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Wikipedia

Beer

April 11, 2024

This article is about the alcoholic drink. For other uses, see Beer (disambiguation).

Beer is one of the oldest alcoholic drinks in the world,[1][2][3] the most widely consumed,[4] and the third most popular drink after water and tea.[5](p‭ 1) Beer is produced by the brewing and fermentation of starches from cereal grains—most commonly malted barley, although wheat, maize (corn), rice, and oats are also used. The fermentation of the starch sugars in the wort produces ethanol and carbonation in the beer.[6] Most modern beer is brewed with hops, which add bitterness and other flavours and act as a natural preservative and stabilising agent. Other flavouring agents, such as gruit, herbs, or fruits, may be included or used instead of hops. In commercial brewing, natural carbonation is often replaced with forced carbonation.[7]

Schlenkerla Rauchbier, a traditional smoked beer, being poured from a cask into a beer glass

Some of the earliest writings refer to the production and distribution of beer: the Code of Hammurabi included laws regulating it,[8] and "The Hymn to Ninkasi", a prayer to the Mesopotamian goddess of beer, a recipe for it.[9][10]

Beer is distributed in bottles and cans and is also commonly available on draught, particularly in pubs and bars. The brewing industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from brewpubs to regional breweries. The strength of modern beer is usually around 4% to 6% alcohol by volume (ABV).[11]

Beer forms part of the culture of many nations and is associated with social traditions such as beer festivals, as well as activities like pub crawling, pub quizzes, and pub games.

Etymology

See also: Ale § Etymology
 
Old English: Beore 'beer'

In early forms of English and in the Scandinavian languages, the usual word for beer was the word whose Modern English form is ale.[12] The modern word beer comes into present-day English from Old English bēor, itself from Common Germanic, it is found throughout the West Germanic and North Germanic dialects (modern Dutch and German bier, Old Norse bjórr). The earlier etymology of the word is debated: the three main theories are that the word originates in Proto-Germanic *beuzą (putatively from Proto-Indo-European *bʰeusóm), meaning 'brewer's yeast, beer dregs'; that it is related to the word barley, or that it was somehow borrowed from Latin bibere 'to drink'.[13][14][12] It is speculated by Christine Fell in Leeds Studies in English (1975), that the Old English/Norse word bēor did not denote ale or beer, but a strong, sweet drink rather like mead or cider; however, in Europe, the meaning of bēor expanded to cover the meaning of ale. When hopped ale from Europe was imported into Britain in the late Middle Ages using the word beer it was originally used to denote hopped ale to differentiate from the British unhopped ale, though later it came to mean all forms of beer.[12]

History

Main article: History of beer
 
Ancient Egyptian painting, 18th dynasty, reign of Akhenaten, c. 1300 BC, showing Syrian mercenary drinking beer through a straw. Egyptian Museum of Berlin

Beer is one of the world's oldest prepared alcoholic drinks. The earliest archaeological evidence of fermentation consists of 13,000 year-old residues of a beer with the consistency of gruel, used by the semi-nomadic Natufians for ritual feasting, at the Raqefet Cave in the Carmel Mountains near Haifa in Israel.[15][16] There is evidence that beer was produced at Göbekli Tepe during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic (around 8500 BC to 5500 BC).[17] The earliest clear chemical evidence of beer produced from barley dates to about 3500–3100 BC, from the site of Godin Tepe in the Zagros Mountains of western Iran.[18][19] It is possible, but not proven, that it dates back even further – to about 10,000 BC, when cereal was first farmed.[20]

Beer is recorded in the written history of ancient Egypt,[21][22] and archaeologists speculate that beer was instrumental in the formation of civilizations.[23] Approximately 5000 years ago, workers in the city of Uruk (modern day Iraq) were paid by their employers with volumes of beer.[24] During the building of the Great Pyramids in Giza, Egypt, each worker got a daily ration of four to five litres of beer, which served as both nutrition and refreshment and was crucial to the pyramids' construction.[25]

Some of the earliest Sumerian writings contain references to beer; examples include a prayer to the goddess Ninkasi, known as "The Hymn to Ninkasi",[26] which served as both a prayer and a method of remembering the recipe for beer in a culture with few literate people, and the ancient advice ("Fill your belly. Day and night make merry") to Gilgamesh, recorded in the Epic of Gilgamesh by the alewife Siduri, may, at least in part, have referred to the consumption of beer.[27] The Ebla tablets, discovered in 1974 in Ebla, Syria, show that beer was produced in the city in 2500 BC.[28] A fermented drink using rice and fruit was made in China around 7000 BC. Unlike sake, mould was not used to saccharify the rice (amylolytic fermentation); the rice was probably prepared for fermentation by chewing or malting.[29][30] During the Vedic period in Ancient India, there are records of the consumption of the beer-like sura.[31][32] Xenophon noted that during his travels, beer was being produced in Armenia.[33]

Almost any substance containing sugar can naturally undergo alcoholic fermentation and thus be utilised in the brewing of beer. It is likely that many cultures, on observing that a sweet liquid could be obtained from a source of starch, independently invented beer. Bread and beer increased prosperity to a level that allowed time for the development of other technologies and contributed to the building of civilizations.[34][35][36][37]

 
François Jaques: Peasants enjoying beer at pub in Fribourg (Switzerland, 1923)

Beer was spread through Europe by Germanic and Celtic tribes as far back as 3000 BC, and it was mainly brewed on a domestic scale.[5](artc. 1025)[38] The product that the early Europeans drank might not be recognised as beer by most people today. Alongside the basic starch source, the early European beers may have contained fruits, honey, numerous types of plants, spices, and other substances such as narcotic herbs.[5](p‭ 2) What they did not contain was hops, as that was a later addition, first mentioned in Europe around 822 by a Carolingian Abbot[39] and again in 1067 by abbess Hildegard of Bingen.[5](p110)

In 1516, William IV, Duke of Bavaria, adopted the Reinheitsgebot (purity law), perhaps the oldest food-quality regulation still in use in the 21st century, according to which the only allowed ingredients of beer are water, hops, and barley-malt.[40] Beer produced before the Industrial Revolution continued to be made and sold on a domestic scale, although by the 7th century AD, beer was also being produced and sold by European monasteries. During the Industrial Revolution, the production of beer moved from artisanal manufacture to industrial manufacture, and domestic manufacture ceased to be significant by the end of the 19th century.[41] The development of hydrometers and thermometers changed brewing by allowing the brewer more control of the process and greater knowledge of the results.

In 1912, brown bottles began to be used by the Joseph Schlitz Brewing Company of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, in the United States. This innovation has since been accepted worldwide and prevents harmful rays from destroying the quality and stability of beer.[42]

The brewing industry is now a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies and many thousands of smaller producers, ranging from brewpubs to regional breweries.[43] As of 2006, more than 133 billion litres (35 billion US gallons), the equivalent of a cube 510 metres on a side, of beer are sold per year, producing total global revenues of US$294.5 billion. In 2010, China's beer consumption hit 450 million hectolitres (45 billion litres), or nearly twice that of the United States, but only 5 per cent sold were premium beers, compared with 50 per cent in France and Germany.[44]

A widely publicised study in 2018 suggested that sudden decreases in barley production due to extreme drought and heat could in the future cause substantial volatility in the availability and price of beer.[45]

Brewing

Main article: Brewing

The process of making beer is known as brewing. A dedicated building for the making of beer is called a brewery, though beer can be made at home and has been for much of its history, in which case the brewing location is often called a brewhouse. A company that makes beer is called either a brewery or a brewing company. Beer made on a domestic scale for non-commercial reasons is today usually classified as homebrewing, regardless of where it is made, though most homebrewed beer is made at home. Historically, domestic beer was what's called farmhouse ale.

Brewing beer has been subject to legislation and taxation for millennia, and from the late 19th century on, taxation largely restricted brewing to commercial operations only in the UK. However, the UK government relaxed legislation in 1963, followed by Australia in 1972 and the US in 1978,[46] though individual states were allowed to pass their own laws limiting production,[47] allowing homebrewing to become a popular hobby.

The purpose of brewing is to convert the starch source into a sugary liquid called wort and to convert the wort into the alcoholic drink known as beer in a fermentation process effected by yeast.

The first step, where the wort is prepared by mixing the starch source (normally malted barley) with hot water, is known as "mashing". Hot water (known as "liquor" in brewing terms) is mixed with crushed malt or malts (known as "grist") in a mash tun.[48] The mashing process takes around 1 to 2 hours,[49] during which the starches are converted to sugars, and then the sweet wort is drained off the grains. The grains are then washed in a process known as "sparging". This washing allows the brewer to gather as much of the fermentable liquid from the grains as possible. The process of filtering the spent grain from the wort and sparge water is called wort separation. The traditional process for wort separation is lautering, in which the grain bed itself serves as the filter medium. Some modern breweries prefer the use of filter frames, which allow for a more finely ground grist.[50]

Most modern breweries use a continuous sparge, collecting the original wort and the sparge water together. However, it is possible to collect a second or even third wash with the not quite spent grains as separate batches. Each run would produce a weaker wort and thus, a weaker beer. This process is known as the second (and third) runnings. Brewing with several runnings is called parti gyle brewing.[51]

 
A 16th-century brewery

The sweet wort collected from sparging is put into a kettle, or "copper" (so-called because these vessels were traditionally made from copper),[52] and boiled, usually for about one hour. During boiling, the water in the wort evaporates, but the sugars and other components of the wort remain; this allows more efficient use of the starch sources in the beer. Boiling also destroys any remaining enzymes left over from the mashing stage. Hops are added during boiling as a source of bitterness, flavour, and aroma. Hops may be added at more than one point during the boil. The longer the hops are boiled, the more bitterness they contribute, but the less hop flavour and aroma remain in the beer.[53]

After boiling, the hopped wort is cooled and ready for the yeast. In some breweries, the hopped wort may pass through a hopback, which is a small vat filled with hops, to add aromatic hop flavouring and to act as a filter, but usually the hopped wort is simply cooled for the fermenter, where the yeast is added. During fermentation, the wort becomes beer in a process that takes a week to several months, depending on the type of yeast and strength of the beer. In addition to producing ethanol, fine particulate matter suspended in the wort settles during fermentation. Once fermentation is complete, the yeast also settles, leaving the beer clear.[54]

During fermentation, most of the carbon dioxide is allowed to escape through a trap, and the beer is left with carbonation of only about one atmosphere of pressure. The carbonation is often increased either by transferring the beer to a pressure vessel such as a keg and introducing pressurised carbon dioxide or by transferring it before the fermentation is finished so that carbon dioxide pressure builds up inside the container as the fermentation finishes. Sometimes the beer is put unfiltered (so it still contains yeast) into bottles with some added sugar, which then produces the desired amount of carbon dioxide inside the bottle.[7]

Fermentation is sometimes carried out in two stages: primary and secondary. Once most of the alcohol has been produced during primary fermentation, the beer is transferred to a new vessel and allowed a period of secondary fermentation. Secondary fermentation is used when the beer requires long storage before packaging or greater clarity.[55] When the beer has fermented, it is packaged either into casks for cask ale or kegs, aluminium cans, or bottles for other sorts of beer.[56]

Ingredients

 
Malted barley before roasting

The basic ingredients of beer are water; a starch source, such as malted barley or malted maize (such as used in the preparation of Tiswin and Tesgüino), able to be saccharified (converted to sugars) and then fermented (converted into ethanol and carbon dioxide); a brewer's yeast to produce the fermentation; and a flavouring such as hops.[57] A mixture of starch sources may be used, with a secondary carbohydrate source, such as maize (corn), rice, wheat, or sugar, often termed an adjunct, especially when used alongside malted barley.[58] Less widely used starch sources include millet, sorghum, and cassava root in Africa; potato in Brazil; and agave in Mexico, among others.[59] The amount of each starch source in a beer recipe is collectively called the grain bill.

Water is the main ingredient in beer, accounting for 93% of its weight.[60] Though water itself is, ideally, flavourless, its level of dissolved minerals, specifically bicarbonate ions, does influence beer's finished taste.[61] Due to the mineral properties of each region's water, specific areas were originally the sole producers of certain types of beer, each identifiable by regional characteristics.[62] Regional geology accords that Dublin's hard water is well-suited to making stout, such as Guinness, while the Plzeň Region's soft water is ideal for brewing Pilsner (pale lager), such as Pilsner Urquell.[62] The waters of Burton in England contain gypsum, which benefits making pale ale to such a degree that brewers of pale ales will add gypsum to the local water in a process known as Burtonisation.[63]

The starch source, termed the "mash ingredients", in a beer provides the fermentable material and is a key determinant of the strength and flavour of the beer. The most common starch source used in beer is malted grain. Grain is malted by soaking it in water, allowing it to begin germination, and then drying the partially germinated grain in a kiln. Malting grain produces enzymes that convert starches in the grain into fermentable sugars.[64] Different roasting times and temperatures are used to produce different colours of malt from the same grain. Darker malts will produce darker beers.[65] Nearly all beers include barley malt as the majority of the starch. This is because its fibrous hull remains attached to the grain during threshing. After malting, barley is milled, which finally removes the hull, breaking it into large pieces. These pieces remain with the grain during the mash and act as a filter bed during lautering, when sweet wort is separated from insoluble grain material. Other malted and unmalted grains (including wheat, rice, oats, and rye, and less frequently, corn and sorghum) may be used. Some brewers have produced gluten-free beer, made with sorghum with no barley malt, for those who cannot consume gluten-containing grains like wheat, barley, and rye.[66]

 
Hop cone in a Hallertau, Germany, hop yard

Flavouring beer is the sole major commercial use of hops.[67] The flower of the hop vine is used as a flavouring and preservative agent in nearly all beer made today. The flowers themselves are often called "hops". The first historical mention of the use of hops in beer dates from 822 AD in monastery rules written by Adalhard the Elder, also known as Adalard of Corbie,[41][68] though the date normally given for widespread cultivation of hops for use in beer is the thirteenth century.[41][68] Before the thirteenth century and until the sixteenth century, during which hops took over as the dominant flavouring, beer was flavoured with other plants, for instance, grains of paradise or alehoof. Combinations of various aromatic herbs, berries, and even ingredients like wormwood would be combined into a mixture known as gruit and used as hops are now used.[69] Some beers today, such as Fraoch' by the Scottish Heather Ales company[70] and Cervoise Lancelot by the French Brasserie-Lancelot company,[71] use plants other than hops for flavouring.

Hops contain several characteristics that brewers desire in beer. Hops contribute a bitterness that balances the sweetness of the malt; the bitterness of beers is measured on the International Bitterness Units scale. Hops contribute floral, citrus, and herbal aromas and flavours to beer. Hops have an antibiotic effect that favours the activity of brewer's yeast over less desirable microorganisms and aids in "head retention",[72][73] the length of time that a foamy head created by carbonation will last. The acidity of hops is a preservative.[74][75]

Yeast is the microorganism that is responsible for fermentation in beer. Yeast metabolises the sugars extracted from grains, which produce alcohol and carbon dioxide, and thereby turns wort into beer. In addition to fermenting the beer, yeast influences the character and flavour.[76] The dominant types of yeast used to make beer are top-fermenting Saccharomyces cerevisiae and bottom-fermenting Saccharomyces pastorianus.[77] Brettanomyces ferments lambics,[78] and Torulaspora delbrueckii ferments Bavarian weissbier.[79] Before the role of yeast in fermentation was understood, fermentation involved wild or airborne yeasts. A few styles, such as lambics, rely on this method today, but most modern fermentation adds pure yeast cultures.[80]

Some brewers add one or more clarifying agents or finings to beer, which typically precipitate (collect as a solid) out of the beer along with protein solids and are found only in trace amounts in the finished product. This process makes the beer appear bright and clean, rather than the cloudy appearance of ethnic and older styles of beer, such as wheat beers.[81] Examples of clarifying agents include isinglass, obtained from the swimbladders of fish; Irish moss, a seaweed; kappa carrageenan, from the seaweed Kappaphycus cottonii; Polyclar (artificial); and gelatin.[82] If a beer is marked "suitable for vegans", it is clarified either with seaweed or with artificial agents.[83]

Brewing industry

 
Brewing factory
 
Annual beer consumption per capita by country

The history of breweries in the 21st century has included larger breweries absorbing smaller breweries in order to ensure economy of scale.[clarification needed] In 2002, South African Breweries bought the North American Miller Brewing Company to found SABMiller, becoming the second-largest brewery after North American Anheuser-Busch. In 2004, the Belgian Interbrew was the third-largest brewery by volume, and the Brazilian AmBev was the fifth-largest. They merged into InBev, becoming the largest brewery. In 2007, SABMiller surpassed InBev and Anheuser-Busch when it acquired Royal Grolsch, the brewer of Dutch brand Grolsch.[84] In 2008, when InBev (the second-largest) bought Anheuser-Busch (the third-largest), the new Anheuser-Busch InBev company became again the largest brewer in the world.[85]

As of 2020, according to the market research firm Technavio, AB InBev remains the largest brewing company in the world, with Heineken second, CR Snow third, Carlsberg fourth, and Molson Coors fifth.[86]

A microbrewery, or craft brewery, produces a limited amount of beer. The maximum amount of beer a brewery can produce and still be classed as a 'microbrewery' varies by region and by authority; in the US, it is 15,000 US beer barrels (1.8 megalitres; 390 thousand imperial gallons; 460 thousand US gallons) a year.[87] A brewpub is a type of microbrewery that incorporates a pub or other drinking establishment. The highest density of breweries in the world, most of them microbreweries, exists in Franconia, Germany, especially in the district of Upper Franconia, which has about 200 breweries.[88][89] The Benedictine Weihenstephan brewery in Bavaria, Germany, can trace its roots to the year 768, as a document from that year refers to a hop garden in the area paying a tithe to the monastery. The brewery was licensed by the City of Freising in 1040 and is therefore the oldest working brewery in the world.[90]

Varieties

Main article: Beer style
 
Cask ale hand pumps with pump clips detailing the beers and their breweries

While there are many types of beer brewed, the basics of brewing beer are shared across national and cultural boundaries.[91] The traditional European brewing regions—Germany, Belgium, England and the Czech Republic—have local varieties of beer.[92]

English writer Michael Jackson, in his 1977 book The World Guide To Beer, categorised beers from around the world in local style groups suggested by local customs and names.[93] Fred Eckhardt furthered Jackson's work in The Essentials of Beer Style in 1989.


Top-fermented beers

Top-fermented beers are most commonly produced with Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a top-fermenting yeast which clumps and rises to the surface,[94] typically between 15 and 25 °C (59 and 77 °F). At these temperatures, yeast produces significant amounts of esters and other secondary flavour and aroma products, and the result is often a beer with slightly "fruity" compounds resembling apple, pear, pineapple, banana, plum, or prune, among others.[95]

After the introduction of hops into England from Flanders in the 15th century, "ale" referred to an unhopped fermented drink, "beer" being used to describe a brew with an infusion of hops.[96]

Real ale is the term coined by the Campaign for Real Ale (CAMRA) in 1973[97] for "beer brewed from traditional ingredients, matured by secondary fermentation in the container from which it is dispensed, and served without the use of extraneous carbon dioxide". It is applied to bottle conditioned and cask conditioned beers.

Pale ale is a beer which uses a top-fermenting yeast,[98] and predominantly pale malt. It is one of the world's major beer styles and includes India pale ale (IPA).[99]

Mild ale has a predominantly malty palate. It is usually dark coloured with an abv of 3% to 3.6%, although there are lighter hued milds as well as stronger examples reaching 6% abv and higher.

Wheat beer is brewed with a large proportion of wheat although it often also contains a significant proportion of malted barley. Wheat beers are usually top-fermented.[100] The flavour of wheat beers varies considerably, depending upon the specific style.

Stout is a dark beer made using roasted barley, and typically brewed with slow fermenting yeast. There are a number of variations including dry stout (such as Guinness), sweet stout, and Imperial (or Russian) stout.[99] Stout was originally the strongest variety of porter, a dark brown beer popular with the street and river porters of eighteenth century London.[101][102][99][103][104]

Bottom-fermented beers

 
Kriek, a variety of beer brewed with cherries

Lager is cool fermented beer. Pale lagers are the most commonly consumed beers in the world. Many are of the "pilsner" type. The name "lager" comes from the German "lagern" for "to store", as brewers around Bavaria stored beer in cool cellars and caves during the warm summer months. These brewers noticed that the beers continued to ferment, and to also clear of sediment, when stored in cool conditions.[105]

Lager yeast is a cool bottom-fermenting yeast (Saccharomyces pastorianus) and typically undergoes primary fermentation at 7–12 °C (45–54 °F) (the fermentation phase), and then is given a long secondary fermentation at 0–4 °C (32–39 °F) (the lagering phase). During the secondary stage, the lager clears and mellows. The cooler conditions also inhibit the natural production of esters and other byproducts, resulting in a "cleaner"-tasting beer.[106]

With improved modern yeast strains, most lager breweries use only short periods of cold storage, typically 1–3 weeks.

Other types of beer

Lambic, a beer of Belgium, is naturally fermented using wild yeasts, rather than cultivated. Many of these are not strains of brewer's yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and may have significant differences in aroma and sourness. Yeast varieties such as Brettanomyces bruxellensis and Brettanomyces lambicus are common in lambics. In addition, other organisms such as Lactobacillus bacteria produce acids which contribute to the sourness.[107]

Measurement

Main article: Beer measurement

Beer is measured and assessed by colour, by strength and by bitterness. The perceived bitterness is measured by the International Bitterness Units scale (IBU), defined in co-operation between the American Society of Brewing Chemists and the European Brewery Convention.[108] The international scale was a development of the European Bitterness Units scale, often abbreviated as EBU, and the bitterness values should be identical.[109]

Colour

 
Paulaner dunkel – a dark lager

Beer colour is determined by the malt.[110] The most common colour is a pale amber produced from using pale malts. Pale lager and pale ale are terms used for beers made from malt dried and roasted with the fuel coke. Coke was first used for roasting malt in 1642, but it was not until around 1703 that the term pale ale was used.[111][112]

In terms of sales volume, most of today's beer is based on the pale lager brewed in 1842 in the town of Pilsen in the present-day Czech Republic.[113] The modern pale lager is light in colour due to use of coke for kilning, which gives off heat with little smoke.[114]

Dark beers are usually brewed from a pale malt or lager malt base with a small proportion of darker malt added to achieve the desired shade. Other colourants—such as caramel—are also widely used to darken beers. Very dark beers, such as stout, use dark or patent malts that have been roasted longer. Some have roasted unmalted barley.[115][116]

Strength

See also: Beer measurement § Strength

Beer ranges from less than 3% alcohol by volume (abv) to around 14% abv, though this strength can be increased to around 20% by re-pitching with champagne yeast,[117] and to 55% abv by the freeze-distilling process.[118] The alcohol content of beer varies by local practice or beer style.[119] The pale lagers that most consumers are familiar with fall in the range of 4–6%, with a typical abv of 5%.[120] The customary strength of British ales is quite low, with many session beers being around 4% abv.[121] In Belgium, some beers, such as table beer are of such low alcohol content (1%–4%) that they are served instead of soft drinks in some schools.[122] The weakest beers are dealcoholized beers, which typically have less than 0.05% alcohol (also called "near beer") and light beers, which usually have 4% alcohol.

The alcohol in beer comes primarily from the metabolism of sugars that are produced during fermentation. The quantity of fermentable sugars in the wort and the variety of yeast used to ferment the wort are the primary factors that determine the amount of alcohol in the final beer. Additional fermentable sugars are sometimes added to increase alcohol content, and enzymes are often added to the wort for certain styles of beer (primarily "light" beers) to convert more complex carbohydrates (starches) to fermentable sugars. Alcohol is a by-product of yeast metabolism and is toxic to the yeast in higher concentrations; typical brewing yeast cannot survive at alcohol concentrations above 12% by volume. Low temperatures and too little fermentation time decreases the effectiveness of yeasts and consequently decreases the alcohol content.

The strength of beers has climbed during the later years of the 20th century. Vetter 33, a 10.5% abv (33 degrees Plato, hence Vetter "33") doppelbock, was listed in the 1994 Guinness Book of World Records as the strongest beer at that time,[123][124] though Samichlaus, by the Swiss brewer Hürlimann, had also been listed by the Guinness Book of World Records as the strongest at 14% abv.[125][126][127] Since then, some brewers have used champagne yeasts to increase the alcohol content of their beers. Samuel Adams reached 20% abv with Millennium,[117] and then surpassed that amount to 25.6% abv with Utopias. The strongest beer brewed in Britain was Baz's Super Brew by Parish Brewery, a 23% abv beer.[128][129] In September 2011, the Scottish brewery BrewDog produced Ghost Deer, which, at 28%, they claim to be the world's strongest beer produced by fermentation alone.[130]

The product claimed to be the strongest beer made is Schorschbräu's 2011 Schorschbock 57 with 57,5%.[131][132] It was preceded by The End of History, a 55% Belgian ale,[118] made by BrewDog in 2010. The same company had previously made Sink The Bismarck!, a 41% abv IPA,[133] and Tactical Nuclear Penguin, a 32% abv Imperial stout. Each of these beers are made using the eisbock method of fractional freezing, in which a strong ale is partially frozen and the ice is repeatedly removed, until the desired strength is reached,[134][135] a process that may class the product as spirits rather than beer.[136] The German brewery Schorschbräu's Schorschbock, a 31% abv eisbock,[137][138][139] and Hair of the Dog's Dave, a 29% abv barley wine made in 1994, used the same fractional freezing method.[140] A 60% abv blend of beer with whiskey was jokingly claimed as the strongest beer by a Dutch brewery in July 2010.[141][142]

Serving

Draught

Main articles: Draught beer and Cask ale
 
A selection of cask beers

Draught (also spelled "draft") beer from a pressurised keg using a lever-style dispenser and a spout is the most common method of dispensing in bars around the world. A metal keg is pressurised with carbon dioxide (CO2) gas which drives the beer to the dispensing tap or faucet. Some beers may be served with a nitrogen/carbon dioxide mixture. Nitrogen produces fine bubbles, resulting in a dense head and a creamy mouthfeel. Some types of beer can also be found in smaller, disposable kegs called beer balls. In traditional pubs, the pull levers for major beer brands may include the beer's logo and trademark.

In the 1980s, Guinness introduced the beer widget, a nitrogen-pressurised ball inside a can which creates a dense, tight head, similar to beer served from a nitrogen system.[143] The words draft and draught can be used as marketing terms to describe canned or bottled beers containing a beer widget, or which are cold-filtered rather than pasteurised.

Cask-conditioned ales (or cask ales) are unfiltered and unpasteurised beers. These beers are termed "real ale" by the CAMRA organisation. Typically, when a cask arrives in a pub, it is placed horizontally on a frame called a "stillage" which is designed to hold it steady and at the right angle, and then allowed to cool to cellar temperature (typically between 11–13 °C or 52–55 °F),[144] before being tapped and vented—a tap is driven through a (usually rubber) bung at the bottom of one end, and a hard spile or other implement is used to open a hole in the side of the cask, which is now uppermost. The act of stillaging and then venting a beer in this manner typically disturbs all the sediment, so it must be left for a suitable period to "drop" (clear) again, as well as to fully condition—this period can take anywhere from several hours to several days. At this point the beer is ready to sell, either being pulled through a beer line with a hand pump, or simply being "gravity-fed" directly into the glass.

Draught beer's environmental impact can be 68% lower than bottled beer due to packaging differences.[145][146] A life cycle study of one beer brand, including grain production, brewing, bottling, distribution and waste management, shows that the CO2 emissions from a 6-pack of micro-brew beer is about 3 kilograms (6.6 pounds).[147] The loss of natural habitat potential from the 6-pack of micro-brew beer is estimated to be 2.5 square metres (26 square feet).[148] Downstream emissions from distribution, retail, storage and disposal of waste can be over 45% of a bottled micro-brew beer's CO2 emissions.[147] Where legal, the use of a refillable jug, reusable bottle or other reusable containers to transport draught beer from a store or a bar, rather than buying pre-bottled beer, can reduce the environmental impact of beer consumption.[149]

Packaging

Main articles: Beer bottle and Drink can
 
Assortment of beer bottles

Most beers are cleared of yeast by filtering when packaged in bottles and cans.[150] However, bottle conditioned beers retain some yeast—either by being unfiltered, or by being filtered and then reseeded with fresh yeast.[151] It is usually recommended that the beer be poured slowly, leaving any yeast sediment at the bottom of the bottle. However, some drinkers prefer to pour in the yeast; this practice is customary with wheat beers. Typically, when serving a hefeweizen wheat beer, 90% of the contents are poured, and the remainder is swirled to suspend the sediment before pouring it into the glass. Alternatively, the bottle may be inverted prior to opening. Glass bottles are always used for bottle conditioned beers.

Many beers are sold in cans, though there is considerable variation in the proportion between different countries. In Sweden in 2001, 63.9% of beer was sold in cans.[152] People either drink from the can or pour the beer into a glass. A technology developed by Crown Holdings for the 2010 FIFA World Cup is the 'full aperture' can, so named because the entire lid is removed during the opening process, turning the can into a drinking cup.[153] Cans protect the beer from light (thereby preventing "skunked" beer) and have a seal less prone to leaking over time than bottles. Cans were initially viewed as a technological breakthrough for maintaining the quality of a beer, then became commonly associated with less expensive, mass-produced beers, even though the quality of storage in cans is much like bottles.[154] Plastic (PET) bottles are used by some breweries.[155]

Temperature

The temperature of a beer has an influence on a drinker's experience; warmer temperatures reveal the range of flavours in a beer but cooler temperatures are more refreshing. Most drinkers prefer pale lager to be served chilled, a low- or medium-strength pale ale to be served cool, while a strong barley wine or imperial stout to be served at room temperature.[156]

Beer writer Michael Jackson proposed a five-level scale for serving temperatures: well chilled (7 °C or 45 °F) for "light" beers (pale lagers); chilled (8 °C or 46 °F) for Berliner Weisse and other wheat beers; lightly chilled (9 °C or 48 °F) for all dark lagers, altbier and German wheat beers; cellar temperature (13 °C or 55 °F) for regular British ale, stout and most Belgian specialities; and room temperature (15.5 °C or 60 °F) for strong dark ales (especially trappist beer) and barley wine.[157]

Drinking chilled beer began with the development of artificial refrigeration and by the 1870s, was spread in those countries that concentrated on brewing pale lager.[158] Chilling beer makes it more refreshing,[159] though below 15.5 °C (60 °F) the chilling starts to reduce taste awareness[160] and reduces it significantly below 10 °C (50 °F).[161] Beer served unchilled—either cool or at room temperature—reveal more of their flavours. Cask Marque, a non-profit UK beer organisation, has set a temperature standard range of 12°–14 °C (53°–57 °F) for cask ales to be served.[162]

Vessels

Main article: Beer glassware

Beer is consumed out of a variety of vessels, such as a glass, a beer stein, a mug, a pewter tankard, a beer bottle or a can; or at music festivals and some bars and nightclubs, from a plastic cup. The shape of the glass from which beer is consumed can influence the perception of the beer and can define and accent the character of the style.[163] Breweries offer branded glassware intended only for their own beers as a marketing promotion, as this increases sales of their product.[164]

The pouring process has an influence on a beer's presentation. The rate of flow from the tap or other serving vessel, tilt of the glass, and position of the pour (in the centre or down the side) into the glass all influence the result, such as the size and longevity of the head, lacing (the pattern left by the head as it moves down the glass as the beer is drunk), and the release of carbonation.[165] A beer tower is a beer dispensing device, usually found in bars and pubs, that consists of a cylinder attached to a beer cooling device at the bottom. Beer is dispensed from the beer tower into a drinking vessel.

Chemistry

Main article: Beer chemistry
 
Organic aromatic acids found naturally in beer, such as tryptophan, tyrosine, and phenylalanine, absorb blue light and fluoresce in green under 450 nm laser light.[166]

Beer contains the phenolic acids 4-hydroxyphenylacetic acid, vanillic acid, caffeic acid, syringic acid, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, and sinapic acid. Alkaline hydrolysis experiments show that most of the phenolic acids are present as bound forms and only a small portion can be detected as free compounds.[167] Hops, and beer made with it, contain 8-prenylnaringenin which is a potent phytoestrogen.[168] Hop also contains myrcene, humulene, xanthohumol, isoxanthohumol, myrcenol, linalool, tannins, and resin. The alcohol 2M2B is a component of hops brewing.[169]

Barley, in the form of malt, brings the condensed tannins prodelphinidins B3, B9 and C2 into beer. Tryptophol, tyrosol, and phenylethanol are aromatic higher alcohols found in beer[170] as secondary products of alcoholic fermentation[171] (products also known as congeners) by Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Nutritional information

Beers vary in their nutritional content.[172] The ingredients used to make beer, including the yeast, provide a rich source of nutrients; therefore beer may contain nutrients including magnesium, selenium, potassium, phosphorus, biotin, chromium and B vitamins. Beer is sometimes referred to as "liquid bread",[173] though beer is not a meal in itself.[174]

Nutritional information of different beers
(serving size: 12 oz./355 ml)
 Beer Brand   Carbohydrate
   (g)  		 Alcohol 
 (%) 		 Energy 
 (kcal) 
 Budweiser Select 55     1.8  2.4    55
 Coors Light     5  4.2  102
 Guinness Draught   10  4.0  126
 Sierra Nevada Bigfoot   30.3  9.6  330

Society and culture

See also: Category:Beer culture
 
A tent at Munich's Oktoberfest in Germany. The event is known as the world's largest beer festival.

In many societies, beer is the most popular alcoholic drink. Various social traditions and activities are associated with beer drinking, such as playing cards, darts, or other pub games; attending beer festivals; engaging in zythology (the study of beer);[175][176] visiting a series of pubs in one evening; visiting breweries; beer-oriented tourism; or rating beer.[177] Drinking games, such as beer pong, are also popular.[178] Even having a "shower beer" has developed a following.[179] A relatively new profession is that of the beer sommelier, who informs restaurant patrons about beers and food pairings. Some breweries have developed beers to pair with food.[180][181][182] Wine writer Malcolm Gluck disputed the need to pair beer with food, while beer writers Roger Protz and Melissa Cole contested that claim.[183][184][185]

Beer is considered to be a social lubricant in many societies[186][187] and is consumed in countries all over the world. There are breweries in Middle Eastern countries such as Syria, and in some African countries. Sales of beer are four times those of wine, which is the second most popular alcoholic drink.[188]

A study published in the Neuropsychopharmacology journal in 2013 revealed the finding that the flavour of beer alone could provoke dopamine activity in the brain of the male participants, who wanted to drink more as a result. The 49 men in the study were subject to positron emission tomography scans, while a computer-controlled device sprayed minute amounts of beer, water and a sports drink onto their tongues. Compared with the taste of the sports drink, the taste of beer significantly increased the participants desire to drink. Test results indicated that the flavour of the beer triggered a dopamine release, even though alcohol content in the spray was insufficient for the purpose of becoming intoxicated.[189]

Related drinks

See also: Category:Types of beer

Around the world, there are many traditional and ancient starch-based drinks classed as beer. In Africa, there are various ethnic beers made from sorghum or millet, such as Oshikundu[190] in Namibia and Tella in Ethiopia.[191] Kyrgyzstan also has a beer made from millet; it is a low alcohol, somewhat porridge-like drink called "Bozo".[192] Bhutan, Nepal, Tibet and Sikkim also use millet in Chhaang, a popular semi-fermented rice/millet drink in the eastern Himalayas.[193] Further east in China are found Huangjiu and Choujiu—traditional rice-based drinks related to beer.

The Andes in South America has Chicha, made from germinated maize (corn); while the indigenous peoples in Brazil have Cauim, a traditional drink made since pre-Columbian times by chewing manioc so that an enzyme (amylase) present in human saliva can break down the starch into fermentable sugars;[194] this is similar to Masato in Peru.[195]

Some beers which are made from bread, which is linked to the earliest forms of beer, are Sahti in Finland, Kvass in Russia and Ukraine, and Bouza in Sudan. 4000 years ago fermented bread was used in Mesopotamia. Food waste activists got inspired by these ancient recipes and use leftover bread to replace a third of the malted barley that would otherwise be used for brewing their craft ale.[196]

Health effects

See also: Short-term effects of alcohol consumption and Long-term effects of alcohol consumption

A 2016 systematic review and meta-analysis found that moderate ethanol consumption brought no mortality benefit compared with lifetime abstention from ethanol consumption.[197] Some studies have concluded that drinking small quantities of alcohol (less than one drink in women and two in men, per day) is associated with a decreased risk of heart disease, stroke, diabetes mellitus, and early death.[198] Some of these studies combined former ethanol drinkers and lifelong abstainers into a single group of nondrinkers, which hides the health benefits of lifelong abstention from ethanol. The long-term health effects of continuous, moderate or heavy alcohol consumption include the risk of developing alcoholism and alcoholic liver disease. Alcoholism, also known as "alcohol use disorder", is a broad term for any drinking of alcohol that results in problems.[199] It was previously divided into two types: alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence.[200][201] In a medical context, alcoholism is said to exist when two or more of the following conditions are present: a person drinks large amounts over a long time period, has difficulty cutting down, acquiring and drinking alcohol takes up a great deal of time, alcohol is strongly desired, usage results in not fulfilling responsibilities, usage results in social problems, usage results in health problems, usage results in risky situations, withdrawal occurs when stopping, and alcohol tolerance has occurred with use.[201] Alcoholism reduces a person's life expectancy by around ten years[202] and alcohol use is the third leading cause of early death in the United States.[198] No professional medical association recommends that people who are nondrinkers should start drinking alcoholic beverages.[198][203] In the United States, a total of 3.3 million deaths per year (5.9% of all deaths) are believed to be due to alcohol.[204]

It is considered that overeating and lack of muscle tone is the main cause of a beer belly, rather than beer consumption. A 2004 study, however, found a link between binge drinking and a beer belly. But with most overconsumption, it is more a problem of improper exercise and overconsumption of carbohydrates than the product itself.[205] Several diet books quote beer as having an undesirably high glycemic index of 110, the same as maltose; however, the maltose in beer undergoes metabolism by yeast during fermentation so that beer consists mostly of water, hop oils and only trace amounts of sugars, including maltose.[206]

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Bibliography

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Further reading

  • Boulton, Christopher (August 2013). Encyclopaedia of Brewing. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-6744-4.
  • Colicchio, Tom (October 2011). Oliver, Garrett (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Beer. Oxford Companion To ... (1st hardcover ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 960. ISBN 978-0-19-536713-3.
  • Rhodes, Christine P.; Lappies, Pamela B., eds. (October 1997). The Encyclopedia of Beer (paperback reprint ed.). New York, NY: Henry Holt & Co. p. 509. ISBN 978-0-8050-5554-2.
  • Webb, Tim; Beaumont, Stephen (October 2012). The World Atlas of Beer: The essential guide to the beers of the world (hardcover ed.). New York, NY: Sterling Epicure. ISBN 978-1-4027-8961-8.
  • Kenning, David (2010). Beers of the World: Over 350 classic beers, lagers, ales, and porters (hardcover ed.). Bath, UK: Parragon. ISBN 978-1-4454-0878-1.
  • Patterson, Mark W.; Hoalst-Pullen, Nancy, eds. (2023). The Geography of Beer: Policies, perceptions, and place (hardcover ed.). Cham: Springer. ISBN 978-3-031-39007-4.

External links

  •   Media related to Beer at Wikimedia Commons
  •   Works on the topic Beer at Wikisource
  •   Quotations related to Beer at Wikiquote
  •   Beer travel guide from Wikivoyage

April 11, 2024
beer, this, article, about, alcoholic, drink, other, uses, disambiguation, oldest, alcoholic, drinks, world, most, widely, consumed, third, most, popular, drink, after, water, produced, brewing, fermentation, starches, from, cereal, grains, most, commonly, mal. This article is about the alcoholic drink For other uses see Beer disambiguation Beer is one of the oldest alcoholic drinks in the world 1 2 3 the most widely consumed 4 and the third most popular drink after water and tea 5 p 1 Beer is produced by the brewing and fermentation of starches from cereal grains most commonly malted barley although wheat maize corn rice and oats are also used The fermentation of the starch sugars in the wort produces ethanol and carbonation in the beer 6 Most modern beer is brewed with hops which add bitterness and other flavours and act as a natural preservative and stabilising agent Other flavouring agents such as gruit herbs or fruits may be included or used instead of hops In commercial brewing natural carbonation is often replaced with forced carbonation 7 Schlenkerla Rauchbier a traditional smoked beer being poured from a cask into a beer glassSome of the earliest writings refer to the production and distribution of beer the Code of Hammurabi included laws regulating it 8 and The Hymn to Ninkasi a prayer to the Mesopotamian goddess of beer a recipe for it 9 10 Beer is distributed in bottles and cans and is also commonly available on draught particularly in pubs and bars The brewing industry is a global business consisting of several dominant multinational companies and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from brewpubs to regional breweries The strength of modern beer is usually around 4 to 6 alcohol by volume ABV 11 Beer forms part of the culture of many nations and is associated with social traditions such as beer festivals as well as activities like pub crawling pub quizzes and pub games Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 3 Brewing 4 Ingredients 5 Brewing industry 6 Varieties 6 1 Top fermented beers 6 2 Bottom fermented beers 6 3 Other types of beer 7 Measurement 7 1 Colour 7 2 Strength 8 Serving 8 1 Draught 8 2 Packaging 8 3 Temperature 8 4 Vessels 9 Chemistry 10 Nutritional information 11 Society and culture 12 Related drinks 13 Health effects 14 See also 15 References 15 1 Bibliography 16 Further reading 17 External linksEtymologySee also Ale Etymology nbsp Old English Beore beer In early forms of English and in the Scandinavian languages the usual word for beer was the word whose Modern English form is ale 12 The modern word beer comes into present day English from Old English beor itself from Common Germanic it is found throughout the West Germanic and North Germanic dialects modern Dutch and German bier Old Norse bjorr The earlier etymology of the word is debated the three main theories are that the word originates in Proto Germanic beuza putatively from Proto Indo European bʰeusom meaning brewer s yeast beer dregs that it is related to the word barley or that it was somehow borrowed from Latin bibere to drink 13 14 12 It is speculated by Christine Fell in Leeds Studies in English 1975 that the Old English Norse word beor did not denote ale or beer but a strong sweet drink rather like mead or cider however in Europe the meaning of beor expanded to cover the meaning of ale When hopped ale from Europe was imported into Britain in the late Middle Ages using the word beer it was originally used to denote hopped ale to differentiate from the British unhopped ale though later it came to mean all forms of beer 12 HistoryMain article History of beer nbsp Ancient Egyptian painting 18th dynasty reign of Akhenaten c 1300 BC showing Syrian mercenary drinking beer through a straw Egyptian Museum of BerlinBeer is one of the world s oldest prepared alcoholic drinks The earliest archaeological evidence of fermentation consists of 13 000 year old residues of a beer with the consistency of gruel used by the semi nomadic Natufians for ritual feasting at the Raqefet Cave in the Carmel Mountains near Haifa in Israel 15 16 There is evidence that beer was produced at Gobekli Tepe during the Pre Pottery Neolithic around 8500 BC to 5500 BC 17 The earliest clear chemical evidence of beer produced from barley dates to about 3500 3100 BC from the site of Godin Tepe in the Zagros Mountains of western Iran 18 19 It is possible but not proven that it dates back even further to about 10 000 BC when cereal was first farmed 20 Beer is recorded in the written history of ancient Egypt 21 22 and archaeologists speculate that beer was instrumental in the formation of civilizations 23 Approximately 5000 years ago workers in the city of Uruk modern day Iraq were paid by their employers with volumes of beer 24 During the building of the Great Pyramids in Giza Egypt each worker got a daily ration of four to five litres of beer which served as both nutrition and refreshment and was crucial to the pyramids construction 25 Some of the earliest Sumerian writings contain references to beer examples include a prayer to the goddess Ninkasi known as The Hymn to Ninkasi 26 which served as both a prayer and a method of remembering the recipe for beer in a culture with few literate people and the ancient advice Fill your belly Day and night make merry to Gilgamesh recorded in the Epic of Gilgamesh by the alewife Siduri may at least in part have referred to the consumption of beer 27 The Ebla tablets discovered in 1974 in Ebla Syria show that beer was produced in the city in 2500 BC 28 A fermented drink using rice and fruit was made in China around 7000 BC Unlike sake mould was not used to saccharify the rice amylolytic fermentation the rice was probably prepared for fermentation by chewing or malting 29 30 During the Vedic period in Ancient India there are records of the consumption of the beer like sura 31 32 Xenophon noted that during his travels beer was being produced in Armenia 33 Almost any substance containing sugar can naturally undergo alcoholic fermentation and thus be utilised in the brewing of beer It is likely that many cultures on observing that a sweet liquid could be obtained from a source of starch independently invented beer Bread and beer increased prosperity to a level that allowed time for the development of other technologies and contributed to the building of civilizations 34 35 36 37 nbsp Francois Jaques Peasants enjoying beer at pub in Fribourg Switzerland 1923 Beer was spread through Europe by Germanic and Celtic tribes as far back as 3000 BC and it was mainly brewed on a domestic scale 5 artc 1025 38 The product that the early Europeans drank might not be recognised as beer by most people today Alongside the basic starch source the early European beers may have contained fruits honey numerous types of plants spices and other substances such as narcotic herbs 5 p 2 What they did not contain was hops as that was a later addition first mentioned in Europe around 822 by a Carolingian Abbot 39 and again in 1067 by abbess Hildegard of Bingen 5 p110 In 1516 William IV Duke of Bavaria adopted the Reinheitsgebot purity law perhaps the oldest food quality regulation still in use in the 21st century according to which the only allowed ingredients of beer are water hops and barley malt 40 Beer produced before the Industrial Revolution continued to be made and sold on a domestic scale although by the 7th century AD beer was also being produced and sold by European monasteries During the Industrial Revolution the production of beer moved from artisanal manufacture to industrial manufacture and domestic manufacture ceased to be significant by the end of the 19th century 41 The development of hydrometers and thermometers changed brewing by allowing the brewer more control of the process and greater knowledge of the results In 1912 brown bottles began to be used by the Joseph Schlitz Brewing Company of Milwaukee Wisconsin in the United States This innovation has since been accepted worldwide and prevents harmful rays from destroying the quality and stability of beer 42 The brewing industry is now a global business consisting of several dominant multinational companies and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from brewpubs to regional breweries 43 As of 2006 more than 133 billion litres 35 billion US gallons the equivalent of a cube 510 metres on a side of beer are sold per year producing total global revenues of US 294 5 billion In 2010 China s beer consumption hit 450 million hectolitres 45 billion litres or nearly twice that of the United States but only 5 per cent sold were premium beers compared with 50 per cent in France and Germany 44 A widely publicised study in 2018 suggested that sudden decreases in barley production due to extreme drought and heat could in the future cause substantial volatility in the availability and price of beer 45 Brewing nbsp A clickable diagram depicting the process of brewing beer Hot water tank Mash tun Malt Hops Copper Hopback Add yeast tofermenter Heatexchanger Bottling Cask or keg Main article Brewing The process of making beer is known as brewing A dedicated building for the making of beer is called a brewery though beer can be made at home and has been for much of its history in which case the brewing location is often called a brewhouse A company that makes beer is called either a brewery or a brewing company Beer made on a domestic scale for non commercial reasons is today usually classified as homebrewing regardless of where it is made though most homebrewed beer is made at home Historically domestic beer was what s called farmhouse ale Brewing beer has been subject to legislation and taxation for millennia and from the late 19th century on taxation largely restricted brewing to commercial operations only in the UK However the UK government relaxed legislation in 1963 followed by Australia in 1972 and the US in 1978 46 though individual states were allowed to pass their own laws limiting production 47 allowing homebrewing to become a popular hobby The purpose of brewing is to convert the starch source into a sugary liquid called wort and to convert the wort into the alcoholic drink known as beer in a fermentation process effected by yeast The first step where the wort is prepared by mixing the starch source normally malted barley with hot water is known as mashing Hot water known as liquor in brewing terms is mixed with crushed malt or malts known as grist in a mash tun 48 The mashing process takes around 1 to 2 hours 49 during which the starches are converted to sugars and then the sweet wort is drained off the grains The grains are then washed in a process known as sparging This washing allows the brewer to gather as much of the fermentable liquid from the grains as possible The process of filtering the spent grain from the wort and sparge water is called wort separation The traditional process for wort separation is lautering in which the grain bed itself serves as the filter medium Some modern breweries prefer the use of filter frames which allow for a more finely ground grist 50 Most modern breweries use a continuous sparge collecting the original wort and the sparge water together However it is possible to collect a second or even third wash with the not quite spent grains as separate batches Each run would produce a weaker wort and thus a weaker beer This process is known as the second and third runnings Brewing with several runnings is called parti gyle brewing 51 nbsp A 16th century breweryThe sweet wort collected from sparging is put into a kettle or copper so called because these vessels were traditionally made from copper 52 and boiled usually for about one hour During boiling the water in the wort evaporates but the sugars and other components of the wort remain this allows more efficient use of the starch sources in the beer Boiling also destroys any remaining enzymes left over from the mashing stage Hops are added during boiling as a source of bitterness flavour and aroma Hops may be added at more than one point during the boil The longer the hops are boiled the more bitterness they contribute but the less hop flavour and aroma remain in the beer 53 After boiling the hopped wort is cooled and ready for the yeast In some breweries the hopped wort may pass through a hopback which is a small vat filled with hops to add aromatic hop flavouring and to act as a filter but usually the hopped wort is simply cooled for the fermenter where the yeast is added During fermentation the wort becomes beer in a process that takes a week to several months depending on the type of yeast and strength of the beer In addition to producing ethanol fine particulate matter suspended in the wort settles during fermentation Once fermentation is complete the yeast also settles leaving the beer clear 54 During fermentation most of the carbon dioxide is allowed to escape through a trap and the beer is left with carbonation of only about one atmosphere of pressure The carbonation is often increased either by transferring the beer to a pressure vessel such as a keg and introducing pressurised carbon dioxide or by transferring it before the fermentation is finished so that carbon dioxide pressure builds up inside the container as the fermentation finishes Sometimes the beer is put unfiltered so it still contains yeast into bottles with some added sugar which then produces the desired amount of carbon dioxide inside the bottle 7 Fermentation is sometimes carried out in two stages primary and secondary Once most of the alcohol has been produced during primary fermentation the beer is transferred to a new vessel and allowed a period of secondary fermentation Secondary fermentation is used when the beer requires long storage before packaging or greater clarity 55 When the beer has fermented it is packaged either into casks for cask ale or kegs aluminium cans or bottles for other sorts of beer 56 Ingredients nbsp Malted barley before roastingThe basic ingredients of beer are water a starch source such as malted barley or malted maize such as used in the preparation of Tiswin and Tesguino able to be saccharified converted to sugars and then fermented converted into ethanol and carbon dioxide a brewer s yeast to produce the fermentation and a flavouring such as hops 57 A mixture of starch sources may be used with a secondary carbohydrate source such as maize corn rice wheat or sugar often termed an adjunct especially when used alongside malted barley 58 Less widely used starch sources include millet sorghum and cassava root in Africa potato in Brazil and agave in Mexico among others 59 The amount of each starch source in a beer recipe is collectively called the grain bill Water is the main ingredient in beer accounting for 93 of its weight 60 Though water itself is ideally flavourless its level of dissolved minerals specifically bicarbonate ions does influence beer s finished taste 61 Due to the mineral properties of each region s water specific areas were originally the sole producers of certain types of beer each identifiable by regional characteristics 62 Regional geology accords that Dublin s hard water is well suited to making stout such as Guinness while the Plzen Region s soft water is ideal for brewing Pilsner pale lager such as Pilsner Urquell 62 The waters of Burton in England contain gypsum which benefits making pale ale to such a degree that brewers of pale ales will add gypsum to the local water in a process known as Burtonisation 63 The starch source termed the mash ingredients in a beer provides the fermentable material and is a key determinant of the strength and flavour of the beer The most common starch source used in beer is malted grain Grain is malted by soaking it in water allowing it to begin germination and then drying the partially germinated grain in a kiln Malting grain produces enzymes that convert starches in the grain into fermentable sugars 64 Different roasting times and temperatures are used to produce different colours of malt from the same grain Darker malts will produce darker beers 65 Nearly all beers include barley malt as the majority of the starch This is because its fibrous hull remains attached to the grain during threshing After malting barley is milled which finally removes the hull breaking it into large pieces These pieces remain with the grain during the mash and act as a filter bed during lautering when sweet wort is separated from insoluble grain material Other malted and unmalted grains including wheat rice oats and rye and less frequently corn and sorghum may be used Some brewers have produced gluten free beer made with sorghum with no barley malt for those who cannot consume gluten containing grains like wheat barley and rye 66 nbsp Hop cone in a Hallertau Germany hop yardFlavouring beer is the sole major commercial use of hops 67 The flower of the hop vine is used as a flavouring and preservative agent in nearly all beer made today The flowers themselves are often called hops The first historical mention of the use of hops in beer dates from 822 AD in monastery rules written by Adalhard the Elder also known as Adalard of Corbie 41 68 though the date normally given for widespread cultivation of hops for use in beer is the thirteenth century 41 68 Before the thirteenth century and until the sixteenth century during which hops took over as the dominant flavouring beer was flavoured with other plants for instance grains of paradise or alehoof Combinations of various aromatic herbs berries and even ingredients like wormwood would be combined into a mixture known as gruit and used as hops are now used 69 Some beers today such as Fraoch by the Scottish Heather Ales company 70 and Cervoise Lancelot by the French Brasserie Lancelot company 71 use plants other than hops for flavouring Hops contain several characteristics that brewers desire in beer Hops contribute a bitterness that balances the sweetness of the malt the bitterness of beers is measured on the International Bitterness Units scale Hops contribute floral citrus and herbal aromas and flavours to beer Hops have an antibiotic effect that favours the activity of brewer s yeast over less desirable microorganisms and aids in head retention 72 73 the length of time that a foamy head created by carbonation will last The acidity of hops is a preservative 74 75 Yeast is the microorganism that is responsible for fermentation in beer Yeast metabolises the sugars extracted from grains which produce alcohol and carbon dioxide and thereby turns wort into beer In addition to fermenting the beer yeast influences the character and flavour 76 The dominant types of yeast used to make beer are top fermenting Saccharomyces cerevisiae and bottom fermenting Saccharomyces pastorianus 77 Brettanomyces ferments lambics 78 and Torulaspora delbrueckii ferments Bavarian weissbier 79 Before the role of yeast in fermentation was understood fermentation involved wild or airborne yeasts A few styles such as lambics rely on this method today but most modern fermentation adds pure yeast cultures 80 Some brewers add one or more clarifying agents or finings to beer which typically precipitate collect as a solid out of the beer along with protein solids and are found only in trace amounts in the finished product This process makes the beer appear bright and clean rather than the cloudy appearance of ethnic and older styles of beer such as wheat beers 81 Examples of clarifying agents include isinglass obtained from the swimbladders of fish Irish moss a seaweed kappa carrageenan from the seaweed Kappaphycus cottonii Polyclar artificial and gelatin 82 If a beer is marked suitable for vegans it is clarified either with seaweed or with artificial agents 83 Brewing industry nbsp Brewing factory nbsp Annual beer consumption per capita by countryThe history of breweries in the 21st century has included larger breweries absorbing smaller breweries in order to ensure economy of scale clarification needed In 2002 South African Breweries bought the North American Miller Brewing Company to found SABMiller becoming the second largest brewery after North American Anheuser Busch In 2004 the Belgian Interbrew was the third largest brewery by volume and the Brazilian AmBev was the fifth largest They merged into InBev becoming the largest brewery In 2007 SABMiller surpassed InBev and Anheuser Busch when it acquired Royal Grolsch the brewer of Dutch brand Grolsch 84 In 2008 when InBev the second largest bought Anheuser Busch the third largest the new Anheuser Busch InBev company became again the largest brewer in the world 85 As of 2020 update according to the market research firm Technavio AB InBev remains the largest brewing company in the world with Heineken second CR Snow third Carlsberg fourth and Molson Coors fifth 86 A microbrewery or craft brewery produces a limited amount of beer The maximum amount of beer a brewery can produce and still be classed as a microbrewery varies by region and by authority in the US it is 15 000 US beer barrels 1 8 megalitres 390 thousand imperial gallons 460 thousand US gallons a year 87 A brewpub is a type of microbrewery that incorporates a pub or other drinking establishment The highest density of breweries in the world most of them microbreweries exists in Franconia Germany especially in the district of Upper Franconia which has about 200 breweries 88 89 The Benedictine Weihenstephan brewery in Bavaria Germany can trace its roots to the year 768 as a document from that year refers to a hop garden in the area paying a tithe to the monastery The brewery was licensed by the City of Freising in 1040 and is therefore the oldest working brewery in the world 90 VarietiesMain article Beer style nbsp Cask ale hand pumps with pump clips detailing the beers and their breweriesWhile there are many types of beer brewed the basics of brewing beer are shared across national and cultural boundaries 91 The traditional European brewing regions Germany Belgium England and the Czech Republic have local varieties of beer 92 English writer Michael Jackson in his 1977 book The World Guide To Beer categorised beers from around the world in local style groups suggested by local customs and names 93 Fred Eckhardt furthered Jackson s work in The Essentials of Beer Style in 1989 Top fermented beers Top fermented beers are most commonly produced with Saccharomyces cerevisiae a top fermenting yeast which clumps and rises to the surface 94 typically between 15 and 25 C 59 and 77 F At these temperatures yeast produces significant amounts of esters and other secondary flavour and aroma products and the result is often a beer with slightly fruity compounds resembling apple pear pineapple banana plum or prune among others 95 After the introduction of hops into England from Flanders in the 15th century ale referred to an unhopped fermented drink beer being used to describe a brew with an infusion of hops 96 Real ale is the term coined by the Campaign for Real Ale CAMRA in 1973 97 for beer brewed from traditional ingredients matured by secondary fermentation in the container from which it is dispensed and served without the use of extraneous carbon dioxide It is applied to bottle conditioned and cask conditioned beers Pale ale is a beer which uses a top fermenting yeast 98 and predominantly pale malt It is one of the world s major beer styles and includes India pale ale IPA 99 Mild ale has a predominantly malty palate It is usually dark coloured with an abv of 3 to 3 6 although there are lighter hued milds as well as stronger examples reaching 6 abv and higher Wheat beer is brewed with a large proportion of wheat although it often also contains a significant proportion of malted barley Wheat beers are usually top fermented 100 The flavour of wheat beers varies considerably depending upon the specific style Stout is a dark beer made using roasted barley and typically brewed with slow fermenting yeast There are a number of variations including dry stout such as Guinness sweet stout and Imperial or Russian stout 99 Stout was originally the strongest variety of porter a dark brown beer popular with the street and river porters of eighteenth century London 101 102 99 103 104 Bottom fermented beers nbsp Kriek a variety of beer brewed with cherriesLager is cool fermented beer Pale lagers are the most commonly consumed beers in the world Many are of the pilsner type The name lager comes from the German lagern for to store as brewers around Bavaria stored beer in cool cellars and caves during the warm summer months These brewers noticed that the beers continued to ferment and to also clear of sediment when stored in cool conditions 105 Lager yeast is a cool bottom fermenting yeast Saccharomyces pastorianus and typically undergoes primary fermentation at 7 12 C 45 54 F the fermentation phase and then is given a long secondary fermentation at 0 4 C 32 39 F the lagering phase During the secondary stage the lager clears and mellows The cooler conditions also inhibit the natural production of esters and other byproducts resulting in a cleaner tasting beer 106 With improved modern yeast strains most lager breweries use only short periods of cold storage typically 1 3 weeks Other types of beer Lambic a beer of Belgium is naturally fermented using wild yeasts rather than cultivated Many of these are not strains of brewer s yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and may have significant differences in aroma and sourness Yeast varieties such as Brettanomyces bruxellensis and Brettanomyces lambicus are common in lambics In addition other organisms such as Lactobacillus bacteria produce acids which contribute to the sourness 107 MeasurementMain article Beer measurement Beer is measured and assessed by colour by strength and by bitterness The perceived bitterness is measured by the International Bitterness Units scale IBU defined in co operation between the American Society of Brewing Chemists and the European Brewery Convention 108 The international scale was a development of the European Bitterness Units scale often abbreviated as EBU and the bitterness values should be identical 109 Colour nbsp Paulaner dunkel a dark lagerBeer colour is determined by the malt 110 The most common colour is a pale amber produced from using pale malts Pale lager and pale ale are terms used for beers made from malt dried and roasted with the fuel coke Coke was first used for roasting malt in 1642 but it was not until around 1703 that the term pale ale was used 111 112 In terms of sales volume most of today s beer is based on the pale lager brewed in 1842 in the town of Pilsen in the present day Czech Republic 113 The modern pale lager is light in colour due to use of coke for kilning which gives off heat with little smoke 114 Dark beers are usually brewed from a pale malt or lager malt base with a small proportion of darker malt added to achieve the desired shade Other colourants such as caramel are also widely used to darken beers Very dark beers such as stout use dark or patent malts that have been roasted longer Some have roasted unmalted barley 115 116 Strength See also Beer measurement Strength Beer ranges from less than 3 alcohol by volume abv to around 14 abv though this strength can be increased to around 20 by re pitching with champagne yeast 117 and to 55 abv by the freeze distilling process 118 The alcohol content of beer varies by local practice or beer style 119 The pale lagers that most consumers are familiar with fall in the range of 4 6 with a typical abv of 5 120 The customary strength of British ales is quite low with many session beers being around 4 abv 121 In Belgium some beers such as table beer are of such low alcohol content 1 4 that they are served instead of soft drinks in some schools 122 The weakest beers are dealcoholized beers which typically have less than 0 05 alcohol also called near beer and light beers which usually have 4 alcohol The alcohol in beer comes primarily from the metabolism of sugars that are produced during fermentation The quantity of fermentable sugars in the wort and the variety of yeast used to ferment the wort are the primary factors that determine the amount of alcohol in the final beer Additional fermentable sugars are sometimes added to increase alcohol content and enzymes are often added to the wort for certain styles of beer primarily light beers to convert more complex carbohydrates starches to fermentable sugars Alcohol is a by product of yeast metabolism and is toxic to the yeast in higher concentrations typical brewing yeast cannot survive at alcohol concentrations above 12 by volume Low temperatures and too little fermentation time decreases the effectiveness of yeasts and consequently decreases the alcohol content The strength of beers has climbed during the later years of the 20th century Vetter 33 a 10 5 abv 33 degrees Plato hence Vetter 33 doppelbock was listed in the 1994 Guinness Book of World Records as the strongest beer at that time 123 124 though Samichlaus by the Swiss brewer Hurlimann had also been listed by the Guinness Book of World Records as the strongest at 14 abv 125 126 127 Since then some brewers have used champagne yeasts to increase the alcohol content of their beers Samuel Adams reached 20 abv with Millennium 117 and then surpassed that amount to 25 6 abv with Utopias The strongest beer brewed in Britain was Baz s Super Brew by Parish Brewery a 23 abv beer 128 129 In September 2011 the Scottish brewery BrewDog produced Ghost Deer which at 28 they claim to be the world s strongest beer produced by fermentation alone 130 The product claimed to be the strongest beer made is Schorschbrau s 2011 Schorschbock 57 with 57 5 131 132 It was preceded by The End of History a 55 Belgian ale 118 made by BrewDog in 2010 The same company had previously made Sink The Bismarck a 41 abv IPA 133 and Tactical Nuclear Penguin a 32 abv Imperial stout Each of these beers are made using the eisbock method of fractional freezing in which a strong ale is partially frozen and the ice is repeatedly removed until the desired strength is reached 134 135 a process that may class the product as spirits rather than beer 136 The German brewery Schorschbrau s Schorschbock a 31 abv eisbock 137 138 139 and Hair of the Dog s Dave a 29 abv barley wine made in 1994 used the same fractional freezing method 140 A 60 abv blend of beer with whiskey was jokingly claimed as the strongest beer by a Dutch brewery in July 2010 141 142 ServingDraught Main articles Draught beer and Cask ale nbsp A selection of cask beersDraught also spelled draft beer from a pressurised keg using a lever style dispenser and a spout is the most common method of dispensing in bars around the world A metal keg is pressurised with carbon dioxide CO2 gas which drives the beer to the dispensing tap or faucet Some beers may be served with a nitrogen carbon dioxide mixture Nitrogen produces fine bubbles resulting in a dense head and a creamy mouthfeel Some types of beer can also be found in smaller disposable kegs called beer balls In traditional pubs the pull levers for major beer brands may include the beer s logo and trademark In the 1980s Guinness introduced the beer widget a nitrogen pressurised ball inside a can which creates a dense tight head similar to beer served from a nitrogen system 143 The words draft and draught can be used as marketing terms to describe canned or bottled beers containing a beer widget or which are cold filtered rather than pasteurised Cask conditioned ales or cask ales are unfiltered and unpasteurised beers These beers are termed real ale by the CAMRA organisation Typically when a cask arrives in a pub it is placed horizontally on a frame called a stillage which is designed to hold it steady and at the right angle and then allowed to cool to cellar temperature typically between 11 13 C or 52 55 F 144 before being tapped and vented a tap is driven through a usually rubber bung at the bottom of one end and a hard spile or other implement is used to open a hole in the side of the cask which is now uppermost The act of stillaging and then venting a beer in this manner typically disturbs all the sediment so it must be left for a suitable period to drop clear again as well as to fully condition this period can take anywhere from several hours to several days At this point the beer is ready to sell either being pulled through a beer line with a hand pump or simply being gravity fed directly into the glass Draught beer s environmental impact can be 68 lower than bottled beer due to packaging differences 145 146 A life cycle study of one beer brand including grain production brewing bottling distribution and waste management shows that the CO2 emissions from a 6 pack of micro brew beer is about 3 kilograms 6 6 pounds 147 The loss of natural habitat potential from the 6 pack of micro brew beer is estimated to be 2 5 square metres 26 square feet 148 Downstream emissions from distribution retail storage and disposal of waste can be over 45 of a bottled micro brew beer s CO2 emissions 147 Where legal the use of a refillable jug reusable bottle or other reusable containers to transport draught beer from a store or a bar rather than buying pre bottled beer can reduce the environmental impact of beer consumption 149 Packaging Main articles Beer bottle and Drink can nbsp Assortment of beer bottlesMost beers are cleared of yeast by filtering when packaged in bottles and cans 150 However bottle conditioned beers retain some yeast either by being unfiltered or by being filtered and then reseeded with fresh yeast 151 It is usually recommended that the beer be poured slowly leaving any yeast sediment at the bottom of the bottle However some drinkers prefer to pour in the yeast this practice is customary with wheat beers Typically when serving a hefeweizen wheat beer 90 of the contents are poured and the remainder is swirled to suspend the sediment before pouring it into the glass Alternatively the bottle may be inverted prior to opening Glass bottles are always used for bottle conditioned beers Many beers are sold in cans though there is considerable variation in the proportion between different countries In Sweden in 2001 63 9 of beer was sold in cans 152 People either drink from the can or pour the beer into a glass A technology developed by Crown Holdings for the 2010 FIFA World Cup is the full aperture can so named because the entire lid is removed during the opening process turning the can into a drinking cup 153 Cans protect the beer from light thereby preventing skunked beer and have a seal less prone to leaking over time than bottles Cans were initially viewed as a technological breakthrough for maintaining the quality of a beer then became commonly associated with less expensive mass produced beers even though the quality of storage in cans is much like bottles 154 Plastic PET bottles are used by some breweries 155 Temperature The temperature of a beer has an influence on a drinker s experience warmer temperatures reveal the range of flavours in a beer but cooler temperatures are more refreshing Most drinkers prefer pale lager to be served chilled a low or medium strength pale ale to be served cool while a strong barley wine or imperial stout to be served at room temperature 156 Beer writer Michael Jackson proposed a five level scale for serving temperatures well chilled 7 C or 45 F for light beers pale lagers chilled 8 C or 46 F for Berliner Weisse and other wheat beers lightly chilled 9 C or 48 F for all dark lagers altbier and German wheat beers cellar temperature 13 C or 55 F for regular British ale stout and most Belgian specialities and room temperature 15 5 C or 60 F for strong dark ales especially trappist beer and barley wine 157 Drinking chilled beer began with the development of artificial refrigeration and by the 1870s was spread in those countries that concentrated on brewing pale lager 158 Chilling beer makes it more refreshing 159 though below 15 5 C 60 F the chilling starts to reduce taste awareness 160 and reduces it significantly below 10 C 50 F 161 Beer served unchilled either cool or at room temperature reveal more of their flavours Cask Marque a non profit UK beer organisation has set a temperature standard range of 12 14 C 53 57 F for cask ales to be served 162 Vessels Main article Beer glassware Beer is consumed out of a variety of vessels such as a glass a beer stein a mug a pewter tankard a beer bottle or a can or at music festivals and some bars and nightclubs from a plastic cup The shape of the glass from which beer is consumed can influence the perception of the beer and can define and accent the character of the style 163 Breweries offer branded glassware intended only for their own beers as a marketing promotion as this increases sales of their product 164 The pouring process has an influence on a beer s presentation The rate of flow from the tap or other serving vessel tilt of the glass and position of the pour in the centre or down the side into the glass all influence the result such as the size and longevity of the head lacing the pattern left by the head as it moves down the glass as the beer is drunk and the release of carbonation 165 A beer tower is a beer dispensing device usually found in bars and pubs that consists of a cylinder attached to a beer cooling device at the bottom Beer is dispensed from the beer tower into a drinking vessel ChemistryMain article Beer chemistry nbsp Organic aromatic acids found naturally in beer such as tryptophan tyrosine and phenylalanine absorb blue light and fluoresce in green under 450 nm laser light 166 Beer contains the phenolic acids 4 hydroxyphenylacetic acid vanillic acid caffeic acid syringic acid p coumaric acid ferulic acid and sinapic acid Alkaline hydrolysis experiments show that most of the phenolic acids are present as bound forms and only a small portion can be detected as free compounds 167 Hops and beer made with it contain 8 prenylnaringenin which is a potent phytoestrogen 168 Hop also contains myrcene humulene xanthohumol isoxanthohumol myrcenol linalool tannins and resin The alcohol 2M2B is a component of hops brewing 169 Barley in the form of malt brings the condensed tannins prodelphinidins B3 B9 and C2 into beer Tryptophol tyrosol and phenylethanol are aromatic higher alcohols found in beer 170 as secondary products of alcoholic fermentation 171 products also known as congeners by Saccharomyces cerevisiae Nutritional informationBeers vary in their nutritional content 172 The ingredients used to make beer including the yeast provide a rich source of nutrients therefore beer may contain nutrients including magnesium selenium potassium phosphorus biotin chromium and B vitamins Beer is sometimes referred to as liquid bread 173 though beer is not a meal in itself 174 Nutritional information of different beers serving size 12 oz 355 ml Beer Brand Carbohydrate g Alcohol Energy kcal Budweiser Select 55 1 8 2 4 55 Coors Light 5 4 2 102 Guinness Draught 10 4 0 126 Sierra Nevada Bigfoot 30 3 9 6 330Society and cultureSee also Category Beer culture nbsp A tent at Munich s Oktoberfest in Germany The event is known as the world s largest beer festival In many societies beer is the most popular alcoholic drink Various social traditions and activities are associated with beer drinking such as playing cards darts or other pub games attending beer festivals engaging in zythology the study of beer 175 176 visiting a series of pubs in one evening visiting breweries beer oriented tourism or rating beer 177 Drinking games such as beer pong are also popular 178 Even having a shower beer has developed a following 179 A relatively new profession is that of the beer sommelier who informs restaurant patrons about beers and food pairings Some breweries have developed beers to pair with food 180 181 182 Wine writer Malcolm Gluck disputed the need to pair beer with food while beer writers Roger Protz and Melissa Cole contested that claim 183 184 185 Beer is considered to be a social lubricant in many societies 186 187 and is consumed in countries all over the world There are breweries in Middle Eastern countries such as Syria and in some African countries Sales of beer are four times those of wine which is the second most popular alcoholic drink 188 A study published in the Neuropsychopharmacology journal in 2013 revealed the finding that the flavour of beer alone could provoke dopamine activity in the brain of the male participants who wanted to drink more as a result The 49 men in the study were subject to positron emission tomography scans while a computer controlled device sprayed minute amounts of beer water and a sports drink onto their tongues Compared with the taste of the sports drink the taste of beer significantly increased the participants desire to drink Test results indicated that the flavour of the beer triggered a dopamine release even though alcohol content in the spray was insufficient for the purpose of becoming intoxicated 189 Related drinksSee also Category Types of beer Around the world there are many traditional and ancient starch based drinks classed as beer In Africa there are various ethnic beers made from sorghum or millet such as Oshikundu 190 in Namibia and Tella in Ethiopia 191 Kyrgyzstan also has a beer made from millet it is a low alcohol somewhat porridge like drink called Bozo 192 Bhutan Nepal Tibet and Sikkim also use millet in Chhaang a popular semi fermented rice millet drink in the eastern Himalayas 193 Further east in China are found Huangjiu and Choujiu traditional rice based drinks related to beer The Andes in South America has Chicha made from germinated maize corn while the indigenous peoples in Brazil have Cauim a traditional drink made since pre Columbian times by chewing manioc so that an enzyme amylase present in human saliva can break down the starch into fermentable sugars 194 this is similar to Masato in Peru 195 Some beers which are made from bread which is linked to the earliest forms of beer are Sahti in Finland Kvass in Russia and Ukraine and Bouza in Sudan 4000 years ago fermented bread was used in Mesopotamia Food waste activists got inspired by these ancient recipes and use leftover bread to replace a third of the malted barley that would otherwise be used for brewing their craft ale 196 Health effectsSee also Short term effects of alcohol consumption and Long term effects of alcohol consumption A 2016 systematic review and meta analysis found that moderate ethanol consumption brought no mortality benefit compared with lifetime abstention from ethanol consumption 197 Some studies have concluded that drinking small quantities of alcohol less than one drink in women and two in men per day is associated with a decreased risk of heart disease stroke diabetes mellitus and early death 198 Some of these studies combined former ethanol drinkers and lifelong abstainers into a single group of nondrinkers which hides the health benefits of lifelong abstention from ethanol The long term health effects of continuous moderate or heavy alcohol consumption include the risk of developing alcoholism and alcoholic liver disease Alcoholism also known as alcohol use disorder is a broad term for any drinking of alcohol that results in problems 199 It was previously divided into two types alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence 200 201 In a medical context alcoholism is said to exist when two or more of the following conditions are present a person drinks large amounts over a long time period has difficulty cutting down acquiring and drinking alcohol takes up a great deal of time alcohol is strongly desired usage results in not fulfilling responsibilities usage results in social problems usage results in health problems usage results in risky situations withdrawal occurs when stopping and alcohol tolerance has occurred with use 201 Alcoholism reduces a person s life expectancy by around ten years 202 and alcohol use is the third leading cause of early death in the United States 198 No professional medical association recommends that people who are nondrinkers should start drinking alcoholic beverages 198 203 In the United States a total of 3 3 million deaths per year 5 9 of all deaths are believed to be due to alcohol 204 It is considered that overeating and lack of muscle tone is the main cause of a beer belly rather than beer consumption A 2004 study however found a link between binge drinking and a beer belly But with most overconsumption it is more a problem of improper exercise and overconsumption of carbohydrates than the product itself 205 Several diet books quote beer as having an undesirably high glycemic index of 110 the same as maltose however the maltose in beer undergoes metabolism by yeast during fermentation so that beer consists mostly of water hop oils and only trace amounts of sugars including maltose 206 See also nbsp Beer portal nbsp Food portalBeer and breweries by region List of barley based drinks List of beer cocktails List of drinks List of countries by beer consumption per capita List of food and drink awards List of national drinksReferences Rudgley Richard 1993 The Alchemy of Culture Intoxicants in society London UK British Museum Press ISBN 978 0714117362 Arnold John P 2005 Origin and History of Beer and Brewing From prehistoric times to the beginning of brewing science and technology reprint ed Cleveland OH BeerBooks ISBN 978 0 9662084 1 2 McFarland Ben 2009 World s Best Beers One thousand craft brews from cask to glass Sterling Publishing p 10 ISBN 978 1 4027 6694 7 Volume of world beer production European Beer Guide Retrieved 17 October 2006 a b c d Nelson Max 2005 The Barbarians Beverage A history of beer in ancient Europe Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 31121 2 via Google Books Barth Roger 2013 The Chemistry of Beer The Science in the suds Wiley ISBN 978 1 118 67497 0 a b How beer is carbonated and why is beer fizzy Commercial Beers about com Archived from the original on 23 January 2017 Retrieved 31 December 2016 Helfferich Carla ed Beer before bread Alaska Science Forum Geophysical Institute Fairbanks AK University of Alaska 1039 Archived from the original on 9 May 2008 Retrieved 13 May 2008 Stuckey Johanna ed 2006 Nin kasi Mesopotamian goddess of beer Spotlight Matrifocus Retrieved 13 May 2008 Black Jeremy A Cunningham Graham Robson Eleanor 2004 The Literature of Ancient Sumer Oxford UK Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 926311 0 World s strongest beer reclaimed BBC News 16 February 2010 Retrieved 5 August 2015 a b c Christine Fell 1975 Beor PDF Old English Report Leeds Studies in English Vol 8 Leeds UK School of English University of Leeds pp 76 95 Archived from the original PDF on 3 October 2020 beer n 1 Oxford English Dictionary Online 1st ed Oxford UK Oxford University Press 1887 Archived from the original on 1 November 2022 Retrieved 28 August 2020 Falk H Torp A eds 1979 no word cited Wortschatz der germanischen Spracheinheit Germany Vandenhoeck amp Ruprecht p 276 ISBN 978 3 525 26405 8 Retrieved 2 August 2013 World s oldest 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Encyclopedia of Beer paperback reprint ed New York NY Henry Holt amp Co p 509 ISBN 978 0 8050 5554 2 Webb Tim Beaumont Stephen October 2012 The World Atlas of Beer The essential guide to the beers of the world hardcover ed New York NY Sterling Epicure ISBN 978 1 4027 8961 8 Kenning David 2010 Beers of the World Over 350 classic beers lagers ales and porters hardcover ed Bath UK Parragon ISBN 978 1 4454 0878 1 Patterson Mark W Hoalst Pullen Nancy eds 2023 The Geography of Beer Policies perceptions and place hardcover ed Cham Springer ISBN 978 3 031 39007 4 External links nbsp Media related to Beer at Wikimedia Commons nbsp Works on the topic Beer at Wikisource nbsp Quotations related to Beer at Wikiquote nbsp Beer travel guide from Wikivoyage Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Beer amp oldid 1214842878, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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