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Wikipedia

Islamophobia

April 23, 2023

This article is about fear, hatred of, or prejudice towards Muslims or Islam. For religious persecution of Muslims, see Persecution of Muslims. For the criticism of Islam, see Criticism of Islam.
Not to be confused with Anti–Middle Eastern sentiment.

Islamophobia is the fear of, hatred of, or prejudice against the religion of Islam or Muslims in general,[1][2][3] especially when seen as a geopolitical force or a source of terrorism.[4][5][6]

The scope and precise definition of the term Islamophobia, is the subject of debate. Some scholars consider it to be a form of xenophobia or racism, some consider Islamophobia and racism to be closely related or partially overlapping phenomena, while others dispute any relationship; primarily on the grounds that religion is not a race.

The causes of Islamophobia are also the subject of debate, most notably between commentators who have posited an increase in Islamophobia resulting from the September 11 attacks,[7] the rise of the militant group Islamic State, other terror attacks in Europe and the United States by Islamic extremists,[8] those who associated it with the increased presence of Muslims in the United States and in the European Union, and others who view it as a response to the emergence of a global Muslim identity.

On 15 March 2022, the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution by consensus which was introduced by Pakistan on behalf of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation that proclaimed March 15 as 'International Day to Combat Islamophobia'.[9]

Terms

There are a number of other possible terms which are also used in order to refer to negative feelings and attitudes towards Islam and Muslims, such as anti-Muslimism, intolerance against Muslims, anti-Muslim prejudice, anti-Muslim bigotry, hatred of Muslims, anti-Islamism, Muslimophobia, demonisation of Islam, or demonisation of Muslims. In German, Islamophobie (fear) and Islamfeindlichkeit (hostility) are used. The Scandinavian term Muslimhat literally means "hatred of Muslims".[10]

When discrimination towards Muslims has placed an emphasis on their religious affiliation and adherence, it has been termed Muslimphobia, the alternative form of Muslimophobia,[11] Islamophobism,[12] antimuslimness and antimuslimism.[13][14][15] Individuals who discriminate against Muslims in general have been termed Islamophobes, Islamophobists,[16] anti-Muslimists,[17] antimuslimists,[18] islamophobiacs,[19] anti-Muhammadan,[20] Muslimphobes or its alternative spelling of Muslimophobes,[21] while individuals motivated by a specific anti-Muslim agenda or bigotry have been described as being anti-mosque,[22] anti-Shiites[23] (or Shiaphobes[24]), anti-Sufism[25] (or Sufi-phobia)[26] and anti-Sunni (or Sunniphobes).[27]

Etymology and definitions

The word Islamophobia is a neologism[28] formed from Islam and -phobia, a Greek suffix used in English to form "nouns with the sense 'fear of – – ', 'aversion to – – '."[29]

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word means "Intense dislike or fear of Islam, esp. as a political force; hostility or prejudice towards Muslims". It is attested in English as early as 1923[30] to quote the French word islamophobie, found in a thesis published by Alain Quellien in 1910 to describe a "a prejudice against Islam that is widespread among the peoples of Western and Christian civilization".[31] The expression did not immediately turn into the vocabulary of the English-speaking world though, which preferred the expression "feelings inimical to Islam", until its re-appearance in an article by Georges Chahati Anawati in 1976.[32] The term did not exist in the Muslim world,[a] and was later translated in the 1990s as ruhāb al-islām (رُهاب الإسلام) in Arabic, literally "phobia of Islam".[31]

The University of California at Berkeley's Islamophobia Research & Documentation Project suggested this working definition: "Islamophobia is a contrived fear or prejudice fomented by the existing Eurocentric and Orientalist global power structure. It is directed at a perceived or real Muslim threat through the maintenance and extension of existing disparities in economic, political, social and cultural relations, while rationalizing the necessity to deploy violence as a tool to achieve 'civilizational rehab' of the target communities (Muslim or otherwise). Islamophobia reintroduces and reaffirms a global racial structure through which resource distribution disparities are maintained and extended."[33]

Debate on the term and its limitations

In 1996, the Runnymede Trust established the Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia (CBMI), chaired by Gordon Conway, the vice-chancellor of the University of Sussex. The Commission's report, Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All, was published in November 1997 by the Home Secretary, Jack Straw. In the Runnymede report, Islamophobia was defined as "an outlook or world-view involving an unfounded dread and dislike of Muslims, which results in practices of exclusion and discrimination."[34] The introduction of the term was justified by the report's assessment that "anti-Muslim prejudice has grown so considerably and so rapidly in recent years that a new item in the vocabulary is needed".[35]

In 2008, a workshop on 'Thinking Thru Islamophobia' was held at the University of Leeds, organized by the Centre for Ethnicity and Racism Studies, the participants included S. Sayyid, Abdoolkarim Vakil, Liz Fekete, and Gabrielle Maranci among others. The symposium proposed a definition of Islamophobia which rejected the idea of Islamophobia as being the product of closed and open views of Islam and focused on Islamophobia as performative which problematized Muslim agency and identity. The symposium was an early attempt to bring insights from critical race theory, postcolonial and decolonial thought to bear on the question of Islamophobia.[36]

At a 2009 symposium on "Islamophobia and Religious Discrimination", Robin Richardson, a former director of the Runnymede Trust[37][failed verification] and the editor of Islamophobia: a challenge for us all,[38] said that "the disadvantages of the term Islamophobia are significant" on seven different grounds, including that it implies it is merely a "severe mental illness" affecting "only a tiny minority of people"; that use of the term makes those to whom it is applied "defensive and defiant" and absolves the user of "the responsibility of trying to understand them" or trying to change their views; that it implies that hostility to Muslims is divorced from factors such as skin color, immigrant status, fear of fundamentalism, or political or economic conflicts; that it conflates prejudice against Muslims in one's own country with dislike of Muslims in countries with which the West is in conflict; that it fails to distinguish between people who are against all religion from people who dislike Islam specifically; and that the actual issue being described is hostility to Muslims, "an ethno-religious identity within European countries", rather than hostility to Islam. Nonetheless, he argued that the term is here to stay, and that it is important to define it precisely.[39]

The exact definition of Islamophobia continues to be discussed with academics such as Chris Allen saying that it lacks a clear definition.[40][41][42] According to Erik Bleich, in his article "Defining and Researching Islamophobia", even when definitions are more specific, there is still significant variation in the precise formulations of Islamophobia. As with parallel concepts like homophobia or xenophobia, Islamophobia connotes a broader set of negative attitudes or emotions directed at individuals of groups because of perceived membership in a defined category.[43] Mattias Gardell defines Islamophobia as "socially reproduced prejudices and aversion to Islam and Muslims, as well as actions and practices that attack, exclude or discriminate against persons on the basis that they are or perceived to be Muslim and be associated with Islam".[44]

 
Speaker at demonstration of initiative We don't want Islam in the Czech Republic on 14 March 2015 in České Budějovice, Czech Republic

Fear

As opposed to being a psychological or individualistic phobia, according to professors of religion Peter Gottschalk and Gabriel Greenberg, "Islamophobia" connotes a social anxiety about Islam and Muslims.[45][46] Some social scientists have adopted this definition and developed instruments to measure Islamophobia in form of fearful attitudes towards, and avoidance of, Muslims and Islam,[47][48] arguing that Islamophobia should "essentially be understood as an affective part of social stigma towards Islam and Muslims, namely fear".[48]: 2 

Racism

See also: Cultural racism

Several scholars consider Islamophobia to be a form of xenophobia or racism. A 2007 article in Journal of Sociology defines Islamophobia as anti-Muslim racism and a continuation of anti-Asian, anti-Turkic and anti-Arab racism.[49][50][51][52] In their books Deepa Kumar and Junaid Rana have argued that formation of Islamophobic discourses has paralleled the development of other forms of racial bigotry.[53] Similarly, John Denham has drawn parallels between modern Islamophobia and the antisemitism of the 1930s,[54] so have Maud Olofsson,[55] and Jan Hjärpe, among others.[56][57]

Others have questioned the relationship between Islamophobia and racism. Jocelyne Cesari writes that "academics are still debating the legitimacy of the term and questioning how it differs from other terms such as racism, anti-Islamism, anti-Muslimness, and anti-Semitism."[58][59] Erdenir finds that "there is no consensus on the scope and content of the term and its relationship with concepts such as racism ..."[60] and Shryock, reviewing the use of the term across national boundaries, comes to the same conclusion.[61]

Some scholars view Islamophobia and racism as partially overlapping phenomena. Diane Frost defines Islamophobia as anti-Muslim feeling and violence based on "race" or religion.[62] Islamophobia may also target people who have Muslim names, or have a look that is associated with Muslims.[63] According to Alan Johnson, Islamophobia sometimes can be nothing more than xenophobia or racism "wrapped in religious terms".[64] Sociologists Yasmin Hussain and Paul Bagguley stated that racism and Islamophobia are "analytically distinct", but "empirically inter-related".[65]

The European Commission against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI) defines Islamophobia as "the fear of or prejudiced viewpoint towards Islam, Muslims and matters pertaining to them", adding that whether "it takes the shape of daily forms of racism and discrimination or more violent forms, Islamophobia is a violation of human rights and a threat to social cohesion".[44]

Proposed alternatives

The concept of Islamophobia as formulated by Runnymede was also criticized by professor Fred Halliday. He writes that the target of hostility in the modern era is not Islam and its tenets as much as it is Muslims, suggesting that a more accurate term would be "Anti-Muslimism". He also states that strains and types of prejudice against Islam and Muslims vary across different nations and cultures, which is not recognized in the Runnymede analysis, which was specifically about Muslims in Britain.[66] Poole responds that many Islamophobic discourses attack what they perceive to be Islam's tenets, while Miles and Brown write that Islamophobia is usually based upon negative stereotypes about Islam which are then translated into attacks on Muslims. They also argue that "the existence of different 'Islamophobias' does not invalidate the concept of Islamophobia any more than the existence of different racisms invalidates the concept of racism."[4][67][68]

In a 2011 paper in American Behavioral Scientist, Erik Bleich stated "there is no widely accepted definition of Islamophobia that permits systematic comparative and causal analysis", and advances "indiscriminate negative attitudes or emotions directed at Islam or Muslims" as a possible solution to this issue.[69]

In order to differentiate between prejudiced views of Islam and secularly motivated criticism of Islam, Roland Imhoff and Julia Recker formulated the concept "Islamoprejudice", which they subsequently operationalised in an experiment. The experiment showed that their definition provided a tool for accurate differentiation.[70] Nevertheless, other researchers' experimental work indicates that, even when Westerners seem to make an effort to distinguish between criticizing (Muslim) ideas and values and respecting Muslims as persons, they still show prejudice and discrimination of Muslims—compared to non-Muslims—when these targets defend supposedly antiliberal causes.[71]

Origins and causes

History of the term

One early use cited as the term's first use is by the painter Alphonse Étienne Dinet and Algerian intellectual Sliman ben Ibrahim in their 1918 biography of Islam's prophet Muhammad.[72][73] Writing in French, they used the term islamophobie. Robin Richardson writes that in the English version of the book the word was not translated as "Islamophobia" but rather as "feelings inimical to Islam". Dahou Ezzerhouni has cited several other uses in French as early as 1910, and from 1912 to 1918.[74] These early uses of the term did not, according to Christopher Allen, have the same meaning as in contemporary usage, as they described a fear of Islam by liberal Muslims and Muslim feminists, rather than a fear or dislike/hatred of Muslims by non-Muslims.[73][75] On the other hand, Fernando Bravo López argues that Dinet and ibn Sliman's use of the term was as a criticism of overly hostile attitudes to Islam by a Belgian orientalist, Henri Lammens, whose project they saw as a "'pseudo-scientific crusade in the hope of bringing Islam down once and for all.'" He also notes that an early definition of Islamophobia appears in the 1910 Ph.D. thesis of Alain Quellien, a French colonial bureaucrat:

For some, the Muslim is the natural and irreconcilable enemy of the Christian and the European; Islam is the negation of civilization, and barbarism, bad faith and cruelty are the best one can expect from the Mohammedans.

Furthermore, he notes that Quellien's work draws heavily on the work of the French colonial department's 1902–06 administrator, who published a work in 1906, which to a great extent mirrors John Esposito's The Islamic Threat: Myth or Reality?.[76]

The first recorded use of the term in English, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, was in 1923 in an article in The Journal of Theological Studies.[30] The term entered into common usage with the publication of the Runnymede Trust's report in 1997.[77] "Kofi Annan asserted at a 2004 conference entitled "Confronting Islamophobia" that the word Islamophobia had to be coined in order to "take account of increasingly widespread bigotry".[78]

Contrasting views on Islam

The Runnymede report contrasted "open" and "closed" views of Islam, and stated that the following "closed" views are equated with Islamophobia:[79]

  1. Islam is seen as a monolithic bloc, static and unresponsive to change.
  2. It is seen as separate and "other". It does not have values in common with other cultures, is not affected by them and does not influence them.
  3. It is seen as inferior to the West. It is seen as barbaric, irrational, primitive, and sexist.
  4. It is seen as violent, aggressive, threatening, supportive of terrorism, and engaged in a clash of civilizations.
  5. It is seen as a political ideology, used for political or military advantage.
  6. Criticisms made of "the West" by Muslims are rejected out of hand.
  7. Hostility towards Islam is used to justify discriminatory practices towards Muslims and exclusion of Muslims from mainstream society.
  8. Anti-Muslim hostility is seen as natural and normal.

These "closed" views are contrasted, in the report, with "open" views on Islam which, while founded on respect for Islam, permit legitimate disagreement, dialogue and critique.[80] According to Benn and Jawad, The Runnymede Trust notes that anti-Muslim discourse is increasingly seen as respectable, providing examples on how hostility towards Islam and Muslims is accepted as normal, even among those who may actively challenge other prevalent forms of discrimination.[81]

Identity politics

It has been suggested that Islamophobia is closely related to identity politics, and gives its adherents the perceived benefit of constructing their identity in opposition to a negative, essentialized image of Muslims. This occurs in the form of self-righteousness, assignment of blame and key identity markers.[82] Davina Bhandar writes that:[83]

[...] the term 'cultural' has become synonymous with the category of the ethnic or minority [...]. It views culture as an entity that is highly abstracted from the practices of daily life and therefore represents the illusion that there exists a spirit of the people. This formulation leads to the homogenisation of cultural identity and the ascription of particular values and proclivities onto minority cultural groups.

She views this as an ontological trap that hinders the perception of culture as something "materially situated in the living practices of the everyday, situated in time-space and not based in abstract projections of what constitutes either a particular tradition or culture."

In some societies, Islamophobia has materialized due to the portrayal of Islam and Muslims as the national "Other", where exclusion and discrimination occurs on the basis of their religion and civilization which differs with national tradition and identity. Examples include Pakistani and Algerian migrants in Britain and France respectively.[84][85] This sentiment, according to Malcolm Brown and Robert Miles, significantly interacts with racism, although Islamophobia itself is not racism.[85][86] Author Doug Saunders has drawn parallels between Islamophobia in the United States and its older discrimination and hate against Roman Catholics, saying that Catholicism was seen as backwards and imperial, while Catholic immigrants had poorer education and some were responsible for crime and terrorism.[87][88][89]

Brown and Miles write that another feature of Islamophobic discourse is to amalgamate nationality (e.g. Saudi), religion (Islam), and politics (terrorism, fundamentalism) – while most other religions are not associated with terrorism, or even "ethnic or national distinctiveness".[85] They feel that "many of the stereotypes and misinformation that contribute to the articulation of Islamophobia are rooted in a particular perception of Islam", such as the notion that Islam promotes terrorism – especially prevalent after the September 11, 2001 attacks.[4]

The two-way stereotyping resulting from Islamophobia has in some instances resulted in mainstreaming of earlier controversial discourses, such as liberal attitudes towards gender equality[82][83] and homosexuals.[90] Christina Ho has warned against framing of such mainstreaming of gender equality in a colonial, paternal discourse, arguing that this may undermine minority women's ability to speak out about their concerns.[91]

Steven Salaita contends that, since 9/11, Arab Americans have evolved from what Nadine Naber described as an invisible group in the United States into a highly visible community that directly or indirectly has an effect on the United States' culture wars, foreign policy, presidential elections and legislative tradition.[92]

The academics S. Sayyid and Abdoolkarim Vakil maintain that Islamophobia is a response to the emergence of a distinct Muslim public identity globally, the presence of Muslims in itself not being an indicator of the degree of Islamophobia in a society. Sayyid and Vakil maintain that there are societies where virtually no Muslims live but many institutionalized forms of Islamophobia still exist in them.[36]

Links to ideologies

 
The 2014 anti-Muslim riots in Sri Lanka followed rallies by Bodu Bala Sena (BBS), a hard-line Buddhist group.
 
An anti-Islam protest in the United States

Cora Alexa Døving, a senior scientist at the Norwegian Center for Studies of the Holocaust and Religious Minorities, argues that there are significant similarities between Islamophobic discourse and European pre-Nazi antisemitism.[82] Among the concerns are imagined threats of minority growth and domination, threats to traditional institutions and customs, skepticism of integration, threats to secularism, fears of sexual crimes, fears of misogyny, fears based on historical cultural inferiority, hostility to modern Western Enlightenment values, etc.

Matti Bunzl [de] has argued that there are important differences between Islamophobia and antisemitism. While antisemitism was a phenomenon closely connected to European nation-building processes, he sees Islamophobia as having the concern of European civilization as its focal point.[93] Døving, on the other hand, maintains that, at least in Norway, the Islamophobic discourse has a clear national element.[82] In a reply to Bunzl, French scholar of Jewish history, Esther Benbassa, agrees with him in that he draws a clear connection between modern hostile and essentializing sentiments towards Muslims and historical antisemitism. However, she argues against the use of the term Islamophobia, since, in her opinion, it attracts unwarranted attention to an underlying racist current.[94]

The head of the Media Responsibility Institute in Erlangen, Sabine Schiffer, and researcher Constantin Wagner, who also define Islamophobia as anti-Muslim racism, outline additional similarities and differences between Islamophobia and antisemitism.[95] They point out the existence of equivalent notions such as "Judaisation/Islamisation", and metaphors such as "a state within a state" are used in relation to both Jews and Muslims. In addition, both discourses make use of, among other rhetorical instruments, "religious imperatives" supposedly "proven" by religious sources, and conspiracy theories.

The differences between Islamophobia and antisemitism consist of the nature of the perceived threats to the "Christian West". Muslims are perceived as "inferior" and as a visible "external threat", while on the other hand, Jews are perceived as "omnipotent" and as an invisible "internal threat". However, Schiffer and Wagner also note that there is a growing tendency to view Muslims as a privileged group that constitute an "internal threat" and that this convergence between the two discources makes "it more and more necessary to use findings from the study of anti-Semitism to analyse Islamophobia". Schiffer and Wagner conclude,

The achievement in the study of anti-Semitism of examining Jewry and anti-Semitism separately must also be transferred to other racisms, such as Islamophobia. We do not need more information about Islam, but more information about the making of racist stereotypes in general.

The publication Social Work and Minorities: European Perspectives describes Islamophobia as the new form of racism in Europe,[96] arguing that "Islamophobia is as much a form of racism as anti-semitism, a term more commonly encountered in Europe as a sibling of racism, xenophobia and intolerance."[97] Edward Said considers Islamophobia as it is evinced in Orientalism to be a trend in a more general antisemitic Western tradition.[98][99] Others note that there has been a transition from anti-Asian and anti-Arab racism to anti-Muslim racism,[100] while some note a racialization of religion.[101]

According to a 2012 report by a UK anti-racism group, counter-jihadist outfits in Europe and North America are becoming more cohesive by forging alliances, with 190 groups now identified as promoting an Islamophobic agenda.[102] In Islamophobia and its consequences on young people (p. 6) Ingrid Ramberg writes "Whether it takes the shape of daily forms of racism and discrimination or more violent forms, Islamophobia is a violation of human rights and a threat to social cohesion." Professor John Esposito of Georgetown University calls Islamophobia "the new anti-Semitism".[103]

In their 2018 American Muslim Poll, the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding found that when it came to their Islamophobia index (see Public Opinion), they found that those who scored higher on the index, (i.e. more islamophobic) were, "associated with 1) greater acceptance of targeting civilians, whether it is a military or individual/small group that is doling out the violence, 2) greater acquiescence to limiting both press freedoms and institutional checks following a hypothetical terror attack, and 3) greater support for the so-called "Muslim ban" and the surveillance of American mosques (or their outright building prohibition)."[104]

Mohamed Nimer compares Islamophobia with anti-Americanism. He argues that while both Islam and America can be subject to legitimate criticisms without detesting a people as a whole, bigotry against both are on the rise.[105]

Gideon Rachman wrote in 2019 of a "clash of civilizations" between Muslim and non-Muslim nations, linking anti-Islam radicalisation outside the Muslim world to the rise of intolerant Islamism in some Muslim countries that used to be relatively free from that ideology.[106]

Opposition to multiculturalism

According to Gabrielle Maranci, the increasing Islamophobia in the West is related to a rising repudiation of multiculturalism. Maranci concludes that "Islamophobia is a 'phobia' of multiculturalism and the transruptive effect that Islam can have in Europe and the West through transcultural processes."[107]

Manifestations

Main article: Islamophobic incidents

Media

Main article: Islamophobia in the media

According to Elizabeth Poole in the Encyclopedia of Race and Ethnic Studies, the media have been criticized for perpetrating Islamophobia. She cites a case study examining a sample of articles in the British press from between 1994 and 2004, which concluded that Muslim viewpoints were underrepresented and that issues involving Muslims usually depicted them in a negative light. Such portrayals, according to Poole, include the depiction of Islam and Muslims as a threat to Western security and values.[108] Benn and Jawad write that hostility towards Islam and Muslims are "closely linked to media portrayals of Islam as barbaric, irrational, primitive and sexist."[81] Egorova and Tudor cite European researchers in suggesting that expressions used in the media such as "Islamic terrorism", "Islamic bombs" and "violent Islam" have resulted in a negative perception of Islam.[5] John E. Richardson's 2004 book (Mis)representing Islam: the racism and rhetoric of British broadsheet newspapers, criticized the British media for propagating negative stereotypes of Muslims and fueling anti-Muslim prejudice.[109] In another study conducted by John E. Richardson, he found that 85% of mainstream newspaper articles treated Muslims as a homogeneous mass and portrayed them as a threat to British society.[110]

The Universities of Georgia and Alabama in the United States conducted a study comparing media coverage of "terrorist attacks" committed by Islamist militants with those of non-Muslims in the United States.  Researchers found that "terrorist attacks" by Islamist militants receive 357% more media attention than attacks committed by non-Muslims or whites. Terrorist attacks committed by non-Muslims (or where the religion was unknown) received an average of 15 headlines, while those committed by Muslim extremists received 105 headlines. The study was based on an analysis of news reports covering terrorist attacks in the United States between 2005 and 2015.[111][112][113]

In 2009, Mehdi Hasan in the New Statesman criticized Western media for over-reporting a few Islamist terrorist incidents but under-reporting the much larger number of planned non-Islamist terrorist attacks carried out by "non-Irish white folks".[114] A 2012 study indicates that Muslims across different European countries, such as France, Germany and the United Kingdom, experience the highest degree of Islamophobia in the media.[48] Media personalities have been accused of Islamophobia. The obituary in The Guardian for the Italian journalist Oriana Fallaci described her as "notorious for her Islamaphobia" [sic].[115] The Institute for Social Policy and Understanding published a report in 2018 where they stated, "In terms of print media coverage, Muslim-perceived perpetrators received twice the absolute quantity of media coverage as their non-Muslim counterparts in the cases of violent completed acts. For "foiled" plots, they received seven and half times the media coverage as their counterparts."[116]

The term "Islamophobia industry" has been coined by Nathan Lean and John Esposito in the 2012 book The Islamophobia Industry: How the Right Manufactures Fear of Muslims. Unlike the relationship of a buyer and a seller, it is a relationship of mutual benefit, where ideologies and political proclivities converge to advance the same agenda.[117] The "Islamophobia industry" has since been discussed by other scholars including Joseph Kaminski,[118] Hatem Bazian,[119] Arlene Stein, Zakia Salime, Reza Aslan,[120] Erdoan A. Shipoli, and Deepa Kumar, the latter drawing a comparison between the "Islamophobia industry" and Cold War era McCarthyism.[121]

Some media outlets are working explicitly against Islamophobia. In 2008 Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting ("FAIR") published a study "Smearcasting, How Islamophobes Spread Bigotry, Fear and Misinformation". The report cites several instances where mainstream or close to mainstream journalists, authors and academics have made analyses that essentialize negative traits as an inherent part of Muslims' moral makeup.[122] FAIR also established the "Forum Against Islamophobia and Racism", designed to monitor coverage in the media and establish dialogue with media organizations. Following the attacks of 11 September 2001, the Islamic Society of Britain's "Islam Awareness Week" and the "Best of British Islam Festival" were introduced to improve community relations and raise awareness about Islam.[123] In 2012, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation stated that they will launch a TV channel to counter Islamophobia.[124]

Silva and Meaux et al both theorized that one of the main causes of negative interactions, stigma, and marginalization toward the Arabic community is due to the fact that many media framing from news outlets tend to associate Arab-Muslims with terrorism and jihadist-inspired motivations when it came to mass violence incidents.[125][126] Silva noted in their research looking through New York Times articles about gun violence and noted that over the sixteen-year period of 2000 until 2016 this media framing would only increase through the time period.[126] Silva compared his results to find out that Arabic perpetrators were significantly more like to be framed as terrorists than their White counterparts. Meaux et al note back to research conducted by Park et al that indicated that the most salient association that Americans held on to was Arab-Muslims to terrorism with the notion that people that believed in this association the strongest were more likely to hold implicit bias.[125][127]

Movies

Throughout the twentieth century, Muslim characters were portrayed in Hollywood often negatively and with Orientalist stereotypes visualising them as being "uncivilised". Since the Post-9/11 era, in addition to these tropes, a securitization of Muslims; portraying them as a threat to the Western world, have drastically increased in movie depictions.[128]

There are growing instances of Islamophobia in Hindi cinema, or Bollywood, in films such as Aamir (2008), New York (2009) and My Name is Khan (2010), which corresponds to a growing anti-minorities sentiment that followed the resurgence of the Hindu right.[129][130]

 
An English Defence League demonstration. The placard reads Shut down the mosque command and control centre.

Organizations

See also: List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as hate groups § Anti-Muslim

A report from the University of California Berkeley and the Council on American–Islamic Relations estimated that $206 million was funded to 33 groups whose primary purpose was "to promote prejudice against, or hatred of, Islam and Muslims" in the United States between 2008 and 2013, with a total of 74 groups contributing to Islamophobia in the United States during that period.[131]

Stop Islamization of America (SIOA) and the Freedom Defense Initiative are designated as hate groups by the Anti-Defamation League[132] and the Southern Poverty Law Center.[133][134][135] In August 2012 SIOA generated media publicity by sponsoring billboards in New York City Subway stations claiming there had been 19,250 terrorist attacks by Muslims since 9/11 and stating "it's not Islamophobia, it's Islamorealism."[136] It later ran advertisements reading "In any war between the civilized man and the savage, support the civilized man. Support Israel. Defeat Jihad." Several groups condemned the advertisements as "hate speech" about all Muslims.[137][138] In early January 2013 the Freedom Defense Initiative put up advertisements next to 228 clocks in 39 New York subway stations showing the 2001 attacks on the World Trade Center with a quote attributed to the 151st verse of chapter 3 of the Quran: "Soon shall we cast terror into the hearts of the unbelievers."[139][140] The New York City Transit Authority, which said it would have to carry the advertisements on First Amendment grounds, insisted that 25% of the ad contain a Transit Authority disclaimer.[141][142] These advertisements also were criticized.[143][144]

The English Defence League (EDL), an organization in the United Kingdom, has been described as anti-Muslim. It was formed in 2009 to oppose what it considers to be a spread of Islamism, Sharia law and Islamic extremism in the UK.[145] The EDL's former leader, Tommy Robinson, left the group in 2013 saying it had become too extreme and that street protests were ineffective.[146]

Furthermore, the 7 July 2005 London bombings and the resulting efforts of the British civil and law enforcement authorities to help seek British Muslims' help in identifying potential threats to create prevention is observed by Michael Lavalette as institutionalized Islamophobia. Lavalette alleges that there is a continuity between the former two British governments over prevention that aims to stop young Muslim people from being misled, misdirected and recruited by extremists who exploit grievances for their own "jihadist" endeavors. Asking and concentrating on Muslim communities and young Muslims to prevent future instances, by the authorities, is in itself Islamophobia as such since involvement of Muslim communities will highlight and endorse their compassion for Britain and negate the perceived threats from within their communities.[147]

Public opinion

 
Anti-Islam rally in Poland in 2015

The extent of negative attitudes towards Muslims varies across different parts of Europe. Polls in Germany[148][149] and the Czech Republic[150] (as well as South Korea)[151] have suggested that most respondents do not welcome Muslim refugees in those countries.

A 2017 Chatham House poll of more than 10,000 people in 10 European countries had on average 55% agreeing that all further migration from Muslim-majority countries should be stopped, with 20% disagreeing and 25% offered no opinion. By country, majority opposition was found in Poland (71%), Austria (65%), Belgium (64%), Hungary (64%), France (61%), Greece (58%), Germany (53%), and Italy (51%).[152]

Unfavorable views of Muslims, 2019[153]
Country Percent
Poland
 
 66%
Czech Republic
 
 64%
Hungary
 
 58%
Greece
 
 57%
Lithuania
 
 56%
Italy
 
 55%
Spain
 
 42%
Sweden
 
 28%
France
 
 22%
Ukraine
 
 21%
Russia
 
 19%
United Kingdom
 
 18%

In Canada, surveys have suggested that 55% of respondents think the problem of Islamophobia is "overblown" by politicians and media, 42% think discrimination against Muslims is 'mainly their fault', and 47% support banning headscarves in public.[154]

In the United States, a 2011 YouGov poll found that 50% of respondents expressed an unfavorable view of Islam, compared to 23% expressing a favorable view.[155] Another YouGov poll done in 2015 had 55% of respondents expressing an unfavorable view.[156] However, according to a 2018 Institute for Social Policy and Understanding, 86% of American respondents said they wanted to "live in a country where no one is targeted for their religious identity", 83% told ISPU they supported "protecting the civil rights of American Muslims", 66% believed negative political rhetoric toward Muslims was harmful to U.S., and 65% agreed that Islamophobia produced discriminatory consequences for Muslims in America.[104]

The chart below displays collected data from the ISPU 2018 American Muslim Poll [104] which surveyed six different faith populations in the United States. The statements featured in this chart were asked to participants who then responded on a scale from strongly agree to strongly disagree. The total percentage of those who answered agree and strongly agree are depicted as follows:

Question 1: "I want to live in a country where no one is targeted for their religious identity."

Question 2: "The negative things politicians say regarding Muslims is harmful to our country."

Question 3: "Most Muslims living in the United States are no more responsible for violence carried out by a Muslim than anyone else."

Question 4: "Most Muslims living in the United States are victims of discrimination because of their faith."


10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Muslim
Jewish
Catholic
Protestant
White Evangelical
Unaffiliated
  •   Question 1 (% Net agree)
  •   Question 2 (% Net agree)
  •   Question 3 (% Net Agree)
  •   Question 4 (% Net agree)

The table below represents the Islamophobia Index, also from the 2018 ISPU poll.[104] This data displays an index of Islamophobia among faith populations in the United States.

ISPU Islamophobia Index[104]
Most Muslims living in the United States... (% Net agree shown) Muslim Jewish Catholic Protestant White Evangelical Non-Affiliated General Public
Are more prone to violence 18% 15% 12% 13% 23% 8% 13%
Discriminate against women 12% 23% 29% 30% 36% 18% 26%
Are hostile to the United States 12% 13% 9% 14% 23% 8% 12%
Are less civilized than other people 8% 6% 4% 6% 10% 1% 6%
Are partially responsible for acts of violence carried out by other Muslims 10% 16% 11% 12% 14% 8% 12%
Index (0 min- 100 max) 17 22 22 31 40 14 24

Internalized Islamophobia

ISPU also highlighted a particular trend in relation to anti-Muslim sentiment in the U.S. – internalized Islamophobia among Muslim populations themselves. When asked if they felt most people want them to be ashamed of their faith identity, 30% of Muslims agreed (a higher percentage than any other faith group). When asked if they believed that their faith community was more prone to negative behavior than other faith communities, 30% of Muslims agreed, again, a higher percentage than other faith groups.[104]

Trends

Islamophobia has become a topic of increasing sociological and political importance.[85] According to Benn and Jawad, Islamophobia has increased since Ayatollah Khomeini's 1989 fatwa inciting Muslims to attempt to murder Salman Rushdie, the author of The Satanic Verses, and since the 11 September attacks (in 2001).[157] Anthropologist Steven Vertovec writes that the purported growth in Islamophobia may be associated with increased Muslim presence in society and successes.[158][159] He suggests a circular model, where increased hostility towards Islam and Muslims results in governmental countermeasures such as institutional guidelines and changes to legislation, which itself may fuel further Islamophobia due to increased accommodation for Muslims in public life. Vertovec concludes: "As the public sphere shifts to provide a more prominent place for Muslims, Islamophobic tendencies may amplify."[158][159]

 
An anti-Islamic protest in Poland

Patel, Humphries, and Naik (1998) claim that "Islamophobia has always been present in Western countries and cultures. In the last two decades, it has become accentuated, explicit and extreme."[160][161] However, Vertovec states that some have observed that Islamophobia has not necessarily escalated in the past decades, but that there has been increased public scrutiny of it.[158][159] According to Abduljalil Sajid, one of the members of the Runnymede Trust's Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia, "Islamophobias" have existed in varying strains throughout history, with each version possessing its own distinct features as well as similarities or adaptations from others.[162]

In 2005 Ziauddin Sardar, an Islamic scholar, wrote in the New Statesman that Islamophobia is a widespread European phenomenon.[163] He noted that each country has anti-Muslim political figures, citing Jean-Marie Le Pen in France; Pim Fortuyn in the Netherlands; and Philippe van der Sande of Vlaams Blok, a Flemish nationalist party in Belgium. Sardar argued that Europe is "post-colonial, but ambivalent". Minorities are regarded as acceptable as an underclass of menial workers, but if they want to be upwardly mobile anti-Muslim prejudice rises to the surface. Wolfram Richter, professor of economics at Dortmund University of Technology, told Sardar: "I am afraid we have not learned from our history. My main fear is that what we did to Jews we may now do to Muslims. The next holocaust would be against Muslims."[163] Similar fears, as noted by Kenan Malik in his book From Fatwa to Jihad, had been previously expressed in the UK by Muslim philosopher Shabbir Akhtar in 1989, and Massoud Shadjareh, chair of the Islamic Human Rights Commission in 2000. In 2006 Salma Yaqoob, a Respect Party Councillor, claimed that Muslims in Britain were "subject to attacks reminiscent of the gathering storm of anti-Semitism in the first decades of the last century."[164] Malik, a senior visiting fellow in the Department of Political, International and Policy Studies at the University of Surrey, has described these claims of a brewing holocaust as "hysterical to the point of delusion"; whereas Jews in Hitler's Germany were given the official designation of Untermenschen, and were subject to escalating legislation which diminished and ultimately removed their rights as citizens, Malik noted that in cases where "Muslims are singled out in Britain, it is often for privileged treatment" such as the 2005 legislation banning "incitement to religious hatred", the special funding Muslim organizations and bodies receive from local and national government, the special provisions made by workplaces, school and leisure centres for Muslims, and even suggestions by the Archbishop of Canterbury Rowan Williams and the former Lord Chief Justice, Lord Phillips, that sharia law should be introduced into Britain. The fact is, wrote Malik, that such well-respected public figures as Akhtar, Shadjareh and Yaqoob need "a history lesson about the real Holocaust reveals how warped the Muslim grievance culture has become."[165]

 
A protester opposing the Park51 project carries an anti-sharia sign.
 
Hindu nationalist politician Arun Pathak organised a celebration in Varanasi to commemorate the 1992 demolition of the Babri Masjid mosque.

In 2006 ABC News reported that "public views of Islam are one casualty of the post-September 11, 2001 conflict: Nearly six in 10 Americans think the religion is prone to violent extremism, nearly half regard it unfavorably, and a remarkable one in four admits to prejudicial feelings against Muslims and Arabs alike." They also report that 27 percent of Americans admit feelings of prejudice against Muslims.[166] Gallup polls in 2006 found that 40 percent of Americans admit to prejudice against Muslims, and 39 percent believe Muslims should carry special identification.[167] These trends have only worsened with the use of Islamophobia as a campaign tactic during the 2008 American presidential election (with several Republican politicians and pundits, including Donald Trump, asserting that Democratic candidate Barack Obama is secretly a Muslim), during the 2010 mid-term elections (during which a proposed Islamic community center was dubbed the "Ground Zero Mosque"[168]), and the 2016 presidential election, during which Republican nominee Donald Trump proposed banning the entrance into the country of all Muslims. Associate Professor Deepa Kumar writes that "Islamophobia is about politics rather than religion per se"[169] and that modern-day demonization of Arabs and Muslims by US politicians and others is racist and Islamophobic, and employed in support of what she describes as an unjust war. About the public impact of this rhetoric, she says that "One of the consequences of the relentless attacks on Islam and Muslims by politicians and the media is that Islamophobic sentiment is on the rise." She also chides some "people on the left" for using the same "Islamophobic logic as the Bush regime".[170] In this regards, Kumar confirms the assertions of Stephen Sheehi, who "conceptualises Islamophobia as an ideological formation within the context of the American empire. Doing so "allows us to remove it from the hands of 'culture' or from the myth of a single creator or progenitor, whether it be a person, organisation or community." An ideological formation, in this telling, is a constellation of networks that produce, proliferate, benefit from, and traffic in Islamophobic discourses."[171]

The writer and scholar on religion Reza Aslan has said that "Islamophobia has become so mainstream in this country that Americans have been trained to expect violence against Muslims – not excuse it, but expect it".[172]

A January 2010 British Social Attitudes Survey found that the British public "is far more likely to hold negative views of Muslims than of any other religious group,"[173] with "just one in four" feeling "positively about Islam", and a "majority of the country would be concerned if a mosque was built in their area, while only 15 per cent expressed similar qualms about the opening of a church."[174]

A 2016 report by CAIR and University of California, Berkeley's Center for Race and Gender said that groups promoting islamophobia in the US had access to US$206 million between 2008 and 2013. The author of the report said that "The hate that these groups are funding and inciting is having real consequences like attacks on mosques all over the country and new laws discriminating against Muslims in America."[175]

In the United States, religious discrimination against Muslims has become a significant issue of concern. In 2018, The Institute for Social Policy and Understanding found that out of the groups studied, Muslims are the most likely faith community to experience religious discrimination, the data having been that way since 2015. Despite 61% of Muslims reporting experiencing religious discrimination at some level and 62% reporting that most Americans held negative stereotypes about their community,  23% reported that their faith made them feel "out of place in the world".[104] There are intersections with racial identity and gender identity, with 73% of Arabs surveyed being more likely to experience religious discrimination, and Muslim women (75%) and youth (75%) being the most likely to report experiencing racial discrimination. The study also found that, although, "most Muslims (86%) express pride in their faith identity, they are the most likely group studied to agree that others want them to feel shame for that identity (30% of Muslims vs. 12% of Jews, 16% of non-affiliated, and 4–6% of Christian groups)."[104]

A 2021 survey affiliated with Newcastle University found that 83% of Muslims in Scotland said they experienced Islamophobia such as verbal or physical attacks. 75% of them said Islamophobia is a regular or everyday issue in Scottish society and 78% believed it was getting worse.[176]

Anti-Islamic hate crimes data in the United States

 
A mannequin symbolizing a Muslim in a keffiyeh, strapped to a "Made in the USA" bomb display at a protest of Park51 in New York City
 
A protest in Cincinnati, Ohio
 
Protests against Executive Order 13769 in Tehran, Iran, 10 February 2017

Data on types of hate crimes have been collected by the U.S. FBI since 1992, to carry out the dictates of the 1990 Hate Crime Statistics Act. Hate crime offenses include crimes against persons (such as assaults) and against property (such as arson), and are classified by various race-based, religion-based, and other motivations.

The data show that recorded anti-Islamic hate crimes in the United States jumped dramatically in 2001. Anti-Islamic hate crimes then subsided, but continued at a significantly higher pace than in pre-2001 years. The step up is in contrast to decreases in total hate crimes and to the decline in overall crime in the U.S. since the 1990s.

Specifically, the FBI's annual hate crimes statistics reports from 1996 to 2013 document average numbers of anti-Islamic offenses at 31 per year before 2001, then a leap to 546 in 2001 (the year of 9-11 attacks), and averaging 159 per since. Among those offenses are anti-Islamic arson incidents which have a similar pattern: arson incidents averaged 0.4 per year pre-2001, jumped to 18 in 2001, and averaged 1.5 annually since.[177]

2021, One of the members of Congress shared an anti-Muslim story about Muslim member of Congress during Thanksgiving break. This has happened many times.[178]

Year-by-year anti-Islamic hate crimes, all hate crimes, and arson subtotals are as follows:

Anti-Islamic hate crimes All hate crimes
Year Arson offenses Total offenses Arson offenses Total offenses
1996 0 33 75 10,706
1997 1 31 60 9,861
1998 0 22 50 9,235
1999 1 34 48 9,301
2000 0 33 52 9,430
2001 18 546 90 11,451
2002 0 170 38 8,832
2003 2 155 34 8,715
2004 2 193 44 9,035
2005 0 146 39 8,380
2006 0 191 41 9,080
2007 0 133 40 9,006
2008 5 123 53 9,168
2009 1 128 41 7,789
2010 1 186 42 7,699
2011 2 175 42 7,254
2012 4 149 38 6,718
2013 1 165 36 6,933
Total 38 2,613 863 158,593
Average 2.1 145.2 47.9 8810.7
1996–2000 avg .40 30.6 57.0 9,707
2001 18 546 90 11,451
2002–2013 avg 1.50 159.5 40.7 8,217

In contrast, the overall numbers of arson and total offenses declined from pre-2001 to post-2001.

Anti-Islamic hate crimes in the European countries

There have also been reports of hate crimes targeting Muslims across Europe. These incidents have increased after terrorist attacks by extremist groups such as ISIL.[179] Far-right and right-wing populist political parties and organizations have also been accused of fueling fear and hatred towards Muslims.[180][181][182][183] Hate crimes such as arson and physical violence have been attempted or have occurred in Norway,[184] Poland,[185][186] Sweden,[187] France,[188] Spain,[189] Denmark,[190] Germany[191] and Great Britain.[192] Politicians have also made anti-Muslim comments when discussing the European migrant crisis.[193][194][195]

According to MDPI: The Islamophobia Industry in America is another related-issue; it mentions: "The industry is driven by neocon stars: Daniel Pipes, Robert Spencer, David Yerushalmi, Glenn Beck, Pamela Gellner, Paul Wolfowitz, David Horowitz, and Frank Gaffney as well as native informers Walid Shoebat, Walid Phares, Wafa Sultan, Ayaan Hirsi Ali, Ibn Warraq, Brigitte Gabriel, Tawfik Hamid, and Zuhdi Jasser. They have been prolific, producing and re-circulating false or exaggerated information about Islam and Muslims in order to gain lucrative speaking engagements and increase their influence among neocons in government."[196]

Reports by governmental organizations

See also: Hijabophobia
 
According to a survey conducted by the European Commission in 2015 13% of the respondents would be completely uncomfortable about working with a Muslim person (  orange), compared with 17% with a transgender or transsexual person (  green) and 20% with a Roma person (  violet).[197]

The largest project monitoring Islamophobia was undertaken following 9/11 by the EU watchdog, European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia (EUMC). Their May 2002 report "Summary report on Islamophobia in the EU after 11 September 2001", written by Chris Allen and Jorgen S. Nielsen of the University of Birmingham, was based on 75 reports  – 15 from each EU member nation.[198][199] The report highlighted the regularity with which ordinary Muslims became targets for abusive and sometimes violent retaliatory attacks after 9/11. Despite localized differences within each member nation, the recurrence of attacks on recognizable and visible traits of Islam and Muslims was the report's most significant finding. Incidents consisted of verbal abuse, blaming all Muslims for terrorism, forcibly removing women's hijabs, spitting on Muslims, calling children "Osama", and random assaults. A number of Muslims were hospitalized and in one instance paralyzed.[199] The report also discussed the portrayal of Muslims in the media. Inherent negativity, stereotypical images, fantastical representations, and exaggerated caricatures were all identified. The report concluded that "a greater receptivity towards anti-Muslim and other xenophobic ideas and sentiments has, and may well continue, to become more tolerated."[199]

The EUMC has since released a number of publications related to Islamophobia, including The Fight against Antisemitism and Islamophobia: Bringing Communities together (European Round Tables Meetings) (2003) and Muslims in the European Union: Discrimination and Islamophobia (2006).[200]

Professor in History of Religion, Anne Sophie Roald, states that Islamophobia was recognized as a form of intolerance alongside xenophobia and antisemitism at the "Stockholm International Forum on Combating Intolerance",[201] held in January 2001.[202] The conference, attended by UN Secretary General Kofi Annan, High Commissioner for Human Rights Mary Robinson, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe Secretary General Ján Kubis and representatives of the European Union and Council of Europe, adopted a declaration to combat "genocide, ethnic cleansing, racism, antisemitism, Islamophobia and xenophobia, and to combat all forms of racial discrimination and intolerance related to it."[203]

The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, in its 5th report to Islamophobia Observatory of 2012, found an "institutionalization and legitimization of the phenomenon of Islamophobia" in the West over the previous five years.[204]

In 2014 Integrationsverket (the Swedish National Integration Board) defined Islamophobia as "racism and discrimination expressed towards Muslims."[205]

In 2016, the European Islamophobia Report (EIR) presented the "European Islamophobia Report 2015"[206][207] at European Parliament which analyzes the "trends in the spread of Islamophobia" in 25 European states in 2015. The EIR defines Islamophobia as anti-Muslim racism. While not every criticism of Muslims or Islam is necessarily Islamophobic, anti-Muslim sentiments expressed through the dominant group scapegoating and excluding Muslims for the sake of power is.[208]

Research on Islamophobia and its correlates

 
According to data by the Pew Research Center elaborated by VoxEurop, in European Union countries the negative attitude towards Muslims is inversely proportional to actual presence[209]

Various studies have been conducted to investigate Islamophobia and its correlates among majority populations and among Muslim minorities themselves. To start with, an experimental study showed that anti-Muslim attitudes may be stronger than more general xenophobic attitudes.[210] Moreover, studies indicate that anti-Muslim prejudice among majority populations is primarily explained by the perception of Muslims as a cultural threat, rather than as a threat towards the respective nation's economy.[211][212][213]

Studies focusing on the experience of Islamophobia among Muslims have shown that the experience of religious discrimination is associated with lower national identification and higher religious identification.[214][215] In other words, religious discrimination seems to lead Muslims to increase their identification with their religion and to decrease their identification with their nation of residence. Some studies further indicate that societal Islamophobia negatively influences Muslim minorities' health.[48][216] One of the studies showed that the perception of an Islamophobic society is associated with more psychological problems, such as depression and nervousness, regardless whether the respective individual had personally experienced religious discrimination.[48] As the authors of the study suggest, anti-discrimination laws may therefore be insufficient to fully protect Muslim minorities from an environment which is hostile towards their religious group.

Farid Hafez and Enes Bayrakli publish an annual European Islamophobia Report since 2015.[217] The European Islamophobie Report aims to enable policymakers as well as the public to discuss the issue of Islamophobia with the help of qualitative data. It is the first report to cover a wide range of Eastern European countries like Serbia, Croatia, Hungary, Lithuania, and Latvia. Farid Hafez is also editor of the German-English Islamophobia Studies Yearbook.[218]

Geographic trends

An increase of Islamophobia in Russia follows the growing influence of the strongly conservative sect of Wahhabism, according to Nikolai Sintsov of the National Anti-Terrorist Committee.[219]

Various translations of the Qur'an have been banned by the Russian government for promoting extremism and Muslim supremacy.[220][221] Anti-Muslim rhetoric is on the rise in Georgia.[222] In Greece, Islamophobia accompanies anti-immigrant sentiment, as immigrants are now 15% of the country's population and 90% of the EU's illegal entries are through Greece.[223] In France Islamophobia is tied, in part, to the nation's long-standing tradition of secularism.[224] In Myanmar (Burma) the 969 Movement has been accused of events such as the 2012 Rakhine State riots.

 
Rohingya Muslim refugees fleeing violence in Buddhist-majority Myanmar in October 2017

Jocelyne Cesari, in her study of discrimination against Muslims in Europe,[225] finds that anti-Islamic sentiment may be difficult to separate from other drivers of discrimination. Because Muslims are mainly from immigrant backgrounds and the largest group of immigrants in many Western European countries, xenophobia overlaps with Islamophobia, and a person may have one, the other, or both. So, for example, some people who have a negative perception of and attitude toward Muslims may also show this toward non-Muslim immigrants, either as a whole or certain group (such as, for example, Eastern Europeans, sub-Saharan Africans, or Roma), whereas others would not. Nigel Farage, for example, is anti-EU and in favor of crackdowns on immigration from Eastern Europe, but is favourable to immigration from Islamic Commonwealth countries such as Nigeria and Pakistan.[226] In the United States, where immigrants from Latin America and Asia dominate and Muslims are a comparatively small fraction, xenophobia and Islamophobia may be more easily separable. Classism is another overlapping factor in some nations. Muslims have lower income and poorer education in France, Spain, Germany, and the Netherlands while Muslims in the US have higher income and education than the general population. In the UK, Islam is seen as a threat to secularism in response to the calls by some Muslims for blasphemy laws. In the Netherlands, Islam is seen as a socially conservative force that threatens gender equality and the acceptance of homosexuality.

The European Network Against Racism (ENAR) reports that Islamophobic crimes are on the increase in France, England and Wales. In Sweden crimes with an Islamophobic motive increased by 69% from 2009 to 2013.[227]

A report from Australia has found that "except for Anglicans, all Christian groups have Islamophobia scores higher than the national average" and that "among the followers of non-Christian religious affiliations, Buddhists and Hindus [also] have significantly higher Islamophobia scores."[228]

In 2016, the South Thailand Insurgency, having caused more than 6,500 deaths and purportedly fuelled in part by the Thai military's harsh tactics,[229] was reported to be increasing Islamophobia in the country.[230][231] The Mindanao conflict in the Philippines has also fuelled discrimination against Muslims by some Christian Filipinos.[232][233]

The 2018 anti-Muslim riots in Sri Lanka was suggested to have been a possible trigger for the 2019 Easter bombings.[234] Muslims in the country have reportedly faced increased harassment after the bombings, with some Sinhala Buddhist groups calling for boycotts of Muslim businesses and trade.[235]

In July 2019, the UN ambassadors from 22 nations, including Canada, Germany and France, signed a joint letter to the UNHRC condemning China's mistreatment of the Uyghurs as well as its mistreatment of other Muslim minority groups, urging the Chinese government to close the Xinjiang re-education camps,[236] though ambassadors from 53 others, not including China, rejected said allegations.[237] According to a 2020 report by the Australian Strategic Policy Institute, since 2017, Chinese authorities have destroyed or damaged 16,000 mosques in Xinjiang – 65% of the region's total.[238][239]

The 2020 Delhi riots, which left more than 50 dead and hundreds injured,[240][241] were triggered by protests against a citizenship law seen by many critics as anti-Muslim and part of Prime Minister Narendra Modi's Hindu nationalist agenda.[242]

Criticism of term and use

Although by the first decade of the 21st century the term "Islamophobia" had become widely recognized and used,[243] its use, its construction and the concept itself have been criticized. Roland Imhoff and Julia Recker, in an article that puts forward the term "Islamoprejudice" as a better alternative, write that "... few concepts have been debated as heatedly over the last ten years as the term Islamophobia."[70]

Academic debate

Jocelyne Cesari reported widespread challenges in the use and meaning of the term in 2006.[75][244] According to The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics, "Much debate has surrounded the use of the term, questioning its adequacy as an appropriate and meaningful descriptor. However, since Islamophobia has broadly entered the social and political lexicon, arguments about the appropriateness of the term now seem outdated".[245] At the same time, according to a 2014 edition of A Dictionary of Sociology by Oxford University Press, "the exact meaning of Islamophobia continues to be debated amongst academics and policymakers alike." The term has proven problematic and is viewed by some as an obstacle to constructive criticism of Islam. Its detractors fear that it can be applied to any critique of Islamic practices and beliefs, suggesting terms such as "anti-Muslim" instead.[246]

The classification of "closed" and "open" views set out in the Runnymede report has been criticized as an oversimplification of a complex issue by scholars like Chris Allen, Fred Halliday, and Kenan Malik.[247] Paul Jackson, in a critical study of the anti-Islamic English Defence League, argues that the criteria put forward by the Runnymede report for Islamophobia "can allow for any criticism of Muslim societies to be dismissed...". He argues that both jihadi Islamists and far-right activists use the term "to deflect attention away from more nuanced discussions on the make-up of Muslim communities", feeding "a language of polarised polemics". On one hand, it can be used "to close down discussion on genuine areas of criticism" regarding jihadi ideologies, which in turn has resulted in all accusations of Islamophobia to be dismissed as "spurious" by far-right activists. Consequently, the term is "losing much [of its] analytical value".[248]

Professor Eli Göndör wrote that the term Islamophobia should be replaced with "Muslimophobia".[249] As Islamophobia is "a rejection of a population on the grounds of Muslimness", other researches suggest "Muslimism".[250]

Professor Mohammad H. Tamdgidi of the University of Massachusetts, Boston, has generally endorsed the definition of Islamophobia as defined by the Runnymede Trust's Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All. However, he notes that the report's list of "open" views of Islam itself presents "an inadvertent definitional framework for Islamophilia": that is, it "falls in the trap of regarding Islam monolithically, in turn as being characterized by one or another trait, and does not adequately express the complex heterogeneity of a historical phenomenon whose contradictory interpretations, traditions, and sociopolitical trends have been shaped and has in turn been shaped, as in the case of any world tradition, by other world-historical forces."[251]

Atheist author and professor Richard Dawkins has criticised the term Islamophobia. He has argued that while hatred of Muslims is "unequivocally reprehensible" the term Islamophobia itself is an "otiose word which doesn't deserve definition."[252] In 2015, along with the National Secular Society, he expressed opposition to a proposal by then Labour Party leader Ed Miliband to make Islamophobia an "aggravated crime". Dawkins stated that the proposed law was based on a term that is too vague, puts religion above scrutiny and questioned if such a law under the term Islamophobia hypothetically could be used to prosecute Charlie Hebdo or if he could be jailed for quoting violent passages from Islamic scripture on Twitter.[253]

Philosopher Michael Walzer says that fear of religious militancy, such as "of Hindutva zealots in India, of messianic Zionists in Israel, and of rampaging Buddhist monks in Myanmar", is not necessarily an irrational phobia, and compares fear of Islamic extremism with the fear Muslims and Jews could feel towards Christians during the crusades.[254] However, he also writes that:

Islamophobia is a form of religious intolerance, even religious hatred, and it would be wrong for any leftists to support bigots in Europe and the United States who deliberately misunderstand and misrepresent contemporary Muslims. They make no distinction between the historic religion and the zealots of this moment; they regard every Muslim immigrant in a Western country as a potential terrorist; and they fail to acknowledge the towering achievements of Muslim philosophers, poets, and artists over many centuries.[254]

Commentary

In the wake of the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy, a group of 12 writers, including novelist Salman Rushdie and activist Ayaan Hirsi Ali, signed a manifesto entitled Together facing the new totalitarianism in the French weekly satirical newspaper Charlie Hebdo in March 2006, warning against the use of the term Islamophobia to prevent criticism of "Islamic totalitarianism".[255][256] Rushdie added in 2012 that 'Islamophobia' "took the language of analysis, reason and dispute, and stood it on its head".[citation needed] Hirsi Ali added in 2017 that Islamophobia was a "manufactured" term whose usage emboldens radical Muslims to push for censorship and that "we can't stop the injustices if we say everything is 'Islamophobic' and hide behind a politically correct screen."[257]

Left-wing journalist and 'New Atheist' writer Christopher Hitchens stated in February 2007 that "a stupid term – Islamophobia – has been put into circulation to try and suggest that a foul prejudice lurks behind any misgivings about Islam's infallible 'message.'"[258] Writing in the New Humanist in May 2007, philosopher Piers Benn suggests that people who fear the rise of Islamophobia foster an environment "not intellectually or morally healthy", to the point that what he calls "Islamophobia-phobia" can undermine "critical scrutiny of Islam as somehow impolite, or ignorant of the religion's true nature."[259]

Alan Posener and Alan Johnson have written that, while the idea of Islamophobia is sometimes misused, those who claim that hatred of Muslims is justified as opposition to Islamism actually undermine the struggle against Islamism.[64] The author Sam Harris, while denouncing bigotry, racism, and prejudice against Muslims or Arabs, rejects the term Islamophobia[260] as an invented psychological disorder, and states criticizing those Islamic beliefs and practices he believes pose a threat to civil society is not a form of bigotry or racism.[261] Similarly, Pascal Bruckner calls the term "a clever invention because it amounts to making Islam a subject that one cannot touch without being accused of racism."[262]

Writing in 2008 Muslim reformist Ed Husain, a former member of Hizb ut-Tahrir and co-founder of Quilliam,[263] said that under pressure from Islamist extremists, "'Islamophobia' has become accepted as a phenomenon on a par with racism", claiming that "Outside a few flashpoints where the BNP is at work, most Muslims would be hard-pressed to identify Islamophobia in their lives".[264]

Conservative political commentator Douglas Murray has described Islamophobia in 2013 as a "nonsense term" and stated "a phobia is something of which one is irrationally afraid. Yet it is supremely rational to be scared of elements of Islam and of its fundamentalist strains in particular. Nevertheless, the term has been very successfully deployed, not least because it has the aura of a smear. Islamophobes are not only subject to an irrational and unnecessary fear; they are assumed to be motivated (because most Muslims in the West are from an ethnic minority) by "racism". Who would not recoil from such charges?"[265]

In his paper "A Measure of Islamophobia", British academic Salman Sayyid (2014) argues that these criticisms are a form of etymological fundamentalism and echo earlier comments on racism and antisemitism. Racism and antisemitism were also accused of blocking free speech, of being conceptually weak and too nebulous for practical purposes.[266]

French Prime Minister Manuel Valls said in January 2015 following the Charlie Hebdo shooting "It is very important to make clear to people that Islam has nothing to do with ISIS. There is a prejudice in society about this, but on the other hand, I refuse to use this term 'Islamophobia,' because those who use this word are trying to invalidate any criticism at all of the Islamist ideology. The charge of 'Islamophobia' is used to silence people".[267]

Conservative journalist and commentator Brendan O'Neill stated in 2018 "Anti-Muslim prejudice is out there, yes. But 'Islamophobia' is an elite invention, a top-down conceit, designed to chill open discussion about religion and values and to protect one particular religion from blasphemy. The war on Islamophobia is in essence a demand for censorship."[268]

Muslim reformist Maajid Nawaz, a former member of the Islamist Hizb ut-Tahrir group and founder of the counter-extremism Quilliam think-tank has criticized the term "Islamophobia" on several occasions, stating in 2020 it conflates racism with blasphemy and "there's a huge difference in being critical of an idea and critical of a person because of their political or religious identity." Nawaz argues that "anti-Muslim bigotry" is a more accurate phrase to use instead of Islamophobia when addressing prejudice faced by people of Muslim origin.[269]

British-American physician, author and Muslim reformist writer Qanta A. Ahmed has argued against using the term Islamophobia and has cautioned against using it as part of anti-racism or hate speech legislation by claiming jihadis will exploit it. She has argued that "while we're getting better at thwarting terrorist attacks, we're still fighting their ideological underpinning. As a secular pluralistic democracy, we have weapons: intellectual scrutiny, critical thinking and above all the insight to command the language of this war of ideas. And to use the word Islamophobia when talking about anti-Muslim xenophobia is to use the vocabulary and adopt the rulebook of the Islamists who wish to obfuscate their intent."[270]

The Associated Press Stylebook

In December 2012, media sources reported that the terms "homophobia" and "Islamophobia" would no longer be included in the AP Stylebook. Deputy Standards Editor Dave Minthorn said "a phobia is a psychiatric or medical term for a severe mental disorder,"[271] and thus not appropriate to use them in articles with political or social contexts because they imply an understanding of the mental state of another individual.[272]

Countering Islamophobia

International

On 16 March 2022, UN designated March 15 as International Day To Combat Islamophobia.[273]

Europe

On 26 September 2018, the European Parliament in Brussels launched the "Counter-Islamophobia Toolkit" (CIK), with the goal of combatting the growing Islamophobia across the EU and to be distributed to national governments and other policy makers, civil society and the media. Based on the most comprehensive research in Europe, it examines patterns of Islamophobia and effective strategies against it in eight member states. It lists ten dominant narratives and ten effective counter-narratives.[274][275][276]

One of the authors of the CIK, Amina Easat-Daas, says that Muslim women are disproportionately affected by Islamophobia, based on both the "threat to the west" and "victims of...Islamic sexism" narratives. The approach taken in the CIK is a four-step one: defining the misinformed narratives based on flawed logic; documenting them; deconstructing these ideas to expose the flaws; and finally, reconstruction of mainstream ideas about Islam and Muslims, one closer to reality. The dominant ideas circulating in popular culture should reflect the diverse everyday experiences of Muslims and their faith.[277]

See also

References

Notes

  1. ^ Persian had the expression islām harāsī (اسلام هراسی), "hostility to Islam", similar to ‛adā' al-islām (عَداء الإسلام) in Arabic.

Citations

  1. ^ . Oxford Dictionaries. Archived from the original on 11 November 2016. Retrieved 10 November 2016.
  2. ^ "islamophobia". Dictionary.com Unabridged (Online). n.d. Retrieved 10 November 2016.
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Sources

Further reading

  • Ali, Wajahat; Clifton, Eli; Duss, Matthew; Fang, Lee; Keyes, Scott; and Shakir, Faiz (August 26, 2011) "Fear, Inc.: The Roots of the Islamophobia Network in America". American Progress. Accessed 24 February 2015.
  • Allen, Chris (2011). Islamophobia. Ashgate Publishing Company.
  • Abbas, Tahir (2005). Muslim Britain: Communities Under Pressure. Zed. ISBN 978-1-84277-449-6.
  • Duss, Matthew; Taeb; Yasmine; Gude, Ken; and Sofer, Ken (February 11, 2015) "Fear, Inc. 2.0: The Islamophobia Network's Efforts to Manufacture Hate in America". American Progress. Accessed 24 February 2015.
  • Gottschalk, P.; Greenberg, G. (2007). Islamophobia: Making Muslims the Enemy. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield publishers. ISBN 978-0-7425-5286-9.
  • Greaves, R. (2004). Islam and the West Post 9/11. Ashgate publishing Ltd. ISBN 978-0-7546-5005-8.
  • Itaoui, Rhonda (2016). "The Geography of Islamophobia in Sydney: mapping the spatial imaginaries of young Muslims", in Australian Geographer. Vol 47:3, 261–79.
  • Kaplan, Jeffrey (2006). "Islamophobia in America?: September 11 and Islamophobic Hate Crime 12 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine", Terrorism and Political Violence (Routledge), 18:1, 1–33.
  • Kincheloe, Joe L. and Steinberg, Shirley R. (2004). The Miseducation of the West: How the Schools and Media Distort Our Understanding of Islam. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Press. (Arabic Edition, 2005).
  • Kincheloe, Joe L. and Steinberg, Shirley R. (2010). Teaching Against Islamophobia. New York: Peter Lang.
  • Konrad, Felix (2011). From the "Turkish Menace" to Exoticism and Orientalism: Islam as Antithesis of Europe (1453–1914)?, European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History. Retrieved: 22 June 2011.
  • Kundnani, Arun. (2014) The Muslims Are Coming! Islamaphobia, Extremism, and the Domestic War on Terror (Verso; 2014) 327 pages
  • Lajevardi, N. (2020). Outsiders at Home: The Politics of American Islamophobia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Love, Erik (2017). Islamophobia and Racism in America. NYU Press. ISBN 978-1479838073.
  • Pynting, Scott & Mason, Victoria (2007). "The Resistible Rise of Islamophobia: Anti-Muslim Racism in the UK and Australia before 11 September 2001". Journal of Sociology" (PDF). The Australian Sociological Association. 43 (1): 61–86. doi:10.1177/1440783307073935. S2CID 145065236.
  • Quraishi, M. (2005). Muslims and Crime: A Comparative Study. Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-4233-6.
  • Ramadan, T. (2004). Western Muslims and the Future of Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-517111-2.
  • Richardson, John E. (2004). (Mis)representing Islam: the racism and rhetoric of British broadsheet newspapers. John Benjamins Publishing Company. ISBN 978-90-272-2699-0.
  • Sheehi, Stephen (2011). Islamophobia: The Ideological Campaign Against Muslims. Clarity Press.
  • Shryock, Andrew, ed. (2010). Islamophobia/Islamophilia: Beyond the Politics of Enemy and Friend. Indiana University Press. p. 250. Essays on Islamophobia past and present; topics include the "neo-Orientalism" of three Muslim commentators today: Ayaan Hirsi Ali, Reza Aslan, and Irshad Manji.
  • Silva, Derek (2017). "The Othering of Muslims: Discourses of Radicalization in the New York Times, 1969–2014", Sociological Forum, 32:1, 138–161.
  • Tausch, Arno with Bischof, Christian; Kastrun, Tomaz; and Mueller, Karl (2007). Against Islamophobia: Muslim Communities, Social-Exclusion and the Lisbon Process in Europe. Hauppauge, N.Y.: Nova Science Publishers. ISBN 978-1-60021-535-3.
  • Tausch, Arno with Bischof, Christian and Mueller, Karl (2008). Muslim Calvinism: Internal Security and the Lisbon Process in Europe. Purdue University Press. ISBN 978-905170995-7.
  • Tausch, Arno (2007). Against Islamophobia: Quantitative Analyses of Global Terrorism, World Political Cycles and Center Periphery Structures. Hauppauge, N.Y.: Nova Science Publishers. ISBN 978-1-60021-536-0.
  • van Driel, B. (2004). Confronting Islamophobia In Educational Practice. Trentham Books. ISBN 978-1-85856-340-4.

External links

  • – Islamophobia Research & Documentation Project, UC Berkeley
  • Reports – European Islamophobia – European Islamophobia Reports EIR
  • Islamophobia Today newspaper 22 September 2021 at the Wayback Machine – an Islamophobia news clearing house
  • Sammy Aziz Rahmatti, Understanding and Countering Islamophobia

April 23, 2023
islamophobia, this, article, about, fear, hatred, prejudice, towards, muslims, islam, religious, persecution, muslims, persecution, muslims, criticism, islam, criticism, islam, confused, with, anti, middle, eastern, sentiment, fear, hatred, prejudice, against,. This article is about fear hatred of or prejudice towards Muslims or Islam For religious persecution of Muslims see Persecution of Muslims For the criticism of Islam see Criticism of Islam Not to be confused with Anti Middle Eastern sentiment Islamophobia is the fear of hatred of or prejudice against the religion of Islam or Muslims in general 1 2 3 especially when seen as a geopolitical force or a source of terrorism 4 5 6 The scope and precise definition of the term Islamophobia is the subject of debate Some scholars consider it to be a form of xenophobia or racism some consider Islamophobia and racism to be closely related or partially overlapping phenomena while others dispute any relationship primarily on the grounds that religion is not a race The causes of Islamophobia are also the subject of debate most notably between commentators who have posited an increase in Islamophobia resulting from the September 11 attacks 7 the rise of the militant group Islamic State other terror attacks in Europe and the United States by Islamic extremists 8 those who associated it with the increased presence of Muslims in the United States and in the European Union and others who view it as a response to the emergence of a global Muslim identity On 15 March 2022 the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution by consensus which was introduced by Pakistan on behalf of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation that proclaimed March 15 as International Day to Combat Islamophobia 9 Contents 1 Terms 2 Etymology and definitions 2 1 Debate on the term and its limitations 2 2 Fear 2 3 Racism 2 4 Proposed alternatives 3 Origins and causes 3 1 History of the term 3 2 Contrasting views on Islam 3 3 Identity politics 3 4 Links to ideologies 3 5 Opposition to multiculturalism 4 Manifestations 4 1 Media 4 2 Movies 4 3 Organizations 4 4 Public opinion 4 5 Internalized Islamophobia 5 Trends 5 1 Anti Islamic hate crimes data in the United States 5 2 Anti Islamic hate crimes in the European countries 5 3 Reports by governmental organizations 5 4 Research on Islamophobia and its correlates 5 5 Geographic trends 6 Criticism of term and use 6 1 Academic debate 6 2 Commentary 6 3 The Associated Press Stylebook 7 Countering Islamophobia 7 1 International 7 2 Europe 8 See also 9 References 9 1 Notes 9 2 Citations 9 3 Sources 10 Further reading 11 External linksTermsThere are a number of other possible terms which are also used in order to refer to negative feelings and attitudes towards Islam and Muslims such as anti Muslimism intolerance against Muslims anti Muslim prejudice anti Muslim bigotry hatred of Muslims anti Islamism Muslimophobia demonisation of Islam or demonisation of Muslims In German Islamophobie fear and Islamfeindlichkeit hostility are used The Scandinavian term Muslimhat literally means hatred of Muslims 10 When discrimination towards Muslims has placed an emphasis on their religious affiliation and adherence it has been termed Muslimphobia the alternative form of Muslimophobia 11 Islamophobism 12 antimuslimness and antimuslimism 13 14 15 Individuals who discriminate against Muslims in general have been termed Islamophobes Islamophobists 16 anti Muslimists 17 antimuslimists 18 islamophobiacs 19 anti Muhammadan 20 Muslimphobes or its alternative spelling of Muslimophobes 21 while individuals motivated by a specific anti Muslim agenda or bigotry have been described as being anti mosque 22 anti Shiites 23 or Shiaphobes 24 anti Sufism 25 or Sufi phobia 26 and anti Sunni or Sunniphobes 27 Etymology and definitionsThe word Islamophobia is a neologism 28 formed from Islam and phobia a Greek suffix used in English to form nouns with the sense fear of aversion to 29 According to the Oxford English Dictionary the word means Intense dislike or fear of Islam esp as a political force hostility or prejudice towards Muslims It is attested in English as early as 1923 30 to quote the French word islamophobie found in a thesis published by Alain Quellien in 1910 to describe a a prejudice against Islam that is widespread among the peoples of Western and Christian civilization 31 The expression did not immediately turn into the vocabulary of the English speaking world though which preferred the expression feelings inimical to Islam until its re appearance in an article by Georges Chahati Anawati in 1976 32 The term did not exist in the Muslim world a and was later translated in the 1990s as ruhab al islam ر هاب الإسلام in Arabic literally phobia of Islam 31 The University of California at Berkeley s Islamophobia Research amp Documentation Project suggested this working definition Islamophobia is a contrived fear or prejudice fomented by the existing Eurocentric and Orientalist global power structure It is directed at a perceived or real Muslim threat through the maintenance and extension of existing disparities in economic political social and cultural relations while rationalizing the necessity to deploy violence as a tool to achieve civilizational rehab of the target communities Muslim or otherwise Islamophobia reintroduces and reaffirms a global racial structure through which resource distribution disparities are maintained and extended 33 Debate on the term and its limitations In 1996 the Runnymede Trust established the Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia CBMI chaired by Gordon Conway the vice chancellor of the University of Sussex The Commission s report Islamophobia A Challenge for Us All was published in November 1997 by the Home Secretary Jack Straw In the Runnymede report Islamophobia was defined as an outlook or world view involving an unfounded dread and dislike of Muslims which results in practices of exclusion and discrimination 34 The introduction of the term was justified by the report s assessment that anti Muslim prejudice has grown so considerably and so rapidly in recent years that a new item in the vocabulary is needed 35 In 2008 a workshop on Thinking Thru Islamophobia was held at the University of Leeds organized by the Centre for Ethnicity and Racism Studies the participants included S Sayyid Abdoolkarim Vakil Liz Fekete and Gabrielle Maranci among others The symposium proposed a definition of Islamophobia which rejected the idea of Islamophobia as being the product of closed and open views of Islam and focused on Islamophobia as performative which problematized Muslim agency and identity The symposium was an early attempt to bring insights from critical race theory postcolonial and decolonial thought to bear on the question of Islamophobia 36 At a 2009 symposium on Islamophobia and Religious Discrimination Robin Richardson a former director of the Runnymede Trust 37 failed verification and the editor of Islamophobia a challenge for us all 38 said that the disadvantages of the term Islamophobia are significant on seven different grounds including that it implies it is merely a severe mental illness affecting only a tiny minority of people that use of the term makes those to whom it is applied defensive and defiant and absolves the user of the responsibility of trying to understand them or trying to change their views that it implies that hostility to Muslims is divorced from factors such as skin color immigrant status fear of fundamentalism or political or economic conflicts that it conflates prejudice against Muslims in one s own country with dislike of Muslims in countries with which the West is in conflict that it fails to distinguish between people who are against all religion from people who dislike Islam specifically and that the actual issue being described is hostility to Muslims an ethno religious identity within European countries rather than hostility to Islam Nonetheless he argued that the term is here to stay and that it is important to define it precisely 39 The exact definition of Islamophobia continues to be discussed with academics such as Chris Allen saying that it lacks a clear definition 40 41 42 According to Erik Bleich in his article Defining and Researching Islamophobia even when definitions are more specific there is still significant variation in the precise formulations of Islamophobia As with parallel concepts like homophobia or xenophobia Islamophobia connotes a broader set of negative attitudes or emotions directed at individuals of groups because of perceived membership in a defined category 43 Mattias Gardell defines Islamophobia as socially reproduced prejudices and aversion to Islam and Muslims as well as actions and practices that attack exclude or discriminate against persons on the basis that they are or perceived to be Muslim and be associated with Islam 44 Speaker at demonstration of initiative We don t want Islam in the Czech Republic on 14 March 2015 in Ceske Budejovice Czech Republic Fear As opposed to being a psychological or individualistic phobia according to professors of religion Peter Gottschalk and Gabriel Greenberg Islamophobia connotes a social anxiety about Islam and Muslims 45 46 Some social scientists have adopted this definition and developed instruments to measure Islamophobia in form of fearful attitudes towards and avoidance of Muslims and Islam 47 48 arguing that Islamophobia should essentially be understood as an affective part of social stigma towards Islam and Muslims namely fear 48 2 Racism See also Cultural racism Several scholars consider Islamophobia to be a form of xenophobia or racism A 2007 article in Journal of Sociology defines Islamophobia as anti Muslim racism and a continuation of anti Asian anti Turkic and anti Arab racism 49 50 51 52 In their books Deepa Kumar and Junaid Rana have argued that formation of Islamophobic discourses has paralleled the development of other forms of racial bigotry 53 Similarly John Denham has drawn parallels between modern Islamophobia and the antisemitism of the 1930s 54 so have Maud Olofsson 55 and Jan Hjarpe among others 56 57 Others have questioned the relationship between Islamophobia and racism Jocelyne Cesari writes that academics are still debating the legitimacy of the term and questioning how it differs from other terms such as racism anti Islamism anti Muslimness and anti Semitism 58 59 Erdenir finds that there is no consensus on the scope and content of the term and its relationship with concepts such as racism 60 and Shryock reviewing the use of the term across national boundaries comes to the same conclusion 61 Some scholars view Islamophobia and racism as partially overlapping phenomena Diane Frost defines Islamophobia as anti Muslim feeling and violence based on race or religion 62 Islamophobia may also target people who have Muslim names or have a look that is associated with Muslims 63 According to Alan Johnson Islamophobia sometimes can be nothing more than xenophobia or racism wrapped in religious terms 64 Sociologists Yasmin Hussain and Paul Bagguley stated that racism and Islamophobia are analytically distinct but empirically inter related 65 The European Commission against Racism and Intolerance ECRI defines Islamophobia as the fear of or prejudiced viewpoint towards Islam Muslims and matters pertaining to them adding that whether it takes the shape of daily forms of racism and discrimination or more violent forms Islamophobia is a violation of human rights and a threat to social cohesion 44 Proposed alternatives The concept of Islamophobia as formulated by Runnymede was also criticized by professor Fred Halliday He writes that the target of hostility in the modern era is not Islam and its tenets as much as it is Muslims suggesting that a more accurate term would be Anti Muslimism He also states that strains and types of prejudice against Islam and Muslims vary across different nations and cultures which is not recognized in the Runnymede analysis which was specifically about Muslims in Britain 66 Poole responds that many Islamophobic discourses attack what they perceive to be Islam s tenets while Miles and Brown write that Islamophobia is usually based upon negative stereotypes about Islam which are then translated into attacks on Muslims They also argue that the existence of different Islamophobias does not invalidate the concept of Islamophobia any more than the existence of different racisms invalidates the concept of racism 4 67 68 In a 2011 paper in American Behavioral Scientist Erik Bleich stated there is no widely accepted definition of Islamophobia that permits systematic comparative and causal analysis and advances indiscriminate negative attitudes or emotions directed at Islam or Muslims as a possible solution to this issue 69 In order to differentiate between prejudiced views of Islam and secularly motivated criticism of Islam Roland Imhoff and Julia Recker formulated the concept Islamoprejudice which they subsequently operationalised in an experiment The experiment showed that their definition provided a tool for accurate differentiation 70 Nevertheless other researchers experimental work indicates that even when Westerners seem to make an effort to distinguish between criticizing Muslim ideas and values and respecting Muslims as persons they still show prejudice and discrimination of Muslims compared to non Muslims when these targets defend supposedly antiliberal causes 71 Origins and causesHistory of the term One early use cited as the term s first use is by the painter Alphonse Etienne Dinet and Algerian intellectual Sliman ben Ibrahim in their 1918 biography of Islam s prophet Muhammad 72 73 Writing in French they used the term islamophobie Robin Richardson writes that in the English version of the book the word was not translated as Islamophobia but rather as feelings inimical to Islam Dahou Ezzerhouni has cited several other uses in French as early as 1910 and from 1912 to 1918 74 These early uses of the term did not according to Christopher Allen have the same meaning as in contemporary usage as they described a fear of Islam by liberal Muslims and Muslim feminists rather than a fear or dislike hatred of Muslims by non Muslims 73 75 On the other hand Fernando Bravo Lopez argues that Dinet and ibn Sliman s use of the term was as a criticism of overly hostile attitudes to Islam by a Belgian orientalist Henri Lammens whose project they saw as a pseudo scientific crusade in the hope of bringing Islam down once and for all He also notes that an early definition of Islamophobia appears in the 1910 Ph D thesis of Alain Quellien a French colonial bureaucrat For some the Muslim is the natural and irreconcilable enemy of the Christian and the European Islam is the negation of civilization and barbarism bad faith and cruelty are the best one can expect from the Mohammedans Furthermore he notes that Quellien s work draws heavily on the work of the French colonial department s 1902 06 administrator who published a work in 1906 which to a great extent mirrors John Esposito s The Islamic Threat Myth or Reality 76 The first recorded use of the term in English according to the Oxford English Dictionary was in 1923 in an article in The Journal of Theological Studies 30 The term entered into common usage with the publication of the Runnymede Trust s report in 1997 77 Kofi Annan asserted at a 2004 conference entitled Confronting Islamophobia that the word Islamophobia had to be coined in order to take account of increasingly widespread bigotry 78 Contrasting views on Islam The Runnymede report contrasted open and closed views of Islam and stated that the following closed views are equated with Islamophobia 79 Islam is seen as a monolithic bloc static and unresponsive to change It is seen as separate and other It does not have values in common with other cultures is not affected by them and does not influence them It is seen as inferior to the West It is seen as barbaric irrational primitive and sexist It is seen as violent aggressive threatening supportive of terrorism and engaged in a clash of civilizations It is seen as a political ideology used for political or military advantage Criticisms made of the West by Muslims are rejected out of hand Hostility towards Islam is used to justify discriminatory practices towards Muslims and exclusion of Muslims from mainstream society Anti Muslim hostility is seen as natural and normal These closed views are contrasted in the report with open views on Islam which while founded on respect for Islam permit legitimate disagreement dialogue and critique 80 According to Benn and Jawad The Runnymede Trust notes that anti Muslim discourse is increasingly seen as respectable providing examples on how hostility towards Islam and Muslims is accepted as normal even among those who may actively challenge other prevalent forms of discrimination 81 Identity politics It has been suggested that Islamophobia is closely related to identity politics and gives its adherents the perceived benefit of constructing their identity in opposition to a negative essentialized image of Muslims This occurs in the form of self righteousness assignment of blame and key identity markers 82 Davina Bhandar writes that 83 the term cultural has become synonymous with the category of the ethnic or minority It views culture as an entity that is highly abstracted from the practices of daily life and therefore represents the illusion that there exists a spirit of the people This formulation leads to the homogenisation of cultural identity and the ascription of particular values and proclivities onto minority cultural groups She views this as an ontological trap that hinders the perception of culture as something materially situated in the living practices of the everyday situated in time space and not based in abstract projections of what constitutes either a particular tradition or culture In some societies Islamophobia has materialized due to the portrayal of Islam and Muslims as the national Other where exclusion and discrimination occurs on the basis of their religion and civilization which differs with national tradition and identity Examples include Pakistani and Algerian migrants in Britain and France respectively 84 85 This sentiment according to Malcolm Brown and Robert Miles significantly interacts with racism although Islamophobia itself is not racism 85 86 Author Doug Saunders has drawn parallels between Islamophobia in the United States and its older discrimination and hate against Roman Catholics saying that Catholicism was seen as backwards and imperial while Catholic immigrants had poorer education and some were responsible for crime and terrorism 87 88 89 Brown and Miles write that another feature of Islamophobic discourse is to amalgamate nationality e g Saudi religion Islam and politics terrorism fundamentalism while most other religions are not associated with terrorism or even ethnic or national distinctiveness 85 They feel that many of the stereotypes and misinformation that contribute to the articulation of Islamophobia are rooted in a particular perception of Islam such as the notion that Islam promotes terrorism especially prevalent after the September 11 2001 attacks 4 The two way stereotyping resulting from Islamophobia has in some instances resulted in mainstreaming of earlier controversial discourses such as liberal attitudes towards gender equality 82 83 and homosexuals 90 Christina Ho has warned against framing of such mainstreaming of gender equality in a colonial paternal discourse arguing that this may undermine minority women s ability to speak out about their concerns 91 Steven Salaita contends that since 9 11 Arab Americans have evolved from what Nadine Naber described as an invisible group in the United States into a highly visible community that directly or indirectly has an effect on the United States culture wars foreign policy presidential elections and legislative tradition 92 The academics S Sayyid and Abdoolkarim Vakil maintain that Islamophobia is a response to the emergence of a distinct Muslim public identity globally the presence of Muslims in itself not being an indicator of the degree of Islamophobia in a society Sayyid and Vakil maintain that there are societies where virtually no Muslims live but many institutionalized forms of Islamophobia still exist in them 36 Links to ideologies The 2014 anti Muslim riots in Sri Lanka followed rallies by Bodu Bala Sena BBS a hard line Buddhist group An anti Islam protest in the United States Cora Alexa Doving a senior scientist at the Norwegian Center for Studies of the Holocaust and Religious Minorities argues that there are significant similarities between Islamophobic discourse and European pre Nazi antisemitism 82 Among the concerns are imagined threats of minority growth and domination threats to traditional institutions and customs skepticism of integration threats to secularism fears of sexual crimes fears of misogyny fears based on historical cultural inferiority hostility to modern Western Enlightenment values etc Matti Bunzl de has argued that there are important differences between Islamophobia and antisemitism While antisemitism was a phenomenon closely connected to European nation building processes he sees Islamophobia as having the concern of European civilization as its focal point 93 Doving on the other hand maintains that at least in Norway the Islamophobic discourse has a clear national element 82 In a reply to Bunzl French scholar of Jewish history Esther Benbassa agrees with him in that he draws a clear connection between modern hostile and essentializing sentiments towards Muslims and historical antisemitism However she argues against the use of the term Islamophobia since in her opinion it attracts unwarranted attention to an underlying racist current 94 The head of the Media Responsibility Institute in Erlangen Sabine Schiffer and researcher Constantin Wagner who also define Islamophobia as anti Muslim racism outline additional similarities and differences between Islamophobia and antisemitism 95 They point out the existence of equivalent notions such as Judaisation Islamisation and metaphors such as a state within a state are used in relation to both Jews and Muslims In addition both discourses make use of among other rhetorical instruments religious imperatives supposedly proven by religious sources and conspiracy theories The differences between Islamophobia and antisemitism consist of the nature of the perceived threats to the Christian West Muslims are perceived as inferior and as a visible external threat while on the other hand Jews are perceived as omnipotent and as an invisible internal threat However Schiffer and Wagner also note that there is a growing tendency to view Muslims as a privileged group that constitute an internal threat and that this convergence between the two discources makes it more and more necessary to use findings from the study of anti Semitism to analyse Islamophobia Schiffer and Wagner conclude The achievement in the study of anti Semitism of examining Jewry and anti Semitism separately must also be transferred to other racisms such as Islamophobia We do not need more information about Islam but more information about the making of racist stereotypes in general The publication Social Work and Minorities European Perspectives describes Islamophobia as the new form of racism in Europe 96 arguing that Islamophobia is as much a form of racism as anti semitism a term more commonly encountered in Europe as a sibling of racism xenophobia and intolerance 97 Edward Said considers Islamophobia as it is evinced in Orientalism to be a trend in a more general antisemitic Western tradition 98 99 Others note that there has been a transition from anti Asian and anti Arab racism to anti Muslim racism 100 while some note a racialization of religion 101 According to a 2012 report by a UK anti racism group counter jihadist outfits in Europe and North America are becoming more cohesive by forging alliances with 190 groups now identified as promoting an Islamophobic agenda 102 In Islamophobia and its consequences on young people p 6 Ingrid Ramberg writes Whether it takes the shape of daily forms of racism and discrimination or more violent forms Islamophobia is a violation of human rights and a threat to social cohesion Professor John Esposito of Georgetown University calls Islamophobia the new anti Semitism 103 In their 2018 American Muslim Poll the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding found that when it came to their Islamophobia index see Public Opinion they found that those who scored higher on the index i e more islamophobic were associated with 1 greater acceptance of targeting civilians whether it is a military or individual small group that is doling out the violence 2 greater acquiescence to limiting both press freedoms and institutional checks following a hypothetical terror attack and 3 greater support for the so called Muslim ban and the surveillance of American mosques or their outright building prohibition 104 Mohamed Nimer compares Islamophobia with anti Americanism He argues that while both Islam and America can be subject to legitimate criticisms without detesting a people as a whole bigotry against both are on the rise 105 Gideon Rachman wrote in 2019 of a clash of civilizations between Muslim and non Muslim nations linking anti Islam radicalisation outside the Muslim world to the rise of intolerant Islamism in some Muslim countries that used to be relatively free from that ideology 106 Opposition to multiculturalism According to Gabrielle Maranci the increasing Islamophobia in the West is related to a rising repudiation of multiculturalism Maranci concludes that Islamophobia is a phobia of multiculturalism and the transruptive effect that Islam can have in Europe and the West through transcultural processes 107 ManifestationsMain article Islamophobic incidents Media Main article Islamophobia in the media According to Elizabeth Poole in the Encyclopedia of Race and Ethnic Studies the media have been criticized for perpetrating Islamophobia She cites a case study examining a sample of articles in the British press from between 1994 and 2004 which concluded that Muslim viewpoints were underrepresented and that issues involving Muslims usually depicted them in a negative light Such portrayals according to Poole include the depiction of Islam and Muslims as a threat to Western security and values 108 Benn and Jawad write that hostility towards Islam and Muslims are closely linked to media portrayals of Islam as barbaric irrational primitive and sexist 81 Egorova and Tudor cite European researchers in suggesting that expressions used in the media such as Islamic terrorism Islamic bombs and violent Islam have resulted in a negative perception of Islam 5 John E Richardson s 2004 book Mis representing Islam the racism and rhetoric of British broadsheet newspapers criticized the British media for propagating negative stereotypes of Muslims and fueling anti Muslim prejudice 109 In another study conducted by John E Richardson he found that 85 of mainstream newspaper articles treated Muslims as a homogeneous mass and portrayed them as a threat to British society 110 The Universities of Georgia and Alabama in the United States conducted a study comparing media coverage of terrorist attacks committed by Islamist militants with those of non Muslims in the United States Researchers found that terrorist attacks by Islamist militants receive 357 more media attention than attacks committed by non Muslims or whites Terrorist attacks committed by non Muslims or where the religion was unknown received an average of 15 headlines while those committed by Muslim extremists received 105 headlines The study was based on an analysis of news reports covering terrorist attacks in the United States between 2005 and 2015 111 112 113 In 2009 Mehdi Hasan in the New Statesman criticized Western media for over reporting a few Islamist terrorist incidents but under reporting the much larger number of planned non Islamist terrorist attacks carried out by non Irish white folks 114 A 2012 study indicates that Muslims across different European countries such as France Germany and the United Kingdom experience the highest degree of Islamophobia in the media 48 Media personalities have been accused of Islamophobia The obituary in The Guardian for the Italian journalist Oriana Fallaci described her as notorious for her Islamaphobia sic 115 The Institute for Social Policy and Understanding published a report in 2018 where they stated In terms of print media coverage Muslim perceived perpetrators received twice the absolute quantity of media coverage as their non Muslim counterparts in the cases of violent completed acts For foiled plots they received seven and half times the media coverage as their counterparts 116 The term Islamophobia industry has been coined by Nathan Lean and John Esposito in the 2012 book The Islamophobia Industry How the Right Manufactures Fear of Muslims Unlike the relationship of a buyer and a seller it is a relationship of mutual benefit where ideologies and political proclivities converge to advance the same agenda 117 The Islamophobia industry has since been discussed by other scholars including Joseph Kaminski 118 Hatem Bazian 119 Arlene Stein Zakia Salime Reza Aslan 120 Erdoan A Shipoli and Deepa Kumar the latter drawing a comparison between the Islamophobia industry and Cold War era McCarthyism 121 Some media outlets are working explicitly against Islamophobia In 2008 Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting FAIR published a study Smearcasting How Islamophobes Spread Bigotry Fear and Misinformation The report cites several instances where mainstream or close to mainstream journalists authors and academics have made analyses that essentialize negative traits as an inherent part of Muslims moral makeup 122 FAIR also established the Forum Against Islamophobia and Racism designed to monitor coverage in the media and establish dialogue with media organizations Following the attacks of 11 September 2001 the Islamic Society of Britain s Islam Awareness Week and the Best of British Islam Festival were introduced to improve community relations and raise awareness about Islam 123 In 2012 the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation stated that they will launch a TV channel to counter Islamophobia 124 Silva and Meaux et al both theorized that one of the main causes of negative interactions stigma and marginalization toward the Arabic community is due to the fact that many media framing from news outlets tend to associate Arab Muslims with terrorism and jihadist inspired motivations when it came to mass violence incidents 125 126 Silva noted in their research looking through New York Times articles about gun violence and noted that over the sixteen year period of 2000 until 2016 this media framing would only increase through the time period 126 Silva compared his results to find out that Arabic perpetrators were significantly more like to be framed as terrorists than their White counterparts Meaux et al note back to research conducted by Park et al that indicated that the most salient association that Americans held on to was Arab Muslims to terrorism with the notion that people that believed in this association the strongest were more likely to hold implicit bias 125 127 Movies Throughout the twentieth century Muslim characters were portrayed in Hollywood often negatively and with Orientalist stereotypes visualising them as being uncivilised Since the Post 9 11 era in addition to these tropes a securitization of Muslims portraying them as a threat to the Western world have drastically increased in movie depictions 128 There are growing instances of Islamophobia in Hindi cinema or Bollywood in films such as Aamir 2008 New York 2009 and My Name is Khan 2010 which corresponds to a growing anti minorities sentiment that followed the resurgence of the Hindu right 129 130 An English Defence League demonstration The placard reads Shut down the mosque command and control centre Organizations See also List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as hate groups Anti Muslim A report from the University of California Berkeley and the Council on American Islamic Relations estimated that 206 million was funded to 33 groups whose primary purpose was to promote prejudice against or hatred of Islam and Muslims in the United States between 2008 and 2013 with a total of 74 groups contributing to Islamophobia in the United States during that period 131 Stop Islamization of America SIOA and the Freedom Defense Initiative are designated as hate groups by the Anti Defamation League 132 and the Southern Poverty Law Center 133 134 135 In August 2012 SIOA generated media publicity by sponsoring billboards in New York City Subway stations claiming there had been 19 250 terrorist attacks by Muslims since 9 11 and stating it s not Islamophobia it s Islamorealism 136 It later ran advertisements reading In any war between the civilized man and the savage support the civilized man Support Israel Defeat Jihad Several groups condemned the advertisements as hate speech about all Muslims 137 138 In early January 2013 the Freedom Defense Initiative put up advertisements next to 228 clocks in 39 New York subway stations showing the 2001 attacks on the World Trade Center with a quote attributed to the 151st verse of chapter 3 of the Quran Soon shall we cast terror into the hearts of the unbelievers 139 140 The New York City Transit Authority which said it would have to carry the advertisements on First Amendment grounds insisted that 25 of the ad contain a Transit Authority disclaimer 141 142 These advertisements also were criticized 143 144 The English Defence League EDL an organization in the United Kingdom has been described as anti Muslim It was formed in 2009 to oppose what it considers to be a spread of Islamism Sharia law and Islamic extremism in the UK 145 The EDL s former leader Tommy Robinson left the group in 2013 saying it had become too extreme and that street protests were ineffective 146 Furthermore the 7 July 2005 London bombings and the resulting efforts of the British civil and law enforcement authorities to help seek British Muslims help in identifying potential threats to create prevention is observed by Michael Lavalette as institutionalized Islamophobia Lavalette alleges that there is a continuity between the former two British governments over prevention that aims to stop young Muslim people from being misled misdirected and recruited by extremists who exploit grievances for their own jihadist endeavors Asking and concentrating on Muslim communities and young Muslims to prevent future instances by the authorities is in itself Islamophobia as such since involvement of Muslim communities will highlight and endorse their compassion for Britain and negate the perceived threats from within their communities 147 Public opinion Anti Islam rally in Poland in 2015 The extent of negative attitudes towards Muslims varies across different parts of Europe Polls in Germany 148 149 and the Czech Republic 150 as well as South Korea 151 have suggested that most respondents do not welcome Muslim refugees in those countries A 2017 Chatham House poll of more than 10 000 people in 10 European countries had on average 55 agreeing that all further migration from Muslim majority countries should be stopped with 20 disagreeing and 25 offered no opinion By country majority opposition was found in Poland 71 Austria 65 Belgium 64 Hungary 64 France 61 Greece 58 Germany 53 and Italy 51 152 Unfavorable views of Muslims 2019 153 Country PercentPoland 66 Czech Republic 64 Hungary 58 Greece 57 Lithuania 56 Italy 55 Spain 42 Sweden 28 France 22 Ukraine 21 Russia 19 United Kingdom 18 In Canada surveys have suggested that 55 of respondents think the problem of Islamophobia is overblown by politicians and media 42 think discrimination against Muslims is mainly their fault and 47 support banning headscarves in public 154 In the United States a 2011 YouGov poll found that 50 of respondents expressed an unfavorable view of Islam compared to 23 expressing a favorable view 155 Another YouGov poll done in 2015 had 55 of respondents expressing an unfavorable view 156 However according to a 2018 Institute for Social Policy and Understanding 86 of American respondents said they wanted to live in a country where no one is targeted for their religious identity 83 told ISPU they supported protecting the civil rights of American Muslims 66 believed negative political rhetoric toward Muslims was harmful to U S and 65 agreed that Islamophobia produced discriminatory consequences for Muslims in America 104 The chart below displays collected data from the ISPU 2018 American Muslim Poll 104 which surveyed six different faith populations in the United States The statements featured in this chart were asked to participants who then responded on a scale from strongly agree to strongly disagree The total percentage of those who answered agree and strongly agree are depicted as follows Question 1 I want to live in a country where no one is targeted for their religious identity Question 2 The negative things politicians say regarding Muslims is harmful to our country Question 3 Most Muslims living in the United States are no more responsible for violence carried out by a Muslim than anyone else Question 4 Most Muslims living in the United States are victims of discrimination because of their faith 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Muslim Jewish Catholic Protestant White Evangelical Unaffiliated Question 1 Net agree Question 2 Net agree Question 3 Net Agree Question 4 Net agree The table below represents the Islamophobia Index also from the 2018 ISPU poll 104 This data displays an index of Islamophobia among faith populations in the United States ISPU Islamophobia Index 104 Most Muslims living in the United States Net agree shown Muslim Jewish Catholic Protestant White Evangelical Non Affiliated General PublicAre more prone to violence 18 15 12 13 23 8 13 Discriminate against women 12 23 29 30 36 18 26 Are hostile to the United States 12 13 9 14 23 8 12 Are less civilized than other people 8 6 4 6 10 1 6 Are partially responsible for acts of violence carried out by other Muslims 10 16 11 12 14 8 12 Index 0 min 100 max 17 22 22 31 40 14 24Internalized Islamophobia ISPU also highlighted a particular trend in relation to anti Muslim sentiment in the U S internalized Islamophobia among Muslim populations themselves When asked if they felt most people want them to be ashamed of their faith identity 30 of Muslims agreed a higher percentage than any other faith group When asked if they believed that their faith community was more prone to negative behavior than other faith communities 30 of Muslims agreed again a higher percentage than other faith groups 104 TrendsThis section may contain an excessive number of citations Please consider removing references to unnecessary or disreputable sources merging citations where possible or if necessary flagging the content for deletion September 2021 Learn how and when to remove this template message Islamophobia has become a topic of increasing sociological and political importance 85 According to Benn and Jawad Islamophobia has increased since Ayatollah Khomeini s 1989 fatwa inciting Muslims to attempt to murder Salman Rushdie the author of The Satanic Verses and since the 11 September attacks in 2001 157 Anthropologist Steven Vertovec writes that the purported growth in Islamophobia may be associated with increased Muslim presence in society and successes 158 159 He suggests a circular model where increased hostility towards Islam and Muslims results in governmental countermeasures such as institutional guidelines and changes to legislation which itself may fuel further Islamophobia due to increased accommodation for Muslims in public life Vertovec concludes As the public sphere shifts to provide a more prominent place for Muslims Islamophobic tendencies may amplify 158 159 An anti Islamic protest in Poland Patel Humphries and Naik 1998 claim that Islamophobia has always been present in Western countries and cultures In the last two decades it has become accentuated explicit and extreme 160 161 However Vertovec states that some have observed that Islamophobia has not necessarily escalated in the past decades but that there has been increased public scrutiny of it 158 159 According to Abduljalil Sajid one of the members of the Runnymede Trust s Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia Islamophobias have existed in varying strains throughout history with each version possessing its own distinct features as well as similarities or adaptations from others 162 In 2005 Ziauddin Sardar an Islamic scholar wrote in the New Statesman that Islamophobia is a widespread European phenomenon 163 He noted that each country has anti Muslim political figures citing Jean Marie Le Pen in France Pim Fortuyn in the Netherlands and Philippe van der Sande of Vlaams Blok a Flemish nationalist party in Belgium Sardar argued that Europe is post colonial but ambivalent Minorities are regarded as acceptable as an underclass of menial workers but if they want to be upwardly mobile anti Muslim prejudice rises to the surface Wolfram Richter professor of economics at Dortmund University of Technology told Sardar I am afraid we have not learned from our history My main fear is that what we did to Jews we may now do to Muslims The next holocaust would be against Muslims 163 Similar fears as noted by Kenan Malik in his book From Fatwa to Jihad had been previously expressed in the UK by Muslim philosopher Shabbir Akhtar in 1989 and Massoud Shadjareh chair of the Islamic Human Rights Commission in 2000 In 2006 Salma Yaqoob a Respect Party Councillor claimed that Muslims in Britain were subject to attacks reminiscent of the gathering storm of anti Semitism in the first decades of the last century 164 Malik a senior visiting fellow in the Department of Political International and Policy Studies at the University of Surrey has described these claims of a brewing holocaust as hysterical to the point of delusion whereas Jews in Hitler s Germany were given the official designation of Untermenschen and were subject to escalating legislation which diminished and ultimately removed their rights as citizens Malik noted that in cases where Muslims are singled out in Britain it is often for privileged treatment such as the 2005 legislation banning incitement to religious hatred the special funding Muslim organizations and bodies receive from local and national government the special provisions made by workplaces school and leisure centres for Muslims and even suggestions by the Archbishop of Canterbury Rowan Williams and the former Lord Chief Justice Lord Phillips that sharia law should be introduced into Britain The fact is wrote Malik that such well respected public figures as Akhtar Shadjareh and Yaqoob need a history lesson about the real Holocaust reveals how warped the Muslim grievance culture has become 165 A protester opposing the Park51 project carries an anti sharia sign Hindu nationalist politician Arun Pathak organised a celebration in Varanasi to commemorate the 1992 demolition of the Babri Masjid mosque In 2006 ABC News reported that public views of Islam are one casualty of the post September 11 2001 conflict Nearly six in 10 Americans think the religion is prone to violent extremism nearly half regard it unfavorably and a remarkable one in four admits to prejudicial feelings against Muslims and Arabs alike They also report that 27 percent of Americans admit feelings of prejudice against Muslims 166 Gallup polls in 2006 found that 40 percent of Americans admit to prejudice against Muslims and 39 percent believe Muslims should carry special identification 167 These trends have only worsened with the use of Islamophobia as a campaign tactic during the 2008 American presidential election with several Republican politicians and pundits including Donald Trump asserting that Democratic candidate Barack Obama is secretly a Muslim during the 2010 mid term elections during which a proposed Islamic community center was dubbed the Ground Zero Mosque 168 and the 2016 presidential election during which Republican nominee Donald Trump proposed banning the entrance into the country of all Muslims Associate Professor Deepa Kumar writes that Islamophobia is about politics rather than religion per se 169 and that modern day demonization of Arabs and Muslims by US politicians and others is racist and Islamophobic and employed in support of what she describes as an unjust war About the public impact of this rhetoric she says that One of the consequences of the relentless attacks on Islam and Muslims by politicians and the media is that Islamophobic sentiment is on the rise She also chides some people on the left for using the same Islamophobic logic as the Bush regime 170 In this regards Kumar confirms the assertions of Stephen Sheehi who conceptualises Islamophobia as an ideological formation within the context of the American empire Doing so allows us to remove it from the hands of culture or from the myth of a single creator or progenitor whether it be a person organisation or community An ideological formation in this telling is a constellation of networks that produce proliferate benefit from and traffic in Islamophobic discourses 171 The writer and scholar on religion Reza Aslan has said that Islamophobia has become so mainstream in this country that Americans have been trained to expect violence against Muslims not excuse it but expect it 172 A January 2010 British Social Attitudes Survey found that the British public is far more likely to hold negative views of Muslims than of any other religious group 173 with just one in four feeling positively about Islam and a majority of the country would be concerned if a mosque was built in their area while only 15 per cent expressed similar qualms about the opening of a church 174 A 2016 report by CAIR and University of California Berkeley s Center for Race and Gender said that groups promoting islamophobia in the US had access to US 206 million between 2008 and 2013 The author of the report said that The hate that these groups are funding and inciting is having real consequences like attacks on mosques all over the country and new laws discriminating against Muslims in America 175 In the United States religious discrimination against Muslims has become a significant issue of concern In 2018 The Institute for Social Policy and Understanding found that out of the groups studied Muslims are the most likely faith community to experience religious discrimination the data having been that way since 2015 Despite 61 of Muslims reporting experiencing religious discrimination at some level and 62 reporting that most Americans held negative stereotypes about their community 23 reported that their faith made them feel out of place in the world 104 There are intersections with racial identity and gender identity with 73 of Arabs surveyed being more likely to experience religious discrimination and Muslim women 75 and youth 75 being the most likely to report experiencing racial discrimination The study also found that although most Muslims 86 express pride in their faith identity they are the most likely group studied to agree that others want them to feel shame for that identity 30 of Muslims vs 12 of Jews 16 of non affiliated and 4 6 of Christian groups 104 A 2021 survey affiliated with Newcastle University found that 83 of Muslims in Scotland said they experienced Islamophobia such as verbal or physical attacks 75 of them said Islamophobia is a regular or everyday issue in Scottish society and 78 believed it was getting worse 176 Anti Islamic hate crimes data in the United States A mannequin symbolizing a Muslim in a keffiyeh strapped to a Made in the USA bomb display at a protest of Park51 in New York City A protest in Cincinnati Ohio Protests against Executive Order 13769 in Tehran Iran 10 February 2017 Data on types of hate crimes have been collected by the U S FBI since 1992 to carry out the dictates of the 1990 Hate Crime Statistics Act Hate crime offenses include crimes against persons such as assaults and against property such as arson and are classified by various race based religion based and other motivations The data show that recorded anti Islamic hate crimes in the United States jumped dramatically in 2001 Anti Islamic hate crimes then subsided but continued at a significantly higher pace than in pre 2001 years The step up is in contrast to decreases in total hate crimes and to the decline in overall crime in the U S since the 1990s Specifically the FBI s annual hate crimes statistics reports from 1996 to 2013 document average numbers of anti Islamic offenses at 31 per year before 2001 then a leap to 546 in 2001 the year of 9 11 attacks and averaging 159 per since Among those offenses are anti Islamic arson incidents which have a similar pattern arson incidents averaged 0 4 per year pre 2001 jumped to 18 in 2001 and averaged 1 5 annually since 177 2021 One of the members of Congress shared an anti Muslim story about Muslim member of Congress during Thanksgiving break This has happened many times 178 Year by year anti Islamic hate crimes all hate crimes and arson subtotals are as follows Anti Islamic hate crimes All hate crimesYear Arson offenses Total offenses Arson offenses Total offenses1996 0 33 75 10 7061997 1 31 60 9 8611998 0 22 50 9 2351999 1 34 48 9 3012000 0 33 52 9 4302001 18 546 90 11 4512002 0 170 38 8 8322003 2 155 34 8 7152004 2 193 44 9 0352005 0 146 39 8 3802006 0 191 41 9 0802007 0 133 40 9 0062008 5 123 53 9 1682009 1 128 41 7 7892010 1 186 42 7 6992011 2 175 42 7 2542012 4 149 38 6 7182013 1 165 36 6 933Total 38 2 613 863 158 593Average 2 1 145 2 47 9 8810 71996 2000 avg 40 30 6 57 0 9 7072001 18 546 90 11 4512002 2013 avg 1 50 159 5 40 7 8 217In contrast the overall numbers of arson and total offenses declined from pre 2001 to post 2001 Anti Islamic hate crimes in the European countries There have also been reports of hate crimes targeting Muslims across Europe These incidents have increased after terrorist attacks by extremist groups such as ISIL 179 Far right and right wing populist political parties and organizations have also been accused of fueling fear and hatred towards Muslims 180 181 182 183 Hate crimes such as arson and physical violence have been attempted or have occurred in Norway 184 Poland 185 186 Sweden 187 France 188 Spain 189 Denmark 190 Germany 191 and Great Britain 192 Politicians have also made anti Muslim comments when discussing the European migrant crisis 193 194 195 According to MDPI The Islamophobia Industry in America is another related issue it mentions The industry is driven by neocon stars Daniel Pipes Robert Spencer David Yerushalmi Glenn Beck Pamela Gellner Paul Wolfowitz David Horowitz and Frank Gaffney as well as native informers Walid Shoebat Walid Phares Wafa Sultan Ayaan Hirsi Ali Ibn Warraq Brigitte Gabriel Tawfik Hamid and Zuhdi Jasser They have been prolific producing and re circulating false or exaggerated information about Islam and Muslims in order to gain lucrative speaking engagements and increase their influence among neocons in government 196 Reports by governmental organizations See also Hijabophobia According to a survey conducted by the European Commission in 2015 13 of the respondents would be completely uncomfortable about working with a Muslim person orange compared with 17 with a transgender or transsexual person green and 20 with a Roma person violet 197 The largest project monitoring Islamophobia was undertaken following 9 11 by the EU watchdog European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia EUMC Their May 2002 report Summary report on Islamophobia in the EU after 11 September 2001 written by Chris Allen and Jorgen S Nielsen of the University of Birmingham was based on 75 reports 15 from each EU member nation 198 199 The report highlighted the regularity with which ordinary Muslims became targets for abusive and sometimes violent retaliatory attacks after 9 11 Despite localized differences within each member nation the recurrence of attacks on recognizable and visible traits of Islam and Muslims was the report s most significant finding Incidents consisted of verbal abuse blaming all Muslims for terrorism forcibly removing women s hijabs spitting on Muslims calling children Osama and random assaults A number of Muslims were hospitalized and in one instance paralyzed 199 The report also discussed the portrayal of Muslims in the media Inherent negativity stereotypical images fantastical representations and exaggerated caricatures were all identified The report concluded that a greater receptivity towards anti Muslim and other xenophobic ideas and sentiments has and may well continue to become more tolerated 199 The EUMC has since released a number of publications related to Islamophobia including The Fight against Antisemitism and Islamophobia Bringing Communities together European Round Tables Meetings 2003 and Muslims in the European Union Discrimination and Islamophobia 2006 200 Professor in History of Religion Anne Sophie Roald states that Islamophobia was recognized as a form of intolerance alongside xenophobia and antisemitism at the Stockholm International Forum on Combating Intolerance 201 held in January 2001 202 The conference attended by UN Secretary General Kofi Annan High Commissioner for Human Rights Mary Robinson the Organization for Security and Co operation in Europe Secretary General Jan Kubis and representatives of the European Union and Council of Europe adopted a declaration to combat genocide ethnic cleansing racism antisemitism Islamophobia and xenophobia and to combat all forms of racial discrimination and intolerance related to it 203 The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation in its 5th report to Islamophobia Observatory of 2012 found an institutionalization and legitimization of the phenomenon of Islamophobia in the West over the previous five years 204 In 2014 Integrationsverket the Swedish National Integration Board defined Islamophobia as racism and discrimination expressed towards Muslims 205 In 2016 the European Islamophobia Report EIR presented the European Islamophobia Report 2015 206 207 at European Parliament which analyzes the trends in the spread of Islamophobia in 25 European states in 2015 The EIR defines Islamophobia as anti Muslim racism While not every criticism of Muslims or Islam is necessarily Islamophobic anti Muslim sentiments expressed through the dominant group scapegoating and excluding Muslims for the sake of power is 208 Research on Islamophobia and its correlates According to data by the Pew Research Center elaborated by VoxEurop in European Union countries the negative attitude towards Muslims is inversely proportional to actual presence 209 Various studies have been conducted to investigate Islamophobia and its correlates among majority populations and among Muslim minorities themselves To start with an experimental study showed that anti Muslim attitudes may be stronger than more general xenophobic attitudes 210 Moreover studies indicate that anti Muslim prejudice among majority populations is primarily explained by the perception of Muslims as a cultural threat rather than as a threat towards the respective nation s economy 211 212 213 Studies focusing on the experience of Islamophobia among Muslims have shown that the experience of religious discrimination is associated with lower national identification and higher religious identification 214 215 In other words religious discrimination seems to lead Muslims to increase their identification with their religion and to decrease their identification with their nation of residence Some studies further indicate that societal Islamophobia negatively influences Muslim minorities health 48 216 One of the studies showed that the perception of an Islamophobic society is associated with more psychological problems such as depression and nervousness regardless whether the respective individual had personally experienced religious discrimination 48 As the authors of the study suggest anti discrimination laws may therefore be insufficient to fully protect Muslim minorities from an environment which is hostile towards their religious group Farid Hafez and Enes Bayrakli publish an annual European Islamophobia Report since 2015 217 The European Islamophobie Report aims to enable policymakers as well as the public to discuss the issue of Islamophobia with the help of qualitative data It is the first report to cover a wide range of Eastern European countries like Serbia Croatia Hungary Lithuania and Latvia Farid Hafez is also editor of the German English Islamophobia Studies Yearbook 218 Geographic trends An increase of Islamophobia in Russia follows the growing influence of the strongly conservative sect of Wahhabism according to Nikolai Sintsov of the National Anti Terrorist Committee 219 Various translations of the Qur an have been banned by the Russian government for promoting extremism and Muslim supremacy 220 221 Anti Muslim rhetoric is on the rise in Georgia 222 In Greece Islamophobia accompanies anti immigrant sentiment as immigrants are now 15 of the country s population and 90 of the EU s illegal entries are through Greece 223 In France Islamophobia is tied in part to the nation s long standing tradition of secularism 224 In Myanmar Burma the 969 Movement has been accused of events such as the 2012 Rakhine State riots Rohingya Muslim refugees fleeing violence in Buddhist majority Myanmar in October 2017 Jocelyne Cesari in her study of discrimination against Muslims in Europe 225 finds that anti Islamic sentiment may be difficult to separate from other drivers of discrimination Because Muslims are mainly from immigrant backgrounds and the largest group of immigrants in many Western European countries xenophobia overlaps with Islamophobia and a person may have one the other or both So for example some people who have a negative perception of and attitude toward Muslims may also show this toward non Muslim immigrants either as a whole or certain group such as for example Eastern Europeans sub Saharan Africans or Roma whereas others would not Nigel Farage for example is anti EU and in favor of crackdowns on immigration from Eastern Europe but is favourable to immigration from Islamic Commonwealth countries such as Nigeria and Pakistan 226 In the United States where immigrants from Latin America and Asia dominate and Muslims are a comparatively small fraction xenophobia and Islamophobia may be more easily separable Classism is another overlapping factor in some nations Muslims have lower income and poorer education in France Spain Germany and the Netherlands while Muslims in the US have higher income and education than the general population In the UK Islam is seen as a threat to secularism in response to the calls by some Muslims for blasphemy laws In the Netherlands Islam is seen as a socially conservative force that threatens gender equality and the acceptance of homosexuality The European Network Against Racism ENAR reports that Islamophobic crimes are on the increase in France England and Wales In Sweden crimes with an Islamophobic motive increased by 69 from 2009 to 2013 227 A report from Australia has found that except for Anglicans all Christian groups have Islamophobia scores higher than the national average and that among the followers of non Christian religious affiliations Buddhists and Hindus also have significantly higher Islamophobia scores 228 In 2016 the South Thailand Insurgency having caused more than 6 500 deaths and purportedly fuelled in part by the Thai military s harsh tactics 229 was reported to be increasing Islamophobia in the country 230 231 The Mindanao conflict in the Philippines has also fuelled discrimination against Muslims by some Christian Filipinos 232 233 The 2018 anti Muslim riots in Sri Lanka was suggested to have been a possible trigger for the 2019 Easter bombings 234 Muslims in the country have reportedly faced increased harassment after the bombings with some Sinhala Buddhist groups calling for boycotts of Muslim businesses and trade 235 In July 2019 the UN ambassadors from 22 nations including Canada Germany and France signed a joint letter to the UNHRC condemning China s mistreatment of the Uyghurs as well as its mistreatment of other Muslim minority groups urging the Chinese government to close the Xinjiang re education camps 236 though ambassadors from 53 others not including China rejected said allegations 237 According to a 2020 report by the Australian Strategic Policy Institute since 2017 Chinese authorities have destroyed or damaged 16 000 mosques in Xinjiang 65 of the region s total 238 239 The 2020 Delhi riots which left more than 50 dead and hundreds injured 240 241 were triggered by protests against a citizenship law seen by many critics as anti Muslim and part of Prime Minister Narendra Modi s Hindu nationalist agenda 242 Criticism of term and useAlthough by the first decade of the 21st century the term Islamophobia had become widely recognized and used 243 its use its construction and the concept itself have been criticized Roland Imhoff and Julia Recker in an article that puts forward the term Islamoprejudice as a better alternative write that few concepts have been debated as heatedly over the last ten years as the term Islamophobia 70 Academic debate Jocelyne Cesari reported widespread challenges in the use and meaning of the term in 2006 75 244 According to The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics Much debate has surrounded the use of the term questioning its adequacy as an appropriate and meaningful descriptor However since Islamophobia has broadly entered the social and political lexicon arguments about the appropriateness of the term now seem outdated 245 At the same time according to a 2014 edition of A Dictionary of Sociology by Oxford University Press the exact meaning of Islamophobia continues to be debated amongst academics and policymakers alike The term has proven problematic and is viewed by some as an obstacle to constructive criticism of Islam Its detractors fear that it can be applied to any critique of Islamic practices and beliefs suggesting terms such as anti Muslim instead 246 The classification of closed and open views set out in the Runnymede report has been criticized as an oversimplification of a complex issue by scholars like Chris Allen Fred Halliday and Kenan Malik 247 Paul Jackson in a critical study of the anti Islamic English Defence League argues that the criteria put forward by the Runnymede report for Islamophobia can allow for any criticism of Muslim societies to be dismissed He argues that both jihadi Islamists and far right activists use the term to deflect attention away from more nuanced discussions on the make up of Muslim communities feeding a language of polarised polemics On one hand it can be used to close down discussion on genuine areas of criticism regarding jihadi ideologies which in turn has resulted in all accusations of Islamophobia to be dismissed as spurious by far right activists Consequently the term is losing much of its analytical value 248 Professor Eli Gondor wrote that the term Islamophobia should be replaced with Muslimophobia 249 As Islamophobia is a rejection of a population on the grounds of Muslimness other researches suggest Muslimism 250 Professor Mohammad H Tamdgidi of the University of Massachusetts Boston has generally endorsed the definition of Islamophobia as defined by the Runnymede Trust s Islamophobia A Challenge for Us All However he notes that the report s list of open views of Islam itself presents an inadvertent definitional framework for Islamophilia that is it falls in the trap of regarding Islam monolithically in turn as being characterized by one or another trait and does not adequately express the complex heterogeneity of a historical phenomenon whose contradictory interpretations traditions and sociopolitical trends have been shaped and has in turn been shaped as in the case of any world tradition by other world historical forces 251 Atheist author and professor Richard Dawkins has criticised the term Islamophobia He has argued that while hatred of Muslims is unequivocally reprehensible the term Islamophobia itself is an otiose word which doesn t deserve definition 252 In 2015 along with the National Secular Society he expressed opposition to a proposal by then Labour Party leader Ed Miliband to make Islamophobia an aggravated crime Dawkins stated that the proposed law was based on a term that is too vague puts religion above scrutiny and questioned if such a law under the term Islamophobia hypothetically could be used to prosecute Charlie Hebdo or if he could be jailed for quoting violent passages from Islamic scripture on Twitter 253 Philosopher Michael Walzer says that fear of religious militancy such as of Hindutva zealots in India of messianic Zionists in Israel and of rampaging Buddhist monks in Myanmar is not necessarily an irrational phobia and compares fear of Islamic extremism with the fear Muslims and Jews could feel towards Christians during the crusades 254 However he also writes that Islamophobia is a form of religious intolerance even religious hatred and it would be wrong for any leftists to support bigots in Europe and the United States who deliberately misunderstand and misrepresent contemporary Muslims They make no distinction between the historic religion and the zealots of this moment they regard every Muslim immigrant in a Western country as a potential terrorist and they fail to acknowledge the towering achievements of Muslim philosophers poets and artists over many centuries 254 Commentary In the wake of the Jyllands Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy a group of 12 writers including novelist Salman Rushdie and activist Ayaan Hirsi Ali signed a manifesto entitled Together facing the new totalitarianism in the French weekly satirical newspaper Charlie Hebdo in March 2006 warning against the use of the term Islamophobia to prevent criticism of Islamic totalitarianism 255 256 Rushdie added in 2012 that Islamophobia took the language of analysis reason and dispute and stood it on its head citation needed Hirsi Ali added in 2017 that Islamophobia was a manufactured term whose usage emboldens radical Muslims to push for censorship and that we can t stop the injustices if we say everything is Islamophobic and hide behind a politically correct screen 257 Left wing journalist and New Atheist writer Christopher Hitchens stated in February 2007 that a stupid term Islamophobia has been put into circulation to try and suggest that a foul prejudice lurks behind any misgivings about Islam s infallible message 258 Writing in the New Humanist in May 2007 philosopher Piers Benn suggests that people who fear the rise of Islamophobia foster an environment not intellectually or morally healthy to the point that what he calls Islamophobia phobia can undermine critical scrutiny of Islam as somehow impolite or ignorant of the religion s true nature 259 Alan Posener and Alan Johnson have written that while the idea of Islamophobia is sometimes misused those who claim that hatred of Muslims is justified as opposition to Islamism actually undermine the struggle against Islamism 64 The author Sam Harris while denouncing bigotry racism and prejudice against Muslims or Arabs rejects the term Islamophobia 260 as an invented psychological disorder and states criticizing those Islamic beliefs and practices he believes pose a threat to civil society is not a form of bigotry or racism 261 Similarly Pascal Bruckner calls the term a clever invention because it amounts to making Islam a subject that one cannot touch without being accused of racism 262 Writing in 2008 Muslim reformist Ed Husain a former member of Hizb ut Tahrir and co founder of Quilliam 263 said that under pressure from Islamist extremists Islamophobia has become accepted as a phenomenon on a par with racism claiming that Outside a few flashpoints where the BNP is at work most Muslims would be hard pressed to identify Islamophobia in their lives 264 Conservative political commentator Douglas Murray has described Islamophobia in 2013 as a nonsense term and stated a phobia is something of which one is irrationally afraid Yet it is supremely rational to be scared of elements of Islam and of its fundamentalist strains in particular Nevertheless the term has been very successfully deployed not least because it has the aura of a smear Islamophobes are not only subject to an irrational and unnecessary fear they are assumed to be motivated because most Muslims in the West are from an ethnic minority by racism Who would not recoil from such charges 265 In his paper A Measure of Islamophobia British academic Salman Sayyid 2014 argues that these criticisms are a form of etymological fundamentalism and echo earlier comments on racism and antisemitism Racism and antisemitism were also accused of blocking free speech of being conceptually weak and too nebulous for practical purposes 266 French Prime Minister Manuel Valls said in January 2015 following the Charlie Hebdo shooting It is very important to make clear to people that Islam has nothing to do with ISIS There is a prejudice in society about this but on the other hand I refuse to use this term Islamophobia because those who use this word are trying to invalidate any criticism at all of the Islamist ideology The charge of Islamophobia is used to silence people 267 Conservative journalist and commentator Brendan O Neill stated in 2018 Anti Muslim prejudice is out there yes But Islamophobia is an elite invention a top down conceit designed to chill open discussion about religion and values and to protect one particular religion from blasphemy The war on Islamophobia is in essence a demand for censorship 268 Muslim reformist Maajid Nawaz a former member of the Islamist Hizb ut Tahrir group and founder of the counter extremism Quilliam think tank has criticized the term Islamophobia on several occasions stating in 2020 it conflates racism with blasphemy and there s a huge difference in being critical of an idea and critical of a person because of their political or religious identity Nawaz argues that anti Muslim bigotry is a more accurate phrase to use instead of Islamophobia when addressing prejudice faced by people of Muslim origin 269 British American physician author and Muslim reformist writer Qanta A Ahmed has argued against using the term Islamophobia and has cautioned against using it as part of anti racism or hate speech legislation by claiming jihadis will exploit it She has argued that while we re getting better at thwarting terrorist attacks we re still fighting their ideological underpinning As a secular pluralistic democracy we have weapons intellectual scrutiny critical thinking and above all the insight to command the language of this war of ideas And to use the word Islamophobia when talking about anti Muslim xenophobia is to use the vocabulary and adopt the rulebook of the Islamists who wish to obfuscate their intent 270 The Associated Press Stylebook In December 2012 media sources reported that the terms homophobia and Islamophobia would no longer be included in the AP Stylebook Deputy Standards Editor Dave Minthorn said a phobia is a psychiatric or medical term for a severe mental disorder 271 and thus not appropriate to use them in articles with political or social contexts because they imply an understanding of the mental state of another individual 272 Countering IslamophobiaInternational On 16 March 2022 UN designated March 15 as International Day To Combat Islamophobia 273 Europe On 26 September 2018 the European Parliament in Brussels launched the Counter Islamophobia Toolkit CIK with the goal of combatting the growing Islamophobia across the EU and to be distributed to national governments and other policy makers civil society and the media Based on the most comprehensive research in Europe it examines patterns of Islamophobia and effective strategies against it in eight member states It lists ten dominant narratives and ten effective counter narratives 274 275 276 One of the authors of the CIK Amina Easat Daas says that Muslim women are disproportionately affected by Islamophobia based on both the threat to the west and victims of Islamic sexism narratives The approach taken in the CIK is a four step one defining the misinformed narratives based on flawed logic documenting them deconstructing these ideas to expose the flaws and finally reconstruction of mainstream ideas about Islam and Muslims one closer to reality The dominant ideas circulating in popular culture should reflect the diverse everyday experiences of Muslims and their faith 277 See also Islam portalAnti Arabism Criticism of Islam Peace in Islam Persecution of Muslims International Day To Combat Islamophobia Islamophobia in the media Islamophobia Watch Islamophobic incidents Nativism politics Nativism politics in the United States Religious intolerance Religious persecution Religious violence Religious war 9 11 7 7 Attacks Minority stress World Hijab DayReferencesNotes Persian had the expression islam harasi اسلام هراسی hostility to Islam similar to ada al islam ع داء الإسلام in Arabic Citations Islamophobia Oxford Dictionaries Archived from the original on 11 November 2016 Retrieved 10 November 2016 islamophobia Dictionary com Unabridged Online n d Retrieved 10 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In Cesari Jocelyne ed The Oxford Handbook of European Islam Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 960797 6 Carpente Markus 2013 Diversity Intercultural Encounters and Education p 65 Pande Rekha 2012 Globalization Technology Diffusion and Gender Disparity p 99 Racism and Human Rights p 8 Raphael Walden 2004 Muslims in Western Europe p 169 Jorgen S Nielsen 2004 Sedmak Mateja Medaric Zorana Walker Sarah 9 May 2014 Children s Voices Studies of interethnic conflict and violence in European schools Routledge ISBN 978 1 134 49345 6 Kuwara Ibrahim 2004 Islam Nigeria UK Road Tour p 6 2002 Fred halliday Two hours that shook the world p 97 Kollontai Pauline 2007 Community Identity Dynamics of Religion in Context p 254 ISBN 9780567031570 Seid Amine 2011 Islamic Terrorism and the Tangential Response of the West p 39 ISBN 9781467885676 Goknar Erdag 2013 Orhan Pamuk Secularism and Blasphemy p 219 Arasteh Kamyar 2004 The American Reichstag p 94 Dressler Markus 2011 Secularism and Religion Making p 250 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Le Quellec in French 19 June 2019 Histoire et mythe conspirationniste du mot islamophobie Fragments sur les Temps Presents in French Retrieved 31 August 2019 What makes the task difficult perhaps impossible for a non Muslim is that he is compelled under penalty of being accused of Islamophobia to admire the Koran in its totality and to guard against implying the smallest criticism of the text s literary value Anawati 1976 Islamophobia Research amp Documentation Project Defining Islamophobia Center for Race amp Gender University of California at Berkeley Archived from the original on 9 March 2017 Retrieved 15 May 2018 Encyclopedia of Race and Ethics p 215 Meer Nasar Modood Tariq July 2009 Refutations of racism in the Muslim question Patterns of Prejudice 43 3 4 335 54 doi 10 1080 00313220903109250 S2CID 144359945 a b Sayyid Salman Vakil Abdoolkarim 2010 Thinking Through Islamophobia Global Perspectives New York Columbia University Press p 319 ISBN 9780231702065 Runnymede Trust Ranimed 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of Islamophobia in Co Authored Book Wesleyan University Newsletter Archived from the original on 20 August 2008 Retrieved 29 December 2007 Images of Muslims Discussing Islamophobia with Peter Gottschalk Political Affairs Magazine 19 November 2007 Archived from the original on 6 December 2007 Retrieved 29 December 2007 Lee S A Gibbons J A Thompson J M Timani H S 2009 The islamophobia scale Instrument development and initial validation International Journal for the Psychology of Religion 19 2 92 105 doi 10 1080 10508610802711137 S2CID 146757435 a b c d e Kunst J R Sam D L Ulleberg P 2012 Perceived islamophobia Scale development and validation International Journal of Intercultural Relations 37 2 225 37 doi 10 1016 j ijintrel 2012 11 001 The Multicultural State We re In Muslims Multiculture and the Civic Re balancing of British Multiculturalism Political Studies 2009 Vol 57 473 97 Modood Tariq 29 September 2005 Remaking multiculturalism after 7 7 PDF Centre for Research on the European Matrix Archived from the original PDF on 21 September 2013 The most important such form of cultural racism today is anti Muslim racism sometimes called Islamophobia Nathan Lean 2012 The Islamophobia Industry How the Right Manufactures Fear of Muslims Pluto Press ISBN 978 0745332543 Biological racist discourses have now been replaced by what is called the new racism or cultural racist discourses Poynting S Mason V 2007 The resistible rise of Islamophobia Anti Muslim racism in the UK and Australia before 11 September 2001 Journal of Sociology 43 61 86 doi 10 1177 1440783307073935 S2CID 145065236 Erik Love 2013 Review beyond post 9 11 Islamophobia and the Politics of Empire by Deepa Kumar Terrifying Muslims Race and Labor in the South Asian Diaspora by Junaid Rana Contexts 12 1 70 72 JSTOR 41960426 Taking these two works together Kumar and Rana put forth a strong argument that while Islam is certainly a religion and not a race and Muslims like all religious communities are a highly diverse group in terms of ethnicity nationality and even racial backgrounds Islamophobia is in fact a form of racism Both books effectively provide historical accounts showing the parallel development of Islamophobic discourses alongside other forms of racial bigotry and discrimination Fascism fears John Denham speaks out over clashes 12 September 2009 Archived from the original on 10 May 2011 Retrieved 18 March 2015 Dan Nilsson dan nilsson svd se 19 October 2009 Reinfeldt Karnan i partiets ide Svenska Dagbladet Retrieved 18 March 2015 Meer Nasar Noorani Tehseen May 2008 A sociological comparison of anti Semitism and anti Muslim sentiment in Britain PDF The Sociological Review 56 2 195 219 doi 10 1111 j 1467 954X 2008 00784 x S2CID 142754091 Across Europe activists and certain academics are struggling to get across an understanding in their governments and their countries at large that anti Muslim racism Islamophobia is now one of the most pernicious forms of contemporary racism and 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Islamophobia and How Much Is There Theorizing and Measuring an Emerging Comparative Concept American Behavioral Scientist 55 12 1581 1600 doi 10 1177 0002764211409387 S2CID 143679557 a b Imhoff Roland Differentiating Islamophobia Introducing a new scale to measure Islamoprejudice and Secular Islam Critique Academia Van Der Noll Jolanda Saroglou Vassilis Latour David Dolezal Nathalie 2018 Western Anti Muslim Prejudice Value Conflict or Discrimination of Persons Too Political Psychology 39 2 281 301 doi 10 1111 pops 12416 Dinet Alphonse Etienne ben Ibrahim Sliman 1918 La Vie de Mohammed Prophete d Allah Paris cited from Otterbeck Jonas Bevelander Pieter 2006 Islamofobi en studie av begreppet ungdomars attityder och unga muslimars utsatthet PDF in Swedish Anders Lange Stockholm Forum for levande historia ISBN 978 91 976073 6 0 Archived from the original PDF on 19 January 2012 Retrieved 23 November 2011 modern orientalists are partially influenced by an islamofobia which is poorly reconciled with science and hardly worthy of our time a b Allen Christopher 2010 Islamophobia Ashgate Publishing pp 5 6 Ezzerhouni Dahou L islamophobie un racisme apparu avec les colonisations Archived 17 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine Algerie Focus 3 February 2010 Le mot serai ainsi apparu pour la premiere fois dans quelques ouvrages du debut du XXeme siecle On peut citer entre autre La politique musulmane dans l Afrique Occidentale Francaise d Alain Quellien publie en 1910 suivi de quelques citations dans la Revue du Monde Musulman en 1912 et 1918 la Revue du Mercure de France en 1912 Haut Senegal Niger de Maurice Delafosse en 1912 et dans le Journal of Theological Studies en 1924 L annee suivante Etienne Dinet et Slimane Ben Brahim employaient ce terme qui conduit a l aberration dans leur ouvrage L Orient vu par l Occident a b Chris Allen 2007 Islamophobia and its Consequences European Islam 144 67 Bravo Lopez F 2011 Towards a definition of Islamophobia Approximations of the early twentieth century PDF Ethnic and Racial Studies 34 4 556 73 doi 10 1080 01419870 2010 528440 S2CID 217534342 Otterbeck Jonas Bevelander Pieter 2006 Islamofobi en studie av begreppet ungdomars attityder och unga muslimars utsatthet PDF in Swedish Anders Lange Stockholm Forum for levande historia ISBN 978 91 976073 6 0 Archived from the original PDF on 19 January 2012 Retrieved 23 November 2011 Annan Kofi Secretary General addressing headquarters seminar Wed Confronting Islamophobia United Nations press release 7 December 2004 Islamophobia A Challenge for Us All PDF Archived from the original PDF on 26 September 2007 Retrieved 7 May 2014 69 7 KB Runnymede Trust 1997 Benn amp Jawad 2003 p 162 a b Benn amp Jawad 2003 p 165 a b c d Doving Cora Alexa 2010 Anti Semitism and Islamophobia A Comparison of Imposed Group Identities PDF Tidsskrift for Islamforskning 4 2 52 76 doi 10 7146 tifo v4i2 24596 Retrieved 23 November 2011 a b Bhandar D 2010 Cultural politics Disciplining citizenship 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Kanji 30 November 2020 Islamophobia in Canada Submission to the UN Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Religion or Belief PDF Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights Islam Is Still A Disliked Religion To Many 50 Are Unfavorable Towards It YouGov 14 September 2011 Archived from the original on June 2021 Mona Chalabi 8 December 2015 How anti Muslim are Americans Data points to extent of Islamophobia The Guardian Benn amp Jawad 2003 p 111 a b c Steven Vertovec Islamophobia and Muslim Recognition in Britain a b c Haddad 2002 pp 32 33 Naina Patel Beth Humphries and Don Naik The 3 Rs in social work Religion race and racism in Europe Williams Soydan amp Johnson 1998 pp 197 8 Imam Abduljalil Sajid Islamophobia A new word for an old fear Archived from the original on 30 September 2007 Retrieved 17 August 2007 a b The next holocaust New Statesman 5 December 2005 Malik Kenan From Fatwa to Jihad Atlantic Books London 2009 pp 131 32 Malik 2009 p 132 Poll Americans Skeptical of 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talking about Islamophobia we mean anti Muslim racism As Anti Semitism Studies has shown the etymological components of a word do not necessarily point to its complete meaning nor how it is used Such is also the case with Islamophobia Studies Islamophobia has become a well known term used in academia as much as in the public sphere Criticism of Muslims or of the Islamic religion is not necessarily Islamophobic Islamophobia is about a dominant group of people aiming at seizing stabilizing and widening their power by means of defining a scapegoat real or invented and excluding this scapegoat from the resources rights definition of a constructed we Islamophobia operates by constructing a static Muslim identity which is attributed in negative terms and generalized for all Muslims At the same time Islamophobic images are fluid and vary in different contexts because Islamophobia tells us more about the Islamophobe than it tells us about the Muslims Islam Ricci Alexander Damiano 11 February 2019 Negative attitude towards Muslims inversely proportional to actual presence VoxEurop EDJNet Retrieved 4 March 2019 Spruyt B Elchardus M 2012 Are anti Muslim feelings more widespread than anti foreigner feelings Evidence from two split sample experiments PDF Ethnicities 12 6 800 20 doi 10 1177 1468796812449707 S2CID 145497111 Gonzalez K V Verkuyten M Weesie J Poppe E 2008 Prejudice Towards Muslims in The Netherlands Testing Integrated Threat Theory PDF The British Journal of Social Psychology 47 4 667 85 doi 10 1348 014466608x284443 hdl 11370 1faf663e 15b0 4391 aac2 b3a56b417887 PMID 18284782 S2CID 39911409 Savelkoul M Scheepers P Tolsma J Hagendoorn L 2010 Anti Muslim attitudes in the Netherlands Tests of contradictory hypotheses derived from ethnic competition theory and intergroup contact theory European Sociological Review 27 6 741 58 doi 10 1093 esr jcq035 hdl 2066 99505 Schlueter E Scheepers P 2010 The relationship between outgroup size and anti outgroup attitudes A theoretical synthesis and empirical test of group threat and intergroup contact theory Social Science Research 39 2 285 95 doi 10 1016 j ssresearch 2009 07 006 hdl 11370 a16d7bfe 0b28 4542 b8b1 2db75a3714e9 Kunst J R Tajamal H Sam D L Ulleberg P 2012 Coping with Islamophobia The effects of religious stigma on Muslim minorities identity formation International Journal of Intercultural Relations 36 4 518 32 doi 10 1016 j ijintrel 2011 12 014 Verkuyten M Yildiz A A 2007 National dis identification and ethnic and religious identity A study among Turkish Dutch Muslims Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 33 10 1448 62 doi 10 1177 0146167207304276 hdl 11370 7a25d4ce 7574 47ac aac9 ebed396dc934 PMID 17933739 S2CID 24997994 Johnston D Lordan G 2011 Discrimination makes me sick An examination of the discrimination health relationship Journal of Health Economics 31 1 99 111 doi 10 1016 j jhealeco 2011 12 002 PMID 22366167 European Islamophobia Hafez Farid Jahrbuch fur Islamophobieforschung Islamophobieforschung Wahhabism expansion in Russia leads to growth of Islamophobia National Anti Terrorist Committee Rossiyskaya Gazeta 25 June 2013 Daniel Kalder 8 October 2013 Russian court bans Qur an translation Guardian Husna Haq 9 October 2013 Russia blacklists translation of the Quran Christian Science Monitor No change for the better Georgia appears to have moved backwards under Bidzina Ivanishvili The Economist 12 October 2013 Rising tide of Islamophobia engulfs Athens Globe and Mail Toronto 3 January 2011 Ben McPartland 15 February 2013 Islamophobia has been trivialized in France The Local Muslims In Western Europe After 9 11 Why the term Islamophobia is more a predicament than an explanation PDF Mason Rowena Nigel Farage Indian and Australian immigrants better than eastern Europeans Theguardian Archived from the original on 24 April 2015 EDT Lucy Draper On 5 6 15 at 1 29 PM 6 May 2015 New report exposes huge rise in racist crime in Europe Newsweek Islamophobia social distance and fear of terrorism in Australia a preliminary report Joshua Kurlantzick 20 October 2016 A New Approach to Thailand s Insurgency Council on Foreign Relations Retrieved 14 September 2021 Andre Virginie 2016 Thai Cyber Actors Evidence of an Islamophobic Effect Fear of Muslims International Perspectives on Islamophobia Boundaries of Religious Freedom Regulating Religion in Diverse Societies Deakin University Springer International Publishing pp 111 130 doi 10 1007 978 3 319 29698 2 8 ISBN 978 3 319 29698 2 Islamophobia on the rise in Thailand s North KBR news agency May 2016 Retrieved 14 September 2021 Amina Rasul 2007 Radicalisation of Muslims in the Philippines Konrad Adenauer Stiftung Zempi Irene Awan Imran 11 February 2019 The Routledge International Handbook of Islamophobia United Kingdom Routledge p 516 ISBN 978 1 351 13553 5 Srinivasan Meera 27 April 2019 Sri Lanka Easter blasts Anti Muslim riots a possible trigger The Hindu ISSN 0971 751X Kadirgamar Niyanthini 1 August 2019 The perils of being a woman and a Muslim in Sri Lanka The Hindu ISSN 0971 751X Retrieved 14 September 2021 More than 20 ambassadors condemn China s treatment of Uighurs in Xinjiang The Guardian 11 July 2019 Joint Statement on Xinjiang at Third Committee PDF unmeetings org 29 October 2019 Retrieved 13 August 2020 Davidson Helen 25 September 2020 Thousands of Xinjiang mosques destroyed or damaged report finds The Guardian ISSN 0261 3077 Retrieved 26 September 2020 Skopeliti Clea 25 September 2020 China Nearly two thirds of Xinjiang mosques damaged or demolished new report shows The Independent Retrieved 26 September 2020 Delhi riots Violence that killed 53 in Indian capital was anti Muslim pogrom says top expert The Independent 7 March 2020 For Jews the New Delhi riots have a painfully familiar ring The Times of Israel 11 March 2020 Anti Muslim violence in Delhi serves Modi well The Guardian 26 February 2020 Poole 2003 p 218 The Runnymede Trust has been successful in that the term Islamophobia is now widely recognized and used though many right wing commentators reject its existence or argue that it is justified However now becoming a catch all label for any harassment involving Muslims it should not be considered unproblematic Jocelyne Cesari 15 16 December 2006 Muslims in Western Europe After 9 11 Why the term Islamophobia is more a predicament than an explanation PDF Moten Abdul Rashid 2014 Islamophobia In Shahin Emad El Din ed The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics Vol 1 Oxford University Press pp 618 620 ISBN 978 0 19 973935 6 John Scott ed 2014 Islamophobia A Dictionary of Sociology 4th ed Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 968358 1 Chris Allen 2009 Islamophobia In John L Esposito ed The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 530513 5 Jackson Paul 2001 The EDL Britain s New Far Right Social Movement PDF RMN Publications University of Northampton pp 10 11 Archived from the original PDF on 7 September 2019 Retrieved 28 June 2012 Eli Gondor Begreppet islamofobi bor bytas ut Archived from the original on 29 September 2018 Retrieved 18 March 2015 Bunzl 2007 Bravo Lopez 2009 Tamdgidi Mohammad H 2012 Beyond Islamophobia and Islamophilia as Western Epistemic Racisms Revisiting Runnymede Trust s Definition in a World History Context PDF Islamophobia Studies Journal 1 1 76 Archived from the original PDF on 29 October 2013 Webb Emma ed August 2019 Islamophobia An Anthology of Concerns PDF Civitas p v ISBN 978 1 906837 98 3 Free speech campaigners concerned by Ed Miliband s vow to ban Islamophobia without defining what it means National Secular Society 29 April 2015 Retrieved 5 September 2019 a b Islamism and the Left Dissent Magazine Retrieved 2 January 2023 Writers issue cartoon row warning BBC News 1 March 2006 Retrieved 19 February 2014 Full text Writers statement on cartoons 1 March 2006 Retrieved 2 January 2023 Ayaan Hirsi Ali says Australian opponents carrying water for radical Islamists The Guardian 4 April 2017 Retrieved 30 March 2020 Christopher Hitchens 19 February 2007 The War Within Islam The growing danger of the Sunni Shiite rivalry Slate Retrieved 25 July 2020 Benn Piers 31 May 2007 On Islamophobia phobia Archived 9 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine rationalist org uk originally published in New Humanist in 2002 Retrieved 18 February 2014 Sam Harris Lifting the Veil of Islamophobia Archived 26 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine A Conversation with Ayaan Hirsi Ali 8 May 2014 The Daily Beast The Daily Beast Retrieved 2 January 2023 Michael Walzer Winter 2015 Islamism and the Left Dissent American magazine Retrieved 2 November 2015 Nawaz Maajid Radical W H Allen London 2012 p 109 Ed Husain 7 July 2008 Stop pandering to the Islamist extremists London Evening Standard London Retrieved 24 October 2013 Forget Islamophobia Let s Tackle Islamism Standpoint 28 May 2013 Archived from the original on 24 October 2020 Retrieved 20 March 2020 Sayyid 2014 A measure of Islamophobia Islamophobia Studies Journal Vol 2 No 1 pp 10 25 Goldberg Jeffrey 16 January 2015 French Prime Minister I Refuse to Use This Term Islamophobia The Atlantic Retrieved 17 February 2015 O Neill Brendan 6 June 2018 No Islamophobia is not the new anti Semitism Spiked Retrieved 30 March 2020 Why you need to stop using the word Islamophobia Maajid Nawaz LBC 9 February 2020 Retrieved 20 March 2020 Ahmed Qanta 23 December 2018 As a Muslim woman I d like to thank Boris Johnson for calling out the burka The Spectator Retrieved 16 March 2021 Dylan Byers 26 December 2012 AP Nixes homophobia ethnic cleansing Politico Retrieved 5 June 2013 Warren J Blumenfeld 5 December 2012 The Associated Press and Terms Like Homophobia Huffington Post Retrieved 6 June 2013 UN Designated March 15 Combat Day To Islamophobia Dawn News CIK Toolkit Launch European Parliament Brussels University of Leeds 26 September 2018 Retrieved 1 March 2019 Counter Islamophobia Kit Equinet European Network of Equality Bodies 4 October 2019 Retrieved 1 March 2019 Law Ian Amina Easat Daas Sayyid S September 2018 Counter Islamophobia kit briefing paper and toolkit of counter narratives to Islamophobia PDF University of Leeds Retrieved 1 March 2019 Amina Easat Daas 21 February 2019 How to tackle Islamophobia the best strategies from around Europe The Conversation Retrieved 1 March 2019 Sources Benn Tansin amp Jawad H A 2003 Muslim Women in the United Kingdom and Beyond Experiences and Images Brill Publishers p 178 ISBN 978 90 04 12581 0 Davison Alan 2022 Multiculturalism Social Distance and Islamophobia Reflections on Anti racism Research in Australia and Beyond Journal Society 59 springer 59 42 51 doi 10 1007 s12115 021 00641 4 S2CID 244581073 Egorova Y amp Parfitt T 2003 Jews Muslims and Mass Media Mediating the Other London Routledge Curzon ISBN 978 0 415 31839 6 Haddad Yvonne Yazbeck 2002 Muslims in the West From Sojourners to Citizens Oxford Oxford University Press p 336 ISBN 978 0 19 514805 3 Miles Robert amp Brown Malcolm 2003 Racism London New York Psychology Press p 197 ISBN 9780415296779 Poole E 2003 Islamophobia In Cashmore Ellis ed Encyclopedia of Race and Ethnic Studies Routledge pp 215 19 ISBN 978 0 415 44714 0 Williams Charlotte Soydan Haluk amp Johnson Mark 1998 Social Work and Minorities European Perspectives London New York Routledge p 273 ISBN 978 0 415 16962 2 Further readingAli Wajahat Clifton Eli Duss Matthew Fang Lee Keyes Scott and Shakir Faiz August 26 2011 Fear Inc The Roots of the Islamophobia Network in America American Progress Accessed 24 February 2015 Allen Chris 2011 Islamophobia Ashgate Publishing Company Abbas Tahir 2005 Muslim Britain Communities Under Pressure Zed ISBN 978 1 84277 449 6 Duss Matthew Taeb Yasmine Gude Ken and Sofer Ken February 11 2015 Fear Inc 2 0 The Islamophobia Network s Efforts to Manufacture Hate in America American Progress Accessed 24 February 2015 Gottschalk P Greenberg G 2007 Islamophobia Making Muslims the Enemy Lanham Rowman amp Littlefield publishers ISBN 978 0 7425 5286 9 Greaves R 2004 Islam and the West Post 9 11 Ashgate publishing Ltd ISBN 978 0 7546 5005 8 Itaoui Rhonda 2016 The Geography of Islamophobia in Sydney mapping the spatial imaginaries of young Muslims in Australian Geographer Vol 47 3 261 79 Kaplan Jeffrey 2006 Islamophobia in America September 11 and Islamophobic Hate Crime Archived 12 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine Terrorism and Political Violence Routledge 18 1 1 33 Kincheloe Joe L and Steinberg Shirley R 2004 The Miseducation of the West How the Schools and Media Distort Our Understanding of Islam Westport Connecticut Praeger Press Arabic Edition 2005 Kincheloe Joe L and Steinberg Shirley R 2010 Teaching Against Islamophobia New York Peter Lang Konrad Felix 2011 From the Turkish Menace to Exoticism and Orientalism Islam as Antithesis of Europe 1453 1914 European History Online Mainz Institute of European History Retrieved 22 June 2011 Kundnani Arun 2014 The Muslims Are Coming Islamaphobia Extremism and the Domestic War on Terror Verso 2014 327 pages Lajevardi N 2020 Outsiders at Home The Politics of American Islamophobia Cambridge Cambridge University Press Love Erik 2017 Islamophobia and Racism in America NYU Press ISBN 978 1479838073 Pynting Scott amp Mason Victoria 2007 The Resistible Rise of Islamophobia Anti Muslim Racism in the UK and Australia before 11 September 2001 Journal of Sociology PDF The Australian Sociological Association 43 1 61 86 doi 10 1177 1440783307073935 S2CID 145065236 Quraishi M 2005 Muslims and Crime A Comparative Study Ashgate Publishing ISBN 978 0 7546 4233 6 Ramadan T 2004 Western Muslims and the Future of Islam Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 517111 2 Richardson John E 2004 Mis representing Islam the racism and rhetoric of British broadsheet newspapers John Benjamins Publishing Company ISBN 978 90 272 2699 0 Sheehi Stephen 2011 Islamophobia The Ideological Campaign Against Muslims Clarity Press Shryock Andrew ed 2010 Islamophobia Islamophilia Beyond the Politics of Enemy and Friend Indiana University Press p 250 Essays on Islamophobia past and present topics include the neo Orientalism of three Muslim commentators today Ayaan Hirsi Ali Reza Aslan and Irshad Manji Silva Derek 2017 The Othering of Muslims Discourses of Radicalization in the New York Times 1969 2014 Sociological Forum 32 1 138 161 Tausch Arno with Bischof Christian Kastrun Tomaz and Mueller Karl 2007 Against Islamophobia Muslim Communities Social Exclusion and the Lisbon Process in Europe Hauppauge N Y Nova Science Publishers ISBN 978 1 60021 535 3 Tausch Arno with Bischof Christian and Mueller Karl 2008 Muslim Calvinism Internal Security and the Lisbon Process in Europe Purdue University Press ISBN 978 905170995 7 Tausch Arno 2007 Against Islamophobia Quantitative Analyses of Global Terrorism World Political Cycles and Center Periphery Structures Hauppauge N Y Nova Science Publishers ISBN 978 1 60021 536 0 van Driel B 2004 Confronting Islamophobia In Educational Practice Trentham Books ISBN 978 1 85856 340 4 External linksIslamophobia at Wikipedia s sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Islamophobia Studies Journal Islamophobia Research amp Documentation Project UC Berkeley Reports European Islamophobia European Islamophobia Reports EIR Islamophobia Today newspaper Archived 22 September 2021 at the Wayback Machine an Islamophobia news clearing house Sammy Aziz Rahmatti Understanding and Countering Islamophobia Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Islamophobia amp oldid 1149645802, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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