Lynne July 4 2005 Mr Coffee How a Baseball Scion Put Down Roots in Africa and Grew a Very Rich Blend The Washington Post Retrieved June 16 2010 David Robinson Jackie Robinson Foundation Jackie Robinson Foundation Retrieved December 29 2020 Gruber Robert It Happened in Brooklyn Reminiscences of a Fan Jackie Robinson Race Sports and the American Dream p 47 Time 100 Jackie Robinson Time June 14 1999 Archived from the original on May 27 2000 Retrieved July 21 2021 Baseball s 100 Greatest Players Baseball Almanac Archived from the original on June 29 2007 Retrieved September 23 2010 All Century Team final voting ESPN Retrieved March 5 2009 James Bill 2003 The Players The New Bill James Historical Baseball Abstract New York Free Press p 361 ISBN 978 0 7432 2722 3 Asante Molefi Kete 2002 Jackie Robinson 100 Greatest African Americans A Biographical Encyclopedia Amherst New York Prometheus pp 264 267 ISBN 978 1 57392 963 9 African American Subjects on United States Postage Stamps PDF United States Postal Service 2011 Archived from the original PDF on December 7 2012 Retrieved March 5 2013 Images 1982 Archived February 13 2010 at the Wayback Machine 1999 Archived May 20 2009 at the Wayback Machine 2000 Archived February 13 2010 at the Wayback Machine Arroyo Seco PasadenaHeritage org Archived from the original on July 27 2011 Retrieved September 12 2009 Jackie Robinson Center City of Pasadena Archived from the original on March 30 2013 Retrieved May 12 2019 Bronze Busts Unveiled in Tribute to Robinson Brothers Los Angeles Times November 7 1997 Retrieved April 17 2020 Lehr Dick May 20 1997 Jackie s still larger than life Newton sculptor creates 9 foot tribute Boston Globe Wulf Steve ed July 27 1987 Scorecard Nicely Done Sports Illustrated Archived from the original on May 1 2010 Retrieved May 12 2019 Bloss Bob 2005 Rookies of the Year Temple University Press pp 6 7 ISBN 978 1 59213 164 8 Smith Claire April 16 1997 A Grand Tribute to Robinson and His Moment The New York Times Archived from the original on December 1 2007 Retrieved October 11 2008 Bloom Barry M April 13 2009 MLB ready to celebrate Jackie Robinson Day MLB com Archived from the original on April 16 2009 Retrieved May 12 2019 Rivera Mariano March 9 2013 The final 42 Rivera pays tribute to Jackie Robinson USA Today Retrieved June 10 2013 League retires Gretzky s No 99 USA Today Associated Press February 6 2000 Archived from the original on February 11 2011 Retrieved October 7 2017 Lopez Andrew August 11 2022 Bill Russell s No 6 to be retired across NBA following legend s death last month ESPN com Retrieved September 9 2022 Sharon Robinson honor Clemente some other way ESPN Associated Press January 24 2006 Retrieved August 17 2009 The daughter of Jackie Robinson thinks Major League Baseball should not retire Roberto Clemente s No 21 the New York Daily News reported Tuesday a b c Pennington Bill April 13 2007 A measure of respect for Jackie Robinson turns into a movement The New York Times Retrieved September 13 2009 Caldwell Dave April 16 2004 Baseball Special Day Honors Jackie Robinson The New York Times Retrieved April 12 2017 Stone Larry April 15 2009 Ken Griffey Jr on Jackie Robinson and the decline of African Americans in baseball Seattle Times Archived from the original on April 17 2009 Retrieved May 27 2009 Griffey Jr others to wear No 42 as part of Jackie Robinson Day tribute MLB com April 4 2007 Archived from the original on April 7 2007 Retrieved May 12 2019 Bloom Barry M April 16 2008 Robinson s legacy celebrated at Shea MLB com Archived from the original on May 21 2008 Retrieved May 12 2019 Baseball remembers Jackie Robinson International Herald Tribune April 16 2008 Retrieved September 13 2009 MLB players to wear 42 Monday to honor Jackie Robinson Day WFTX TV April 15 2019 Retrieved September 28 2019 Jackie Robinson Rotunda dedicated at Citi Field Associated Press April 16 2009 Retrieved May 27 2009 Colford Paul D November 14 2006 Mets Honor Robinson at New Home New York Daily News Retrieved February 9 2013 O Connell Jack March 4 2008 Plans unveiled for Robinson Museum MLB com Archived from the original on March 6 2009 Retrieved May 12 2019 Fordin Spencer April 13 2011 Museum in NY to tell Jackie s story MLB com Archived from the original on April 15 2011 Retrieved May 12 2019 Jackie Robinson Museum opens in Manhattan ESPN July 26 2022 Retrieved October 11 2022 Los Angeles Dodgers Foundation extends partnership with The Jackie Robinson Foundation through 800 000 grant for college scholarships Press release Major League Baseball February 27 2020 Retrieved May 10 2020 Padilla Doug April 16 2017 Jackie Robinson statue unveiled at Dodger Stadium ESPN Retrieved June 13 2017 Giorgi Hilary December 15 2017 Yankees Magazine A Place for Heroes Yankees Magazine Retrieved May 30 2019 The 2010 Aflac National High School Player of The Year Nominees Announced Satellite Television August 9 2010 Archived from the original on January 9 2012 Retrieved November 10 2011 Named in honor of the late Hall of Famer and first man to break Major League Baseball s color barrier the Jackie Robinson Award recognizes the nation s top high school player entering his senior year that demonstrates outstanding character exhibits leadership and embodies the values of being a student athlete in both his schoolwork and community affairs See also Baseball awards U S high school baseball Recipients of the Presidential Medal of Freedom 1981 1989 Ronald Reagan Presidential Library Retrieved May 12 2019 Jackie Robinson receives Congressional Gold Medal USA Today March 2 2005 Retrieved September 13 2009 Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and First Lady Maria Shriver Announce the California Hall of Fame 2007 Inductees PR Newswire August 20 2007 Archived from the original on June 24 2013 Retrieved May 12 2019 Steele Field at Jackie Robinson Stadium UCLA Athletics Archived from the original on July 25 2011 Retrieved September 13 2009 UCLA history project Robinson statue UCLA edu Archived from the original on June 23 2013 Retrieved June 20 2022 Jack Roosevelt Jackie Robinson Daytona Beach Florida waymarking com Retrieved April 12 2013 Jackie Robinson Ballpark City of Daytona Beach Retrieved April 12 2013 Robinson Stadium www pasadena edu Pasadena City College Foundation Archived from the original on July 20 2011 Retrieved January 17 2011 Anderson Dave April 1 1997 Robinson stood up for what he believed The New York Times Retrieved September 12 2009 Reinhold Robert November 3 1991 Fearing gang violence school forfeits a game The New York Times Retrieved September 12 2009 Lee Jane July 26 2007 Historic sports sites rarely take landmark status USA Today Retrieved October 7 2008 Residents Want To Turn Jackie Robinson s Brooklyn Home into City Landmark NY1 April 11 2013 Archived from the original on May 17 2013 Retrieved April 12 2013 Pantorno Joe June 25 2020 NYC Parks unveils renovated Jackie Robinson Park in Harlem amNewYork Retrieved January 11 2021 Hanson Kimberly February 11 2010 A Closer Look at New York City s Historic Harlem Parks Part II The Daily Plant New York City Department of Parks amp Recreation 25 5130 Retrieved January 11 2021 4319 Jackierobinson 1981 ER14 Jet Propulsion Laboratory May 11 2009 Retrieved September 26 2009 The Jackie Robinson Commemorative Coin Set United States Mint Archived from the original on May 28 2010 Retrieved February 18 2023 Mayor Giuliani Unveils the New Jackie Robinson Parkway Sign Press release Office of the Mayor of New York City April 14 1997 Retrieved October 23 2019 Brennan John 2007 Jersey City Journal Square plaque at base of Jackie Robinson statue RUcore Rutgers University Community Repository Rutgers University doi 10 7282 T3CZ37M8 Retrieved October 23 2019 Banerjee Sidhartha February 28 2011 Jackie Robinson s old Montreal apartment to be commemorated by U S government CTV The Canadian Press Retrieved July 14 2021 Phillips Randy February 28 2011 Baseball great s home away from hate The Montreal Gazette Archived from the original on March 3 2011 Retrieved March 1 2011 a b UCLA Honors Jackie Robinson by Retiring 42 Across All Sports Press release UCLA Athletics November 22 2014 Retrieved November 23 2014 2011 12 UCLA Men s Basketball Media Guide PDF UCLA Athletic Department 2011 pp 116 118 Archived from the original PDF on September 7 2012 Retrieved July 4 2019 Smith Shelley November 18 2011 Walt Hazzard lived for others ESPNLosAngeles com Archived from the original on April 3 2015 Retrieved July 4 2019 Painter Jill March 28 2006 UCLA Basketball Notebook Wooden Won t Make Trip To Indianapolis Daily News Los Angeles Archived from the original on April 2 2015 Retrieved February 15 2019 subscription required Hoffarth Tom October 14 2007 The Numbers Game From 00 To 99 Which Player Would You Choose for the All Time Southern California Roster No 32 Is Likely To Be Hottest Debate Daily News Los Angeles Archived from the original on April 2 2015 Retrieved February 15 2019 subscription required Rare Jackie Robinson jersey sold for 2 05 million The Spokesman Review Associated Press November 20 2017 Retrieved December 9 2017 Bibliography Abdul Jabbar Kareem Walton Anthony 2004 Brothers in Arms The Epic Story of the 761st Tank Battalion WWII s Forgotten Heroes Broadway Books ISBN 978 0 385 50338 9 Bigelow Barbara Carlisle ed 1994 Contemporary Black Biography Profiles from the International Black Community Vol 6 Detroit Gale Research ISBN 978 0 8103 8558 0 Bogle Donald 2001 Black Odds and Ends Toms Coons Mulattoes Mammies amp Bucks An Interpretive History of Blacks in American Films 4th ed New York Continuum ISBN 978 0 8264 1267 6 Bryant Howard 2002 Shut Out A Story of Race and Baseball in Boston New York Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 92779 6 2002 CASEY Award winner Dorinson Joseph Warmund Joram eds 1999 Jackie Robinson Race Sports and the American Dream Armonk New York M E Sharpe ISBN 978 0 7656 0317 3 Duberman Martin 1989 The Right to Travel Paul Robeson New York Knopf ISBN 978 0 394 52780 2 Editors of Time for Kids with Patrick Denise Lewis 2005 Jackie Robinson Strong Inside and Out New York HarperCollins ISBN 978 0 06 057601 1 Eig Jonathan 2007 Opening Day The Story of Jackie Robinson s First Season New York Simon amp Schuster ISBN 978 0 7432 9460 7 2007 CASEY Award nominee Erskine Carl with Burton Rocks 2005 Wait Till Next Year What I Learned from Jackie Robinson A Teammate s Reflections On and Off the Field New York McGraw Hill ISBN 978 0 07 145085 0 Falkner David 1995 Great Time Coming The Life of Jackie Robinson from Baseball to Birmingham New York Simon amp Schuster ISBN 978 0 671 79336 4 Giglio James N 2001 Musial From Stash to Stan the Man Columbia Mo University of Missouri Press ISBN 978 0 8262 6313 1 Gutman Dan 1999 Jackie amp Me A Baseball Card Adventure New York Avon ISBN 978 0 380 80084 1 James Bill Mary A Wirth 1988 Bill James Historical Baseball Abstract New York Random House ISBN 978 0 394 75805 3 Kahn Roger 2014 Rickey amp Robinson The True Untold Story of the Integration of Baseball New York Rodale Press ISBN 978 1 62336 297 3 Kirsch George B Othello Harris and Claire Elaine Nolte eds 2000 The Right to Travel Encyclopedia of Ethnicity and Sports in the United States Westport Connecticut Greenwood ISBN 978 0 313 29911 7 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint uses authors parameter link Kirwin Bill 2005 Out of the Shadows African American Baseball from the Cuban Giants to Jackie Robinson Lincoln University of Nebraska Press ISBN 978 0 8032 7825 7 Lamb Chris 2006 Blackout The Untold Story of Jackie Robinson s First Spring Training Lincoln University of Nebraska Press ISBN 978 0 8032 8047 2 Linge Mary Kay 2007 Jackie Robinson A Biography Westport Connecticut Greenwood Press ISBN 978 0 313 33828 1 Loewen James W 1995 Lies My Teacher Told Me Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong New York Simon amp Schuster ISBN 978 1 56584 100 0 Long Michael G ed 2007 First Class Citizenship the Civil Rights Letters of Jackie Robinson New York Henry Holt ISBN 978 0 8050 8710 9 Mallett Ashley Ian Chappell 2007 Heroes have heroes too Chappelli Speaks Out Crow s Nest New South Wales Allen amp Unwin p 235 ISBN 978 1 74175 036 2 quoting Kahn Roger 2000 1972 The Lion at Dusk The Boys of Summer 1st Perennial Classics ed New York Perennial ISBN 978 0 06 095634 9 McNeil William F 2000 The Dodgers Encyclopedia Sports Publishing ISBN 978 1 58261 316 1 Nemec David Flatow Scott 2008 Great Baseball Feats Facts amp Firsts expanded amp updated ed New York Signet ISBN 978 0 451 22363 0 Nogowski John 2005 Last Time Out Big League Farewells of Baseball s Greats Lanham Maryland Taylor Trade ISBN 978 1 58979 080 3 Rampersad Arnold 1997 Jackie Robinson A Biography New York Alfred A Knopf ISBN 978 0 679 44495 4 1997 CASEY Award nominee Robertson John G Saunders Andy 2016 The Games That Changed Baseball Milestones in Major League History Jefferson North Carolina McFarland ISBN 978 1 4766 6226 8 Robinson Jackie as told to Duckett Alfred 1995 1972 I Never Had It Made New York HarperCollins ISBN 978 0 06 055597 9 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Robinson Rachel with Daniels Lee 1996 Jackie Robinson An Intimate Portrait New York Harry N Abrams ISBN 978 0 8109 3792 5 1996 CASEY Award nominee Robinson Sharon 2001 Jackie s Nine Jackie Robinson s Values to Live By New York Scholastic ISBN 978 0 439 23764 2 Robinson Sharon 2004 Promises To Keep How Jackie Robinson Changed America New York Scholastic ISBN 978 0 439 42592 6 Santella Andrew 1996 Jackie Robinson Breaks the Color Line Children s Press ISBN 978 0 516 06637 0 Simon Scott 2002 Jackie Robinson and the Integration of Baseball Hoboken Wiley ISBN 978 0 471 26153 7 Stout Glenn Richard A Johnson phot ed 2004 The Dodgers 120 Years of Dodgers Baseball Boston Houghton Mifflin Harcourt ISBN 978 0 618 21355 9 Tygiel Jules 1983 Baseball s Great Experiment Jackie Robinson and His Legacy New York Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 503300 7 1983 CASEY Award nominee Tygiel Jules 2002 Extra Bases Reflections on Jackie Robinson Race and Baseball History University of Nebraska Press ISBN 978 0 8032 9447 9 Williams Pat with Sielski Mike 2005 How to Be Like Jackie Robinson Life Lessons from Baseball s Greatest Hero Deerfield Beach Florida HCI ISBN 978 0 7573 0173 5 Further readingRobinson Jackie Jules Tygiel eds 1997 The Jackie Robinson Reader Perspectives on an American Hero Dutton Penguin ISBN 978 0 525 94096 8 External links Wikiquote has quotations related to Jackie Robinson Wikimedia Commons has media related to Jackie Robinson Official website Jackie Robinson at the Baseball Hall of Fame Career statistics and player information from MLB or ESPN or Baseball Reference or Fangraphs or Baseball Reference Minors or Retrosheet or Seamheads Jackie Robinson at IMDb His life is retold in the radio drama The Rhyme of the Ancient Dodger a presentation from Destination Freedom Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Jackie Robinson amp oldid 1144485807, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, 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