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Crucifixion of Jesus

November 23, 2023

"The Crucifixion" redirects here. For other uses, see Crucifixion (disambiguation).
"Death of Jesus" redirects here. For other uses, see Death of Jesus (disambiguation).

The crucifixion of Jesus occurred in 1st-century Judaea, most likely in AD 30 or AD 33. It is described in the four canonical gospels, referred to in the New Testament epistles, attested to by other ancient sources, and is considered an established historical event.[1] There is no consensus among historians on the details.[2][3][4]

Crucifixion of Jesus
The 17th-century painting Christ Crucified by Diego Velázquez, held by the Museo del Prado in Madrid
DateAD 30/33
LocationJerusalem, Judaea, Roman Empire
TypeExecution by crucifixion
CauseCondemnation before Pilate's court
ParticipantsRoman army (executioners)
Outcome
DeathsJesus

In the canonical gospels, Jesus was arrested and tried by the Sanhedrin, and then by Pontius Pilate, who sentenced him to flagellation. After carrying out the sentence Pilate handed him over to soldiers.[5][6][7] The soldiers led Jesus to Golgotha and crucified him there beside two criminals, affixing a sign to his cross that declared him "King of the Jews." While on the cross he made exclamations that are recorded differently among the gospels. According to the synoptic gospels, darkness fell during the afternoon and Jesus died by the ninth hour of the day (at around 3:00 p.m.). Among the eyewitnesses named in the gospels are Mary Magdalene, Mary, mother of Jesus, Mary of Clopas, and Salome, often identified as the wife of Zebedee.

Collectively referred to as the Passion, Jesus's suffering and redemptive death by crucifixion are the central aspects of Christian theology concerning the doctrines of salvation and atonement.

New Testament narratives edit

See also: Gospel harmony

The earliest detailed accounts of the death of Jesus are contained in the four canonical gospels.[8] There are other, more implicit references in the New Testament epistles. In the synoptic gospels, Jesus predicts his death in three separate places.[9] All four Gospels conclude with an extended narrative of Jesus's arrest, initial trial at the Sanhedrin and final trial at Pilate's court, where Jesus is flogged, condemned to death, is led to the place of crucifixion initially carrying his cross before Roman soldiers induce Simon of Cyrene to carry it, and then Jesus is crucified, entombed, and resurrected from the dead. In each Gospel these five events in the life of Jesus are treated with more intense detail than any other portion of that Gospel's narrative. Scholars note that the reader receives an almost hour-by-hour account of what is happening.[10]: p.91 

 
A depiction of the Raising of the Cross, by Sebastiano Mazzoni, 17th century, Ca' Rezzonico

After arriving at Golgotha, Jesus was offered wine mixed with myrrh or gall to drink. Both the Gospel of Mark and the Gospel of Matthew record that he refused this. He was then crucified and hanged between two convicts. According to some translations of the original Greek, the convicts may have been bandits or Jewish rebels.[11] According to the Gospel of Mark, he endured the torment of crucifixion from the third hour (between approximately 9 a.m. and noon),[12] until his death at the ninth hour, corresponding to about 3 p.m.[13] The soldiers affixed a sign above his head stating "Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews" which, according to the Gospel of John, was in three languages (Hebrew, Latin, and Greek), and then divided his garments and cast lots for his seamless robe. According to the Gospel of John, the Roman soldiers did not break Jesus's legs, as they did to the two crucified convicts (breaking the legs hastened the onset of death), as Jesus was dead already. Each gospel has its own account of Jesus's last words, seven statements altogether.[14] In the Synoptic Gospels, various supernatural events accompany the crucifixion, including darkness, an earthquake, the tearing of the sanctuary's veil and the resurrection of saints ( in the Gospel of Matthew).[15] Following Jesus's death, his body was removed from the cross by Joseph of Arimathea and buried in a rock-hewn tomb, with Nicodemus assisting.

 
Bronzino's depiction of the crucifixion with three nails, no ropes, and a hypopodium standing support, c. 1545

The three Synoptic gospels also describe Simon of Cyrene bearing the cross,[16] a crowd of people mocking Jesus[17] along with the other two crucified men,[18] darkness from the 6th to the 9th hour,[19] and the temple veil being torn from top to bottom.[20] The Synoptic Gospels also mention several witnesses, including a centurion,[21] and several women who watched from a distance,[22] two of whom were present during the burial.[23]

The Gospel of Luke is the only gospel to omit the detail of the sour wine mix that was offered to Jesus on a reed,[24] while only Mark and John describe Joseph actually taking the body down off the cross.[25]

There are several details that are only mentioned in a single gospel account. For instance, only the Gospel of Matthew mentions an earthquake, resurrected saints who went to the city and that Roman soldiers were assigned to guard the tomb,[26] while Mark is the only one to state the time of the crucifixion (the third hour, or 9 a.m. – although it was probably as late as noon)[27] and the centurion's report of Jesus's death.[28] The Gospel of Luke's unique contributions to the narrative include Jesus's words to the women who were mourning, one criminal's rebuke of the other, the reaction of the multitudes who left "beating their breasts", and the women preparing spices and ointments before resting on the Sabbath.[29] John is also the only one to refer to the request that the legs be broken and the soldier's subsequent piercing of Jesus's side (as fulfillment of Old Testament prophecy), as well as that Nicodemus assisted Joseph with burial.[30]

According to the First Epistle to the Corinthians (1 Corinthians 15:4), Jesus was raised from the dead ("on the third day" counting the day of crucifixion as the first) and according to the canonical gospels, appeared to his disciples on different occasions before ascending to heaven.[31] The account given in Acts of the Apostles says that Jesus remained with the apostles for 40 days, whereas the account in the Gospel of Luke makes no clear distinction between the events of Easter Sunday and the Ascension.[32][33] Most biblical scholars agree that the author of Luke also wrote the Acts of the Apostles as a follow-up volume to the Gospel of Luke account, and the two works must be considered as a whole.[34]

In Mark, Jesus is crucified along with two rebels, and the sun goes dark or is obscured for three hours.[35] Jesus calls out to God, then gives a shout and dies.[35] The curtain of the Temple is torn in two.[35] Matthew follows Mark, but mentions an earthquake and the resurrection of saints.[36] Luke also follows Mark, although he describes the rebels as common criminals, one of whom defends Jesus, who in turn promises that he (Jesus) and the criminal will be together in paradise.[37] Luke portrays Jesus as impassive in the face of his crucifixion.[38] John includes several of the same elements as those found in Mark, though they are treated differently.[39]

Textual comparison edit

The comparison below is based on the New International Version.

Matthew Mark Luke John
Way of the Cross Matthew 27:32–33 Mark 15:21–22
  • Soldiers had Simon of Cyrene carry Jesus's cross.
 Luke 23:26–32
  • Soldiers had Simon of Cyrene carry Jesus's cross.
  • Jesus said to wailing women: "Don't weep for me, but for yourselves and your children."
 John 19:17
  • "They"[40] had Jesus carry the cross.
Crucifixion Matthew 27:34–36
  • Jesus tasted wine mixed with gall, refused to drink more.
  • Soldiers crucified Jesus, cast lots for his clothes and kept watch.
  • [No time indicated]
 Mark 15:23–25
  • Jesus refused to drink wine mixed with myrrh.
  • Soldiers crucified Jesus and cast lots for his clothes.
  • This happened at nine in the morning on the day of Passover (14:12, 15:25).
 Luke 23:33–34 John 19:18, 23–24
  • [No drink mentioned]
  • "They"[40] crucified Jesus and four soldiers each took a garment, casting lots over the undergarment (this fulfilled a prophecy).
  • This happened after noon on the Day of Preparation before Passover (19:14, 31)
Mocking Matthew 27:37–44
  • Sign: "This is Jesus, the king of the Jews".
  • Passersby, high priests, teachers of the law, elders and both rebels mocked Jesus.
 Mark 15:26–32
  • Sign: "The king of the Jews".
  • Passersby, high priests, teachers of the law and both rebels mocked Jesus.
 Luke 23:35–43 John 19:19–22, 25–27
Death Matthew 27:45–56
  • At noon, a three-hour-long darkness came across the land.
  • About three, Jesus cried out loud: "Eli, Eli, lema sabachtani?"
  • Bystander offered Jesus wine vinegar, others said: "Now let's see if Elijah saves him."
  • Jesus cried out again and died.
  • Temple curtain ripped, earthquake.
  • Tombs broke open, many dead came back to life and appeared to many people in Jerusalem.
  • Centurion and soldiers terrified: "Surely he was the Son of God."
  • Many women from Galilee looked on from a distance, including Mary Magdalene, Mary, mother of James and Joseph[42] and the mother of Zebedee's sons.
 Mark 15:33–41
  • At noon, a three-hour-long darkness came across the land.
  • At three, Jesus cried out loud: "Eloï, Eloï, lema sabachtani?"
  • Bystander offered Jesus wine vinegar and said: "Now let's see if Elijah comes to take him down."
  • Jesus cried out loud and died.
  • Temple curtain ripped.
  • Centurion: "Surely this man was the Son of God."
  • From a distance, the women from Galilee looked on, including Mary Magdalene, Mary, mother of James and Joses and Salome.[42]
 Luke 23:44–49
  • About noon, a three-hour-long darkness came across the land.
  • Temple curtain ripped.
  • Jesus called out loud: "Father, into your hands I commit my spirit," and died.
  • Centurion: "Surely this was a righteous man."
  • Bystanders beat their chest and went away.
  • Those who know him, including the Galilean women, stood at a distance.
 John 19:28–37
  • [No darkness mentioned, no time indicated]
  • To fulfill Scripture, Jesus said: "I am thirsty."
  • "They" let Jesus drink wine vinegar.
  • Jesus said: "It is finished," and died.
  • [No mention of reaction from bystanders or effect on temple curtain]
  • Soldiers broke the legs of the other two crucified men, but not Jesus's legs (this fulfilled a prophecy), but did pierce his side with a spear (this fulfilled another prophecy).

Other accounts and references edit

See also: Josephus on Jesus and Tacitus on Christ
 
Christ on the Cross between two thieves. Illumination from the Vaux Passional, 16th century
 
Crucifixion, from the Buhl Altarpiece, a particularly large Gothic oil on panel painting from the 1490s

Mara Bar-Serapion edit

An early non-Christian reference to the crucifixion of Jesus is likely to be Mara Bar-Serapion's letter to his son, written some time after AD 73 but before the 3rd century AD.[43][44][45] The letter includes no Christian themes and the author is presumed to be neither Jewish nor Christian.[43][44][46] The letter refers to the retributions that followed the unjust treatment of three wise men: Socrates, Pythagoras, and "the wise king" of the Jews.[43][45] Some scholars see little doubt that the reference to the execution of the "king of the Jews" is about the crucifixion of Jesus, while others place less value in the letter, given the ambiguity in the reference.[46][47]

Josephus edit

In the Antiquities of the Jews (written about 93 AD) Jewish historian Josephus stated (Ant 18.3) that Jesus was crucified by Pilate, writing that:[48]

Now there was about this time Jesus, a wise man, ... He drew over to him both many of the Jews and many of the Gentiles ... And when Pilate, at the suggestion of the principal men amongst us, had condemned him to the cross ...

Most modern scholars agree that while this Josephus passage (called the Testimonium Flavianum) includes some later interpolations, it originally consisted of an authentic nucleus with a reference to the execution of Jesus by Pilate.[6][7] James Dunn states that there is "broad consensus" among scholars regarding the nature of an authentic reference to the crucifixion of Jesus in the Testimonium.[49]

Tacitus edit

Early in the second century another reference to the crucifixion of Jesus was made by Tacitus, generally considered one of the greatest Roman historians.[50][51] Writing in The Annals (c. 116 AD), Tacitus described the persecution of Christians by Nero and stated (Annals 15.44) that Pilate ordered the execution of Jesus:[48][52]

Nero fastened the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their abominations, called Christians by the populace. Christus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilatus.

Scholars generally consider the Tacitus reference to the execution of Jesus by Pilate to be genuine, and of historical value as an independent Roman source.[50][53][54][55][56][57] Eddy and Boyd state that it is now "firmly established" that Tacitus provides a non-Christian confirmation of the crucifixion of Jesus.[58]

Talmud edit

Another possible reference to the crucifixion ("hanging", cf. Luke 23:39; Galatians 3:13) is found in the Babylonian Talmud:

On the eve of the Passover Yeshu was hanged. For forty days before the execution took place, a herald went forth and cried, "He is going forth to be stoned because he has practised sorcery and enticed Israel to apostasy. Anyone who can say anything in his favour, let him come forward and plead on his behalf." But since nothing was brought forward in his favour he was hanged on the eve of the Passover.

— Sanhedrin 43a, Babylonian Talmud (Soncino Edition)

Although the question of the equivalence of the identities of Yeshu and Jesus has at times been debated, many historians agree that the above 2nd-century passage is likely to be about Jesus, Peter Schäfer stating that there can be no doubt that this narrative of the execution in the Talmud refers to Jesus of Nazareth.[59] Robert Van Voorst states that the Sanhedrin 43a reference to Jesus can be confirmed not only from the reference itself, but from the context that surrounds it.[60] Sanhedrin 43a relates that Yeshu had been condemned to death by the royal government of Judaea – this lineage was stripped of all legal authority upon Herod the Great's ascension to the throne in 37 BC, meaning the execution had to have taken place close to 40 years before Jesus was even born.[61][62] According to another account, he was executed on request of the Pharisees leaders.[44]

Islam edit

Muslims maintain that Jesus was not crucified and that those who thought they had killed him had mistakenly killed Judas Iscariot, Simon of Cyrene, or someone else in his place.[63] They hold this belief based on various interpretations of Quran 4:157–158, which states: "they killed him not, nor crucified him, but so it was made to appear to them [or it appeared so unto them], ... Nay, Allah raised him up unto Himself".[63]

Gnosticism edit

Some early Christian Gnostic sects, believing Jesus did not have a physical substance, denied that he was crucified.[64][65] In response, Ignatius of Antioch insisted that Jesus was truly born and was truly crucified and wrote that those who held that Jesus only seemed to suffer only seemed to be Christians.[66][67]

Historicity edit

See also: Historicity of Jesus
 
Crucifixion of Jesus of Nazareth, medieval illustration from the Hortus deliciarum of Herrad of Landsberg, 12th century

The baptism of Jesus and his crucifixion are considered to be two historically certain facts about Jesus.[68][69] James Dunn states that these "two facts in the life of Jesus command almost universal assent" and "rank so high on the 'almost impossible to doubt or deny' scale of historical facts" that they are often the starting points for the study of the historical Jesus.[68] Bart Ehrman states that the crucifixion of Jesus on the orders of Pontius Pilate is the most certain element about him.[70] John Dominic Crossan states that the crucifixion of Jesus is as certain as any historical fact can be.[71] Eddy and Boyd state that it is now "firmly established" that there is non-Christian confirmation of the crucifixion of Jesus.[58] Craig Blomberg states that most scholars in the third quest for the historical Jesus consider the crucifixion indisputable.[4] Christopher M. Tuckett states that, although the exact reasons for the death of Jesus are hard to determine, one of the indisputable facts about him is that he was crucified.[72]

John P. Meier views the crucifixion of Jesus as historical fact and states that Christians would not have invented the painful death of their leader, invoking the criterion of embarrassment principle in historical research.[73] Meier states that a number of other criteria, e.g., the criterion of multiple attestation (i.e., confirmation by more than one source) and the criterion of coherence (i.e., that it fits with other historical elements) help establish the crucifixion of Jesus as a historical event.[74]

While scholars agree on the historicity of the crucifixion, they differ on the reason and context for it. For example, both E. P. Sanders and Paula Fredriksen support the historicity of the crucifixion but contend that Jesus did not foretell his own crucifixion and that his prediction of the crucifixion is a "church creation".[75]: 126  Geza Vermes also views the crucifixion as a historical event but provides his own explanation and background for it.[75]

Although almost all ancient sources relating to crucifixion are literary, in 1968, an archeological discovery just northeast of Jerusalem uncovered the body of a crucified man dated to the 1st century, which provided good confirmatory evidence that crucifixions occurred during the Roman period roughly according to the manner in which the crucifixion of Jesus is described in the gospels.[76] The crucified man was identified as Yehohanan ben Hagkol and probably died about AD 70, around the time of the Jewish revolt against Rome. The analyses at the Hadassah Medical School estimated that he died in his late 20s.[77][78] Another relevant archaeological find, which also dates to the 1st century AD, is an unidentified heel bone with a spike discovered in a Jerusalem gravesite, now held by the Israel Antiquities Authority and displayed in the Israel Museum.[citation needed]

Details edit

Main article: Passion (Christianity)

Chronology edit

Main article: Chronology of Jesus

There is no consensus regarding the exact date of the crucifixion of Jesus, although it is generally agreed by biblical scholars that it was on a Friday on or near Passover (Nisan 14), during the governorship of Pontius Pilate (who ruled AD 26–36).[79] Various approaches have been used to estimate the year of the crucifixion, including the canonical Gospels, the chronology of the life of Paul, as well as different astronomical models. Scholars have provided estimates in the range 30–33 AD,[80][81][82] with Rainer Riesner stating that "the fourteenth of Nisan (7 April) of the year 30 AD is, apparently in the opinion of the majority of contemporary scholars as well, far and away the most likely date of the crucifixion of Jesus."[83] Another preferred date among scholars is Friday, 3 April 33 AD.[84][85]

The consensus of scholarship is that the New Testament accounts represent a crucifixion occurring on a Friday, but a Thursday or Wednesday crucifixion have also been proposed.[86][87] Some scholars explain a Thursday crucifixion based on a "double sabbath" caused by an extra Passover sabbath falling on Thursday dusk to Friday afternoon, ahead of the normal weekly Sabbath.[86][88] Some have argued that Jesus was crucified on Wednesday, not Friday, on the grounds of the mention of "three days and three nights" in Matthew 12:40 before his resurrection, celebrated on Sunday. Others have countered by saying that this ignores the Jewish idiom by which a "day and night" may refer to any part of a 24-hour period, that the expression in Matthew is idiomatic, not a statement that Jesus was 72 hours in the tomb, and that the many references to a resurrection on the third day do not require three literal nights.[86][89]

In Mark 15:25 crucifixion takes place at the third hour (9 a.m.) and Jesus's death at the ninth hour (3 p.m.).[90] In John 19:14 Jesus is still before Pilate at the sixth hour.[91] Scholars have presented a number of arguments to deal with the issue, some suggesting a reconciliation, e.g., based on the use of Roman timekeeping in John, since Roman timekeeping began at midnight and this would mean being before Pilate at the 6th hour was 6 a.m., yet others have rejected the arguments.[91][92][93] Several scholars have argued that the modern precision of marking the time of day should not be read back into the gospel accounts, written at a time when no standardization of timepieces, or exact recording of hours and minutes was available, and time was often approximated to the closest three-hour period.[91][94][95]

Path edit

Main articles: Christ carrying the Cross and Via Dolorosa
 
Andrea di Bartolo, Way to Calvary, c. 1400. The cluster of halos at the left are the Virgin Mary in front, with the Three Marys.

The three Synoptic Gospels refer to a man called Simon of Cyrene whom the Roman soldiers order to carry the cross after Jesus initially carries it but then collapses,[96] while the Gospel of John just says that Jesus "bears" his own cross.[97]

Luke's gospel also describes an interaction between Jesus and the women among the crowd of mourners following him, quoting Jesus as saying "Daughters of Jerusalem, do not weep for me, but weep for yourselves and for your children. For behold, the days are coming when they will say, 'Blessed are the barren and the wombs that never bore and the breasts that never nursed!' Then they will begin to say to the mountains, 'Fall on us,' and to the hills, 'Cover us.' For if they do these things when the wood is green, what will happen when it is dry?"[98]

The Gospel of Luke has Jesus address these women as "daughters of Jerusalem", thus distinguishing them from the women whom the same gospel describes as "the women who had followed him from Galilee" and who were present at his crucifixion.[99]

Traditionally, the path that Jesus took is called Via Dolorosa (Latin for "Way of Grief" or "Way of Suffering") and is a street in the Old City of Jerusalem. It is marked by nine of the fourteen Stations of the Cross. It passes the Ecce Homo Church and the last five stations are inside the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.

There is no reference to a woman named Veronica[100] in the Gospels, but sources such as Acta Sanctorum describe her as a pious woman of Jerusalem who, moved with pity as Jesus carried his cross to Golgotha, gave him her veil that he might wipe his forehead.[101][102][103][104]

Location edit

 
A diagram of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and the historical site

The precise location of the crucifixion remains a matter of conjecture, but the biblical accounts indicate that it was outside the city walls of Jerusalem,[105] accessible to passers-by[106] and observable from some distance away.[107] Eusebius identified its location only as being north of Mount Zion,[108] which is consistent with the two most popularly suggested sites of modern times.

Calvary as an English name for the place is derived from the Latin word for skull (calvaria), which is used in the Vulgate translation of "place of a skull", the explanation given in all four Gospels of the Aramaic word Gûlgaltâ (transliterated into the Greek as Γολγοθᾶ (Golgotha)), which was the name of the place where Jesus was crucified.[109] The text does not indicate why it was so designated, but several theories have been put forward. One is that as a place of public execution, Calvary may have been strewn with the skulls of abandoned victims (which would be contrary to Jewish burial traditions, but not Roman). Another is that Calvary is named after a nearby cemetery (which is consistent with both of the proposed modern sites). A third is that the name was derived from the physical contour, which would be more consistent with the singular use of the word, i.e., the place of "a skull". While often referred to as "Mount Calvary", it was more likely a small hill or rocky knoll.[110]

The traditional site, inside what is now occupied by the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in the Christian Quarter of the Old City, has been attested since the 4th century. A second site (commonly referred to as Gordon's Calvary[111]), located further north of the Old City near a place popularly called the Garden Tomb, has been promoted since the 19th century.

People present edit

See also: Women at the crucifixion
 
Crucifixion by Agnolo Gaddi, between 1390 and 1396, depicting several women at the crucifixion

The Gospels describe various women at the crucifixion, some of whom are named. According to Mark, many women are present, among them Mary Magdalene, Mary, mother of James and Mary of Clopas,[112] commonly known as "the Three Marys". The Gospel of Matthew also mentions several women being present, among them Mary Magdalene, Mary, mother of James and the mother of Zebedee's children.[113] Although a group of women is mentioned in Luke, neither is named.[114] The Gospel of John speaks of women present, among them the mother of Jesus, Mary Magdalene and Mary of Clopas.[115]

Aside from these women, the three Synoptic Gospels speak of the presence of others: "the chief priests, with the scribes and elders",[116] two crucified criminals, to Jesus's right left,[117] "the soldiers",[118] "the centurion and those who were with him, keeping watch over Jesus",[119] passers-by,[120] "bystanders",[121] "the crowds that had assembled for this spectacle",[122] and "his acquaintances".[114] The two criminals are described as λῃσταί (variously translated as robbers, rebels or thieves) and further discussed in the Gospel of Luke as the penitent thief and the impenitent thief.[123]

The Gospel of John mentions the soldiers[124] and "the disciple whom Jesus loved", who is with the women.[125]

The Gospels also tell of the arrival, after the death of Jesus, of Joseph of Arimathea (in the four Gospels)[126] and of Nicodemus (only in John).[127]

Method and manner edit

Main article: Instrument of Jesus' crucifixion
 
Crucifixion of Jesus on a two-beamed cross, from the Sainte Bible (1866)
 
Torture stake, a simple wooden torture stake. Image by Justus Lipsius.

Whereas most Christians believe the gibbet on which Jesus was executed was the traditional two-beamed cross, the Jehovah's Witnesses hold the view that a single upright stake was used. The Greek and Latin words used in the earliest Christian writings are ambiguous. The Koine Greek terms used in the New Testament are stauros (σταυρός) and xylon (ξύλον). The latter means wood (a live tree, timber or an object constructed of wood); in earlier forms of Greek, the former term meant an upright stake or pole, but in Koine Greek it was used also to mean a cross.[128] The Latin word crux was also applied to objects other than a cross.[129]

Early Christian writers who speak of the shape of the particular gibbet on which Jesus died invariably describe it as having a cross-beam. For instance, the Epistle of Barnabas, which was certainly earlier than 135,[130] and may have been of the 1st century AD,[131] the time when the gospel accounts of the death of Jesus were written, likened it to the letter T (the Greek letter tau, which had the numeric value of 300),[132] and to the position assumed by Moses in Exodus 17:11–12.[133] Justin Martyr (100–165) explicitly says the cross of Christ was of two-beam shape: "That lamb which was commanded to be wholly roasted was a symbol of the suffering of the cross which Christ would undergo. For the lamb, which is roasted, is roasted and dressed up in the form of the cross. For one spit is transfixed right through from the lower parts up to the head, and one across the back, to which are attached the legs of the lamb."[134] Irenaeus, who died around the end of the 2nd century, speaks of the cross as having "five extremities, two in length, two in breadth, and one in the middle, on which [last] the person rests who is fixed by the nails."[135]

The assumption of the use of a two-beamed cross does not determine the number of nails used in the crucifixion and some theories suggest three nails while others suggest four nails.[136] Throughout history, larger numbers of nails have been hypothesized, at times as high as 14 nails.[137] These variations are also present in the artistic depictions of the crucifixion.[138] In Western Christianity, before the Renaissance usually four nails would be depicted, with the feet side by side. After the Renaissance most depictions use three nails, with one foot placed on the other.[138] Nails are almost always depicted in art, although Romans sometimes just tied the victims to the cross.[138] The tradition also carries to Christian emblems, e.g. the Jesuits use three nails under the IHS monogram and a cross to symbolize the crucifixion.[139]

The placing of the nails in the hands, or the wrists is also uncertain. Some theories suggest that the Greek word cheir (χείρ) for hand includes the wrist and that the Romans were generally trained to place nails through Destot's space (between the capitate and lunate bones) without fracturing any bones.[140] Another theory suggests that the Greek word for hand also includes the forearm and that the nails were placed near the radius and ulna of the forearm.[141] Ropes may have also been used to fasten the hands in addition to the use of nails.[142]

Another issue of debate has been the use of a hypopodium as a standing platform to support the feet, given that the hands may not have been able to support the weight. In the 17th century Rasmus Bartholin considered a number of analytical scenarios of that topic.[137] In the 20th century, forensic pathologist Frederick Zugibe performed a number of crucifixion experiments by using ropes to hang human subjects at various angles and hand positions.[141] His experiments support an angled suspension, and a two-beamed cross, and perhaps some form of foot support, given that in an Aufbinden form of suspension from a straight stake (as used by the Nazis in the Dachau concentration camp during World War II), death comes rather quickly.[143]

Words of Jesus spoken from the cross edit

Main article: Sayings of Jesus on the cross
 
Crucifixion, seen from the Cross, by James Tissot, c. 1890, Brooklyn Museum

The Gospels describe various last words that Jesus said while on the cross,[144] as follows:

Mark / Matthew edit

  • E′li, E′li, la′ma sa‧bach‧tha′ni? [145] (Aramaic for "My God, My God, why have you forsaken me?"). Aramaic linguist Steve Caruso said Jesus most likely spoke Galilean Aramaic,[146] which would render the pronunciation of these words: əlahí əlahí ləmáh šəvaqtáni.[147]

The only words of Jesus on the cross mentioned in the Mark and Matthew accounts, this is a quotation of Psalm 22. Since other verses of the same Psalm are cited in the crucifixion accounts, some commentators consider it a literary and theological creation. Geza Vermes noted the verse is cited in Aramaic rather than the usual Hebrew, and that by the time of Jesus, this phrase had become a proverbial saying in common usage.[148] Compared to the accounts in the other Gospels, which he describes as "theologically correct and reassuring", he considers this phrase "unexpected, disquieting and in consequence more probable".[149] He describes it as bearing "all the appearances of a genuine cry".[150] Raymond Brown likewise comments that he finds "no persuasive argument against attributing to the Jesus of Mark/Matt the literal sentiment of feeling forsaken expressed in the Psalm quote".[151]

Luke edit

  • "Father, forgive them; for they do not know what they are doing."[152] [Some early manuscripts do not have this]
  • "Truly I tell you, today you will be with me in Paradise."[153]
  • "Father, into your hands I commend my spirit."[154]

The Gospel of Luke does not include the aforementioned exclamation of Jesus mentioned in Matthew and Mark.[155]

John edit

  • "Woman, here is your son."[156]
  • "I am thirsty."[157]
  • "It is finished."[158]

The words of Jesus on the cross, especially his last words, have been the subject of a wide range of Christian teachings and sermons, and a number of authors have written books specifically devoted to the last sayings of Christ.[159][160][161][162][163][164]

Reported extraordinary occurrences edit

The synoptics report various miraculous events during the crucifixion.[165][166] Mark mentions a period of darkness in the daytime during Jesus's crucifixion, and the Temple veil being torn in two when Jesus dies.[35] Luke follows Mark;[37] as does Matthew, additionally mentioning an earthquake and the resurrection of dead saints.[36] No mention of any of these appears in John.[167]

Darkness edit

Main article: Crucifixion darkness
 
Christ on the Cross, by Carl Heinrich Bloch, showing the skies darkened

In the synoptic narrative, while Jesus is hanging on the cross, the sky over Judaea (or the whole world) is "darkened for three hours," from the sixth to the ninth hour (noon to mid-afternoon). There is no reference to darkness in the Gospel of John account, in which the crucifixion does not take place until after noon.[168]

Some ancient Christian writers considered the possibility that pagan commentators may have mentioned this event and mistook it for a solar eclipse, pointing out that an eclipse could not occur during the Passover, which takes place during the full moon when the moon is opposite the sun rather than in front of it. Christian traveler and historian Sextus Julius Africanus and Christian theologian Origen refer to Greek historian Phlegon, who lived in the 2nd century AD, as having written "with regard to the eclipse in the time of Tiberius Caesar, in whose reign Jesus appears to have been crucified, and the great earthquakes which then took place".[169]

Sextus Julius Africanus further refers to the writings of historian Thallus: "This darkness Thallus, in the third book of his History, calls, as appears to me without reason, an eclipse of the sun. For the Hebrews celebrate the passover on the 14th day according to the moon, and the passion of our Saviour falls on the day before the passover; but an eclipse of the sun takes place only when the moon comes under the sun."[170] Christian apologist Tertullian believed the event was documented in the Roman archives.[171]

Colin Humphreys and W. G. Waddington of Oxford University considered the possibility that a lunar, rather than solar, eclipse might have taken place.[172][173] They concluded that such an eclipse would have been visible for 30 minutes in Jerusalem and suggested the gospel reference to a solar eclipse was the result of a scribe wrongly amending a text. Historian David Henige dismisses this explanation as "indefensible",[174] and astronomer Bradley Schaefer points out that the lunar eclipse would not have been visible during daylight hours.[175][176]

In an edition of the BBC Radio 4 programme In Our Time entitled Eclipses, Frank Close, Emeritus Professor of Physics at the University of Oxford, stated that certain historical sources say that on the night of the Crucifixion "the moon had risen blood red," which indicates a lunar eclipse. He went on to confirm that as Passover takes place on the full moon calculating back shows that a lunar eclipse did in fact take place on the night of Passover on Friday, 3 April 33 AD which would have been visible in the area of modern Israel, ancient Judaea, just after sunset.[177]

Modern biblical scholarship treats the account in the synoptic gospels as a literary creation by the author of the Mark Gospel, amended in the Luke and Matthew accounts, intended to heighten the importance of what they saw as a theologically significant event, and not intended to be taken literally.[178] This image of darkness over the land would have been understood by ancient readers, a typical element in the description of the death of kings and other major figures by writers such as Philo, Dio Cassius, Virgil, Plutarch and Josephus.[179] Géza Vermes describes the darkness account as typical of "Jewish eschatological imagery of the day of the Lord", and says that those interpreting it as a datable eclipse are "barking up the wrong tree".[180]

Temple veil, earthquake and resurrection of dead saints edit

The synoptic gospels state that the veil of the temple was torn from top to bottom.

The Gospel of Matthew mentions an account of earthquakes, rocks splitting, and the opening of the graves of dead saints, and describes how these resurrected saints went into the holy city and appeared to many people.[181]

In the Mark and Matthew accounts, the centurion in charge comments on the events: "Truly this man was the Son of God!"[182] or "Truly this was the Son of God!".[183] The Gospel of Luke quotes him as saying, "Certainly this man was innocent!"[184][185]

The historian Sextus Julius Africanus in the early third century wrote, describing the day of the crucifixion, "A most terrible darkness fell over all the world, the rocks were torn apart by an earthquake, and many places both in Judaea and the rest of the world were thrown down. In the third book of his Histories, Thallos dismisses this darkness as a solar eclipse. ..."[186]

A widespread 5.5 magnitude earthquake has been hypothesized to have taken place between 26 and 36 AD. This earthquake was dated by counting varves (annual layers of sediment) between the disruptions in a core of sediment from En Gedi caused by it and by an earlier known quake in 31 BC.[187] Although other earthquakes may have been responsible, the authors concluded that either this was the earthquake in Matthew and it occurred more or less as reported, or else Matthew "borrowed" this earthquake which actually occurred at another time or simply inserted an "allegorical fiction".

Medical aspects edit

See also: Crucifixion § Cause of death

A number of theories to explain the circumstances of the death of Jesus on the cross have been proposed by physicians and Biblical scholars. In 2006, Matthew W. Maslen and Piers D. Mitchell reviewed over 40 publications on the subject with theories ranging from cardiac rupture to pulmonary embolism.[188]

 
Bronzino's Deposition of Christ

In 1847, based on the reference in the Gospel of John (John 19:34) to blood and water coming out when Jesus's side was pierced with a spear, physician William Stroud proposed the ruptured heart theory of the cause of Christ's death which influenced a number of other people.[189][190]

The cardiovascular collapse theory is a prevalent modern explanation and suggests that Jesus died of profound shock. According to this theory, the scourging, the beatings, and the fixing to the cross left Jesus dehydrated, weak, and critically ill and this led to cardiovascular collapse.[191][192]

Writing in the Journal of the American Medical Association, physician William Edwards and his colleagues supported the combined cardiovascular collapse (via hypovolemic shock) and exhaustion asphyxia theories, assuming that the flow of water from the side of Jesus described in the Gospel of John[193] was pericardial fluid.[194]

In his book The Crucifixion of Jesus, physician and forensic pathologist Frederick Zugibe studied the likely circumstances of the death of Jesus in great detail.[195][196] Zugibe carried out a number of experiments over several years to test his theories while he was a medical examiner.[197] These studies included experiments in which volunteers with specific weights were hanging at specific angles and the amount of pull on each hand was measured, in cases where the feet were also secured or not. In these cases the amount of pull and the corresponding pain was found to be significant.[197]

Pierre Barbet, a French physician, and the chief surgeon at Saint Joseph's Hospital in Paris,[198] hypothesized that Jesus relaxed his muscles to obtain enough air to utter his last words, in the face of exhaustion asphyxia.[199] Some of Barbet's theories, such as the location of nails, are disputed by Zugibe.

Orthopedic surgeon Keith Maxwell not only analyzed the medical aspects of the crucifixion, but also looked back at how Jesus could have carried the cross all the way along Via Dolorosa.[200][201]

In 2003, historians F. P. Retief and L. Cilliers reviewed the history and pathology of crucifixion as performed by the Romans and suggested that the cause of death was often a combination of factors. They also state that Roman guards were prohibited from leaving the scene until death had occurred.[202]

Theological significance edit

 
Adoration of the Mystic Lamb (detail of the Ghent Altarpiece, Jan van Eyck, c. 1432). Christ is represented as the sacrificial Lamb of God.

Christians believe that Jesus's death was instrumental in restoring humankind to relationship with God.[203][204] Christians believe that through Jesus's death and resurrection[205][206] people are reunited with God and receive new joy and power in this life as well as eternal life. Thus the crucifixion of Jesus along with his resurrection restores access to a vibrant experience of God's presence, love and grace as well as the confidence of eternal life.[207]

Christology edit

See also: Lamb of God

The accounts of the crucifixion and subsequent resurrection of Jesus provide a rich background for Christological analysis, from the canonical Gospels to the Pauline epistles.[208] Christians believe Jesus's suffering was foretold in the Old Testament, such as in Psalm 22, and Isaiah 53 prophecy of the suffering servant.[209]

In Johannine "agent Christology" the submission of Jesus to crucifixion is a sacrifice made as an agent of God or servant of God, for the sake of eventual victory.[210][211] This builds on the salvific theme of the Gospel of John which begins in John 1:29 with John the Baptist's proclamation: "The Lamb of God who takes away the sins of the world".[212][213]

A central element in the Christology presented in the Acts of the Apostles is the affirmation of the belief that the death of Jesus by crucifixion happened "with the foreknowledge of God, according to a definite plan".[214] In this view, as in Acts 2:23, the cross is not viewed as a scandal, for the crucifixion of Jesus "at the hands of the lawless" is viewed as the fulfillment of the plan of God.[214][215]

Paul's Christology has a specific focus on the death and resurrection of Jesus. For Paul, the crucifixion of Jesus is directly related to his resurrection and the term "the cross of Christ" used in Galatians 6:12 may be viewed as his abbreviation of the message of the gospels.[216] For Paul, the crucifixion of Jesus was not an isolated event in history, but a cosmic event with significant eschatological consequences, as in 1 Corinthians 2:8.[216] In the Pauline view, Jesus, obedient to the point of death (Philippians 2:8) died "at the right time" (Romans 4:25) based on the plan of God.[216] For Paul the "power of the cross" is not separable from the resurrection of Jesus.[216] Furthermore, Paul highlighted the idea that Jesus on the cross defeated the spiritual forces of evil "Kosmokrator", literally 'the rulers of this world' (used in plural in Ephesians 6:12), thus highlighting the idea of victory of light over darkness, or good over evil, through Christ.[217]

Belief in the redemptive nature of Jesus's death predates the Pauline letters, to the earliest days of Christianity and the Jerusalem church.[218] The Nicene Creed's statement that "for our sake he was crucified" is a reflection of this core belief's formalization in the fourth century.[219]

John Calvin supported the "agent of God" Christology and argued that in his trial in Pilate's Court Jesus could have successfully argued for his innocence, but instead submitted to crucifixion in obedience to the Father.[220][221] This Christological theme continued into the 20th century, both in the Eastern and Western Christianity. In Eastern Christianity, Sergei Bulgakov argued, the crucifixion of Jesus was "pre-eternally" determined by the Father before the creation of the world, to redeem humanity from the disgrace caused by the fall of Adam.[222] In Western Christianity, Karl Rahner elaborated on the analogy that the blood of the Lamb of God (and the water from the side of Jesus) shed at the crucifixion had a cleansing nature, similar to baptismal water.[223]

Atonement edit

 
Penitent by Niccolò Frangipane, 1574

Jesus's death and resurrection underpin a variety of theological interpretations as to how salvation is granted to humanity. These interpretations vary widely in how much emphasis they place on the death and resurrection as compared to Jesus's words.[224] According to the substitutionary atonement view, Jesus's death is of central importance, and Jesus willingly sacrificed himself after his resurrection as an act of perfect obedience as a sacrifice of love which pleased God.[225] By contrast the moral influence theory of atonement focuses much more on the moral content of Jesus's teaching, and sees Jesus's death as a martyrdom.[226] Since the Middle Ages there has been conflict between these two views within Western Christianity. Evangelical Protestants typically hold a substitutionary view and in particular hold to the theory of penal substitution. Liberal Protestants typically reject substitutionary atonement and hold to the moral influence theory of atonement. Both views are popular within the Roman Catholic Church, with the satisfaction doctrine incorporated into the idea of penance.[225]

In the Roman Catholic tradition this view of atonement is balanced by the duty of Roman Catholics to perform Acts of Reparation to Jesus Christ[227] which in the encyclical Miserentissimus Redemptor of Pope Pius XI were defined as "some sort of compensation to be rendered for the injury" with respect to the sufferings of Jesus.[228] Pope John Paul II referred to these acts of reparation as the "unceasing effort to stand beside the endless crosses on which the Son of God continues to be crucified."[229]

Among Eastern Orthodox Christians, another common view is Christus Victor.[230] This holds that Jesus was sent by God to defeat death and Satan. Because of his perfection, voluntary death, and resurrection, Jesus defeated Satan and death, and arose victorious. Therefore, humanity was no longer bound in sin, but was free to rejoin God through the repentance of sin and faith in Jesus.[231]

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints teaches that the crucifixion of Jesus was part of the atonement and a "redeeming ransom" both for the effect of the fall of Adam upon all humankind and "for the personal sins of all who repent, from Adam to the end of the world."[232]

Deicide edit

The Catholic Church denounces the idea of Jewish deicide, believing that all sinners are the authors and ministers of Jesus's crucifixion, and admonishes Christians that their own guilt is greater when they sin with knowledge of Jesus, than when others sin without it.[233][234]

Denial edit

Docetism edit

In Christianity, docetism is the doctrine that the phenomenon of Jesus, his historical and bodily existence, and above all the human form of Jesus, was mere semblance without any true reality.[235] Docetists denied that Jesus could have truly suffered and died, as his physical body was illusory, and instead saw the crucifixion as something that only appeared to happen.[236]

Nag Hammadi manuscripts edit

According to the First Revelation of James in the Nag Hammadi library, Jesus appeared to James after apparently being crucified and stated that another person had been inflicted in his place:

"The master appeared to him. He stopped praying, embraced him, and kissed him, saying, “Rabbi, I’ve found you. I heard of the sufferings you endured, and I was greatly troubled. You know my compassion. Because of this I wished, as I reflected upon it, that I would never see these people again. They must be judged for what they have done, for what they have done is not right.” The master said, “James, do not be concerned for me or these people. I am the one who was within me. Never did I suffer at all, and I was not distressed. These people did not harm me. Rather, all this was inflicted upon a figure of the rulers, and it was fitting that this figure should be [destroyed] by them."[237]

Islam edit

Main article: Islamic views on Jesus' death
See also: Jesus in Islam

Most Islamic traditions categorically deny that Jesus physically died, either on a cross or another manner. This denial is asserted in the Quran, which states:

And [for] their saying, "Indeed, we have killed the Messiah, Jesus the son of Mary, the messenger of Allah." And they did not kill him, nor did they crucify him; but rather, it was made to appear to them so. And indeed, those who differ over it are in doubt about it. They have no knowledge of it except the following of assumption. And they did not kill him, for certain. (157) Rather, Allah raised him to Himself. And ever is Allah Exalted in Might and Wise. (158)

— Quran 4:157–158[238]

Islamic traditions teach that Jesus ascended to Heaven without being put on the cross, but that God transformed another person to appear exactly like him and to be then crucified instead of him. This view is attested in an account by Irenaeus of the doctrine of the 2nd-century Alexandrian Gnostic Basilides in which Irenaeus refutes what he believes to be a heresy denying the death.[239]

Gnosticism edit

Some scriptures identified as Gnostic reject the atonement of Jesus's death by distinguishing the earthly body of Jesus and his divine and immaterial essence. According to the Second Treatise of the Great Seth, Yaldabaoth (the Creator of the material universe) and his Archons tried to kill Jesus by crucifixion, but only killed their own man (that is the body). While Jesus ascended from his body, Yaldabaoth and his followers thought Jesus to be dead.[240][241] In Apocalypse of Peter, Peter talks with the savior whom the "priests and people" believed to have killed.[242]

Manichaeism, which was influenced by Gnostic ideas, adhered to the idea that not Jesus, but somebody else was crucified instead.[243]: 41  Jesus suffering on the cross is depicted as the state of light particles (spirit) within matter instead.[244]

According to Bogomilism, the crucifixion was an attempt by Lucifer to destroy Jesus, while the earthly Jesus was regarded as a prophet, Jesus himself was an immaterial being that can not be killed. Accordingly, Lucifer failed and Jesus's sufferings on the cross were only an illusion.[245]

Others edit

According to some Christian sects in Japan, Jesus Christ did not die on the cross at Golgotha. Instead his younger brother, Isukiri,[246] took his place on the cross, while Jesus fled across Siberia to Mutsu Province, in northern Japan. Once in Japan, he became a rice farmer, married, and raised a family with three daughters near what is now Shingō. While in Japan, it is asserted that he traveled, learned, and eventually died at the age of 106. His body was exposed on a hilltop for four years. According to the customs of the time, Jesus's bones were collected, bundled, and buried in a mound.[247][248] There is also a museum in Japan which claims to have evidence of these claims.[249]

In Yazidism, Jesus is thought of as a "figure of light" who could not be crucified. This interpretation could be taken from the Quran or Gnostics.[250]

In art, symbolism and devotions edit

Main article: Crucifixion in the arts
 
Detail of the countenance of Christ just dead, by José Luján Pérez, 1793, Las Palmas Cathedral

Since the crucifixion of Jesus, the cross has become a key element of Christian symbolism, and the crucifixion scene has been a key element of Christian art, giving rise to specific artistic themes such as Christ Carrying the Cross, raising of the Cross, Stabat Mater, Descent from the Cross and Lamentation of Christ.

The symbolism of the cross which is today one of the most widely recognized Christian symbols was used from the earliest Christian times. Justin Martyr, who died in 165, describes it in a way that already implies its use as a symbol, although the crucifix appeared later.[251][252]

Devotions based on the process of crucifixion, and the sufferings of Jesus are followed by various Christians. The Stations of the Cross follows a number of stages based on the stages involved in the crucifixion of Jesus, while the Rosary of the Holy Wounds is used to meditate on the wounds of Jesus as part of the crucifixion.

Masters such as Giotto, Fra Angelico, Masaccio, Raphael, Botticelli, van Dyck, Titian, Caravaggio, El Greco, Zurbarán, Velázquez, Rubens and Rembrandt have all depicted the crucifixion scene in their works. The Crucifixion, seen from the Cross by Tissot presented a novel approach at the end of the 19th century, in which the crucifixion scene was portrayed from the perspective of Jesus.[253][254]

The presence of the Virgin Mary under the cross, mentioned in the Gospel of John,[255] has in itself been the subject of Marian art, and well known Catholic symbolism such as the Miraculous Medal and Pope John Paul II's Coat of Arms bearing a Marian Cross. And a number of Marian devotions also involve the presence of the Virgin Mary in Calvary, e.g., Pope John Paul II stated that "Mary was united to Jesus on the Cross".[256][257] Well known works of Christian art by masters such as Raphael (the Mond Crucifixion), and Caravaggio (The Entombment of Christ) depict the Virgin Mary as part of the crucifixion scene.

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ Eddy, Paul Rhodes and Gregory A. Boyd (2007). The Jesus Legend: A Case for the Historical Reliability of the Synoptic Jesus Tradition. Baker Academic. p. 172. ISBN 978-0801031144. ...if there is any fact of Jesus' life that has been established by a broad consensus, it is the fact of Jesus' crucifixion.
  2. ^ Christopher M. Tuckett in The Cambridge companion to Jesus edited by Markus N. A. Bockmuehl 2001 Cambridge Univ Press ISBN 978-0-521-79678-1 pp. 123–124
  3. ^ Funk, Robert W.; Jesus Seminar (1998). The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus. San Francisco: Harper. ISBN 978-0060629786.
  4. ^ a b Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey by Craig L. Blomberg (2009) ISBN 0-8054-4482-3 pp. 211–214
  5. ^ Granger Cook, John (2018). "Cross/Crucifixion". In Hunter, David G.; van Geest, Paul J. J.; Lietaert Peerbolte, Bert Jan (eds.). Brill Encyclopedia of Early Christianity Online. Leiden and Boston: Brill Publishers. doi:10.1163/2589-7993_EECO_SIM_00000808. ISSN 2589-7993.
  6. ^ a b The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament by Andreas J. Köstenberger, L. Scott Kellum 2009 ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3 pp. 104–108
  7. ^ a b Evans, Craig A. (2001). Jesus and His Contemporaries: Comparative Studies ISBN 0-391-04118-5 p. 316
  8. ^ Matthew 26:46–27:60; Mark 14:43–15:45; Luke 22:47–23:53; John 18:3–19:42
  9. ^ St Mark's Gospel and the Christian faith by Michael Keene (2002) ISBN 0-7487-6775-4 pp. 24–25
  10. ^ Powell, Mark A. Introducing the New Testament. Baker Academic, (2009). ISBN 978-0-8010-2868-7
  11. ^ Reza Aslan (2014). Zealot: The Life and Times of Jesus of Nazareth. Random House. ISBN 0812981480.
  12. ^ Mark 15:25
  13. ^ Mark 15:34–37
  14. ^ Ehrman, Bart D. (2009). Jesus, Interrupted. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-117393-2
  15. ^ Matthew 26:51–53
  16. ^ Matthew 27:31–32; Mark 15:20–21; Luke 23:26
  17. ^ Matthew 27:39–43; Mark 15:29–32; Luke 23:35–37
  18. ^ Matthew 27:44; Mark 15:32; Luke 23:39
  19. ^ Matthew 27:45; Mark 15:33; Luke 23:44–45
  20. ^ Matthew 27:51; Mark 15:38; Luke 23:45
  21. ^ Matthew 27:54; Mark 15:39; Luke 23:47
  22. ^ Matthew 27:55–56; Mark 15:40–41; Luke 23:49
  23. ^ Matthew 27:61; Mark 15:47; Luke 23:54–55
  24. ^ Matthew 27:34; 27:47–49; Mark 15:23; 15:35–36; John 19:29–30
  25. ^ Mark 15:45; John 19:38
  26. ^ Matthew 27:51; 27:62–66
  27. ^ Ray, Steve. "When Was Jesus Crucified? How Long on the Cross? Do the Gospels Contradict Each Other?". Defenders of the Catholic Faith. from the original on August 28, 2019. Retrieved August 10, 2019.
  28. ^ Mark 15:25; 15:44–45
  29. ^ Luke 23:27–32; 23:40–41; 23:48; 23:56
  30. ^ John 19:31–37; 19:39–40
  31. ^ John 19:30–31; Mark 16:1; Mark 16:6
  32. ^ Geza Vermes, The Resurrection (Penguin, 2008), p. 148.
  33. ^ E. P. Sanders, The Historical Figure of Jesus (Penguin, 1993), p. 276.
  34. ^ Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction (Intervarsity, 1990), pp. 125, 366.
  35. ^ a b c d Funk, Robert W. and the Jesus Seminar (1998). The Acts of Jesus: The Search for the Authentic Deeds of Jesus. HarperSanFrancisco. "Mark", pp. 51–161. ISBN 978-0060629786.
  36. ^ a b Funk, Robert W. and the Jesus Seminar (1998). The Acts of Jesus: The Search for the Authentic Deeds of Jesus. HarperSanFrancisco. "Matthew," pp. 129–270. ISBN 978-0060629786.
  37. ^ a b Funk, Robert W. and the Jesus Seminar (1998). The Acts of Jesus: The Search for the Authentic Deeds of Jesus. HarperSanFrancisco. "Luke", pp. 267–364. ISBN 978-0060629786.
  38. ^ Ehrman, Bart D. (2005). Misquoting Jesus: The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-073817-4.
  39. ^ Funk, Robert W. and the Jesus Seminar (1998). The Acts of Jesus: The Search for the Authentic Deeds of Jesus. HarperSanFrancisco. "John", pp. 365–440. ISBN 978-0060629786.
  40. ^ a b In verse 19:17 and 19:18, only a third person plural verb is used ("they"), it is not clear whether this refers to the high priests (οἱ ἀρχιερεῖς) to whom Pilate delivered Jesus in 19:15–16, or to the soldiers (οὖν στρατιῶται) who crucified Jesus according to 19:23.
  41. ^ In some manuscripts of Luke, these words are omitted. Annotation Nieuwe Bijbelvertaling (2004).
  42. ^ a b Based on other Biblical verses, it is often concluded that this Mary was Jesus' own mother, and that James and Joses/Joseph were his brothers, see brothers of Jesus.
  43. ^ a b c Evidence of Greek Philosophical Concepts in the Writings of Ephrem the Syrian by Ute Possekel 1999 ISBN 90-429-0759-2 pp. 29–30
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  48. ^ a b Theissen 1998, pp. 81–83
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  54. ^ Jesus and His Contemporaries: Comparative Studies by Craig A. Evans. 2001. ISBN 0-391-04118-5. p. 42.
  55. ^ Ancient Rome by William E. Dunstan 2010 ISBN 0-7425-6833-4 p. 293
  56. ^ Tacitus' characterization of "Christian abominations" may have been based on the rumors in Rome that during the Eucharist rituals Christians ate the body and drank the blood of their God, interpreting the symbolic ritual as cannibalism by Christians. References: Ancient Rome by William E. Dunstan 2010 ISBN 0-7425-6833-4 p. 293 and An introduction to the New Testament and the origins of Christianity by Delbert Royce Burkett 2002 ISBN 0-521-00720-8 p. 485
  57. ^ Pontius Pilate in History and Interpretation by Helen K. Bond 2004 ISBN 0-521-61620-4 p. xi
  58. ^ a b Eddy, Paul; Boyd, Gregory (2007). The Jesus Legend: A Case for the Historical Reliability of the Synoptic Jesus Tradition Baker Academic, ISBN 0-8010-3114-1 p. 127
  59. ^ Jesus in the Talmud by Peter Schäfer (2009) ISBN 0-691-14318-8 pp. 141 and 9
  60. ^ Van Voorst, Robert E. (2000). Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. ISBN 0-8028-4368-9. pp. 177–118.
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  62. ^ L. Patterson, "Origin of the Name Panthera", JTS 19 (1917–18), pp. 79–80, cited in Meier, p. 107 n. 48
  63. ^ a b George W. Braswell Jr., What You Need to Know about Islam and Muslims November 23, 2022, at the Wayback Machine, p. 127 (B & H Publishing Group, 2000). ISBN 978-0-8054-1829-3.
  64. ^ Dunderberg, Ismo; Christopher Mark Tuckett; Kari Syreeni (2002). Fair play: diversity and conflicts in early Christianity: essays in honour of Heikki Räisänen. Brill. p. 488. ISBN 90-04-12359-8. from the original on April 7, 2023. Retrieved November 28, 2015.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  65. ^ Pagels, Elaine H. (2006). The Gnostic gospels. Phoenix. p. 192. ISBN 0-7538-2114-1.
  66. ^ William Barclay, Great Themes of the New Testament January 28, 2016, at the Wayback Machine. Westminster John Knox Press. 2001. ISBN 978-0-664-22385-4. p. 41.
  67. ^ "St. Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans (Roberts-Donaldson translation)". www.earlychristianwritings.com. from the original on March 23, 2016. Retrieved March 10, 2012.
  68. ^ a b Jesus Remembered by James D. G. Dunn (2003) ISBN 0-8028-3931-2 p. 339
  69. ^ Jesus of Nazareth by Paul Verhoeven (2010) ISBN 1-58322-905-1 p. 39
  70. ^ A Brief Introduction to the New Testament by Bart D. Ehrman (2008) ISBN 0-19-536934-3 p. 136
  71. ^ Crossan, John Dominic (1995). Jesus: A Revolutionary Biography. HarperOne. p. 145. ISBN 0-06-061662-8. That he was crucified is as sure as anything historical can ever be, since both Josephus and Tacitus ... agree with the Christian accounts on at least that basic fact.
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Further reading edit

  • Brox, Norbert (1984). "'Doketismus' – eine Problemanzeige". Zeitschrift für Kirchengeschichte. Kohlhammer Verlag. 95: 301–314. ISSN 0044-2925.
  • Cousar, Charles B. (1990). A Theology of the Cross: The Death of Jesus in the Pauline Letters. Fortress Press. ISBN 0-8006-1558-1.
  • Dennis, John (2006). "Jesus' Death in John's Gospel: A Survey of Research from Bultmann to the Present with Special Reference to the Johannine Hyper-Texts". Currents in Biblical Research. 4 (3): 331–363. doi:10.1177/1476993X06064628. S2CID 170326371.
  • Dilasser, Maurice (1999). The Symbols of the Church. Liturgical Press. ISBN 978-0-8146-2538-5.
  • Green, Joel B. (1988). The Death of Jesus: Tradition and Interpretation in the Passion Narrative. Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 3-16-145349-2.
  • Humphreys, Colin J.; W. G. Waddington (December 1983). "Dating the Crucifixion". Nature. 306 (5945): 743–746. Bibcode:1983Natur.306..743H. doi:10.1038/306743a0. S2CID 4360560.
  • Rosenblatt, Samuel (December 1956). "The Crucifixion of Jesus from the Standpoint of Pharisaic Law". Journal of Biblical Literature. The Society of Biblical Literature. 75 (4): 315–321. doi:10.2307/3261265. JSTOR 3261265.
  • McRay, John (1991). Archaeology and the New Testament. Baker Books. ISBN 0-8010-6267-5.
  • Samuelsson, Gunnar. (2011). Crucifixion in Antiquity. Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 978-3-16-150694-9.
  • Schneemelcher, Wilhelm; Maurer, Christian (1994) [1991]. "The Gospel of Peter". In Schneemelcher, Wilhelm; Wilson, McLachlan (eds.). New Testament Apocrypha: Gospels and related writings. Vol. 1. Westminster John Knox Press. pp. 216–227. ISBN 978-0-664-22721-0. Retrieved April 25, 2012.
  • Sloyan, Gerard S. (1995). The Crucifixion of Jesus. Fortress Press. ISBN 0-8006-2886-1.

External links edit

 
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November 23, 2023
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The Crucifixion redirects here For other uses see Crucifixion disambiguation Death of Jesus redirects here For other uses see Death of Jesus disambiguation The crucifixion of Jesus occurred in 1st century Judaea most likely in AD 30 or AD 33 It is described in the four canonical gospels referred to in the New Testament epistles attested to by other ancient sources and is considered an established historical event 1 There is no consensus among historians on the details 2 3 4 Crucifixion of JesusThe 17th century painting Christ Crucified by Diego Velazquez held by the Museo del Prado in MadridDateAD 30 33LocationJerusalem Judaea Roman EmpireTypeExecution by crucifixionCauseCondemnation before Pilate s courtParticipantsRoman army executioners OutcomeMinistry of the apostlesEarliest persecution of ChristiansDeathsJesusIn the canonical gospels Jesus was arrested and tried by the Sanhedrin and then by Pontius Pilate who sentenced him to flagellation After carrying out the sentence Pilate handed him over to soldiers 5 6 7 The soldiers led Jesus to Golgotha and crucified him there beside two criminals affixing a sign to his cross that declared him King of the Jews While on the cross he made exclamations that are recorded differently among the gospels According to the synoptic gospels darkness fell during the afternoon and Jesus died by the ninth hour of the day at around 3 00 p m Among the eyewitnesses named in the gospels are Mary Magdalene Mary mother of Jesus Mary of Clopas and Salome often identified as the wife of Zebedee Collectively referred to as the Passion Jesus s suffering and redemptive death by crucifixion are the central aspects of Christian theology concerning the doctrines of salvation and atonement Contents 1 New Testament narratives 1 1 Textual comparison 2 Other accounts and references 2 1 Mara Bar Serapion 2 2 Josephus 2 3 Tacitus 2 4 Talmud 2 5 Islam 2 6 Gnosticism 3 Historicity 4 Details 4 1 Chronology 4 2 Path 4 3 Location 4 4 People present 4 5 Method and manner 4 6 Words of Jesus spoken from the cross 4 6 1 Mark Matthew 4 6 2 Luke 4 6 3 John 4 7 Reported extraordinary occurrences 4 7 1 Darkness 4 7 2 Temple veil earthquake and resurrection of dead saints 5 Medical aspects 6 Theological significance 6 1 Christology 6 2 Atonement 6 3 Deicide 7 Denial 7 1 Docetism 7 2 Nag Hammadi manuscripts 7 3 Islam 7 4 Gnosticism 7 5 Others 8 In art symbolism and devotions 9 See also 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External linksNew Testament narratives editSee also Gospel harmony The earliest detailed accounts of the death of Jesus are contained in the four canonical gospels 8 There are other more implicit references in the New Testament epistles In the synoptic gospels Jesus predicts his death in three separate places 9 All four Gospels conclude with an extended narrative of Jesus s arrest initial trial at the Sanhedrin and final trial at Pilate s court where Jesus is flogged condemned to death is led to the place of crucifixion initially carrying his cross before Roman soldiers induce Simon of Cyrene to carry it and then Jesus is crucified entombed and resurrected from the dead In each Gospel these five events in the life of Jesus are treated with more intense detail than any other portion of that Gospel s narrative Scholars note that the reader receives an almost hour by hour account of what is happening 10 p 91 nbsp A depiction of the Raising of the Cross by Sebastiano Mazzoni 17th century Ca RezzonicoAfter arriving at Golgotha Jesus was offered wine mixed with myrrh or gall to drink Both the Gospel of Mark and the Gospel of Matthew record that he refused this He was then crucified and hanged between two convicts According to some translations of the original Greek the convicts may have been bandits or Jewish rebels 11 According to the Gospel of Mark he endured the torment of crucifixion from the third hour between approximately 9 a m and noon 12 until his death at the ninth hour corresponding to about 3 p m 13 The soldiers affixed a sign above his head stating Jesus of Nazareth King of the Jews which according to the Gospel of John was in three languages Hebrew Latin and Greek and then divided his garments and cast lots for his seamless robe According to the Gospel of John the Roman soldiers did not break Jesus s legs as they did to the two crucified convicts breaking the legs hastened the onset of death as Jesus was dead already Each gospel has its own account of Jesus s last words seven statements altogether 14 In the Synoptic Gospels various supernatural events accompany the crucifixion including darkness an earthquake the tearing of the sanctuary s veil and the resurrection of saints in the Gospel of Matthew 15 Following Jesus s death his body was removed from the cross by Joseph of Arimathea and buried in a rock hewn tomb with Nicodemus assisting nbsp Bronzino s depiction of the crucifixion with three nails no ropes and a hypopodium standing support c 1545The three Synoptic gospels also describe Simon of Cyrene bearing the cross 16 a crowd of people mocking Jesus 17 along with the other two crucified men 18 darkness from the 6th to the 9th hour 19 and the temple veil being torn from top to bottom 20 The Synoptic Gospels also mention several witnesses including a centurion 21 and several women who watched from a distance 22 two of whom were present during the burial 23 The Gospel of Luke is the only gospel to omit the detail of the sour wine mix that was offered to Jesus on a reed 24 while only Mark and John describe Joseph actually taking the body down off the cross 25 There are several details that are only mentioned in a single gospel account For instance only the Gospel of Matthew mentions an earthquake resurrected saints who went to the city and that Roman soldiers were assigned to guard the tomb 26 while Mark is the only one to state the time of the crucifixion the third hour or 9 a m although it was probably as late as noon 27 and the centurion s report of Jesus s death 28 The Gospel of Luke s unique contributions to the narrative include Jesus s words to the women who were mourning one criminal s rebuke of the other the reaction of the multitudes who left beating their breasts and the women preparing spices and ointments before resting on the Sabbath 29 John is also the only one to refer to the request that the legs be broken and the soldier s subsequent piercing of Jesus s side as fulfillment of Old Testament prophecy as well as that Nicodemus assisted Joseph with burial 30 According to the First Epistle to the Corinthians 1 Corinthians 15 4 Jesus was raised from the dead on the third day counting the day of crucifixion as the first and according to the canonical gospels appeared to his disciples on different occasions before ascending to heaven 31 The account given in Acts of the Apostles says that Jesus remained with the apostles for 40 days whereas the account in the Gospel of Luke makes no clear distinction between the events of Easter Sunday and the Ascension 32 33 Most biblical scholars agree that the author of Luke also wrote the Acts of the Apostles as a follow up volume to the Gospel of Luke account and the two works must be considered as a whole 34 In Mark Jesus is crucified along with two rebels and the sun goes dark or is obscured for three hours 35 Jesus calls out to God then gives a shout and dies 35 The curtain of the Temple is torn in two 35 Matthew follows Mark but mentions an earthquake and the resurrection of saints 36 Luke also follows Mark although he describes the rebels as common criminals one of whom defends Jesus who in turn promises that he Jesus and the criminal will be together in paradise 37 Luke portrays Jesus as impassive in the face of his crucifixion 38 John includes several of the same elements as those found in Mark though they are treated differently 39 Textual comparison edit The comparison below is based on the New International Version Matthew Mark Luke JohnWay of the Cross Matthew 27 32 33 Soldiers had Simon of Cyrene carry Jesus s cross Mark 15 21 22 Soldiers had Simon of Cyrene carry Jesus s cross Luke 23 26 32 Soldiers had Simon of Cyrene carry Jesus s cross Jesus said to wailing women Don t weep for me but for yourselves and your children John 19 17 They 40 had Jesus carry the cross Crucifixion Matthew 27 34 36 Jesus tasted wine mixed with gall refused to drink more Soldiers crucified Jesus cast lots for his clothes and kept watch No time indicated Mark 15 23 25 Jesus refused to drink wine mixed with myrrh Soldiers crucified Jesus and cast lots for his clothes This happened at nine in the morning on the day of Passover 14 12 15 25 Luke 23 33 34 No drink mentioned Soldiers crucified Jesus and cast lots for his clothes Jesus Father forgive them for they don t know what they re doing 41 No time indicated John 19 18 23 24 No drink mentioned They 40 crucified Jesus and four soldiers each took a garment casting lots over the undergarment this fulfilled a prophecy This happened after noon on the Day of Preparation before Passover 19 14 31 Mocking Matthew 27 37 44 Sign This is Jesus the king of the Jews Passersby high priests teachers of the law elders and both rebels mocked Jesus Mark 15 26 32 Sign The king of the Jews Passersby high priests teachers of the law and both rebels mocked Jesus Luke 23 35 43 Sign This is the king of the Jews The people s rulers soldiers offered wine vinegar and one criminal mocked Jesus The other criminal defended him and asked Jesus to remember him Jesus Truly I tell you today you will be with me in paradise John 19 19 22 25 27 Sign Jesus of Nazareth the king of the Jews High priests complained to Pilate Don t write King of the Jews but that this man claimed to be king of the Jews Pilate Quod scripsi scripsi No mockery mentioned Jesus s mother Mary Mary of Clopas and Mary Magdalene stood near the cross Jesus told Mary That is your son and told the beloved disciple That is your mother Death Matthew 27 45 56 At noon a three hour long darkness came across the land About three Jesus cried out loud Eli Eli lema sabachtani Bystander offered Jesus wine vinegar others said Now let s see if Elijah saves him Jesus cried out again and died Temple curtain ripped earthquake Tombs broke open many dead came back to life and appeared to many people in Jerusalem Centurion and soldiers terrified Surely he was the Son of God Many women from Galilee looked on from a distance including Mary Magdalene Mary mother of James and Joseph 42 and the mother of Zebedee s sons Mark 15 33 41 At noon a three hour long darkness came across the land At three Jesus cried out loud Eloi Eloi lema sabachtani Bystander offered Jesus wine vinegar and said Now let s see if Elijah comes to take him down Jesus cried out loud and died Temple curtain ripped Centurion Surely this man was the Son of God From a distance the women from Galilee looked on including Mary Magdalene Mary mother of James and Joses and Salome 42 Luke 23 44 49 About noon a three hour long darkness came across the land Temple curtain ripped Jesus called out loud Father into your hands I commit my spirit and died Centurion Surely this was a righteous man Bystanders beat their chest and went away Those who know him including the Galilean women stood at a distance John 19 28 37 No darkness mentioned no time indicated To fulfill Scripture Jesus said I am thirsty They let Jesus drink wine vinegar Jesus said It is finished and died No mention of reaction from bystanders or effect on temple curtain Soldiers broke the legs of the other two crucified men but not Jesus s legs this fulfilled a prophecy but did pierce his side with a spear this fulfilled another prophecy Other accounts and references editSee also Josephus on Jesus and Tacitus on Christ nbsp Christ on the Cross between two thieves Illumination from the Vaux Passional 16th century nbsp Crucifixion from the Buhl Altarpiece a particularly large Gothic oil on panel painting from the 1490sMara Bar Serapion edit An early non Christian reference to the crucifixion of Jesus is likely to be Mara Bar Serapion s letter to his son written some time after AD 73 but before the 3rd century AD 43 44 45 The letter includes no Christian themes and the author is presumed to be neither Jewish nor Christian 43 44 46 The letter refers to the retributions that followed the unjust treatment of three wise men Socrates Pythagoras and the wise king of the Jews 43 45 Some scholars see little doubt that the reference to the execution of the king of the Jews is about the crucifixion of Jesus while others place less value in the letter given the ambiguity in the reference 46 47 Josephus edit In the Antiquities of the Jews written about 93 AD Jewish historian Josephus stated Ant 18 3 that Jesus was crucified by Pilate writing that 48 Now there was about this time Jesus a wise man He drew over to him both many of the Jews and many of the Gentiles And when Pilate at the suggestion of the principal men amongst us had condemned him to the cross Most modern scholars agree that while this Josephus passage called the Testimonium Flavianum includes some later interpolations it originally consisted of an authentic nucleus with a reference to the execution of Jesus by Pilate 6 7 James Dunn states that there is broad consensus among scholars regarding the nature of an authentic reference to the crucifixion of Jesus in the Testimonium 49 Tacitus edit Early in the second century another reference to the crucifixion of Jesus was made by Tacitus generally considered one of the greatest Roman historians 50 51 Writing in The Annals c 116 AD Tacitus described the persecution of Christians by Nero and stated Annals 15 44 that Pilate ordered the execution of Jesus 48 52 Nero fastened the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their abominations called Christians by the populace Christus from whom the name had its origin suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators Pontius Pilatus Scholars generally consider the Tacitus reference to the execution of Jesus by Pilate to be genuine and of historical value as an independent Roman source 50 53 54 55 56 57 Eddy and Boyd state that it is now firmly established that Tacitus provides a non Christian confirmation of the crucifixion of Jesus 58 Talmud edit Another possible reference to the crucifixion hanging cf Luke 23 39 Galatians 3 13 is found in the Babylonian Talmud On the eve of the Passover Yeshu was hanged For forty days before the execution took place a herald went forth and cried He is going forth to be stoned because he has practised sorcery and enticed Israel to apostasy Anyone who can say anything in his favour let him come forward and plead on his behalf But since nothing was brought forward in his favour he was hanged on the eve of the Passover Sanhedrin 43a Babylonian Talmud Soncino Edition Although the question of the equivalence of the identities of Yeshu and Jesus has at times been debated many historians agree that the above 2nd century passage is likely to be about Jesus Peter Schafer stating that there can be no doubt that this narrative of the execution in the Talmud refers to Jesus of Nazareth 59 Robert Van Voorst states that the Sanhedrin 43a reference to Jesus can be confirmed not only from the reference itself but from the context that surrounds it 60 Sanhedrin 43a relates that Yeshu had been condemned to death by the royal government of Judaea this lineage was stripped of all legal authority upon Herod the Great s ascension to the throne in 37 BC meaning the execution had to have taken place close to 40 years before Jesus was even born 61 62 According to another account he was executed on request of the Pharisees leaders 44 Islam edit Muslims maintain that Jesus was not crucified and that those who thought they had killed him had mistakenly killed Judas Iscariot Simon of Cyrene or someone else in his place 63 They hold this belief based on various interpretations of Quran 4 157 158 which states they killed him not nor crucified him but so it was made to appear to them or it appeared so unto them Nay Allah raised him up unto Himself 63 Gnosticism edit Some early Christian Gnostic sects believing Jesus did not have a physical substance denied that he was crucified 64 65 In response Ignatius of Antioch insisted that Jesus was truly born and was truly crucified and wrote that those who held that Jesus only seemed to suffer only seemed to be Christians 66 67 Historicity editSee also Historicity of Jesus nbsp Crucifixion of Jesus of Nazareth medieval illustration from the Hortus deliciarum of Herrad of Landsberg 12th centuryThe baptism of Jesus and his crucifixion are considered to be two historically certain facts about Jesus 68 69 James Dunn states that these two facts in the life of Jesus command almost universal assent and rank so high on the almost impossible to doubt or deny scale of historical facts that they are often the starting points for the study of the historical Jesus 68 Bart Ehrman states that the crucifixion of Jesus on the orders of Pontius Pilate is the most certain element about him 70 John Dominic Crossan states that the crucifixion of Jesus is as certain as any historical fact can be 71 Eddy and Boyd state that it is now firmly established that there is non Christian confirmation of the crucifixion of Jesus 58 Craig Blomberg states that most scholars in the third quest for the historical Jesus consider the crucifixion indisputable 4 Christopher M Tuckett states that although the exact reasons for the death of Jesus are hard to determine one of the indisputable facts about him is that he was crucified 72 John P Meier views the crucifixion of Jesus as historical fact and states that Christians would not have invented the painful death of their leader invoking the criterion of embarrassment principle in historical research 73 Meier states that a number of other criteria e g the criterion of multiple attestation i e confirmation by more than one source and the criterion of coherence i e that it fits with other historical elements help establish the crucifixion of Jesus as a historical event 74 While scholars agree on the historicity of the crucifixion they differ on the reason and context for it For example both E P Sanders and Paula Fredriksen support the historicity of the crucifixion but contend that Jesus did not foretell his own crucifixion and that his prediction of the crucifixion is a church creation 75 126 Geza Vermes also views the crucifixion as a historical event but provides his own explanation and background for it 75 Although almost all ancient sources relating to crucifixion are literary in 1968 an archeological discovery just northeast of Jerusalem uncovered the body of a crucified man dated to the 1st century which provided good confirmatory evidence that crucifixions occurred during the Roman period roughly according to the manner in which the crucifixion of Jesus is described in the gospels 76 The crucified man was identified as Yehohanan ben Hagkol and probably died about AD 70 around the time of the Jewish revolt against Rome The analyses at the Hadassah Medical School estimated that he died in his late 20s 77 78 Another relevant archaeological find which also dates to the 1st century AD is an unidentified heel bone with a spike discovered in a Jerusalem gravesite now held by the Israel Antiquities Authority and displayed in the Israel Museum citation needed Details editMain article Passion Christianity Chronology edit Main article Chronology of Jesus There is no consensus regarding the exact date of the crucifixion of Jesus although it is generally agreed by biblical scholars that it was on a Friday on or near Passover Nisan 14 during the governorship of Pontius Pilate who ruled AD 26 36 79 Various approaches have been used to estimate the year of the crucifixion including the canonical Gospels the chronology of the life of Paul as well as different astronomical models Scholars have provided estimates in the range 30 33 AD 80 81 82 with Rainer Riesner stating that the fourteenth of Nisan 7 April of the year 30 AD is apparently in the opinion of the majority of contemporary scholars as well far and away the most likely date of the crucifixion of Jesus 83 Another preferred date among scholars is Friday 3 April 33 AD 84 85 The consensus of scholarship is that the New Testament accounts represent a crucifixion occurring on a Friday but a Thursday or Wednesday crucifixion have also been proposed 86 87 Some scholars explain a Thursday crucifixion based on a double sabbath caused by an extra Passover sabbath falling on Thursday dusk to Friday afternoon ahead of the normal weekly Sabbath 86 88 Some have argued that Jesus was crucified on Wednesday not Friday on the grounds of the mention of three days and three nights in Matthew 12 40 before his resurrection celebrated on Sunday Others have countered by saying that this ignores the Jewish idiom by which a day and night may refer to any part of a 24 hour period that the expression in Matthew is idiomatic not a statement that Jesus was 72 hours in the tomb and that the many references to a resurrection on the third day do not require three literal nights 86 89 In Mark 15 25 crucifixion takes place at the third hour 9 a m and Jesus s death at the ninth hour 3 p m 90 In John 19 14 Jesus is still before Pilate at the sixth hour 91 Scholars have presented a number of arguments to deal with the issue some suggesting a reconciliation e g based on the use of Roman timekeeping in John since Roman timekeeping began at midnight and this would mean being before Pilate at the 6th hour was 6 a m yet others have rejected the arguments 91 92 93 Several scholars have argued that the modern precision of marking the time of day should not be read back into the gospel accounts written at a time when no standardization of timepieces or exact recording of hours and minutes was available and time was often approximated to the closest three hour period 91 94 95 Path edit Main articles Christ carrying the Cross and Via Dolorosa nbsp Andrea di Bartolo Way to Calvary c 1400 The cluster of halos at the left are the Virgin Mary in front with the Three Marys The three Synoptic Gospels refer to a man called Simon of Cyrene whom the Roman soldiers order to carry the cross after Jesus initially carries it but then collapses 96 while the Gospel of John just says that Jesus bears his own cross 97 Luke s gospel also describes an interaction between Jesus and the women among the crowd of mourners following him quoting Jesus as saying Daughters of Jerusalem do not weep for me but weep for yourselves and for your children For behold the days are coming when they will say Blessed are the barren and the wombs that never bore and the breasts that never nursed Then they will begin to say to the mountains Fall on us and to the hills Cover us For if they do these things when the wood is green what will happen when it is dry 98 The Gospel of Luke has Jesus address these women as daughters of Jerusalem thus distinguishing them from the women whom the same gospel describes as the women who had followed him from Galilee and who were present at his crucifixion 99 Traditionally the path that Jesus took is called Via Dolorosa Latin for Way of Grief or Way of Suffering and is a street in the Old City of Jerusalem It is marked by nine of the fourteen Stations of the Cross It passes the Ecce Homo Church and the last five stations are inside the Church of the Holy Sepulchre There is no reference to a woman named Veronica 100 in the Gospels but sources such as Acta Sanctorum describe her as a pious woman of Jerusalem who moved with pity as Jesus carried his cross to Golgotha gave him her veil that he might wipe his forehead 101 102 103 104 Location edit nbsp A diagram of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and the historical siteThe precise location of the crucifixion remains a matter of conjecture but the biblical accounts indicate that it was outside the city walls of Jerusalem 105 accessible to passers by 106 and observable from some distance away 107 Eusebius identified its location only as being north of Mount Zion 108 which is consistent with the two most popularly suggested sites of modern times Calvary as an English name for the place is derived from the Latin word for skull calvaria which is used in the Vulgate translation of place of a skull the explanation given in all four Gospels of the Aramaic word Gulgalta transliterated into the Greek as Golgo8ᾶ Golgotha which was the name of the place where Jesus was crucified 109 The text does not indicate why it was so designated but several theories have been put forward One is that as a place of public execution Calvary may have been strewn with the skulls of abandoned victims which would be contrary to Jewish burial traditions but not Roman Another is that Calvary is named after a nearby cemetery which is consistent with both of the proposed modern sites A third is that the name was derived from the physical contour which would be more consistent with the singular use of the word i e the place of a skull While often referred to as Mount Calvary it was more likely a small hill or rocky knoll 110 The traditional site inside what is now occupied by the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in the Christian Quarter of the Old City has been attested since the 4th century A second site commonly referred to as Gordon s Calvary 111 located further north of the Old City near a place popularly called the Garden Tomb has been promoted since the 19th century People present edit See also Women at the crucifixion nbsp Crucifixion by Agnolo Gaddi between 1390 and 1396 depicting several women at the crucifixionThe Gospels describe various women at the crucifixion some of whom are named According to Mark many women are present among them Mary Magdalene Mary mother of James and Mary of Clopas 112 commonly known as the Three Marys The Gospel of Matthew also mentions several women being present among them Mary Magdalene Mary mother of James and the mother of Zebedee s children 113 Although a group of women is mentioned in Luke neither is named 114 The Gospel of John speaks of women present among them the mother of Jesus Mary Magdalene and Mary of Clopas 115 Aside from these women the three Synoptic Gospels speak of the presence of others the chief priests with the scribes and elders 116 two crucified criminals to Jesus s right left 117 the soldiers 118 the centurion and those who were with him keeping watch over Jesus 119 passers by 120 bystanders 121 the crowds that had assembled for this spectacle 122 and his acquaintances 114 The two criminals are described as lῃstai variously translated as robbers rebels or thieves and further discussed in the Gospel of Luke as the penitent thief and the impenitent thief 123 The Gospel of John mentions the soldiers 124 and the disciple whom Jesus loved who is with the women 125 The Gospels also tell of the arrival after the death of Jesus of Joseph of Arimathea in the four Gospels 126 and of Nicodemus only in John 127 Method and manner edit Main article Instrument of Jesus crucifixion nbsp Crucifixion of Jesus on a two beamed cross from the Sainte Bible 1866 nbsp Torture stake a simple wooden torture stake Image by Justus Lipsius Whereas most Christians believe the gibbet on which Jesus was executed was the traditional two beamed cross the Jehovah s Witnesses hold the view that a single upright stake was used The Greek and Latin words used in the earliest Christian writings are ambiguous The Koine Greek terms used in the New Testament are stauros stayros and xylon 3ylon The latter means wood a live tree timber or an object constructed of wood in earlier forms of Greek the former term meant an upright stake or pole but in Koine Greek it was used also to mean a cross 128 The Latin word crux was also applied to objects other than a cross 129 Early Christian writers who speak of the shape of the particular gibbet on which Jesus died invariably describe it as having a cross beam For instance the Epistle of Barnabas which was certainly earlier than 135 130 and may have been of the 1st century AD 131 the time when the gospel accounts of the death of Jesus were written likened it to the letter T the Greek letter tau which had the numeric value of 300 132 and to the position assumed by Moses in Exodus 17 11 12 133 Justin Martyr 100 165 explicitly says the cross of Christ was of two beam shape That lamb which was commanded to be wholly roasted was a symbol of the suffering of the cross which Christ would undergo For the lamb which is roasted is roasted and dressed up in the form of the cross For one spit is transfixed right through from the lower parts up to the head and one across the back to which are attached the legs of the lamb 134 Irenaeus who died around the end of the 2nd century speaks of the cross as having five extremities two in length two in breadth and one in the middle on which last the person rests who is fixed by the nails 135 The assumption of the use of a two beamed cross does not determine the number of nails used in the crucifixion and some theories suggest three nails while others suggest four nails 136 Throughout history larger numbers of nails have been hypothesized at times as high as 14 nails 137 These variations are also present in the artistic depictions of the crucifixion 138 In Western Christianity before the Renaissance usually four nails would be depicted with the feet side by side After the Renaissance most depictions use three nails with one foot placed on the other 138 Nails are almost always depicted in art although Romans sometimes just tied the victims to the cross 138 The tradition also carries to Christian emblems e g the Jesuits use three nails under the IHS monogram and a cross to symbolize the crucifixion 139 The placing of the nails in the hands or the wrists is also uncertain Some theories suggest that the Greek word cheir xeir for hand includes the wrist and that the Romans were generally trained to place nails through Destot s space between the capitate and lunate bones without fracturing any bones 140 Another theory suggests that the Greek word for hand also includes the forearm and that the nails were placed near the radius and ulna of the forearm 141 Ropes may have also been used to fasten the hands in addition to the use of nails 142 Another issue of debate has been the use of a hypopodium as a standing platform to support the feet given that the hands may not have been able to support the weight In the 17th century Rasmus Bartholin considered a number of analytical scenarios of that topic 137 In the 20th century forensic pathologist Frederick Zugibe performed a number of crucifixion experiments by using ropes to hang human subjects at various angles and hand positions 141 His experiments support an angled suspension and a two beamed cross and perhaps some form of foot support given that in an Aufbinden form of suspension from a straight stake as used by the Nazis in the Dachau concentration camp during World War II death comes rather quickly 143 Words of Jesus spoken from the cross edit Main article Sayings of Jesus on the cross nbsp Crucifixion seen from the Cross by James Tissot c 1890 Brooklyn MuseumThe Gospels describe various last words that Jesus said while on the cross 144 as follows Mark Matthew edit E li E li la ma sa bach tha ni 145 Aramaic for My God My God why have you forsaken me Aramaic linguist Steve Caruso said Jesus most likely spoke Galilean Aramaic 146 which would render the pronunciation of these words elahi elahi lemah sevaqtani 147 The only words of Jesus on the cross mentioned in the Mark and Matthew accounts this is a quotation of Psalm 22 Since other verses of the same Psalm are cited in the crucifixion accounts some commentators consider it a literary and theological creation Geza Vermes noted the verse is cited in Aramaic rather than the usual Hebrew and that by the time of Jesus this phrase had become a proverbial saying in common usage 148 Compared to the accounts in the other Gospels which he describes as theologically correct and reassuring he considers this phrase unexpected disquieting and in consequence more probable 149 He describes it as bearing all the appearances of a genuine cry 150 Raymond Brown likewise comments that he finds no persuasive argument against attributing to the Jesus of Mark Matt the literal sentiment of feeling forsaken expressed in the Psalm quote 151 Luke edit Father forgive them for they do not know what they are doing 152 Some early manuscripts do not have this Truly I tell you today you will be with me in Paradise 153 Father into your hands I commend my spirit 154 The Gospel of Luke does not include the aforementioned exclamation of Jesus mentioned in Matthew and Mark 155 John edit Woman here is your son 156 I am thirsty 157 It is finished 158 The words of Jesus on the cross especially his last words have been the subject of a wide range of Christian teachings and sermons and a number of authors have written books specifically devoted to the last sayings of Christ 159 160 161 162 163 164 Reported extraordinary occurrences edit The synoptics report various miraculous events during the crucifixion 165 166 Mark mentions a period of darkness in the daytime during Jesus s crucifixion and the Temple veil being torn in two when Jesus dies 35 Luke follows Mark 37 as does Matthew additionally mentioning an earthquake and the resurrection of dead saints 36 No mention of any of these appears in John 167 Darkness edit Main article Crucifixion darkness nbsp Christ on the Cross by Carl Heinrich Bloch showing the skies darkenedIn the synoptic narrative while Jesus is hanging on the cross the sky over Judaea or the whole world is darkened for three hours from the sixth to the ninth hour noon to mid afternoon There is no reference to darkness in the Gospel of John account in which the crucifixion does not take place until after noon 168 Some ancient Christian writers considered the possibility that pagan commentators may have mentioned this event and mistook it for a solar eclipse pointing out that an eclipse could not occur during the Passover which takes place during the full moon when the moon is opposite the sun rather than in front of it Christian traveler and historian Sextus Julius Africanus and Christian theologian Origen refer to Greek historian Phlegon who lived in the 2nd century AD as having written with regard to the eclipse in the time of Tiberius Caesar in whose reign Jesus appears to have been crucified and the great earthquakes which then took place 169 Sextus Julius Africanus further refers to the writings of historian Thallus This darkness Thallus in the third book of his History calls as appears to me without reason an eclipse of the sun For the Hebrews celebrate the passover on the 14th day according to the moon and the passion of our Saviour falls on the day before the passover but an eclipse of the sun takes place only when the moon comes under the sun 170 Christian apologist Tertullian believed the event was documented in the Roman archives 171 Colin Humphreys and W G Waddington of Oxford University considered the possibility that a lunar rather than solar eclipse might have taken place 172 173 They concluded that such an eclipse would have been visible for 30 minutes in Jerusalem and suggested the gospel reference to a solar eclipse was the result of a scribe wrongly amending a text Historian David Henige dismisses this explanation as indefensible 174 and astronomer Bradley Schaefer points out that the lunar eclipse would not have been visible during daylight hours 175 176 In an edition of the BBC Radio 4 programme In Our Time entitled Eclipses Frank Close Emeritus Professor of Physics at the University of Oxford stated that certain historical sources say that on the night of the Crucifixion the moon had risen blood red which indicates a lunar eclipse He went on to confirm that as Passover takes place on the full moon calculating back shows that a lunar eclipse did in fact take place on the night of Passover on Friday 3 April 33 AD which would have been visible in the area of modern Israel ancient Judaea just after sunset 177 Modern biblical scholarship treats the account in the synoptic gospels as a literary creation by the author of the Mark Gospel amended in the Luke and Matthew accounts intended to heighten the importance of what they saw as a theologically significant event and not intended to be taken literally 178 This image of darkness over the land would have been understood by ancient readers a typical element in the description of the death of kings and other major figures by writers such as Philo Dio Cassius Virgil Plutarch and Josephus 179 Geza Vermes describes the darkness account as typical of Jewish eschatological imagery of the day of the Lord and says that those interpreting it as a datable eclipse are barking up the wrong tree 180 Temple veil earthquake and resurrection of dead saints edit The synoptic gospels state that the veil of the temple was torn from top to bottom The Gospel of Matthew mentions an account of earthquakes rocks splitting and the opening of the graves of dead saints and describes how these resurrected saints went into the holy city and appeared to many people 181 In the Mark and Matthew accounts the centurion in charge comments on the events Truly this man was the Son of God 182 or Truly this was the Son of God 183 The Gospel of Luke quotes him as saying Certainly this man was innocent 184 185 The historian Sextus Julius Africanus in the early third century wrote describing the day of the crucifixion A most terrible darkness fell over all the world the rocks were torn apart by an earthquake and many places both in Judaea and the rest of the world were thrown down In the third book of his Histories Thallos dismisses this darkness as a solar eclipse 186 A widespread 5 5 magnitude earthquake has been hypothesized to have taken place between 26 and 36 AD This earthquake was dated by counting varves annual layers of sediment between the disruptions in a core of sediment from En Gedi caused by it and by an earlier known quake in 31 BC 187 Although other earthquakes may have been responsible the authors concluded that either this was the earthquake in Matthew and it occurred more or less as reported or else Matthew borrowed this earthquake which actually occurred at another time or simply inserted an allegorical fiction Medical aspects editSee also Crucifixion Cause of death A number of theories to explain the circumstances of the death of Jesus on the cross have been proposed by physicians and Biblical scholars In 2006 Matthew W Maslen and Piers D Mitchell reviewed over 40 publications on the subject with theories ranging from cardiac rupture to pulmonary embolism 188 nbsp Bronzino s Deposition of ChristIn 1847 based on the reference in the Gospel of John John 19 34 to blood and water coming out when Jesus s side was pierced with a spear physician William Stroud proposed the ruptured heart theory of the cause of Christ s death which influenced a number of other people 189 190 The cardiovascular collapse theory is a prevalent modern explanation and suggests that Jesus died of profound shock According to this theory the scourging the beatings and the fixing to the cross left Jesus dehydrated weak and critically ill and this led to cardiovascular collapse 191 192 Writing in the Journal of the American Medical Association physician William Edwards and his colleagues supported the combined cardiovascular collapse via hypovolemic shock and exhaustion asphyxia theories assuming that the flow of water from the side of Jesus described in the Gospel of John 193 was pericardial fluid 194 In his book The Crucifixion of Jesus physician and forensic pathologist Frederick Zugibe studied the likely circumstances of the death of Jesus in great detail 195 196 Zugibe carried out a number of experiments over several years to test his theories while he was a medical examiner 197 These studies included experiments in which volunteers with specific weights were hanging at specific angles and the amount of pull on each hand was measured in cases where the feet were also secured or not In these cases the amount of pull and the corresponding pain was found to be significant 197 Pierre Barbet a French physician and the chief surgeon at Saint Joseph s Hospital in Paris 198 hypothesized that Jesus relaxed his muscles to obtain enough air to utter his last words in the face of exhaustion asphyxia 199 Some of Barbet s theories such as the location of nails are disputed by Zugibe Orthopedic surgeon Keith Maxwell not only analyzed the medical aspects of the crucifixion but also looked back at how Jesus could have carried the cross all the way along Via Dolorosa 200 201 In 2003 historians F P Retief and L Cilliers reviewed the history and pathology of crucifixion as performed by the Romans and suggested that the cause of death was often a combination of factors They also state that Roman guards were prohibited from leaving the scene until death had occurred 202 Theological significance edit nbsp Adoration of the Mystic Lamb detail of the Ghent Altarpiece Jan van Eyck c 1432 Christ is represented as the sacrificial Lamb of God Christians believe that Jesus s death was instrumental in restoring humankind to relationship with God 203 204 Christians believe that through Jesus s death and resurrection 205 206 people are reunited with God and receive new joy and power in this life as well as eternal life Thus the crucifixion of Jesus along with his resurrection restores access to a vibrant experience of God s presence love and grace as well as the confidence of eternal life 207 Christology edit See also Lamb of God The accounts of the crucifixion and subsequent resurrection of Jesus provide a rich background for Christological analysis from the canonical Gospels to the Pauline epistles 208 Christians believe Jesus s suffering was foretold in the Old Testament such as in Psalm 22 and Isaiah 53 prophecy of the suffering servant 209 In Johannine agent Christology the submission of Jesus to crucifixion is a sacrifice made as an agent of God or servant of God for the sake of eventual victory 210 211 This builds on the salvific theme of the Gospel of John which begins in John 1 29 with John the Baptist s proclamation The Lamb of God who takes away the sins of the world 212 213 A central element in the Christology presented in the Acts of the Apostles is the affirmation of the belief that the death of Jesus by crucifixion happened with the foreknowledge of God according to a definite plan 214 In this view as in Acts 2 23 the cross is not viewed as a scandal for the crucifixion of Jesus at the hands of the lawless is viewed as the fulfillment of the plan of God 214 215 Paul s Christology has a specific focus on the death and resurrection of Jesus For Paul the crucifixion of Jesus is directly related to his resurrection and the term the cross of Christ used in Galatians 6 12 may be viewed as his abbreviation of the message of the gospels 216 For Paul the crucifixion of Jesus was not an isolated event in history but a cosmic event with significant eschatological consequences as in 1 Corinthians 2 8 216 In the Pauline view Jesus obedient to the point of death Philippians 2 8 died at the right time Romans 4 25 based on the plan of God 216 For Paul the power of the cross is not separable from the resurrection of Jesus 216 Furthermore Paul highlighted the idea that Jesus on the cross defeated the spiritual forces of evil Kosmokrator literally the rulers of this world used in plural in Ephesians 6 12 thus highlighting the idea of victory of light over darkness or good over evil through Christ 217 Belief in the redemptive nature of Jesus s death predates the Pauline letters to the earliest days of Christianity and the Jerusalem church 218 The Nicene Creed s statement that for our sake he was crucified is a reflection of this core belief s formalization in the fourth century 219 John Calvin supported the agent of God Christology and argued that in his trial in Pilate s Court Jesus could have successfully argued for his innocence but instead submitted to crucifixion in obedience to the Father 220 221 This Christological theme continued into the 20th century both in the Eastern and Western Christianity In Eastern Christianity Sergei Bulgakov argued the crucifixion of Jesus was pre eternally determined by the Father before the creation of the world to redeem humanity from the disgrace caused by the fall of Adam 222 In Western Christianity Karl Rahner elaborated on the analogy that the blood of the Lamb of God and the water from the side of Jesus shed at the crucifixion had a cleansing nature similar to baptismal water 223 Atonement edit nbsp Penitent by Niccolo Frangipane 1574Jesus s death and resurrection underpin a variety of theological interpretations as to how salvation is granted to humanity These interpretations vary widely in how much emphasis they place on the death and resurrection as compared to Jesus s words 224 According to the substitutionary atonement view Jesus s death is of central importance and Jesus willingly sacrificed himself after his resurrection as an act of perfect obedience as a sacrifice of love which pleased God 225 By contrast the moral influence theory of atonement focuses much more on the moral content of Jesus s teaching and sees Jesus s death as a martyrdom 226 Since the Middle Ages there has been conflict between these two views within Western Christianity Evangelical Protestants typically hold a substitutionary view and in particular hold to the theory of penal substitution Liberal Protestants typically reject substitutionary atonement and hold to the moral influence theory of atonement Both views are popular within the Roman Catholic Church with the satisfaction doctrine incorporated into the idea of penance 225 In the Roman Catholic tradition this view of atonement is balanced by the duty of Roman Catholics to perform Acts of Reparation to Jesus Christ 227 which in the encyclical Miserentissimus Redemptor of Pope Pius XI were defined as some sort of compensation to be rendered for the injury with respect to the sufferings of Jesus 228 Pope John Paul II referred to these acts of reparation as the unceasing effort to stand beside the endless crosses on which the Son of God continues to be crucified 229 Among Eastern Orthodox Christians another common view is Christus Victor 230 This holds that Jesus was sent by God to defeat death and Satan Because of his perfection voluntary death and resurrection Jesus defeated Satan and death and arose victorious Therefore humanity was no longer bound in sin but was free to rejoin God through the repentance of sin and faith in Jesus 231 The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter day Saints teaches that the crucifixion of Jesus was part of the atonement and a redeeming ransom both for the effect of the fall of Adam upon all humankind and for the personal sins of all who repent from Adam to the end of the world 232 Deicide edit The Catholic Church denounces the idea of Jewish deicide believing that all sinners are the authors and ministers of Jesus s crucifixion and admonishes Christians that their own guilt is greater when they sin with knowledge of Jesus than when others sin without it 233 234 Denial editDocetism edit In Christianity docetism is the doctrine that the phenomenon of Jesus his historical and bodily existence and above all the human form of Jesus was mere semblance without any true reality 235 Docetists denied that Jesus could have truly suffered and died as his physical body was illusory and instead saw the crucifixion as something that only appeared to happen 236 Nag Hammadi manuscripts edit According to the First Revelation of James in the Nag Hammadi library Jesus appeared to James after apparently being crucified and stated that another person had been inflicted in his place The master appeared to him He stopped praying embraced him and kissed him saying Rabbi I ve found you I heard of the sufferings you endured and I was greatly troubled You know my compassion Because of this I wished as I reflected upon it that I would never see these people again They must be judged for what they have done for what they have done is not right The master said James do not be concerned for me or these people I am the one who was within me Never did I suffer at all and I was not distressed These people did not harm me Rather all this was inflicted upon a figure of the rulers and it was fitting that this figure should be destroyed by them 237 Islam edit Main article Islamic views on Jesus death See also Jesus in Islam Most Islamic traditions categorically deny that Jesus physically died either on a cross or another manner This denial is asserted in the Quran which states And for their saying Indeed we have killed the Messiah Jesus the son of Mary the messenger of Allah And they did not kill him nor did they crucify him but rather it was made to appear to them so And indeed those who differ over it are in doubt about it They have no knowledge of it except the following of assumption And they did not kill him for certain 157 Rather Allah raised him to Himself And ever is Allah Exalted in Might and Wise 158 Quran 4 157 158 238 Islamic traditions teach that Jesus ascended to Heaven without being put on the cross but that God transformed another person to appear exactly like him and to be then crucified instead of him This view is attested in an account by Irenaeus of the doctrine of the 2nd century Alexandrian Gnostic Basilides in which Irenaeus refutes what he believes to be a heresy denying the death 239 Gnosticism edit Some scriptures identified as Gnostic reject the atonement of Jesus s death by distinguishing the earthly body of Jesus and his divine and immaterial essence According to the Second Treatise of the Great Seth Yaldabaoth the Creator of the material universe and his Archons tried to kill Jesus by crucifixion but only killed their own man that is the body While Jesus ascended from his body Yaldabaoth and his followers thought Jesus to be dead 240 241 In Apocalypse of Peter Peter talks with the savior whom the priests and people believed to have killed 242 Manichaeism which was influenced by Gnostic ideas adhered to the idea that not Jesus but somebody else was crucified instead 243 41 Jesus suffering on the cross is depicted as the state of light particles spirit within matter instead 244 According to Bogomilism the crucifixion was an attempt by Lucifer to destroy Jesus while the earthly Jesus was regarded as a prophet Jesus himself was an immaterial being that can not be killed Accordingly Lucifer failed and Jesus s sufferings on the cross were only an illusion 245 Others edit According to some Christian sects in Japan Jesus Christ did not die on the cross at Golgotha Instead his younger brother Isukiri 246 took his place on the cross while Jesus fled across Siberia to Mutsu Province in northern Japan Once in Japan he became a rice farmer married and raised a family with three daughters near what is now Shingō While in Japan it is asserted that he traveled learned and eventually died at the age of 106 His body was exposed on a hilltop for four years According to the customs of the time Jesus s bones were collected bundled and buried in a mound 247 248 There is also a museum in Japan which claims to have evidence of these claims 249 In Yazidism Jesus is thought of as a figure of light who could not be crucified This interpretation could be taken from the Quran or Gnostics 250 In art symbolism and devotions editMain article Crucifixion in the arts nbsp Detail of the countenance of Christ just dead by Jose Lujan Perez 1793 Las Palmas CathedralSince the crucifixion of Jesus the cross has become a key element of Christian symbolism and the crucifixion scene has been a key element of Christian art giving rise to specific artistic themes such as Christ Carrying the Cross raising of the Cross Stabat Mater Descent from the Cross and Lamentation of Christ The symbolism of the cross which is today one of the most widely recognized Christian symbols was used from the earliest Christian times Justin Martyr who died in 165 describes it in a way that already implies its use as a symbol although the crucifix appeared later 251 252 Devotions based on the process of crucifixion and the sufferings of Jesus are followed by various Christians The Stations of the Cross follows a number of stages based on the stages involved in the crucifixion of Jesus while the Rosary of the Holy Wounds is used to meditate on the wounds of Jesus as part of the crucifixion Masters such as Giotto Fra Angelico Masaccio Raphael Botticelli van Dyck Titian Caravaggio El Greco Zurbaran Velazquez Rubens and Rembrandt have all depicted the crucifixion scene in their works The Crucifixion seen from the Cross by Tissot presented a novel approach at the end of the 19th century in which the crucifixion scene was portrayed from the perspective of Jesus 253 254 The presence of the Virgin Mary under the cross mentioned in the Gospel of John 255 has in itself been the subject of Marian art and well known Catholic symbolism such as the Miraculous Medal and Pope John Paul II s Coat of Arms bearing a Marian Cross And a number of Marian devotions also involve the presence of the Virgin Mary in Calvary e g Pope John Paul II stated that Mary was united to Jesus on the Cross 256 257 Well known works of Christian art by masters such as Raphael the Mond Crucifixion and Caravaggio The Entombment of Christ depict the Virgin Mary as part of the crucifixion scene nbsp Carrying the Cross fresco Decani monastery Kosovo 14th century nbsp Orthodox Crucifixion icon Athens Greece nbsp Crucifixion of Christ Michelangelo 1540 nbsp Print of Albrecht Durer s Die Kreuzigung 1508 printed at the end of the 16th century 258 nbsp Calvary by Paolo Veronese 16th century nbsp From a 14th 15th century Welsh Manuscript nbsp Descent from the Cross Rubens 1616 17 nbsp Descent from the Cross Raphael 1507 nbsp Crucified Jesus at the Ytterselo church sv Sweden Ca 1500 nbsp Cristo de La Laguna Flemish Brabanzon origin 1510 14 San Cristobal de La Laguna SpainSee also edit nbsp Christianity portalThe penitent thief and impenitent thief crucified alongside Jesus Descriptions in antiquity of the execution cross Feast of the Cross Life of Jesus in the New Testament Seven Sorrows of Mary Swoon hypothesis Depictions of Jesus Calvary Stations of the CrossReferences edit Eddy Paul Rhodes and Gregory A Boyd 2007 The Jesus Legend A Case for the Historical Reliability of the Synoptic Jesus Tradition Baker Academic p 172 ISBN 978 0801031144 if there is any fact of Jesus life that has been established by a broad consensus it is the fact of Jesus crucifixion Christopher M Tuckett in The Cambridge companion to Jesus edited by Markus N A Bockmuehl 2001 Cambridge Univ Press ISBN 978 0 521 79678 1 pp 123 124 Funk Robert W Jesus Seminar 1998 The acts of Jesus the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus San Francisco Harper ISBN 978 0060629786 a b Jesus and the Gospels An Introduction and Survey by Craig L Blomberg 2009 ISBN 0 8054 4482 3 pp 211 214 Granger Cook John 2018 Cross Crucifixion In Hunter David G van Geest Paul J J Lietaert Peerbolte Bert Jan eds Brill Encyclopedia of Early Christianity Online Leiden and Boston Brill Publishers doi 10 1163 2589 7993 EECO SIM 00000808 ISSN 2589 7993 a b The Cradle the Cross and the Crown An Introduction to the New Testament by Andreas J Kostenberger L Scott Kellum 2009 ISBN 978 0 8054 4365 3 pp 104 108 a b Evans Craig A 2001 Jesus and His Contemporaries Comparative Studies ISBN 0 391 04118 5 p 316 Matthew 26 46 27 60 Mark 14 43 15 45 Luke 22 47 23 53 John 18 3 19 42 St Mark s Gospel and the Christian faith by Michael Keene 2002 ISBN 0 7487 6775 4 pp 24 25 Powell Mark A Introducing the New Testament Baker Academic 2009 ISBN 978 0 8010 2868 7 Reza Aslan 2014 Zealot The Life and Times of Jesus of Nazareth Random House ISBN 0812981480 Mark 15 25 Mark 15 34 37 Ehrman Bart D 2009 Jesus Interrupted HarperCollins ISBN 0 06 117393 2 Matthew 26 51 53 Matthew 27 31 32 Mark 15 20 21 Luke 23 26 Matthew 27 39 43 Mark 15 29 32 Luke 23 35 37 Matthew 27 44 Mark 15 32 Luke 23 39 Matthew 27 45 Mark 15 33 Luke 23 44 45 Matthew 27 51 Mark 15 38 Luke 23 45 Matthew 27 54 Mark 15 39 Luke 23 47 Matthew 27 55 56 Mark 15 40 41 Luke 23 49 Matthew 27 61 Mark 15 47 Luke 23 54 55 Matthew 27 34 27 47 49 Mark 15 23 15 35 36 John 19 29 30 Mark 15 45 John 19 38 Matthew 27 51 27 62 66 Ray Steve When Was Jesus Crucified How Long on the Cross Do the Gospels Contradict Each Other Defenders of the Catholic Faith Archived from the original on August 28 2019 Retrieved August 10 2019 Mark 15 25 15 44 45 Luke 23 27 32 23 40 41 23 48 23 56 John 19 31 37 19 39 40 John 19 30 31 Mark 16 1 Mark 16 6 Geza Vermes The Resurrection Penguin 2008 p 148 E P Sanders The Historical Figure of Jesus Penguin 1993 p 276 Donald Guthrie New Testament Introduction Intervarsity 1990 pp 125 366 a b c d Funk Robert W and the Jesus Seminar 1998 The Acts of Jesus The Search for the Authentic Deeds of Jesus HarperSanFrancisco Mark pp 51 161 ISBN 978 0060629786 a b Funk Robert W and the Jesus Seminar 1998 The Acts of Jesus The Search for the Authentic Deeds of Jesus HarperSanFrancisco Matthew pp 129 270 ISBN 978 0060629786 a b Funk Robert W and the Jesus Seminar 1998 The Acts of Jesus The Search for the Authentic Deeds of Jesus HarperSanFrancisco Luke pp 267 364 ISBN 978 0060629786 Ehrman Bart D 2005 Misquoting Jesus The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why HarperCollins ISBN 978 0 06 073817 4 Funk Robert W and the Jesus Seminar 1998 The Acts of Jesus The Search for the Authentic Deeds of Jesus HarperSanFrancisco John pp 365 440 ISBN 978 0060629786 a b In verse 19 17 and 19 18 only a third person plural verb is used they it is not clear whether this refers to the high priests oἱ ἀrxiereῖs to whom Pilate delivered Jesus in 19 15 16 or to the soldiers oὖn stratiῶtai who crucified Jesus according to 19 23 In some manuscripts of Luke these words are omitted Annotation Nieuwe Bijbelvertaling 2004 a b Based on other Biblical verses it is often concluded that this Mary was Jesus own mother and that James and Joses Joseph were his brothers see brothers of Jesus a b c Evidence of Greek Philosophical Concepts in the Writings of Ephrem the Syrian by Ute Possekel 1999 ISBN 90 429 0759 2 pp 29 30 a b c Studying the Historical Jesus Evaluations of the State of Current Research edited by Bruce Chilton Craig A Evans 1998 ISBN 90 04 11142 5 pp 455 457 a b The Cradle the Cross and the Crown An Introduction to the New Testament by Andreas J Kostenberger L Scott Kellum 2009 ISBN 978 0 8054 4365 3 p 110 a b Jesus outside the New Testament an introduction to the ancient evidence by Robert E Van Voorst 2000 ISBN 0 8028 4368 9 pp 53 55 Jesus and His Contemporaries Comparative Studies by Craig A Evans 2001 ISBN 978 0 391 04118 9 p 41 a b Theissen 1998 pp 81 83 Dunn James 2003 Jesus remembered ISBN 0 8028 3931 2 p 141 a b Van Voorst Robert E 2000 Jesus Outside the New Testament An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence Eerdmans Publishing ISBN 0 8028 4368 9 pp 39 42 Ferguson Everett 2003 Backgrounds of Early Christianity ISBN 0 8028 2221 5 p 116 Green Joel B 1997 The Gospel of Luke new international commentary on the New Testament Grand Rapids Mich W B Eerdmans Pub Co p 168 ISBN 0 8028 2315 7 Archived from the original on April 7 2023 Retrieved November 10 2020 Jesus as a Figure in History How Modern Historians View the Man from Galilee by Mark Allan Powell 1998 ISBN 0 664 25703 8 p 33 Jesus and His Contemporaries Comparative Studies by Craig A Evans 2001 ISBN 0 391 04118 5 p 42 Ancient Rome by William E Dunstan 2010 ISBN 0 7425 6833 4 p 293 Tacitus characterization of Christian abominations may have been based on the rumors in Rome that during the Eucharist rituals Christians ate the body and drank the blood of their God interpreting the symbolic ritual as cannibalism by Christians References Ancient Rome by William E Dunstan 2010 ISBN 0 7425 6833 4 p 293 and An introduction to the New Testament and the origins of Christianity by Delbert Royce Burkett 2002 ISBN 0 521 00720 8 p 485 Pontius Pilate in History and Interpretation by Helen K Bond 2004 ISBN 0 521 61620 4 p xi a b Eddy Paul Boyd Gregory 2007 The Jesus Legend A Case for the Historical Reliability of the Synoptic Jesus Tradition Baker Academic ISBN 0 8010 3114 1 p 127 Jesus in the Talmud by Peter Schafer 2009 ISBN 0 691 14318 8 pp 141 and 9 Van Voorst Robert E 2000 Jesus Outside the New Testament An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence Wm B Eerdmans Publishing Co ISBN 0 8028 4368 9 pp 177 118 Gil Student 2000 The Jesus Narrative In The Talmud Talmud The Real Truth About the Talmud Archived from the original on January 30 2020 Retrieved April 18 2018 L Patterson Origin of the Name Panthera JTS 19 1917 18 pp 79 80 cited in Meier p 107 n 48 a b George W Braswell Jr What You Need to Know about Islam and Muslims Archived November 23 2022 at the Wayback Machine p 127 B amp H Publishing Group 2000 ISBN 978 0 8054 1829 3 Dunderberg Ismo Christopher Mark Tuckett Kari Syreeni 2002 Fair play diversity and conflicts in early Christianity essays in honour of Heikki Raisanen Brill p 488 ISBN 90 04 12359 8 Archived from the original on April 7 2023 Retrieved November 28 2015 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Pagels Elaine H 2006 The Gnostic gospels Phoenix p 192 ISBN 0 7538 2114 1 William Barclay Great Themes of the New Testament Archived January 28 2016 at the Wayback Machine Westminster John Knox Press 2001 ISBN 978 0 664 22385 4 p 41 St Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans Roberts Donaldson translation www earlychristianwritings com Archived from the original on March 23 2016 Retrieved March 10 2012 a b Jesus Remembered by James D G Dunn 2003 ISBN 0 8028 3931 2 p 339 Jesus of Nazareth by Paul Verhoeven 2010 ISBN 1 58322 905 1 p 39 A Brief Introduction to the New Testament by Bart D Ehrman 2008 ISBN 0 19 536934 3 p 136 Crossan John Dominic 1995 Jesus A Revolutionary Biography HarperOne p 145 ISBN 0 06 061662 8 That he was crucified is as sure as anything historical can ever be since both Josephus and Tacitus agree with the Christian accounts on at least that basic fact The Cambridge Companion to Jesus by Markus N A Bockmuehl 2001 ISBN 0 521 79678 4 p 136 John P Meier How do we decide what comes from Jesus in The Historical Jesus in Recent Research by James D G Dunn and Scot McKnight 2006 ISBN 1 57506 100 7 pp 126 128 John P Meier How do we decide what comes from Jesus in The Historical Jesus in Recent Research by James D G Dunn and Scot McKnight 2006 ISBN 1 57506 100 7 pp 132 136 a b A Century of Theological and Religious Studies in Britain 1902 2007 by Ernest Nicholson 2004 ISBN 0 19 726305 4 pp 125 126 Link 126 Archived November 23 2022 at the Wayback Machine David Freedman 2000 Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible ISBN 978 0 8028 2400 4 p 299 Archaeology and the New Testament www leaderu com Archived from the original on November 9 2020 Retrieved February 18 2009 Crucifixion AllAboutJesusChrist org Archived from the original on April 5 2022 Retrieved April 2 2022 Lemonon J P 1981 Pilate et le gouvernement de la Judee textes et monuments Etudes bibliques Paris Gabalda pp 29 32 Paul L Maier The Date of the Nativity and Chronology of Jesus in Chronos kairos Christos nativity and chronological studies by Jerry Vardaman Edwin M Yamauchi 1989 ISBN 0 931464 50 1 pp 113 129 The Cradle the Cross and the Crown An Introduction to the New Testament by Andreas J Kostenberger L Scott Kellum 2009 ISBN 978 0 8054 4365 3 p 114 Jesus amp the Rise of Early Christianity A History of New Testament Times by Paul Barnett 2002 ISBN 0 8308 2699 8 pp 19 21 Rainer Riesner Paul s Early Period Chronology Mission Strategy Theology Wm B Eerdmans Publishing 1998 p 58 Maier P L 1968 Sejanus Pilate and the Date of the Crucifixion Church History 37 1 3 13 doi 10 2307 3163182 JSTOR 3163182 S2CID 162410612 Fotheringham J K 1934 The evidence of astronomy and technical chronology for the date of the crucifixion Journal of Theological Studies 35 138 146 162 doi 10 1093 jts os XXXV 138 146 a b c Niswonger which meant Friday Google Search www google com Archived from the original on April 7 2022 Retrieved April 7 2023 The Cradle the Cross and the Crown An Introduction to the New Testament by Andreas J Kostenberger L Scott Kellum 2009 ISBN 978 0 8054 4365 3 pp 142 143 Cyclopaedia of Biblical theological and ecclesiastical literature Volume 7 John McClintock James Strong 1894 he lay in the grave on the 15th which was a high day or double Sabbath because the weekly Sabbath coincided Blomberg Wednesday crucifixion Google Search www google ie Archived from the original on April 6 2022 Retrieved April 7 2023 The Gospel of Mark Volume 2 by John R Donahue Daniel J Harrington 2002 ISBN 0 8146 5965 9 p 442 a b c Steven L Cox Kendell H Easley 2007 Harmony of the Gospels ISBN 0 8054 9444 8 pp 323 323 Death of the Messiah Volume 2 by Raymond E Brown 1999 ISBN 0 385 49449 1 pp 959 960 Colin Humphreys The Mystery of the Last Supper Cambridge University Press 2011 ISBN 978 0 521 73200 0 pp 188 190 New Testament History by Richard L Niswonger 1992 ISBN 0 310 31201 9 pp 173 174 The Cradle the Cross and the Crown An Introduction to the New Testament by Andreas J Kostenberger L Scott Kellum 2009 ISBN 978 0 8054 4365 3 p 538 Matthew 27 32 Mark 15 21 Luke 23 26 Jn 19 17 Lk 23 28 31 Luke 23 46 and 23 55 Lavinia Cohn Sherbok Who s who in Christianity Routledge 1998 p 303 Notes and Queries Volume July 6 December 1852 London page 252 The Archaeological journal UK Volume 7 1850 p 413 CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA St Veronica www newadvent org Archived from the original on April 3 2022 Retrieved April 2 2022 Alban Butler 2000 Lives of the Saints ISBN 0 86012 256 5 p 84 Jn 19 20 Heb 13 12 Mt 27 39 Mk 15 21 29 30 Mk 15 40 Eusebius of Caesarea Onomasticon Concerning the Place Names in Sacred Scripture Archived from the original on July 17 2019 Retrieved April 10 2008 Matthew 27 33 Mark 15 22 Luke 23 33 John 19 17 Eucherius of Lyon Letter to the Presbyter Faustus Archived from the original on June 13 2008 The three more frequented exit gates are one on the west another on the east and a third on the north As you enter the city from the northern side the first of the holy places due to the condition of the directions of the streets is to the church which is called the Martyrium which was by Constantine with great reverence not long ago built up Next to the west one visits the connecting places Golgotha and the Anastasis indeed the Anastasis is in the place of the resurrection and Golgotha is in the middle between the Anastasis and the Martyrium the place of the Lord s passion in which still appears that rock which once endured the very cross on which the Lord was These are separated places outside of Mount Sion where the failing rise of the place extended itself to the north General Charles Gordon s Letters Discussing His Discovery of Cavalry in Jerusalem SMF Primary Source Documents Shapell Manuscript Foundation Mark 15 40 Matthew 27 55 56 a b Luke 23 49 John 19 25 Matthew 27 41 Mark 15 31 Luke 23 35 Mark 15 27 Matthew 27 38 Luke 23 36 Matthew 27 54 Mark 15 39 Mark 15 29 Matthew 27 39 Mark 15 35 Matthew 27 45 Luke 23 35 Luke 23 48 Luke 23 39 43 John 19 23 24 19 32 34 John 19 26 27 Mark 16 43 46 Matthew 27 57 50 Luke 23 50 53 John 19 38 John 19 39 Henry George Liddell Robert Scott stayros A Greek English Lexicon Archived from the original on March 7 2008 Retrieved February 20 2021 via Tufts University Charlton T Lewis Charles Short A Latin Dictionary Archived from the original on December 31 2016 Retrieved January 15 2019 via Tufts University For a discussion of the date of the work see Information on Epistle of Barnabas Archived March 16 2010 at the Wayback Machine and Andrew C Clark Apostleship Evidence from the New Testament and Early Christian Literature Evangelical Review of Theology 1989 Vol 13 p 380 John Dominic Crossan The Cross that Spoke ISBN 978 0 06 254843 6 p 121 Epistle of Barnabas 9 7 8 The Spirit saith to the heart of Moses that he should make a type of the cross and of Him that was to suffer that unless saith He they shall set their hope on Him war shall be waged against them for ever Moses therefore pileth arms one upon another in the midst of the encounter and standing on higher ground than any he stretched out his hands and so Israel was again victorious Epistle of Barnabas 12 2 3 Philip Schaff ANF01 The Apostolic Fathers with Justin Martyr and Irenaeus Christian Classics Ethereal Library www ccel org Archived from the original on April 6 2022 Retrieved April 2 2022 Irenaeus Adversus Haereses II xxiv 4 Archived April 20 2021 at the Wayback Machine The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia by Geoffrey W Bromiley 1988 ISBN 0 8028 3785 9 p 826 a b Encyclopedia of Biblical Literature Part 2 by John Kitto 2003 ISBN 0 7661 5980 9 p 591 a b c Renaissance art a topical dictionary by Irene Earls 1987 ISBN 0 313 24658 0 p 64 The visual arts a history by Hugh Honour John Fleming 1995 ISBN 0 8109 3928 2 p 526 The Crucifixion and Death of a Man Called Jesus by David A Ball 2010 ISBN 1 61507 128 8 pp 82 84 a b The Chronological Life of Christ by Mark E Moore 2007 ISBN 0 89900 955 7 pp 639 643 Holman Concise Bible Dictionary Holman 2011 ISBN 0 8054 9548 7 p 148 Crucifixion and the Death Cry of Jesus Christ by Geoffrey L Phelan MD 2009 ISBN missing pp 106 111 Thomas W Walker Luke Westminster John Knox Press 2013 p 84 Mt 27 46 Mk 15 34 What is Galilean Aramaic The Aramaic New Testament Aramaicnt org March 31 2015 Archived from the original on January 22 2019 Retrieved January 15 2019 My God my God why have you forsaken me March 31 2015 Archived from the original on April 7 2023 Retrieved April 7 2023 Geza Vermes The Passion Penguin 2005 p 75 Geza Vermes The Passion Penguin 2005 p 114 Geza Vermes The Passion Penguin 2005 p 122 Raymond Brown The Death of the Messiah Volume II Doubleday 1994 p 1051 Lk 23 34 Lk 23 43 Lk 23 46 John Haralson Hayes Biblical Exegesis A Beginner s Handbook Westminster John Knox Press 1987 pp 104 105 The author suggests this possibly was designed to play down the suffering of Jesus and replace a cry of desperation with one of hope and confidence in keeping with the message of the Gospel in which Jesus dies confident that he would be vindicated as God s righteous prophet Jn 19 25 27 Jn 19 28 Jn 19 30 David Anderson Berry 1871 The Seven Sayings of Christ on the Cross Glasgow Pickering amp Inglis Publishers Rev John Edmunds 1855 The seven sayings of Christ on the cross Thomas Hatchford Publishers London p 26 Arthur Pink 2005 The Seven Sayings of the Saviour on the Cross Baker Books ISBN 0 8010 6573 9 Simon Peter Long 1966 The wounded Word A brief meditation on the seven sayings of Christ on the cross Baker Books John Ross Macduff 1857 The Words of Jesus New York Thomas Stanford Publishers p 76 Alexander Watson 1847 The seven sayings on the Cross John Masters Publishers London p 5 The difference between the accounts is cited by James Dunn as a reason to doubt their historicity James G D Dunn Jesus Remembered Eerdmans 2003 pp 779 781 Scott s Monthly Magazine Archived November 23 2022 at the Wayback Machine J J Toon 1868 The Miracles Coincident With The Crucifixion by H P B pp 86 89 Richard Watson An Apology for the Bible In a Series of Letters Addressed to Thomas Paine Archived November 23 2022 at the Wayback Machine Cambridge University Press 2012 ISBN 978 1 107 60004 1 pp 81 Harris Stephen L Understanding the Bible Palo Alto Mayfield 1985 John pp 302 310 Edwin Keith Broadhead Prophet Son Messiah Narrative Form and Function in Mark Continuum 1994 p 196 Origen Contra Celsum Against Celsus Book 2 XXXIII Archived from the original on January 9 2019 Retrieved May 5 2008 Donaldson Coxe 1888 The ante Nicene fathers Vol 6 New York The Christian Literature Publishing Co p 136 Archived from the original on April 7 2023 Retrieved November 28 2015 In the same hour too the light of day was withdrawn when the sun at the very time was in his meridian blaze Those who were not aware that this had been predicted about Christ no doubt thought it an eclipse You yourselves have the account of the world portent still in your archives Tertullian Apologeticum Archived from the original on April 6 2022 Retrieved May 5 2008 Colin J Humphreys and W G Waddington The Date of the Crucifixion Journal of the American Scientific Affiliation 37 March 1985 1 Archived April 8 2010 at the Wayback Machine Colin Humphreys The Mystery of the Last Supper Cambridge University Press 2011 ISBN 978 0 521 73200 0 p 193 Henige David P 2005 Historical evidence and argument University of Wisconsin Press ISBN 978 0 299 21410 4 Schaefer B E March 1990 Lunar visibility and the crucifixion Royal Astronomical Society Quarterly Journal 31 1 53 67 Schaefer B E July 1991 Glare and celestial visibility Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 103 645 660 BBC Radio 4 in Our Time Eclipses Archived from the original on April 6 2022 Retrieved December 31 2020 Burton L Mack A Myth of Innocence Mark and Christian Origins Fortress Press 1988 p 296 George Bradford Caird The language and imagery of the Bible Westminster Press 1980 p 186 Joseph Fitzmyer The Gospel According to Luke X XXIV Doubleday 1985 p 1513 William David Davies Dale Allison Matthew Volume 3 Continuum 1997 p 623 David E Garland Reading Matthew A Literary and Theological Commentary on the First Gospel Smyth amp Helwys Publishing 1999 p 264 Geza Vermes The Passion Penguin 2005 pp 108 109 Mt 27 51 53 Mk 15 39 Mt 27 54 Lk 23 47 New Revised Standard Version New International Version renders this was a righteous man George Syncellus Chronography chapter 391 Archived April 11 2021 at the Wayback Machine Jefferson Williams Markus Schwab and Achim Brauer July 2012 An early first century earthquake in the Dead Sea International Geology Review 54 10 1219 1228 Bibcode 2012IGRv 54 1219W doi 10 1080 00206814 2011 639996 S2CID 129604597 Medical theories on the cause of death in Crucifixion J R Soc Med April 2006 vol 99 no 4 185 188 2 Archived September 12 2015 at the Wayback Machine William Stroud 1847 Treatise on the Physical Death of Jesus Christ London Hamilton and Adams William Seymour 2003 The Cross in Tradition History and Art ISBN 0 7661 4527 1 The Search for the Physical Cause of Christ s Death BYU Studies Archived from the original on February 10 2009 Retrieved January 20 2009 The Physical Death Of Jesus Christ Study by The Mayo Clinic Archived January 31 2009 at the Wayback Machine citing studies by Bucklin R The legal and medical aspects of the trial and death of Christ Sci Law 1970 10 14 26 Mikulicz Radeeki FV The chest wound in the crucified Christ Med News 1966 14 30 40 Davis CT The Crucifixion of Jesus The passion of Christ from a medical point of view Ariz Med 1965 22 183 187 and Barbet P A Doctor at Calvary The Passion of Out Lord Jesus Christ as Described by a Surgeon Earl of Wicklow trans Garden City NY Doubleday Image Books 1953 pp 12 18 37 147 159 175 187 208 19 34 Edwards William D Gabel Wesley J Hosmer Floyd E On the Physical Death of Jesus JAMA March 21 1986 Vol 255 No 11 pp 1455 1463 3 Archived January 26 2022 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the original on August 25 2006 Retrieved January 15 2019 Bartlett Duncan September 9 2006 Programmes From Our Own Correspondent The Japanese Jesus trail BBC News Archived from the original on January 5 2019 Retrieved January 15 2019 Jesus In Japan FT110 Archived from the original on March 10 2007 Retrieved January 15 2019 The Little Known Legend of Jesus in Japan History Smithsonian Smithsonianmag com January 1 1970 Archived from the original on December 29 2021 Retrieved January 15 2019 Zeitschrift fur Religionswissenschaft Jahrgang 1997 diagonal Verlag Ursula Spuler Stegemann Der Engel Pfau zum Selbstvertandnis der Yezidi p 14 German CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA Symbolism www newadvent org Archived from the original on October 6 2018 Retrieved April 2 2022 CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA Veneration of Images www newadvent org Archived from the original on April 19 2020 Retrieved April 2 2022 James Tissot the Life of Christ by Judith F Dolkart 2009 ISBN 1 85894 496 1 p 201 Rookmaaker H R 1970 Modern Art and the Death of a Culture Crossway Books p 73 ISBN 0 89107 799 5 Jn 19 26 27 Mary was United to Jesus on the Cross EWTN November 1 1995 Archived from the original on July 5 2019 Retrieved January 15 2019 Vatican website on Behold Your Mother Archived from the original on May 17 2009 Retrieved February 19 2009 De Kruisiging lib ugent be Archived from the original on October 17 2020 Retrieved September 28 2020 Further reading editBrox Norbert 1984 Doketismus eine Problemanzeige Zeitschrift fur Kirchengeschichte Kohlhammer Verlag 95 301 314 ISSN 0044 2925 Cousar Charles B 1990 A Theology of the Cross The Death of Jesus in the Pauline Letters Fortress Press ISBN 0 8006 1558 1 Dennis John 2006 Jesus Death in John s Gospel A Survey of Research from Bultmann to the Present with Special Reference to the Johannine Hyper Texts Currents in Biblical Research 4 3 331 363 doi 10 1177 1476993X06064628 S2CID 170326371 Dilasser Maurice 1999 The Symbols of the Church Liturgical Press ISBN 978 0 8146 2538 5 Green Joel B 1988 The Death of Jesus Tradition and Interpretation in the Passion Narrative Mohr Siebeck ISBN 3 16 145349 2 Humphreys Colin J W G Waddington December 1983 Dating the Crucifixion Nature 306 5945 743 746 Bibcode 1983Natur 306 743H doi 10 1038 306743a0 S2CID 4360560 Rosenblatt Samuel December 1956 The Crucifixion of Jesus from the Standpoint of Pharisaic Law Journal of Biblical Literature The Society of Biblical Literature 75 4 315 321 doi 10 2307 3261265 JSTOR 3261265 McRay John 1991 Archaeology and the New Testament Baker Books ISBN 0 8010 6267 5 Samuelsson Gunnar 2011 Crucifixion in Antiquity Mohr Siebeck ISBN 978 3 16 150694 9 Schneemelcher Wilhelm Maurer Christian 1994 1991 The Gospel of Peter In Schneemelcher Wilhelm Wilson McLachlan eds New Testament Apocrypha Gospels and related writings Vol 1 Westminster John Knox Press pp 216 227 ISBN 978 0 664 22721 0 Retrieved April 25 2012 Sloyan Gerard S 1995 The Crucifixion of Jesus Fortress Press ISBN 0 8006 2886 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