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Wikipedia

Hunting

March 31, 2023

Several terms redirect here. For other uses, see Hunt (disambiguation), Hunter (disambiguation), Hunters (disambiguation) and Hunting (disambiguation).

Hunting is the human practice of seeking, pursuing, capturing, or killing wildlife or feral animals.[10] The most common reasons for humans to hunt are to exploit the animal's body for food (i.e. meat) and useful animal products (fur/hide, bone/tusks, horn/antler, etc.), for recreation/taxidermy (see trophy hunting), although it may also be done for non-exploitative reasons such as removing predators dangerous to humans or domestic animals (e.g. wolf hunting), to eliminate pests and nuisance animals that damage crops/livestock/poultry or spread diseases (see varminting), for trade/tourism (see safari), or for ecological conservation against overpopulation and invasive species.

Bushmen bow hunting in Botswana.

Recreationally hunted species are generally referred to as the game, and are usually mammals and birds. A person participating in a hunt is a hunter or (less commonly) huntsman; a natural area used for hunting is called a game reserve; an experienced hunter who helps organize a hunt and/or manage the game reserve is known as a gamekeeper.

Many non-human animals also hunt (see predation) as part of their feeding and parental behaviors, sometimes in quantities exceeding immediate dietary needs. The one that does the hunting is the predator, and the one being hunted is the prey.

Hunter on a tree or a ground stand during a driven hunt in Finland

Hunting activities by humans arose in Homo erectus or earlier, in the order of millions of years ago. Hunting has become deeply embedded in various human cultures and was once an important part of the rural economies—classified by economists as part of primary production alongside forestry, agriculture and fishery. Modern regulations (see game law) distinguish lawful hunting activities from illegal poaching, which involves the unauthorized and unregulated killing, trapping or capture of animals.

Bowhunter with a compound bow using a call

Apart from food provision, hunting can be a means of population control. Hunting advocates state that regulated hunting can be a necessary component[11] of modern wildlife management, for example to help maintain a healthy proportion of animal populations within an environment's ecological carrying capacity when natural checks such as natural predators are absent or insufficient,[12][13] or to provide funding for breeding programs and maintenance of natural reserves and conservation parks. However, excessive hunting has also heavily contributed to the endangerment, extirpation and extinction of many animals.[14][15] Some animal rights and anti-hunting activists regard hunting as a cruel, perverse and unnecessary blood sport.[16][17] Certain hunting practices, such as canned hunts and ludicrously paid/bribed trophy tours (especially to poor countries), are considered unethical and exploitative even by some hunters.

Professional deerstalker standing over a downed red stag in Scotland

Marine mammals such as whales and pinnipeds are also targets of hunting, both recreationally and commercially, often with heated controversies regarding the morality, ethics and legality of such practices. The pursuit, harvesting or catch and release of fish and aquatic cephalopods and crustaceans is called fishing, which however is widely accepted and not commonly categorised as a form of hunting, even though it essentially is. It is also not considered hunting to pursue animals without intent to kill them, as in wildlife photography, birdwatching, or scientific-research activities which involve tranquilizing or tagging of animals, although green hunting is still called so. The practices of netting or trapping insects and other arthropods for trophy collection, or the foraging or gathering of plants and mushrooms, are also not regarded as hunting.[18]

Hunter carrying a reindeer in Greenland

Skillful tracking and acquisition of an elusive target has caused the word hunt to be used in the vernacular as a metaphor for searching and obtaining something, as in "treasure hunting", "bargain hunting", "hunting for votes" and even "hunting down" corruption and waste.

Etymology

The word hunt serves as both a noun ("the act of chasing game") and a verb. The noun has been dated to the early 12th century, from the verb hunt. Old English had huntung, huntoþ. The meaning of "a body of persons associated for the purpose of hunting with a pack of hounds" is first recorded in the 1570s. "The act of searching for someone or something" is from about 1600.[citation needed]

The verb, Old English huntian "to chase game" (transitive and intransitive), perhaps developed from hunta "hunter," is related to hentan "to seize," from Proto-Germanic huntojan (the source also of Gothic hinþan "to seize, capture," Old High German hunda "booty"), which is of uncertain origin. The general sense of "search diligently" (for anything) is first recorded c. 1200.[19]

Types

History

Lower to Middle Paleolithic

Further information: Hunting hypothesis and Endurance running hypothesis

Hunting has a long history. It pre-dates the emergence of Homo sapiens (anatomically modern humans) and may even predate the genus Homo.

The oldest undisputed evidence for hunting dates to the Early Pleistocene, consistent with the emergence and early dispersal of Homo erectus, about 1.7 million years ago (Acheulean).[20] While it is undisputed that Homo erectus were hunters, the importance of this for the emergence of Homo erectus from its australopithecine ancestors, including the production of stone tools and eventually the control of fire, is emphasised in the so-called "hunting hypothesis" and de-emphasised in scenarios that stress omnivory and social interaction.

There is no direct evidence for hunting predating Homo erectus, in either Homo habilis or in Australopithecus. The early hominid ancestors of humans were probably frugivores or omnivores, with a partially carnivore diet from scavenging rather than hunting. Evidence for australopithecine meat consumption was presented in the 1990s.[21] It has nevertheless often been assumed that at least occasional hunting behavior may have been present well before the emergence of Homo. This can be argued on the basis of comparison with chimpanzees, the closest extant relatives of humans, who also engage in hunting, indicating that the behavioral trait may have been present in the Chimpanzee–human last common ancestor as early as 5 million years ago. The common chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) regularly engages in troop predation behaviour where bands of beta males are led by an alpha male. Bonobos (Pan paniscus) have also been observed to occasionally engage in group hunting,[22] although more rarely than Pan troglodytes, mainly subsisting on a frugivorous diet.[23] Indirect evidence for Oldowan era hunting, by early Homo or late Australopithecus, has been presented in a 2009 study based on an Oldowan site in southwestern Kenya.[24]

Louis Binford (1986) criticised the idea that early hominids and early humans were hunters. On the basis of the analysis of the skeletal remains of the consumed animals, he concluded that hominids and early humans were mostly scavengers, not hunters,[25] Blumenschine (1986) proposed the idea of confrontational scavenging, which involves challenging and scaring off other predators after they have made a kill, which he suggests could have been the leading method of obtaining protein-rich meat by early humans.[26]

Stone spearheads dated as early as 500,000 years ago were found in South Africa.[27] Wood does not preserve well, however, and Craig Stanford, a primatologist and professor of anthropology at the University of Southern California, has suggested that the discovery of spear use by chimpanzees probably means that early humans used wooden spears as well, perhaps, five million years ago.[28] The earliest dated find of surviving wooden hunting spears dates to the very end of the Lower Paleolithic, just before 300,000 years ago. The Schöningen spears, found in 1976 in Germany, are associated with Homo heidelbergensis.[29]

The hunting hypothesis sees the emergence of behavioral modernity in the Middle Paleolithic as directly related to hunting, including mating behaviour, the establishment of language, culture, and religion, mythology and animal sacrifice. Sociologist David Nibert of Wittenberg University argues that the emergence of the organized hunting of animals undermined the communal, egalitarian nature of early human societies, with the status of women and less powerful males declining as the status of men quickly became associated with their success at hunting, which also increased human violence within these societies.[30] However, 9000-year-old remains of a female hunter along with a toolkit of projectile points and animal processing implements were discovered at the Andean site of Wilamaya Patjxa, Puno District in Peru.[31]

Upper Paleolithic to Mesolithic

Main article: Hunter-gatherers
 
Saharan rock art with prehistoric archers
 
Inuit hunting walrus, 1999

Evidence exists that hunting may have been one of the multiple environmental factors leading to the Holocene extinction of megafauna and their replacement by smaller herbivores.[32][33]

North American megafauna extinction was coincidental with the Younger Dryas impact event, possibly making hunting a less critical factor in prehistoric species loss than had been previously thought.[34] However, in other locations such as Australia, humans are thought to have played a very significant role in the extinction of the Australian megafauna that was widespread prior to human occupation.[35][36][37]

Hunting was a crucial component of hunter-gatherer societies before the domestication of livestock and the dawn of agriculture, beginning about 11,000 years ago in some parts of the world. In addition to the spear, hunting weapons developed during the Upper Paleolithic include the atlatl (a spear-thrower; before 30,000 years ago) and the bow (18,000 years ago). By the Mesolithic, hunting strategies had diversified with the development of these more far-reaching weapons and the domestication of the dog about 15,000 years ago. Evidence puts the earliest known mammoth hunting in Asia with spears to approximately 16,200 years ago.[38]

 
Sharp flint piece from Bjerlev Hede in central Jutland. Dated around 12,500 BC and considered the oldest hunting tool from Denmark.

Many species of animals have been hunted throughout history. One theory is that in North America and Eurasia, caribou and wild reindeer "may well be the species of single greatest importance in the entire anthropological literature on hunting"[39] (see also Reindeer Age), although the varying importance of different species depended on the geographic location.

 
Ancient Greek black-figure pottery depicting the return of a hunter and his dog; made in Athens c. 540 BC, found in Rhodes

Mesolithic hunter-gathering lifestyles remained prevalent in some parts of the Americas, Sub-Saharan Africa, and Siberia, as well as all of Australia, until the European Age of Discovery. They still persist in some tribal societies, albeit in rapid decline. Peoples that preserved Paleolithic hunting-gathering until the recent past include some indigenous peoples of the Amazonas (Aché), some Central and Southern African (San people), some peoples of New Guinea (Fayu), the Mlabri of Thailand and Laos, the Vedda people of Sri Lanka, and a handful of uncontacted peoples. In Africa, one of the last remaining hunter-gatherer tribes are the Hadza of Tanzania.[40]

Neolithic and Antiquity

 
Artemis with a Hind, a Roman copy of an Ancient Greek sculpture, c. 325 BC, by Leochares
 
An example of a Goguryeo tomb mural of hunting, middle of the first millennium

Even as animal domestication became relatively widespread and after the development of agriculture, hunting usually remained a significant contributor to the human food-supply. The supplementary meat and materials from hunting included protein, bone for implements, sinew for cordage, fur, feathers, rawhide and leather used in clothing.

Hunting is still vital in marginal climates, especially those unsuited for pastoral uses or for agriculture.[41] For example, Inuit in the Arctic trap and hunt animals for clothing and use the skins of sea mammals to make kayaks, clothing, and footwear.

On ancient reliefs, especially from Mesopotamia, kings are often depicted by sculptors as hunters of big game such as lions and are often portrayed hunting from a war chariot - early examples of royalty symbolically and militaristically engaging in hunting[42] as "the sport of kings".[43] The cultural and psychological importance of hunting in ancient societies is represented by deities such as the horned god Cernunnos and lunar goddesses of classical antiquity, the Greek Artemis or Roman Diana. Taboos are often related[citation needed] to hunting, and mythological association of prey species with a divinity could be reflected in hunting restrictions such as a reserve surrounding a temple. Euripides' tale of Artemis and Actaeon, for example, may be seen as a caution against disrespect of prey or against impudent boasting.

 
Low-relief the boar hunt, Taq-e Bostan

With the domestication of the dog, birds of prey, and the ferret, various forms of animal-aided hunting developed, including venery (scent-hound hunting, such as fox hunting), coursing (sight-hound hunting), falconry, and ferreting. While these are all associated[citation needed] with medieval hunting, over time, various dog breeds were selected by humans for very precise tasks during the hunt, reflected in such names as "pointer" and "setter".

See also: Lion hunting

Pastoral and agricultural societies

 
Nobleman in hunting costume with his servant following the scent of a stag, 14th century

Even as agriculture and animal husbandry became more prevalent, hunting often remained as a part of human culture where the environment and social conditions allowed. Hunter-gatherer societies persisted, even when increasingly confined to marginal areas. And within agricultural systems, hunting served to kill animals that prey upon domestic and wild animals or to attempt to extirpate animals seen by humans as competition for resources such as water or forage.

When hunting moved from a subsistence activity to a selective one, two trends emerged:

  1. the development of the role of the specialist hunter, with special training and equipment
  2. the option of hunting as a "sport" for members of an upper social class

The meaning of the word game in Middle English evolved to include an animal which is hunted. As the domestication of animals for meat grew, subsistence hunting remained among the lowest classes; however, the stylised pursuit of game in European societies became a luxury. Dangerous hunting, such as for lions or wild boars, often done on horseback or from a chariot, had a function similar to tournaments and manly sports. Hunting ranked as an honourable, somewhat competitive pastime to help the aristocracy practice skills of war in times of peace.[44]

In most parts of medieval Europe, the upper class obtained the sole rights to hunt in certain areas of a feudal territory. Game in these areas was used as a source of food and furs, often provided via professional huntsmen, but it was also expected to provide a form of recreation for the aristocracy. The importance of this proprietary view of game can be seen in the Robin Hood legends, in which one of the primary charges against the outlaws is that they "hunt the King's deer". In contrast, settlers in Anglophone colonies gloried democratically in hunting for all.[45]

In medieval Europe, hunting was considered by Johannes Scotus Eriugena to be part of the set of seven mechanical arts.[46]

Use of dog

 
Hunting Companions, Dutch 19th-century painting featuring two dogs, a shotgun and a game bag

Although various other animals have been used to aid the hunter, such as ferrets, the dog has assumed many very important uses to the hunter. The domestication of the dog has led to a symbiotic relationship in which the dog's independence from humans is deferred. Though dogs can survive independently of humans, and in many cases do ferrally, when raised or adopted by humans the species tends to defer to its control in exchange for habitation, food and support.[47]

Dogs today are used to find, chase, retrieve, and sometimes kill game. Dogs allow humans to pursue and kill prey that would otherwise be very difficult or dangerous to hunt. Different breeds of specifically bred hunting dog are used for different types of hunting. Waterfowl are commonly hunted using retrieving dogs such as the Labrador Retriever, the Golden Retriever, the Chesapeake Bay Retriever, the Brittany Spaniel, and other similar breeds. Game birds are flushed out using flushing spaniels such as the English Springer Spaniel, the various Cocker Spaniels and similar breeds.

The hunting of wild mammals in England and Wales with dogs was banned under the Hunting Act 2004. The wild mammals include fox, hare, deer and mink. There are, however, exceptions in the Act.[48]

Religion

Further information: Homo Necans

Many prehistoric deities are depicted as predators or prey of humans, often in a zoomorphic form, perhaps alluding to the importance of hunting for most Palaeolithic cultures.

In many pagan religions, specific rituals are conducted before or after a hunt; the rituals done may vary according to the species hunted or the season the hunt is taking place.[citation needed] Often a hunting ground, or the hunt for one or more species, was reserved or prohibited in the context of a temple cult.[citation needed] In Roman religion, Diana is the goddess of the hunt.[49]

 
Mughal aristocrats hunting a blackbuck alongside an Asiatic cheetah, 1812

Indian and Eastern religions

 
A group of Sikhs hunting (unknown Pahari artist, 18th century)
 
A tiger hunt at Jhajjar, Rohtak District, Punjab, c. 1820

Hindu scriptures describe hunting as an occupation, as well as a sport of the kingly. Even figures considered divine are described to have engaged in hunting. One of the names of the god Shiva is Mrigavyadha, which translates as "the deer hunter" (mriga means deer; vyadha means hunter). The word Mriga, in many Indian languages including Malayalam, not only stands for deer, but for all animals and animal instincts (Mriga Thrishna). Shiva, as Mrigavyadha, is the one who destroys the animal instincts in human beings. In the epic Ramayana, Dasharatha, the father of Rama, is said to have the ability to hunt in the dark. During one of his hunting expeditions, he accidentally killed Shravana, mistaking him for game. During Rama's exile in the forest, Ravana kidnapped his wife, Sita, from their hut, while Rama was asked by Sita to capture a golden deer, and his brother Lakshman went after him. According to the Mahabharat, Pandu, the father of the Pandavas, accidentally killed the sage Kindama and his wife with an arrow, mistaking them for a deer.

Jainism teaches followers to have tremendous respect for all of life. Prohibitions for hunting and meat eating are the fundamental conditions for being a Jain.

Buddhism's first precept is the respect for all sentient life. The general approach by all Buddhists is to avoid killing any living animals. Buddha explained the issue by saying "all fear death; comparing others with oneself, one should neither kill nor cause to kill."[This quote needs a citation]

In Sikhism, only meat obtained from hunting, or slaughtered with the Jhatka is permitted. The Sikh gurus, especially Guru Hargobind and Guru Gobind Singh were ardent hunters. Many old Sikh Rehatnamas like Prem Sumarag, recommend hunting wild boar and deer. However, among modern Sikhs, the practise of hunting has died down; some even saying that all meat is forbidden.

Christianity, Judaism, and Islam

 
Ladies hunting in the 15th century
 
Tapestry with a hunting scene, late 16th century

From early Christian times, hunting has been forbidden to Roman Catholic Church clerics. Thus the Corpus Juris Canonici (C. ii, X, De cleric. venat.) says, "We forbid to all servants of God hunting and expeditions through the woods with hounds; and we also forbid them to keep hawks or falcons." The Fourth Council of the Lateran, held under Pope Innocent III, decreed (canon xv): "We interdict hunting or hawking to all clerics." The decree of the Council of Trent is worded more mildly: "Let clerics abstain from illicit hunting and hawking" (Sess. XXIV, De reform., c. xii), which seems to imply that not all hunting is illicit, and canonists generally make a distinction declaring noisy (clamorosa) hunting unlawful, but not quiet (quieta) hunting.[50]

Ferraris gives it as the general sense of canonists that hunting is allowed to clerics if it be indulged in rarely and for sufficient cause, as necessity, utility or "honest" recreation, and with that moderation which is becoming to the ecclesiastical state. Ziegler, however, thinks that the interpretation of the canonists is not in accordance with the letter or spirit of the laws of the church.[50]

Nevertheless, although a distinction between lawful and unlawful hunting[51] is undoubtedly permissible, it is certain that a bishop can absolutely prohibit all hunting to the clerics of his diocese, as was done by synods at Milan, Avignon, Liège, Cologne, and elsewhere. Benedict XIV declared that such synodal decrees are not too severe, as an absolute prohibition of hunting is more conformable to the ecclesiastical law. In practice, therefore, the synodal statutes of various localities must be consulted to discover whether they allow quiet hunting or prohibit it altogether.[50]

In Jewish law hunting is not forbidden although there is an aversion to it. The great 18th-century authority Rabbi Yechezkel Landau after a study concluded although "hunting would not be considered cruelty to animals insofar as the animal is generally killed quickly and not tortured... There is an unseemly element in it, namely cruelty." The other issue is that hunting can be dangerous and Judaism places an extreme emphasis on the value of human life.[52][53]

Islamic Sharia Law permits hunting of lawful animals and birds if they cannot be easily caught and slaughtered. However, this is only for the purpose of food and not for trophy hunting.[54]

National traditions

East Africa

 
Explorer and big game hunter Samuel Baker chased by an elephant, illustration from 1890
Main article: Safari

A safari, from a Swahili word meaning "a long journey", especially in Africa, is defined as an overland journey. Safari as a distinctive way of hunting was popularized by the US author Ernest Hemingway and President Theodore Roosevelt.[55] A safari may consist of a several-days—or even weeks-long journey, with camping in the bush or jungle, while pursuing big game. Nowadays, it is often used to describe hunting tours through African wildlife.[56]

Hunters are usually tourists, accompanied by licensed and highly regulated professional hunters, local guides, skinners, and porters in more difficult terrains. A special safari type is the solo-safari, where all the license acquiring, stalking, preparation, and outfitting is done by the hunter himself.[citation needed]

Indian subcontinent

 
Weeks Edwin's painting Departure for the Hunt, c. 1885
 
A Shikar party in Mandalay, Burma, soon after the conclusion of the Third Anglo-Burmese War in 1886, when Burma was annexed to British India

During the feudal and colonial times in British India, hunting or shikar was regarded as a regal sport in the numerous princely states, as many maharajas and nawabs, as well as British officers, maintained a whole corps of shikaris (big-game hunters), who were native professional hunters. They would be headed by a master of the hunt, who might be styled mir-shikar. Often, they recruited the normally low-ranking local tribes because of their traditional knowledge of the environment and hunting techniques. Big game, such as Bengal tigers, might be hunted from the back of an Indian elephant.

Regional social norms are generally antagonistic to hunting, while a few sects, such as the Bishnoi, lay special emphasis on the conservation of particular species, such as the antelope. India's Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 bans the killing of all wild animals. However, the Chief Wildlife Warden may, if satisfied that any wild animal from a specified list has become dangerous to human life, or is so disabled or diseased as to be beyond recovery, permit any person to hunt such an animal. In this case, the body of any wild animal killed or wounded becomes government property.[57]

The practice among the soldiers in British India during the 1770s of going out to hunt snipes, a shorebird considered extremely challenging for hunters due to its alertness, camouflaging color and erratic flight behavior, is believed to be the origin of the modern word for sniper, as snipe-hunters needed to be stealthy in addition to having tracking skills and marksmanship.[58][59] The term was used in the nineteenth century, and had become common usage by the First World War.

United Kingdom

 
Snowden Slights with retriever and shotgun around 1910, 'the last of Yorkshire's Wildfowlers'[60]
Main article: Hunting and shooting in the United Kingdom
See also: Deer stalking and Fox hunting legislation

Unarmed fox hunting on horseback with hounds is the type of hunting most closely associated with the United Kingdom; in fact, "hunting" without qualification implies fox hunting. What in other countries is called "hunting" is called "shooting" (birds) or "stalking" (deer) in Britain. Fox hunting is a social activity for the upper classes, with roles strictly defined by wealth and status. Similar to fox hunting in many ways is the chasing of hares with hounds. Pairs of sighthounds (or long-dogs), such as greyhounds, may be used to pursue a hare in coursing, where the greyhounds are marked as to their skill in coursing the hare (but are not intended to actually catch it), or the hare may be pursued with scent hounds such as beagles or harriers. Other sorts of foxhounds may also be used for hunting stags (deer) or mink. Deer stalking with rifles is carried out on foot without hounds, using stealth.

These forms of hunting have been controversial in the UK. Animal welfare supporters believe that hunting causes unnecessary suffering to foxes, horses, and hounds. Proponents argue that the activity is a historical tradition. Using dogs to chase wild mammals was made illegal in February 2005 by the Hunting Act 2004; there were a number of exemptions (under which the activity may not be illegal) in the act for hunting with hounds, but no exemptions at all for hare-coursing.

Shooting traditions

Game birds, especially pheasants, are shot with shotguns for sport in the UK; the British Association for Shooting and Conservation says that over a million people per year participate in shooting, including game shooting, clay pigeon shooting, and target shooting.[61] Shooting as practised in Britain, as opposed to traditional hunting, requires little questing for game—around thirty-five million birds are released onto shooting estates every year, some having been factory farmed. Shoots can be elaborate affairs with guns placed in assigned positions and assistants to help load shotguns. When in position, "beaters" move through the areas of cover, swinging sticks or flags to drive the game out. Such events are often called "drives". The open season for grouse in the UK begins on 12 August, the so-called Glorious Twelfth. The definition of game in the United Kingdom is governed by the Game Act 1831.

A similar tradition, ojeo [es], exists in Spain.

United States

 
Hunting camp with dressed deer at Schoodic Lake, Maine, in 1905
 
Carrying a bear trophy head at the Kodiak Archipelago

North American hunting pre-dates the United States by thousands of years and was an important part of many pre-Columbian Native American cultures. Native Americans retain some hunting rights and are exempt from some laws as part of Indian treaties and otherwise under federal law[62]—examples include eagle feather laws and exemptions in the Marine Mammal Protection Act. This is considered particularly important in Alaskan native communities.

Hunting is primarily regulated by state law; additional regulations are imposed through United States environmental law in the case of migratory birds and endangered species. Regulations vary widely from state to state and govern the areas, time periods, techniques and methods by which specific game animals may be hunted. Some states make a distinction between protected species and unprotected species (often vermin or varmints for which there are no hunting regulations). Hunters of protected species require a hunting license in all states, for which completion of a hunting safety course is sometimes a prerequisite.

 
US President Benjamin Harrison with ducks he shot

Typically, game animals are divided into several categories for regulatory purposes. Typical categories, along with example species, are as follows:

Hunting big game typically requires a "tag" for each animal harvested. Tags must be purchased in addition to the hunting license, and the number of tags issued to an individual is typically limited. In cases where there are more prospective hunters than the quota for that species, tags are usually assigned by lottery. Tags may be further restricted to a specific area, or wildlife management unit. Hunting migratory waterfowl requires a duck stamp from the Fish and Wildlife Service in addition to the appropriate state hunting license.

Harvest of animals other than big game is typically restricted by a bag limit and a possession limit. A bag limit is the maximum number of a specific animal species that an individual can harvest in a single day. A possession limit is the maximum number of a specific animal species that can be in an individual's possession at any time.

Shooting

 
A man target practicing for the hunting seasons

Gun usage in hunting is typically regulated by game category, area within the state, and time period. Regulations for big-game hunting often specify a minimum caliber or muzzle energy for firearms. The use of rifles is often banned for safety reasons in areas with high population densities or limited topographic relief. Regulations may also limit or ban the use of lead in ammunition because of environmental concerns. Specific seasons for bow hunting or muzzle-loading black-powder guns are often established to limit competition with hunters using more effective weapons.

Hunting in the United States is not associated with any particular class or culture; a 2006 poll showed seventy-eight percent of Americans supported legal hunting,[63] although relatively few Americans actually hunt. At the beginning of the 21st century, just six percent of Americans hunted. Southerners in states along the eastern seaboard hunted at a rate of five percent, slightly below the national average, and while hunting was more common in other parts of the South at nine percent, these rates did not surpass those of the Plains states, where twelve percent of Midwesterners hunted. Hunting in other areas of the country fell below the national average.[64] Overall, in the 1996–2006 period, the number of hunters over the age of sixteen declined by ten percent, a drop attributable to a number of factors including habitat loss and changes in recreation habits.[65]

Regulation

Regulation of hunting within the United States dates from the 19th century. Some modern hunters see themselves as conservationists and sportsmen in the mode of Theodore Roosevelt and the Boone and Crockett Club. Local hunting clubs and national organizations provide hunter education and help protect the future of the sport by buying land for future hunting use. Some groups represent a specific hunting interest, such as Ducks Unlimited, Pheasants Forever, or the Delta Waterfowl Foundation. Many hunting groups also participate in lobbying the federal government and state government.

Each year, nearly $200 million in hunters' federal excise taxes are distributed to state agencies to support wildlife management programs, the purchase of lands open to hunters, and hunter education and safety classes. Since 1934, the sale of Federal Duck Stamps, a required purchase for migratory waterfowl hunters over sixteen years old, has raised over $700 million to help purchase more than 5,200,000 acres (8,100 sq mi; 21,000 km2) of habitat for the National Wildlife Refuge System lands that support waterfowl and many other wildlife species and are often open to hunting. States also collect money from hunting licenses to assist with management of game animals, as designated by law. A key task of federal and state park rangers and game wardens is to enforce laws and regulations related to hunting, including species protection, hunting seasons, and hunting bans.

Varmint hunting

Main article: Varmint hunting
 
The coypu is hunted as a pest in Louisiana.

Varmint hunting is an American phrase for the selective killing of non-game animals seen as pests. While not always an efficient form of pest control, varmint hunting achieves selective control of pests while providing recreation and is much less regulated. Varmint species are often responsible for detrimental effects on crops, livestock, landscaping, infrastructure, and pets. Some animals, such as wild rabbits or squirrels, may be utilised for fur or meat, but often no use is made of the carcass. Which species are varmints depends on the circumstance and area. Common varmints may include various rodents, coyotes, crows, foxes, feral cats, and feral hogs. Some animals once considered varmints are now protected, such as wolves. In the US state of Louisiana, a non-native rodent, the coypu, has become so destructive to the local ecosystem that the state has initiated a bounty program to help control the population. Beavers from North America constitute an invasive species in Tierra del Fuego, where eradication attempts are ongoing.

Fair chase

Main article: Fair chase

The principles of the fair chase[66] have been a part of the American hunting tradition for over one hundred years. The role of the hunter-conservationist, popularised by Theodore Roosevelt, and perpetuated by Roosevelt's formation of the Boone and Crockett Club, has been central to the development of the modern fair chase tradition. Beyond Fair Chase: The Ethic and Tradition of Hunting, a book by Jim Posewitz, describes fair chase:

"Fundamental to ethical hunting is the idea of fair chase. This concept addresses the balance between the hunter and the hunted. It is a balance that allows hunters to occasionally succeed while animals generally avoid being taken."[67]

When Internet hunting was introduced in 2005, allowing people to hunt over the Internet using remotely controlled guns, the practice was widely criticised by hunters as violating the principles of fair chase. As a representative of the National Rifle Association of America (NRA) explained, "The NRA has always maintained that fair chase, being in the field with your firearm or bow, is an important element of hunting tradition. Sitting at your desk in front of your computer, clicking at a mouse, has nothing to do with hunting."[68]

 
Hunters with an American black bear in the Great Smoky Mountains

One hunting club declares that a fair chase shall not involve the taking of animals under the following conditions:

  • Helpless in a trap, deep snow or water, or on ice.
  • From any power vehicle or power boat.
  • By "jacklighting" or shining at night.
  • By the use of any tranquilizers or poisons.
  • While inside escape-proof fenced enclosures.
  • By the use of any power vehicle or power boat for herding or driving animals, including use of aircraft to land alongside or to communicate with or direct a hunter on the ground.
  • By the use of electronic devices for attracting, locating or pursuing game or guiding the hunter to such game, or by the use of a bow or arrow to which any electronic device is attached.[69]

Ranches

Animals such as blackbuck, nilgai, axis deer, fallow deer, zebras, barasingha, gazelle and many other exotic game species can now be found on game farm and ranches in Texas, where they were introduced for sport hunting. These hunters can be found paying in excess of $10,000 dollars to take trophy animals on these controlled ranches.

Russia

Main article: Hunting in Russia

The Russian imperial hunts evolved from hunting traditions of early Russian rulers—Grand Princes and Tsars—under the influence of hunting customs of European royal courts. The imperial hunts were organised mainly in Peterhof, Tsarskoye Selo, and Gatchina.

 
Riders gather for a dingo drive in Morven, Queensland, 1936.

Australia

Main article: Hunting in Australia

Hunting in Australia has evolved around the hunting and eradication of various animals considered to be pests or invasive species . All native animals are protected by law, and certain species such as kangaroos and ducks can be hunted by licensed shooters but only under a special permit on public lands during open seasons. The introduced species that are targeted include European rabbits, red foxes, deer (sambar, hog, red, fallow, chital and rusa), feral cats, pigs, goats, brumbies, donkeys and occasionally camels, as well as introduced upland birds such as quails, pheasants and partridges.

New Zealand

Main article: Hunting in New Zealand

New Zealand has a strong hunting culture.[70] When humans arrived, the only mammals present on the islands making up New Zealand were bats, although seals and other marine mammals were present along the coasts. However, when humans arrived they brought other species with them. Polynesian voyagers introduced kuri (dogs), kiore (Polynesian rats), as well as a range of plant species. European explorers further added to New Zealand's biota, particularly pigs which were introduced by either Captain Cook or the French explorer De Surville in the 1700s.[71][72] During the nineteenth century, as European colonisation took place, acclimatisation societies were established. The societies introduced a large number of species with no use other than as prey for hunting.[73] Species that adapted well to the New Zealand terrain include deer, pigs, goats, hare, tahr and chamois. With wilderness areas, suitable forage, and no natural predators, their populations exploded. Government agencies view the animals as pests due to their effects on the natural environment and on agricultural production, but hunters view them as a resource.

Iran

 
Plate depicting Khosrow I hunting animals

Iranian tradition regarded hunting as an essential part of a prince's education,[74] and hunting was well recorded for the education of the upper-class youths during pre-Islamic Persia. As of October 2020, a hunting licence costs $20,000. The Department of Environment although do not report the number of permits issued.[75][76][77]

Japan

The numbers of licensed hunters in Japan, including those using snares and guns, is generally decreasing, while their average age is increasing. As of 2010, there were approximately 190,000 registered hunters, approximately 65% of whom were sixty years old or older.[78]

Trinidad and Tobago

There is a very active tradition of hunting small to medium-sized wild game in Trinidad and Tobago. Hunting is carried out with firearms, slingshots and cage traps, and sometimes aided by the use of hounds. The illegal use of trap guns and snare nets also occurs. With approximately 12,000 to 13,000 hunters applying for and being granted hunting permits in recent years, there is some concern that the practice might not be sustainable. In addition there are at present no bag limits and the open season is comparatively very long (5 months – October to February inclusive). As such hunting pressure from legal hunters is very high. Added to that, there is a thriving and very lucrative black market for poached wild game (sold and enthusiastically purchased as expensive luxury delicacies) and the numbers of commercial poachers in operation is unknown but presumed to be fairly high. As a result, the populations of the five major mammalian game species (red-rumped agouti, lowland paca, nine-banded armadillo, collared peccary and red brocket deer) are thought to be relatively low when compared to less-hunted regions in nearby mainland South America (although scientifically conducted population studies are only just recently being conducted as of 2013). It appears that the red brocket deer population has been extirpated in Tobago as a result of over-hunting. By some time in the mid 20th century another extirpation due to over-hunting occurred in Trinidad with its population of horned screamer (a large game bird). Various herons, ducks, doves, the green iguana, the cryptic golden tegu, the spectacled caiman, the common opossum and the capybara are also commonly hunted and poached. There is also some poaching of 'fully protected species', including red howler monkey and capuchin monkeys, southern tamandua, Brazilian porcupine, yellow-footed tortoise, the critically endangered island endemic Trinidad piping guan and even one of the national birds, the scarlet ibis. Legal hunters pay relatively small fees to obtain hunting licences and undergo no official basic conservation biology or hunting-ethics/fair chase training, and are not assessed regarding their knowledge and comprehension of the local wildlife conservation laws. There is presumed to be relatively little subsistence hunting in the country (with most hunting for either sport or commercial profit). The local wildlife management authorities are under-staffed and under-funded, and as such little in the way of enforcement is done to uphold existing wildlife management laws, with hunting/poaching occurring both in and out of season and even in wildlife sanctuaries. There is some indication that the government is beginning to take the issue of wildlife management more seriously, with well drafted legislation being brought before Parliament in 2015. It remains to be seen if the drafted legislation will be fully adopted and financially supported by the current and future governments, and if the general populace will move towards a greater awareness of the importance of wildlife conservation and change the culture of wanton consumption to one of sustainable management.

Wildlife management

 
Control fence to assess the impact of browsing by ungulates. Note the lack of natural forest regeneration outside the fencing.
Main article: Wildlife management

Hunting is claimed to give resource managers an important tool[79][80] in managing populations that might exceed the carrying capacity of their habitat and threaten the well-being of other species, or, in some instances, damage human health or safety.[81]

In some cases, hunting actually can increase the population of predators such as coyotes by removing territorial bounds that would otherwise be established, resulting in excess neighbouring migrations into an area, thus artificially increasing the population.[82] Hunting advocates[who?] assert that hunting reduces intraspecific competition for food and shelter, reducing mortality among the remaining animals. Some environmentalists assert[who?] that (re)introducing predators would achieve the same end with greater efficiency and less negative effect, such as introducing significant amounts of free lead into the environment and food chain.

In the United States, wildlife managers are frequently part of hunting regulatory and licensing bodies, where they help to set rules on the number, manner and conditions in which game may be hunted.

Management agencies sometimes rely on hunting to control specific animal populations, as has been the case with deer in North America. These hunts may sometimes be carried out by professional shooters, although others may include amateur hunters. Many US city and local governments hire professional and amateur hunters each year to reduce populations of animals such as deer that are becoming hazardous in a restricted area, such as neighbourhood parks and metropolitan open spaces.

A large part of managing populations involves managing the number and, sometimes, the size or age of animals harvested so as to ensure the sustainability of the population. Tools that are frequently used to control harvest are bag limits and season closures, although gear restrictions such as archery-only seasons are becoming increasingly popular in an effort to reduce hunter success rates in countries that rely on bag limits per hunter instead of per area.[citation needed]

Laws

Main articles: Hunting legislation and Poaching

Illegal hunting and harvesting of wild species contrary to local and international conservation and wildlife management laws is called poaching. Game preservation is one of the tactics used to prevent poaching. Violations of hunting laws and regulations involving poaching are normally punishable by law.[83] Punishment can include confiscation of equipment, fines or a prison sentence.

Right to hunt

The right to hunt—sometimes in combination with the right to fish—is protected implicitly, as a consequence of the right of ownership,[84] or explicitly, as a right on its own,[85][86] in a number of jurisdictions. For instance, as of 2019, a total of 22 U.S. states explicitly recognize a subjective right to hunt in their constitutions.[86][87]

Bag limits

Main article: Bag limits
 
Red-legged partridges on a game rack

Bag limits are provisions under the law that control how many animals of a given species or group of species can be killed, although there are often species for which bag limits do not apply. There are also jurisdictions where bag limits are not applied at all or are not applied under certain circumstances. The phrase bag limits comes from the custom among hunters of small game to carry successful kills in a small basket, similar to a fishing creel.

Where bag limits are used, there can be daily or seasonal bag limits; for example, ducks can often be harvested at a rate of six per hunter per day.[88] Big game, like moose, most often have a seasonal bag limit of one animal per hunter.[citation needed] Bag limits may also regulate the size, sex, or age of animal that a hunter can kill. In many cases, bag limits are designed to allocate harvest among the hunting population more equitably rather than to protect animal populations, as protecting the population would necessitate regional density-dependent maximum bags.

Closed and open season

A closed season is a time during which hunting an animal of a given species is contrary to law. Typically, closed seasons are designed to protect a species when they are most vulnerable or to protect them during their breeding season.[89] By extension, the period that is not the closed season is known as the open season.

Methods

 
Tswana hunting the lion, 1841
 
American bison being chased off a cliff as seen and painted by Alfred Jacob Miller, c. 1860
 
Master or whipper-in and fox hounds drawing a wood. Hunting in Yorkshire, northern England, in 2005, on the last day of fully legal, proper, fox hunting.

Historical, subsistence, and sport hunting techniques can differ radically, with modern hunting regulations often addressing issues of where, when, and how hunts are conducted. Techniques may vary depending on government regulations, a hunter's personal ethics, local custom, hunting equipment, and the animal being hunted. Often a hunter will use a combination of more than one technique. Laws may forbid sport hunters from using some methods used primarily in poaching and wildlife management.

  • Baiting is the use of decoys, lures, scent, or food.
  • Battue involves scaring animals (by beating sticks) into a killing zone or ambush.
  • Beagling is the use of beagles in hunting rabbits, and sometimes in hunting foxes.
  • Beating uses human beaters to flush out game from an area or drive it into position.
  • Stand hunting or blind hunting is waiting for animals from a concealed or elevated position, for example from tree stands, hunting blinds or other types of shooting stands.
  • Calling is the use of animal noises to attract or drive animals.
  • Camouflage is the use of visual or odour concealment to blend with the environment.
  • Dogs may be used to course or to help flush, herd, drive, track, point at, pursue, or retrieve prey.
  • Driving is the herding of animals in a particular direction, usually toward another hunter in the group.
  • Flushing is the practice of scaring animals from concealed areas.
  • Ghillie suit is a type of gear a person can wear to blend with environment.[90]
  • Glassing is the use of optics, such as binoculars, to locate animals more easily.
  • Glue is an indiscriminate passive form to kill birds.[91]
  • Internet hunting is a method of hunting over the Internet using webcams and remotely controlled guns.
  • Netting involves using nets, including active netting with the use of cannon nets and rocket nets.
  • Persistence hunting is the use of running and tracking to pursue the prey to exhaustion.[92]
  • Posting is done by sitting or standing in a particular place with the intentions of intercepting your game of choice along their travel corridor.[93]
  • Scouting for game is typically done prior to a hunt and will ensure the desired species are in a chosen area. Looking for animal sign such as tracks, scat, etc.... and utilizing "trail cameras" are commonly used tactics while scouting.
  • Shooting is the use of a ranged weapon such as a gun, bow, crossbow, or slingshot.
  • Solunar theory says that animals move according to the location of the moon in comparison to their bodies and is said to have been used long before this by hunters to know the best times to hunt their desired game.[94]
  • Spotlighting or shining is the use of artificial light to find or blind animals before killing.
  • Stalking or still hunting is the practice of walking quietly in search of animals or in pursuit of an individual animal.
  • Tracking is the practice of reading physical evidence in pursuing animals.
  • Trapping is the use of devices such as snares, pits, and deadfalls to capture or kill an animal.

Statistics

Table

Number of hunters in various European and North American countries
Sources: Europe (2016/17),[95] Ireland (2007),[96] Canada (2012),[97] Russia (2012),[98] United States (2016);[99]
Country Hunters Population

(millions)

Hunters as percentage of

the total population

Relation

hunters/inhabitants

Area (km2) Hunters per km2
  Canada 2,482,678 34.7 7.15 1:14 9,984,670 0.25
  Finland 308,000 5.2 5.92 1:17 338,448 0.91
  Cyprus 45,000 0.8 5.63 1:18 5,896 7.63
  Norway 190,000 4.7 4.04 1:25 385,207 0.49
  Malta 15,000 0.4 3.75 1:27 316 47.47
  United States 11,453,000 323.1 3.54 1:28 9,826,675 1.17
  Sweden 290,000 9.0 3.22 1:31 447,435 0.65
  Denmark 165,000 5.5 3.00 1:33 42,921 3.84
  Ireland 104,000 4.2 2.48 1:46 70,273 1.48
  Greece 235,000 10.7 2.20 1:46 131,957 1.78
  Spain 980,000 45.0 2.18 1:46 505,970 1.94
  Portugal 230,000 10.7 2.15 1:47 92,212 2.49
  France 1,331,000 64.1 2.08 1:48 543,965 2.45
  Russia 2,800,000 143.2 1.96 1:51 17,125,200 0.16
  Bulgaria 110,000 7.7 1.43 1:70 110,994 0.99
  Austria 118,000 8.3 1.42 1:70 83,879 1.41
  United Kingdom 800,000 61.1 1.31 1:76 242,495 3.30
  Italy 750,000 58.1 1.29 1:77 301,338 2.49
  Estonia 16,600 1.3 1.28 1:78 45,339 0.37
  Croatia 55,000 4.5 1.22 1:82 56,594 0.97
  Slovenia 22,000 2.0 1.10 1:91 20,273 1.09
  Latvia 25,000 2.3 1.09 1:92 64,589 0.39
  Czech Republic 110,000 10.2 1.08 1:93 78,866 1.39
  Slovakia 55,000 5.4 1.02 1:98 49,034 1.12
  Lithuania 32,000 3.6 0.89 1:113 65,300 0.49
  Hungary 55,000 9.9 0.56 1:180 93,036 0.59
  Germany 351,000 82.5 0.43 1:235 357,578 0.98
  Luxembourg 2,000 0.5 0.40 1:250 2,586 0.77
  Switzerland 30,000 7.6 0.39 1:253 41,285 0.73
  Poland 106,000 38.5 0.28 1:363 312,696 0.34
  Romania 60,000 22.2 0.27 1:370 238,391 0.25
  Belgium 23,000 10.4 0.22 1:452 30,688 0.75
  Netherlands 28,170 16.7 0.17 1:593 41,543 0.68

Graph

 

Trophy hunting

Main article: Trophy hunting
 
Trophy collection of the Princely Family of Liechtenstein at Úsov Château, the Czech Republic
 
A hunter and local guides with an elephant they shot, 1970

Trophy hunting is the selective seeking and killing of wild game animals to take trophies for personal collection, bragging rights or as a status symbol. It may also include the controversial hunting of captive or semi-captive animals expressly bred and raised under controlled or semi-controlled conditions so as to attain trophy characteristics; this is sometimes known as canned hunts.[100]

History

In the 19th century, southern and central European sport hunters often pursued game only for a trophy, usually the head or pelt of an animal, which was then displayed as a sign of prowess. The rest of the animal was typically discarded. Some cultures, however, disapprove of such waste. In Nordic countries, hunting for trophies was—and still is—frowned upon. Hunting in North America in the 19th century was done primarily as a way to supplement food supplies, although it is now undertaken mainly for sport.[citation needed] The safari method of hunting was a development of sport hunting that saw elaborate travel in Africa, India and other places in pursuit of trophies. In modern times, trophy hunting persists and is a significant industry in some areas.[citation needed]

Conservation tool

According to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, hunting "provides an economic incentive" for ranchers to continue to breed those species, and that hunting "reduces the threat of the species' extinction."[101][102]

A scientific study in the journal, Biological Conservation, states that trophy hunting is of "major importance to conservation in Africa by creating economic incentives for conservation over vast areas, including areas which may be unsuitable for alternative wildlife-based land uses such as photographic ecotourism."[103] However, another study states that less than 3% of a trophy hunters' expenditures reach the local level, meaning that the economic incentive and benefit is "minimal, particularly when we consider the vast areas of land that hunting concessions occupy."[104]

Financial incentives from trophy hunting effectively more than double the land area that is used for wildlife conservation, relative to what would be conserved relying on national parks alone according to Biological Conservation,[103] although local communities usually derive no more than 18 cents per hectare from trophy hunting.[104]

Trophy hunting has been considered essential for providing economic incentives to conserve large carnivores according to research studies in Conservation Biology,[105] Journal of Sustainable Tourism,[106] Wildlife Conservation by Sustainable Use,[107] and Animal Conservation.[105][108] Studies by the Centre for Responsible Tourism[109] and the IUCN state that ecotourism, which includes more than hunting, is a superior economic incentive, generating twice the revenue per acre and 39 times more permanent employment.[110] At the crosssection of trophy hunting, ecotourism and conservation is green hunting, a trophy hunting alternative where hunters pay to dart animals that need to be tranquilized for conservation projects.[111]

The U.S. House Committee on Natural Resources in 2016 concluded that trophy hunting may be contributing to the extinction of certain animals.[112] Animal welfare organizations, including the International Fund for Animal Welfare, claim that trophy hunting is a key factor in the "silent extinction" of giraffes.[113]

According to a national survey that the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service conducts every five years, fewer people are hunting, even as population rises. National Public Radio reported, a graph shows 2016 statistics, that only about 5 percent of Americans, 16 years old and older, actually hunt, which is half of what it was 50 years ago. The decline in popularity of hunting is expected to accelerate over the next decade, which threatens how US will pay for conservation. [114]

Controversy

See also: Killing of Cecil the lion

Trophy hunting is most often criticised when it involves rare or endangered animals.[115] Opponents may also see trophy hunting as an issue of morality[116] or animal cruelty, criticising the killing of living creatures for recreation. Victorian era dramatist W. S. Gilbert remarked, "Deer-stalking would be a very fine sport if only the deer had guns."[117]

There is also debate about the extent to which trophy hunting benefits the local economy. Hunters pay substantial fees to the game outfitters and hunting guides which contributes to the local economy and provides value to animals that would otherwise be seen as competition for grazing, livestock, and crops.[118] However, the argument is disputed by animal welfare organizations and other opponents of trophy hunting.[119][120] It is argued that the animals are worth more to the community for ecotourism than hunting.[121][122]

Economics

 
Chatelherault, built by William Adam in 1743 as the Duke of Hamilton's hunting lodge
 
Marshal's Cabin, a former hunting lodge in Loppi, Finland

A variety of industries benefit from hunting and support hunting on economic grounds. In Tanzania, it is estimated that a safari hunter spends fifty to one hundred times that of the average ecotourist. While the average photo tourist may seek luxury accommodation, the average safari hunter generally stays in tented camps. Safari hunters are also more likely to use remote areas, uninviting to the typical ecotourist. Advocates argue that these hunters allow for anti-poaching activities and revenue for local communities.[citation needed]

In the United Kingdom, the game hunting of birds as an industry is said to be extremely important to the rural economy. The Cobham Report of 1997 suggested it to be worth around £700 million, and hunting and shooting lobby groups claimed it to be worth over a billion pounds less than ten years later.[citation needed]

Hunting also has a significant financial impact in the United States, with many companies specialising in hunting equipment or speciality tourism. Many different technologies have been created to assist hunters. Today's hunters come from a broad range of economic, social, and cultural backgrounds. In 2001, over thirteen million hunters averaged eighteen days hunting, and spent over $20.5 billion on their sport.[123] In the US, proceeds from hunting licences contribute to state game management programs, including preservation of wildlife habitat.

Hunting contributes to a portion of caloric intake of people and may have positive impacts on greenhouse gas emissions by avoidance of utilization of meat raised under industrial methods.[124]

Environmental problems

 
Right: .40 S&W round with hollow-point bullet Left: Expanded bullet of the same calibre with exposed lead core

Lead bullets that miss their target or remain in an unretrieved carcass could become a toxicant in the environment but lead in ammunition because of its metallic form has a lower solubility and higher resistance to corrosion than other forms of lead making it hardly available to biological systems.[125] Waterfowl or other birds may ingest the lead and poison themselves with the neurotoxicant, but studies have demonstrated that effects of lead in ammunition are negligible on animal population size and growth.[126][127] Since 1991, US federal law forbids lead shot in waterfowl hunts, and 30 states have some type of restriction.[128]

In December 2014, a federal appeals court denied a lawsuit by environmental groups that the EPA must use the Toxic Substances Control Act to regulate lead in shells and cartridges. The groups sought EPA to regulate "spent lead", yet the court found EPA could not regulate spent lead without also regulating cartridges and shells.[129]

Conservation

Main articles: Conservation (ethic) and Conservation movement
 
Punishment of a Hunter (c. 1647) by Paulus Potter

Hunters have been driving forces throughout history in the movement to ensure the preservation of wildlife habitats and wildlife for further hunting.[130] However, excessive hunting and poachers have also contributed heavily to the endangerment, extirpation and extinction of many animals, such as the quagga, the great auk, Steller's sea cow, the thylacine, the bluebuck, the Arabian oryx, the Caspian and Javan tigers, the markhor, the Sumatran rhinoceros, the bison, the North American cougar, the Altai argali sheep, the Asian elephant and many more, primarily for commercial sale or sport. All these animals have been hunted to endangerment or extinction.[142] Poaching currently threatens bird and mammalian populations around the world.[143][144][145] The 2019 Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services lists the direct exploitation of organisms, including hunting, as the second leading cause of biodiversity loss, after land use for agriculture.[146] In 2022, IPBES released another report which stated that unsustainable hunting, along with unsustainable logging and fishing, are primary drivers of the global extinction crisis.[147]

Legislation

Pittman–Robertson Wildlife Restoration Act of 1937

In 1937, American hunters successfully lobbied the US Congress to pass the Pittman-Robertson Wildlife Restoration Act, which placed an eleven percent tax on all hunting equipment. This self-imposed tax now generates over $700 million each year and is used exclusively to establish, restore and protect wildlife habitats.[148] The act is named for Nevada Senator Key Pittman and Virginia Congressman Absalom Willis Robertson.

Federal Duck Stamp program

On 16 March 1934, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the Migratory Bird Hunting Stamp Act, which requires an annual stamp purchase by all hunters over the age of sixteen. The stamps are created on behalf of the program by the US Postal Service and depict wildlife artwork chosen through an annual contest. They play an important role in habitat conservation because ninety-eight percent of all funds generated by their sale go directly toward the purchase or lease of wetland habitat for protection in the National Wildlife Refuge System.[149] In addition to waterfowl, it is estimated that one third of the nation's endangered species seek food and shelter in areas protected using Duck Stamp funds.[150]

Since 1934, the sale of Federal Duck Stamps has generated $670 million, and helped to purchase or lease 5,200,000 acres (8,100 sq mi; 21,000 km2) of habitat. The stamps serve as a license to hunt migratory birds, an entrance pass for all National Wildlife Refuge areas, and are also considered collectors items often purchased for aesthetic reasons outside of the hunting and birding communities. Although non-hunters buy a significant number of Duck Stamps, eighty-seven percent of their sales are contributed by hunters. Distribution of funds is managed by the Migratory Bird Conservation Commission (MBCC).[151]

Species

Arabian oryx

The Arabian oryx, a species of large antelope, once inhabited much of the desert areas of the Middle East.[136] However, the species' striking appearance made it (along with the closely related scimitar-horned oryx and addax) a popular quarry for sport hunters, especially foreign executives of oil companies working in the region.[citation needed] The use of automobiles and high-powered rifles destroyed their only advantage: speed, and they became extinct in the wild exclusively due to sport hunting in 1972. The scimitar-horned oryx followed suit, while the addax became critically endangered.[152] However, the Arabian oryx has now made a comeback and been upgraded from "extinct in the wild" to "vulnerable" due to conservation efforts like captive breeding.[153]

Markhor

The markhor is an endangered species of wild goat which inhabits the mountains of Central Asia and Pakistan. The colonization of these regions by Britain gave British sport hunters access to the species, and they were hunted heavily, almost to the point of extinction. Only their willingness to breed in captivity and the inhospitability of their mountainous habitat prevented this. Despite these factors, the markhor is still endangered.[154]

American bison

The American bison is a large bovid which inhabited much of western North America prior to the 1800s, living on the prairies in large herds. However, the vast herds of bison attracted market hunters, who killed dozens of bison for their hides only, leaving the rest to rot. Thousands of these hunters quickly eliminated the bison herds, bringing the population from several million in the early 1800s to a few hundred by the 1880s. Conservation efforts have allowed the population to increase, but the bison remains near-threatened due to lack of habitat.[155]

White rhino

The Journal of International Wildlife Law and Policy cites that the legalization of white rhinoceros hunting in South Africa motivated private landowners to reintroduce the species onto their lands. As a result, the country saw an increase in white rhinos from fewer than one hundred individuals to more than 11,000, even while a limited number were killed as trophies.[156]

However, the illegal hunting of rhinoceros for their horns is highly damaging to the population and is currently growing globally,[157] with 1004 being killed in South Africa alone according to the most recent estimate.[158] The White Rhino (along with the other 4 rhino species) are poached due to beliefs that the Rhinos horns can be used to cure Cancer, Arthritis and other diseases and illnesses, even though they are scientifically proven wrong.[159]

Other species

According to Richard Conniff, Namibia is home to 1,750 of the roughly 5,000 black rhinos surviving in the wild because it allows trophy hunting of various species. Namibia's mountain zebra population has increased to 27,000 from 1,000 in 1982. Elephants, which "are gunned down elsewhere for their ivory", have gone to 20,000 from 15,000 in 1995. Lions, which were on the brink of extinction "from Senegal to Kenya", are increasing in Namibia.[160]

In contrast, Botswana in 2012 banned trophy hunting following a precipitous wildlife decline.[161] The numbers of antelope plummeted across Botswana, with a resultant decline in predator numbers, while elephant numbers remained stable and hippopotamus numbers rose. According to the government of Botswana, trophy hunting is at least partly to blame for this, but many other factors, such as poaching, drought and habitat loss are also to blame.[162] Uganda recently did the same, arguing that "the share of benefits of sport hunting were lopsided and unlikely to deter poaching or improve [Uganda's] capacity to manage the wildlife reserves."[163] In 2020, Botswana reopened trophy hunting on public lands.[164]

Studies

 
Cage trap (live trap) for cheetahs on a farm in Namibia

A study published by the Wildlife Society concluded that hunting and trapping are cost effective tools that reduce wildlife damage by reducing a population below the capacity of the environment to carry it and changing the behaviors of animals to stop them from causing damage. The study furthermore states that the cessation of hunting could cause wildlife to be severely harmed, rural property values to fall, and the incentive of landowners to maintain natural habitats to diminish.[165]

Although deforestation and forest degradation have long been considered the most significant threats to tropical biodiversity, across Southeast Asia (Northeast India, Indochina, Sundaland, Philippines) substantial areas of natural habitat have few wild animals (>1 kg), bar a few hunting‐tolerant species.[166][167][168]

Opposition to hunting

Main article: Opposition to hunting

It has been argued by animal rights activists that killing animals for sport is unethical, cruel, and unnecessary.[16] They note the suffering and cruelty inflicted on animals hunted for sport: "Many animals endure prolonged, painful deaths when they are injured but not killed by hunters ... Hunting disrupts migration and hibernation patterns and destroys families."[16] Animal rights activists also comment that hunting is not needed to maintain an ecological balance, and that "nature takes care of its own".[16] They say that hunting can be combated on public lands by "spread[ing] deer repellent or human hair (from barber shops) near hunting areas".[16] Animal rights activists also argue that hunting is speciesist:[17]

Whether hunters try to justify their killing by citing human deaths caused by wild animals, by making conservationist claims, by claiming that it's acceptable to hunt as long as the animals' bodies are eaten, or simply because of the pleasure it brings them, the fact remains that hunting is morally unacceptable if we consider the interests of nonhuman animals. Hunted animals endure fear and pain, and then are deprived of their lives. Understanding the injustices of speciesism and the interests of nonhuman animals makes it clear that human pleasure cannot justify nonhuman animals' pain.[17]

Hunting in the arts

 
Limbourg Brothers, Boar hunt with hounds, illumination from the Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry, c. 1445
 
Albert Gleizes, La Chasse (The Hunt), 1911, oil on canvas depicting a scene in the Cubist style of hunting by horseback in France

See also

References

  1. ^ Oxford Dictionary of English. Stevenson, Angus (3 ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2010. p. 856. ISBN 9780199571123. OCLC 729551189. 'hunt [...] pursue and kill (a wild animal) for sport or food [...]'; 'hunting [...] the activity of hunting wild animals or game.'{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  2. ^ Peterson, M. Nils (2019), "Hunting", in Fath, Brian D. (ed.), Encyclopedia of Ecology, vol. 3 (2 ed.), Elsevier, pp. 438–440, doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-409548-9.11168-6, ISBN 978-0-444-64130-4, Hunting is the practice of pursuing, capturing, or killing wildlife.
  3. ^ Park, Chris; Allaby, Michael (2013). A Dictionary of Environment and Conservation (2 ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 208. ISBN 978-0-19-964166-6. OCLC 993020467. hunting The activity of finding and killing or capturing wild animals for food, pelts, or as a field sport.
  4. ^ Neves-Garca, Katja (2007). "Hunting". In Robbins, Paul (ed.). Encyclopedia of Environment and Society. Vol. 3. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications. pp. 894–896. ISBN 978-1-4129-5627-7. OCLC 228071686. In very general terms, hunting refers to the activity of pursuing and killing free-roaming animals.
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  166. ^ Harrison, Rhett D.; Sreekar, Rachakonda; Brodie, Jedediah F.; Brook, Sarah; Luskin, Matthew; O'Kelly, Hannah; Rao, Madhu; Scheffers, Brett; Velho, Nandini (12 October 2016). "Impacts of hunting on tropical forests in Southeast Asia: Hunting in Tropical Forests". Conservation Biology. 30 (5): 972–981. doi:10.1111/cobi.12785 – via DOI.org (Crossref).
  167. ^ Sreekar, Rachakonda; Huang, Guohualing; Zhao, Jiang-Bo; Pasion, Bonifacio O.; Yasuda, Mika; Zhang, Kai; Peabotuwage, Indika; Wang, Ximin; Quan, Rui-Chang; Ferry Slik, J. W.; Corlett, Richard T.; Goodale, Eben; Harrison, Rhett D. (2015). "The use of species-area relationships to partition the effects of hunting and deforestation on bird extirpations in a fragmented landscape". Diversity and Distributions. 21 (4): 441–450. doi:10.1111/ddi.12292. S2CID 55972282.
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Further reading

  • International Journal of Environmental Studies (2013) Special Edition: Conservation and Hunting in North America. IJES v 70.
  • International Journal of Environmental Studies (2015) Special Edition: Conservation and Hunting in North America II. IJES v72.
  • IUCN (2016) Briefing Paper: Informing Decisions on Trophy Hunting. 4 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine
  • IUCN Species Survival Commission (2012) Guiding Principles on Trophy Hunting as a Tool for Creating Conservation Incentives. 13 January 2018 at the Wayback Machine
  • Dickson D. Bruce Jr., Mississippi Quarterly (Spring 1977).
  • Kenneth S. Greenberg, Honor and Slavery: Lies, Duels, Noses, Masks, Dressing as a Woman, Gifts, Strangers, Humanitarianism, Death, Slave Rebellions, the Pro-Slavery Argument, Baseball, Hunting, and Gambling in the Old South (1996).
  • Steven Hahn, Radical History Review (1982).
  • Charles H. Hudson Jr., in Indians, Animals, and the Fur Trade, ed., Shephard Krech III (1981).
  • Stuart A. Marks, Southern Hunting in Black and White: Nature, History, and Ritual in a Carolina Community (1991).
  • Ted Ownby, Subduing Satan: Religion, Recreation, and Manhood in the Rural South, 1865–1920 (1990).
  • Wiley C. Prewitt, "The Best of All Breathing: Hunting and Environmental Change in Mississippi, 1900–1980" M.A. thesis, (1991).
  • Nicolas W. Proctor, Bathed in Blood: Hunting and Mastery in the Old South (2002).
  • Jacob F. Rivers III, Cultural Values in the Southern Sporting Narrative (2002).
  • Salem, D.J., and A.N. Rowan, eds. 2003. The State of the Animals II: 2003 24 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Washington, D.C.: Humane Society Press. (ISBN 0-9658942-7-4)
  • Timothy Silver, A New Face on the Countryside: Indians, Colonists, and Slaves in South Atlantic Forests, 1500–1800 (1990).
  • Richard C. Stedman and Thomas A. Heberlein, Rural Sociology (2001).
  • Nancy L. Struna, People of Prowess: Sport, Leisure, and Labor in Early Anglo-America (1996).
  • Marek Zukow-Karczewski, Polowania w dawnej Polsce (Hunting in the old Poland), "AURA" (A Monthly for the protection and shaping of human environment) 12 (1990).

External links

 
Look up hunting in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
 
Wikiquote has quotations related to Hunting.
  •   Media related to Hunting at Wikimedia Commons
  • The Theodore Roosevelt Hunting Library at the Library of Congress has 254 items on this topic.

March 31, 2023
hunting, several, terms, redirect, here, other, uses, hunt, disambiguation, hunter, disambiguation, hunters, disambiguation, disambiguation, human, practice, seeking, pursuing, capturing, killing, wildlife, feral, animals, most, common, reasons, humans, hunt, . Several terms redirect here For other uses see Hunt disambiguation Hunter disambiguation Hunters disambiguation and Hunting disambiguation Hunting is the human practice of seeking pursuing capturing or killing wildlife or feral animals 10 The most common reasons for humans to hunt are to exploit the animal s body for food i e meat and useful animal products fur hide bone tusks horn antler etc for recreation taxidermy see trophy hunting although it may also be done for non exploitative reasons such as removing predators dangerous to humans or domestic animals e g wolf hunting to eliminate pests and nuisance animals that damage crops livestock poultry or spread diseases see varminting for trade tourism see safari or for ecological conservation against overpopulation and invasive species Bushmen bow hunting in Botswana Recreationally hunted species are generally referred to as the game and are usually mammals and birds A person participating in a hunt is a hunter or less commonly huntsman a natural area used for hunting is called a game reserve an experienced hunter who helps organize a hunt and or manage the game reserve is known as a gamekeeper Many non human animals also hunt see predation as part of their feeding and parental behaviors sometimes in quantities exceeding immediate dietary needs The one that does the hunting is the predator and the one being hunted is the prey Hunter on a tree or a ground stand during a driven hunt in Finland Hunting activities by humans arose in Homo erectus or earlier in the order of millions of years ago Hunting has become deeply embedded in various human cultures and was once an important part of the rural economies classified by economists as part of primary production alongside forestry agriculture and fishery Modern regulations see game law distinguish lawful hunting activities from illegal poaching which involves the unauthorized and unregulated killing trapping or capture of animals Bowhunter with a compound bow using a call Apart from food provision hunting can be a means of population control Hunting advocates state that regulated hunting can be a necessary component 11 of modern wildlife management for example to help maintain a healthy proportion of animal populations within an environment s ecological carrying capacity when natural checks such as natural predators are absent or insufficient 12 13 or to provide funding for breeding programs and maintenance of natural reserves and conservation parks However excessive hunting has also heavily contributed to the endangerment extirpation and extinction of many animals 14 15 Some animal rights and anti hunting activists regard hunting as a cruel perverse and unnecessary blood sport 16 17 Certain hunting practices such as canned hunts and ludicrously paid bribed trophy tours especially to poor countries are considered unethical and exploitative even by some hunters Professional deerstalker standing over a downed red stag in Scotland Marine mammals such as whales and pinnipeds are also targets of hunting both recreationally and commercially often with heated controversies regarding the morality ethics and legality of such practices The pursuit harvesting or catch and release of fish and aquatic cephalopods and crustaceans is called fishing which however is widely accepted and not commonly categorised as a form of hunting even though it essentially is It is also not considered hunting to pursue animals without intent to kill them as in wildlife photography birdwatching or scientific research activities which involve tranquilizing or tagging of animals although green hunting is still called so The practices of netting or trapping insects and other arthropods for trophy collection or the foraging or gathering of plants and mushrooms are also not regarded as hunting 18 Hunter carrying a reindeer in Greenland Skillful tracking and acquisition of an elusive target has caused the word hunt to be used in the vernacular as a metaphor for searching and obtaining something as in treasure hunting bargain hunting hunting for votes and even hunting down corruption and waste Contents 1 Etymology 2 Types 3 History 3 1 Lower to Middle Paleolithic 3 2 Upper Paleolithic to Mesolithic 3 3 Neolithic and Antiquity 3 4 Pastoral and agricultural societies 3 5 Use of dog 4 Religion 4 1 Indian and Eastern religions 4 2 Christianity Judaism and Islam 5 National traditions 5 1 East Africa 5 2 Indian subcontinent 5 3 United Kingdom 5 3 1 Shooting traditions 5 4 United States 5 4 1 Shooting 5 4 2 Regulation 5 4 3 Varmint hunting 5 4 4 Fair chase 5 4 5 Ranches 5 5 Russia 5 6 Australia 5 7 New Zealand 5 8 Iran 5 9 Japan 5 10 Trinidad and Tobago 6 Wildlife management 7 Laws 7 1 Right to hunt 7 2 Bag limits 7 3 Closed and open season 8 Methods 9 Statistics 9 1 Table 9 2 Graph 10 Trophy hunting 10 1 History 10 2 Conservation tool 10 3 Controversy 11 Economics 12 Environmental problems 13 Conservation 13 1 Legislation 13 1 1 Pittman Robertson Wildlife Restoration Act of 1937 13 1 2 Federal Duck Stamp program 13 2 Species 13 2 1 Arabian oryx 13 2 2 Markhor 13 2 3 American bison 13 2 4 White rhino 13 2 5 Other species 13 3 Studies 14 Opposition to hunting 15 Hunting in the arts 16 See also 17 References 18 Further reading 19 External linksEtymology EditThe word hunt serves as both a noun the act of chasing game and a verb The noun has been dated to the early 12th century from the verb hunt Old English had huntung huntoth The meaning of a body of persons associated for the purpose of hunting with a pack of hounds is first recorded in the 1570s The act of searching for someone or something is from about 1600 citation needed The verb Old English huntian to chase game transitive and intransitive perhaps developed from hunta hunter is related to hentan to seize from Proto Germanic huntojan the source also of Gothic hinthan to seize capture Old High German hunda booty which is of uncertain origin The general sense of search diligently for anything is first recorded c 1200 19 Types EditRecreational hunting also known as trophy hunting sport hunting or sporting Big game hunting Big Five game lion elephant buffalo African leopard rhinoceros Bear hunting Tiger hunting Reindeer and caribou hunting Medium small game hunting Fox hunting Deer hunting stalking Boar hunting Mink hunting Coon hunting Fowling Waterfowl hunting Shorebird hunting snipe woodcock curlew sandpiper plover Upland hunting quail pheasant grouse turkey Pest control nuisance management Predator culling Wolf hunting Jackal coursing Coyote hunting Bobcat hunting Varmint hunting Rabbiting Squirrel hunting Rook shooting Commercial hunting Seal hunting Whaling dolphin drive dugong hunting Alligator hunting Kangaroo hunting PoachingHistory EditLower to Middle Paleolithic Edit Further information Hunting hypothesis and Endurance running hypothesis Hunting has a long history It pre dates the emergence of Homo sapiens anatomically modern humans and may even predate the genus Homo The oldest undisputed evidence for hunting dates to the Early Pleistocene consistent with the emergence and early dispersal of Homo erectus about 1 7 million years ago Acheulean 20 While it is undisputed that Homo erectus were hunters the importance of this for the emergence of Homo erectus from its australopithecine ancestors including the production of stone tools and eventually the control of fire is emphasised in the so called hunting hypothesis and de emphasised in scenarios that stress omnivory and social interaction There is no direct evidence for hunting predating Homo erectus in either Homo habilis or in Australopithecus The early hominid ancestors of humans were probably frugivores or omnivores with a partially carnivore diet from scavenging rather than hunting Evidence for australopithecine meat consumption was presented in the 1990s 21 It has nevertheless often been assumed that at least occasional hunting behavior may have been present well before the emergence of Homo This can be argued on the basis of comparison with chimpanzees the closest extant relatives of humans who also engage in hunting indicating that the behavioral trait may have been present in the Chimpanzee human last common ancestor as early as 5 million years ago The common chimpanzee Pan troglodytes regularly engages in troop predation behaviour where bands of beta males are led by an alpha male Bonobos Pan paniscus have also been observed to occasionally engage in group hunting 22 although more rarely than Pan troglodytes mainly subsisting on a frugivorous diet 23 Indirect evidence for Oldowan era hunting by early Homo or late Australopithecus has been presented in a 2009 study based on an Oldowan site in southwestern Kenya 24 Louis Binford 1986 criticised the idea that early hominids and early humans were hunters On the basis of the analysis of the skeletal remains of the consumed animals he concluded that hominids and early humans were mostly scavengers not hunters 25 Blumenschine 1986 proposed the idea of confrontational scavenging which involves challenging and scaring off other predators after they have made a kill which he suggests could have been the leading method of obtaining protein rich meat by early humans 26 Stone spearheads dated as early as 500 000 years ago were found in South Africa 27 Wood does not preserve well however and Craig Stanford a primatologist and professor of anthropology at the University of Southern California has suggested that the discovery of spear use by chimpanzees probably means that early humans used wooden spears as well perhaps five million years ago 28 The earliest dated find of surviving wooden hunting spears dates to the very end of the Lower Paleolithic just before 300 000 years ago The Schoningen spears found in 1976 in Germany are associated with Homo heidelbergensis 29 The hunting hypothesis sees the emergence of behavioral modernity in the Middle Paleolithic as directly related to hunting including mating behaviour the establishment of language culture and religion mythology and animal sacrifice Sociologist David Nibert of Wittenberg University argues that the emergence of the organized hunting of animals undermined the communal egalitarian nature of early human societies with the status of women and less powerful males declining as the status of men quickly became associated with their success at hunting which also increased human violence within these societies 30 However 9000 year old remains of a female hunter along with a toolkit of projectile points and animal processing implements were discovered at the Andean site of Wilamaya Patjxa Puno District in Peru 31 Upper Paleolithic to Mesolithic Edit Main article Hunter gatherers Saharan rock art with prehistoric archers Inuit hunting walrus 1999 Evidence exists that hunting may have been one of the multiple environmental factors leading to the Holocene extinction of megafauna and their replacement by smaller herbivores 32 33 North American megafauna extinction was coincidental with the Younger Dryas impact event possibly making hunting a less critical factor in prehistoric species loss than had been previously thought 34 However in other locations such as Australia humans are thought to have played a very significant role in the extinction of the Australian megafauna that was widespread prior to human occupation 35 36 37 Hunting was a crucial component of hunter gatherer societies before the domestication of livestock and the dawn of agriculture beginning about 11 000 years ago in some parts of the world In addition to the spear hunting weapons developed during the Upper Paleolithic include the atlatl a spear thrower before 30 000 years ago and the bow 18 000 years ago By the Mesolithic hunting strategies had diversified with the development of these more far reaching weapons and the domestication of the dog about 15 000 years ago Evidence puts the earliest known mammoth hunting in Asia with spears to approximately 16 200 years ago 38 Sharp flint piece from Bjerlev Hede in central Jutland Dated around 12 500 BC and considered the oldest hunting tool from Denmark Many species of animals have been hunted throughout history One theory is that in North America and Eurasia caribou and wild reindeer may well be the species of single greatest importance in the entire anthropological literature on hunting 39 see also Reindeer Age although the varying importance of different species depended on the geographic location Ancient Greek black figure pottery depicting the return of a hunter and his dog made in Athens c 540 BC found in Rhodes Mesolithic hunter gathering lifestyles remained prevalent in some parts of the Americas Sub Saharan Africa and Siberia as well as all of Australia until the European Age of Discovery They still persist in some tribal societies albeit in rapid decline Peoples that preserved Paleolithic hunting gathering until the recent past include some indigenous peoples of the Amazonas Ache some Central and Southern African San people some peoples of New Guinea Fayu the Mlabri of Thailand and Laos the Vedda people of Sri Lanka and a handful of uncontacted peoples In Africa one of the last remaining hunter gatherer tribes are the Hadza of Tanzania 40 Neolithic and Antiquity Edit Artemis with a Hind a Roman copy of an Ancient Greek sculpture c 325 BC by Leochares An example of a Goguryeo tomb mural of hunting middle of the first millennium Even as animal domestication became relatively widespread and after the development of agriculture hunting usually remained a significant contributor to the human food supply The supplementary meat and materials from hunting included protein bone for implements sinew for cordage fur feathers rawhide and leather used in clothing Hunting is still vital in marginal climates especially those unsuited for pastoral uses or for agriculture 41 For example Inuit in the Arctic trap and hunt animals for clothing and use the skins of sea mammals to make kayaks clothing and footwear On ancient reliefs especially from Mesopotamia kings are often depicted by sculptors as hunters of big game such as lions and are often portrayed hunting from a war chariot early examples of royalty symbolically and militaristically engaging in hunting 42 as the sport of kings 43 The cultural and psychological importance of hunting in ancient societies is represented by deities such as the horned god Cernunnos and lunar goddesses of classical antiquity the Greek Artemis or Roman Diana Taboos are often related citation needed to hunting and mythological association of prey species with a divinity could be reflected in hunting restrictions such as a reserve surrounding a temple Euripides tale of Artemis and Actaeon for example may be seen as a caution against disrespect of prey or against impudent boasting Low relief the boar hunt Taq e Bostan With the domestication of the dog birds of prey and the ferret various forms of animal aided hunting developed including venery scent hound hunting such as fox hunting coursing sight hound hunting falconry and ferreting While these are all associated citation needed with medieval hunting over time various dog breeds were selected by humans for very precise tasks during the hunt reflected in such names as pointer and setter See also Lion hunting Pastoral and agricultural societies Edit Nobleman in hunting costume with his servant following the scent of a stag 14th century Even as agriculture and animal husbandry became more prevalent hunting often remained as a part of human culture where the environment and social conditions allowed Hunter gatherer societies persisted even when increasingly confined to marginal areas And within agricultural systems hunting served to kill animals that prey upon domestic and wild animals or to attempt to extirpate animals seen by humans as competition for resources such as water or forage When hunting moved from a subsistence activity to a selective one two trends emerged the development of the role of the specialist hunter with special training and equipment the option of hunting as a sport for members of an upper social classThe meaning of the word game in Middle English evolved to include an animal which is hunted As the domestication of animals for meat grew subsistence hunting remained among the lowest classes however the stylised pursuit of game in European societies became a luxury Dangerous hunting such as for lions or wild boars often done on horseback or from a chariot had a function similar to tournaments and manly sports Hunting ranked as an honourable somewhat competitive pastime to help the aristocracy practice skills of war in times of peace 44 In most parts of medieval Europe the upper class obtained the sole rights to hunt in certain areas of a feudal territory Game in these areas was used as a source of food and furs often provided via professional huntsmen but it was also expected to provide a form of recreation for the aristocracy The importance of this proprietary view of game can be seen in the Robin Hood legends in which one of the primary charges against the outlaws is that they hunt the King s deer In contrast settlers in Anglophone colonies gloried democratically in hunting for all 45 In medieval Europe hunting was considered by Johannes Scotus Eriugena to be part of the set of seven mechanical arts 46 Use of dog Edit Hunting Companions Dutch 19th century painting featuring two dogs a shotgun and a game bag Although various other animals have been used to aid the hunter such as ferrets the dog has assumed many very important uses to the hunter The domestication of the dog has led to a symbiotic relationship in which the dog s independence from humans is deferred Though dogs can survive independently of humans and in many cases do ferrally when raised or adopted by humans the species tends to defer to its control in exchange for habitation food and support 47 Dogs today are used to find chase retrieve and sometimes kill game Dogs allow humans to pursue and kill prey that would otherwise be very difficult or dangerous to hunt Different breeds of specifically bred hunting dog are used for different types of hunting Waterfowl are commonly hunted using retrieving dogs such as the Labrador Retriever the Golden Retriever the Chesapeake Bay Retriever the Brittany Spaniel and other similar breeds Game birds are flushed out using flushing spaniels such as the English Springer Spaniel the various Cocker Spaniels and similar breeds The hunting of wild mammals in England and Wales with dogs was banned under the Hunting Act 2004 The wild mammals include fox hare deer and mink There are however exceptions in the Act 48 Religion EditFurther information Homo Necans Many prehistoric deities are depicted as predators or prey of humans often in a zoomorphic form perhaps alluding to the importance of hunting for most Palaeolithic cultures In many pagan religions specific rituals are conducted before or after a hunt the rituals done may vary according to the species hunted or the season the hunt is taking place citation needed Often a hunting ground or the hunt for one or more species was reserved or prohibited in the context of a temple cult citation needed In Roman religion Diana is the goddess of the hunt 49 Mughal aristocrats hunting a blackbuck alongside an Asiatic cheetah 1812 Indian and Eastern religions Edit This section does not cite any sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed November 2017 Learn how and when to remove this template message A group of Sikhs hunting unknown Pahari artist 18th century A tiger hunt at Jhajjar Rohtak District Punjab c 1820 Hindu scriptures describe hunting as an occupation as well as a sport of the kingly Even figures considered divine are described to have engaged in hunting One of the names of the god Shiva is Mrigavyadha which translates as the deer hunter mriga means deer vyadha means hunter The word Mriga in many Indian languages including Malayalam not only stands for deer but for all animals and animal instincts Mriga Thrishna Shiva as Mrigavyadha is the one who destroys the animal instincts in human beings In the epic Ramayana Dasharatha the father of Rama is said to have the ability to hunt in the dark During one of his hunting expeditions he accidentally killed Shravana mistaking him for game During Rama s exile in the forest Ravana kidnapped his wife Sita from their hut while Rama was asked by Sita to capture a golden deer and his brother Lakshman went after him According to the Mahabharat Pandu the father of the Pandavas accidentally killed the sage Kindama and his wife with an arrow mistaking them for a deer Jainism teaches followers to have tremendous respect for all of life Prohibitions for hunting and meat eating are the fundamental conditions for being a Jain Buddhism s first precept is the respect for all sentient life The general approach by all Buddhists is to avoid killing any living animals Buddha explained the issue by saying all fear death comparing others with oneself one should neither kill nor cause to kill This quote needs a citation In Sikhism only meat obtained from hunting or slaughtered with the Jhatka is permitted The Sikh gurus especially Guru Hargobind and Guru Gobind Singh were ardent hunters Many old Sikh Rehatnamas like Prem Sumarag recommend hunting wild boar and deer However among modern Sikhs the practise of hunting has died down some even saying that all meat is forbidden Christianity Judaism and Islam Edit Ladies hunting in the 15th century Tapestry with a hunting scene late 16th century From early Christian times hunting has been forbidden to Roman Catholic Church clerics Thus the Corpus Juris Canonici C ii X De cleric venat says We forbid to all servants of God hunting and expeditions through the woods with hounds and we also forbid them to keep hawks or falcons The Fourth Council of the Lateran held under Pope Innocent III decreed canon xv We interdict hunting or hawking to all clerics The decree of the Council of Trent is worded more mildly Let clerics abstain from illicit hunting and hawking Sess XXIV De reform c xii which seems to imply that not all hunting is illicit and canonists generally make a distinction declaring noisy clamorosa hunting unlawful but not quiet quieta hunting 50 Ferraris gives it as the general sense of canonists that hunting is allowed to clerics if it be indulged in rarely and for sufficient cause as necessity utility or honest recreation and with that moderation which is becoming to the ecclesiastical state Ziegler however thinks that the interpretation of the canonists is not in accordance with the letter or spirit of the laws of the church 50 Nevertheless although a distinction between lawful and unlawful hunting 51 is undoubtedly permissible it is certain that a bishop can absolutely prohibit all hunting to the clerics of his diocese as was done by synods at Milan Avignon Liege Cologne and elsewhere Benedict XIV declared that such synodal decrees are not too severe as an absolute prohibition of hunting is more conformable to the ecclesiastical law In practice therefore the synodal statutes of various localities must be consulted to discover whether they allow quiet hunting or prohibit it altogether 50 In Jewish law hunting is not forbidden although there is an aversion to it The great 18th century authority Rabbi Yechezkel Landau after a study concluded although hunting would not be considered cruelty to animals insofar as the animal is generally killed quickly and not tortured There is an unseemly element in it namely cruelty The other issue is that hunting can be dangerous and Judaism places an extreme emphasis on the value of human life 52 53 Islamic Sharia Law permits hunting of lawful animals and birds if they cannot be easily caught and slaughtered However this is only for the purpose of food and not for trophy hunting 54 National traditions EditEast Africa Edit Explorer and big game hunter Samuel Baker chased by an elephant illustration from 1890 Main article Safari A safari from a Swahili word meaning a long journey especially in Africa is defined as an overland journey Safari as a distinctive way of hunting was popularized by the US author Ernest Hemingway and President Theodore Roosevelt 55 A safari may consist of a several days or even weeks long journey with camping in the bush or jungle while pursuing big game Nowadays it is often used to describe hunting tours through African wildlife 56 Hunters are usually tourists accompanied by licensed and highly regulated professional hunters local guides skinners and porters in more difficult terrains A special safari type is the solo safari where all the license acquiring stalking preparation and outfitting is done by the hunter himself citation needed Indian subcontinent Edit Weeks Edwin s painting Departure for the Hunt c 1885 A Shikar party in Mandalay Burma soon after the conclusion of the Third Anglo Burmese War in 1886 when Burma was annexed to British India During the feudal and colonial times in British India hunting or shikar was regarded as a regal sport in the numerous princely states as many maharajas and nawabs as well as British officers maintained a whole corps of shikaris big game hunters who were native professional hunters They would be headed by a master of the hunt who might be styled mir shikar Often they recruited the normally low ranking local tribes because of their traditional knowledge of the environment and hunting techniques Big game such as Bengal tigers might be hunted from the back of an Indian elephant Regional social norms are generally antagonistic to hunting while a few sects such as the Bishnoi lay special emphasis on the conservation of particular species such as the antelope India s Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 bans the killing of all wild animals However the Chief Wildlife Warden may if satisfied that any wild animal from a specified list has become dangerous to human life or is so disabled or diseased as to be beyond recovery permit any person to hunt such an animal In this case the body of any wild animal killed or wounded becomes government property 57 The practice among the soldiers in British India during the 1770s of going out to hunt snipes a shorebird considered extremely challenging for hunters due to its alertness camouflaging color and erratic flight behavior is believed to be the origin of the modern word for sniper as snipe hunters needed to be stealthy in addition to having tracking skills and marksmanship 58 59 The term was used in the nineteenth century and had become common usage by the First World War United Kingdom Edit Snowden Slights with retriever and shotgun around 1910 the last of Yorkshire s Wildfowlers 60 Main article Hunting and shooting in the United Kingdom See also Deer stalking and Fox hunting legislationUnarmed fox hunting on horseback with hounds is the type of hunting most closely associated with the United Kingdom in fact hunting without qualification implies fox hunting What in other countries is called hunting is called shooting birds or stalking deer in Britain Fox hunting is a social activity for the upper classes with roles strictly defined by wealth and status Similar to fox hunting in many ways is the chasing of hares with hounds Pairs of sighthounds or long dogs such as greyhounds may be used to pursue a hare in coursing where the greyhounds are marked as to their skill in coursing the hare but are not intended to actually catch it or the hare may be pursued with scent hounds such as beagles or harriers Other sorts of foxhounds may also be used for hunting stags deer or mink Deer stalking with rifles is carried out on foot without hounds using stealth These forms of hunting have been controversial in the UK Animal welfare supporters believe that hunting causes unnecessary suffering to foxes horses and hounds Proponents argue that the activity is a historical tradition Using dogs to chase wild mammals was made illegal in February 2005 by the Hunting Act 2004 there were a number of exemptions under which the activity may not be illegal in the act for hunting with hounds but no exemptions at all for hare coursing Shooting traditions Edit Game birds especially pheasants are shot with shotguns for sport in the UK the British Association for Shooting and Conservation says that over a million people per year participate in shooting including game shooting clay pigeon shooting and target shooting 61 Shooting as practised in Britain as opposed to traditional hunting requires little questing for game around thirty five million birds are released onto shooting estates every year some having been factory farmed Shoots can be elaborate affairs with guns placed in assigned positions and assistants to help load shotguns When in position beaters move through the areas of cover swinging sticks or flags to drive the game out Such events are often called drives The open season for grouse in the UK begins on 12 August the so called Glorious Twelfth The definition of game in the United Kingdom is governed by the Game Act 1831 A similar tradition ojeo es exists in Spain United States Edit This section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed December 2019 Learn how and when to remove this template message Hunting camp with dressed deer at Schoodic Lake Maine in 1905 Carrying a bear trophy head at the Kodiak Archipelago North American hunting pre dates the United States by thousands of years and was an important part of many pre Columbian Native American cultures Native Americans retain some hunting rights and are exempt from some laws as part of Indian treaties and otherwise under federal law 62 examples include eagle feather laws and exemptions in the Marine Mammal Protection Act This is considered particularly important in Alaskan native communities Hunting is primarily regulated by state law additional regulations are imposed through United States environmental law in the case of migratory birds and endangered species Regulations vary widely from state to state and govern the areas time periods techniques and methods by which specific game animals may be hunted Some states make a distinction between protected species and unprotected species often vermin or varmints for which there are no hunting regulations Hunters of protected species require a hunting license in all states for which completion of a hunting safety course is sometimes a prerequisite US President Benjamin Harrison with ducks he shot Typically game animals are divided into several categories for regulatory purposes Typical categories along with example species are as follows Big game white tailed deer mule deer moose elk caribou bear bighorn sheep mountain goat pronghorn pigs both wild and feral javelina bison Small game rabbit hare squirrel opossum raccoon porcupine skunk ring tailed cat armadillo ruffed grouse Furbearers beaver red fox mink pine marten musk rat otter bobcat coyote Predators cougar wolf coyote Upland game bird grouse woodcock chukar pheasant quail dove Waterfowl duck teal merganser geese swanHunting big game typically requires a tag for each animal harvested Tags must be purchased in addition to the hunting license and the number of tags issued to an individual is typically limited In cases where there are more prospective hunters than the quota for that species tags are usually assigned by lottery Tags may be further restricted to a specific area or wildlife management unit Hunting migratory waterfowl requires a duck stamp from the Fish and Wildlife Service in addition to the appropriate state hunting license Harvest of animals other than big game is typically restricted by a bag limit and a possession limit A bag limit is the maximum number of a specific animal species that an individual can harvest in a single day A possession limit is the maximum number of a specific animal species that can be in an individual s possession at any time Shooting Edit A man target practicing for the hunting seasons Gun usage in hunting is typically regulated by game category area within the state and time period Regulations for big game hunting often specify a minimum caliber or muzzle energy for firearms The use of rifles is often banned for safety reasons in areas with high population densities or limited topographic relief Regulations may also limit or ban the use of lead in ammunition because of environmental concerns Specific seasons for bow hunting or muzzle loading black powder guns are often established to limit competition with hunters using more effective weapons Hunting in the United States is not associated with any particular class or culture a 2006 poll showed seventy eight percent of Americans supported legal hunting 63 although relatively few Americans actually hunt At the beginning of the 21st century just six percent of Americans hunted Southerners in states along the eastern seaboard hunted at a rate of five percent slightly below the national average and while hunting was more common in other parts of the South at nine percent these rates did not surpass those of the Plains states where twelve percent of Midwesterners hunted Hunting in other areas of the country fell below the national average 64 Overall in the 1996 2006 period the number of hunters over the age of sixteen declined by ten percent a drop attributable to a number of factors including habitat loss and changes in recreation habits 65 Regulation Edit Regulation of hunting within the United States dates from the 19th century Some modern hunters see themselves as conservationists and sportsmen in the mode of Theodore Roosevelt and the Boone and Crockett Club Local hunting clubs and national organizations provide hunter education and help protect the future of the sport by buying land for future hunting use Some groups represent a specific hunting interest such as Ducks Unlimited Pheasants Forever or the Delta Waterfowl Foundation Many hunting groups also participate in lobbying the federal government and state government Each year nearly 200 million in hunters federal excise taxes are distributed to state agencies to support wildlife management programs the purchase of lands open to hunters and hunter education and safety classes Since 1934 the sale of Federal Duck Stamps a required purchase for migratory waterfowl hunters over sixteen years old has raised over 700 million to help purchase more than 5 200 000 acres 8 100 sq mi 21 000 km2 of habitat for the National Wildlife Refuge System lands that support waterfowl and many other wildlife species and are often open to hunting States also collect money from hunting licenses to assist with management of game animals as designated by law A key task of federal and state park rangers and game wardens is to enforce laws and regulations related to hunting including species protection hunting seasons and hunting bans Varmint hunting Edit Main article Varmint hunting The coypu is hunted as a pest in Louisiana Varmint hunting is an American phrase for the selective killing of non game animals seen as pests While not always an efficient form of pest control varmint hunting achieves selective control of pests while providing recreation and is much less regulated Varmint species are often responsible for detrimental effects on crops livestock landscaping infrastructure and pets Some animals such as wild rabbits or squirrels may be utilised for fur or meat but often no use is made of the carcass Which species are varmints depends on the circumstance and area Common varmints may include various rodents coyotes crows foxes feral cats and feral hogs Some animals once considered varmints are now protected such as wolves In the US state of Louisiana a non native rodent the coypu has become so destructive to the local ecosystem that the state has initiated a bounty program to help control the population Beavers from North America constitute an invasive species in Tierra del Fuego where eradication attempts are ongoing Fair chase Edit Main article Fair chase The principles of the fair chase 66 have been a part of the American hunting tradition for over one hundred years The role of the hunter conservationist popularised by Theodore Roosevelt and perpetuated by Roosevelt s formation of the Boone and Crockett Club has been central to the development of the modern fair chase tradition Beyond Fair Chase The Ethic and Tradition of Hunting a book by Jim Posewitz describes fair chase Fundamental to ethical hunting is the idea of fair chase This concept addresses the balance between the hunter and the hunted It is a balance that allows hunters to occasionally succeed while animals generally avoid being taken 67 When Internet hunting was introduced in 2005 allowing people to hunt over the Internet using remotely controlled guns the practice was widely criticised by hunters as violating the principles of fair chase As a representative of the National Rifle Association of America NRA explained The NRA has always maintained that fair chase being in the field with your firearm or bow is an important element of hunting tradition Sitting at your desk in front of your computer clicking at a mouse has nothing to do with hunting 68 Hunters with an American black bear in the Great Smoky Mountains One hunting club declares that a fair chase shall not involve the taking of animals under the following conditions Helpless in a trap deep snow or water or on ice From any power vehicle or power boat By jacklighting or shining at night By the use of any tranquilizers or poisons While inside escape proof fenced enclosures By the use of any power vehicle or power boat for herding or driving animals including use of aircraft to land alongside or to communicate with or direct a hunter on the ground By the use of electronic devices for attracting locating or pursuing game or guiding the hunter to such game or by the use of a bow or arrow to which any electronic device is attached 69 Ranches Edit Animals such as blackbuck nilgai axis deer fallow deer zebras barasingha gazelle and many other exotic game species can now be found on game farm and ranches in Texas where they were introduced for sport hunting These hunters can be found paying in excess of 10 000 dollars to take trophy animals on these controlled ranches Russia Edit Main article Hunting in Russia The Russian imperial hunts evolved from hunting traditions of early Russian rulers Grand Princes and Tsars under the influence of hunting customs of European royal courts The imperial hunts were organised mainly in Peterhof Tsarskoye Selo and Gatchina Riders gather for a dingo drive in Morven Queensland 1936 Australia Edit Main article Hunting in Australia Hunting in Australia has evolved around the hunting and eradication of various animals considered to be pests or invasive species All native animals are protected by law and certain species such as kangaroos and ducks can be hunted by licensed shooters but only under a special permit on public lands during open seasons The introduced species that are targeted include European rabbits red foxes deer sambar hog red fallow chital and rusa feral cats pigs goats brumbies donkeys and occasionally camels as well as introduced upland birds such as quails pheasants and partridges New Zealand Edit Main article Hunting in New Zealand New Zealand has a strong hunting culture 70 When humans arrived the only mammals present on the islands making up New Zealand were bats although seals and other marine mammals were present along the coasts However when humans arrived they brought other species with them Polynesian voyagers introduced kuri dogs kiore Polynesian rats as well as a range of plant species European explorers further added to New Zealand s biota particularly pigs which were introduced by either Captain Cook or the French explorer De Surville in the 1700s 71 72 During the nineteenth century as European colonisation took place acclimatisation societies were established The societies introduced a large number of species with no use other than as prey for hunting 73 Species that adapted well to the New Zealand terrain include deer pigs goats hare tahr and chamois With wilderness areas suitable forage and no natural predators their populations exploded Government agencies view the animals as pests due to their effects on the natural environment and on agricultural production but hunters view them as a resource Iran Edit Plate depicting Khosrow I hunting animals Iranian tradition regarded hunting as an essential part of a prince s education 74 and hunting was well recorded for the education of the upper class youths during pre Islamic Persia As of October 2020 a hunting licence costs 20 000 The Department of Environment although do not report the number of permits issued 75 76 77 Japan Edit The numbers of licensed hunters in Japan including those using snares and guns is generally decreasing while their average age is increasing As of 2010 update there were approximately 190 000 registered hunters approximately 65 of whom were sixty years old or older 78 Trinidad and Tobago Edit There is a very active tradition of hunting small to medium sized wild game in Trinidad and Tobago Hunting is carried out with firearms slingshots and cage traps and sometimes aided by the use of hounds The illegal use of trap guns and snare nets also occurs With approximately 12 000 to 13 000 hunters applying for and being granted hunting permits in recent years there is some concern that the practice might not be sustainable In addition there are at present no bag limits and the open season is comparatively very long 5 months October to February inclusive As such hunting pressure from legal hunters is very high Added to that there is a thriving and very lucrative black market for poached wild game sold and enthusiastically purchased as expensive luxury delicacies and the numbers of commercial poachers in operation is unknown but presumed to be fairly high As a result the populations of the five major mammalian game species red rumped agouti lowland paca nine banded armadillo collared peccary and red brocket deer are thought to be relatively low when compared to less hunted regions in nearby mainland South America although scientifically conducted population studies are only just recently being conducted as of 2013 update It appears that the red brocket deer population has been extirpated in Tobago as a result of over hunting By some time in the mid 20th century another extirpation due to over hunting occurred in Trinidad with its population of horned screamer a large game bird Various herons ducks doves the green iguana the cryptic golden tegu the spectacled caiman the common opossum and the capybara are also commonly hunted and poached There is also some poaching of fully protected species including red howler monkey and capuchin monkeys southern tamandua Brazilian porcupine yellow footed tortoise the critically endangered island endemic Trinidad piping guan and even one of the national birds the scarlet ibis Legal hunters pay relatively small fees to obtain hunting licences and undergo no official basic conservation biology or hunting ethics fair chase training and are not assessed regarding their knowledge and comprehension of the local wildlife conservation laws There is presumed to be relatively little subsistence hunting in the country with most hunting for either sport or commercial profit The local wildlife management authorities are under staffed and under funded and as such little in the way of enforcement is done to uphold existing wildlife management laws with hunting poaching occurring both in and out of season and even in wildlife sanctuaries There is some indication that the government is beginning to take the issue of wildlife management more seriously with well drafted legislation being brought before Parliament in 2015 It remains to be seen if the drafted legislation will be fully adopted and financially supported by the current and future governments and if the general populace will move towards a greater awareness of the importance of wildlife conservation and change the culture of wanton consumption to one of sustainable management Wildlife management Edit Control fence to assess the impact of browsing by ungulates Note the lack of natural forest regeneration outside the fencing Main article Wildlife management Hunting is claimed to give resource managers an important tool 79 80 in managing populations that might exceed the carrying capacity of their habitat and threaten the well being of other species or in some instances damage human health or safety 81 In some cases hunting actually can increase the population of predators such as coyotes by removing territorial bounds that would otherwise be established resulting in excess neighbouring migrations into an area thus artificially increasing the population 82 Hunting advocates who assert that hunting reduces intraspecific competition for food and shelter reducing mortality among the remaining animals Some environmentalists assert who that re introducing predators would achieve the same end with greater efficiency and less negative effect such as introducing significant amounts of free lead into the environment and food chain In the United States wildlife managers are frequently part of hunting regulatory and licensing bodies where they help to set rules on the number manner and conditions in which game may be hunted Management agencies sometimes rely on hunting to control specific animal populations as has been the case with deer in North America These hunts may sometimes be carried out by professional shooters although others may include amateur hunters Many US city and local governments hire professional and amateur hunters each year to reduce populations of animals such as deer that are becoming hazardous in a restricted area such as neighbourhood parks and metropolitan open spaces A large part of managing populations involves managing the number and sometimes the size or age of animals harvested so as to ensure the sustainability of the population Tools that are frequently used to control harvest are bag limits and season closures although gear restrictions such as archery only seasons are becoming increasingly popular in an effort to reduce hunter success rates in countries that rely on bag limits per hunter instead of per area citation needed Laws EditMain articles Hunting legislation and Poaching Illegal hunting and harvesting of wild species contrary to local and international conservation and wildlife management laws is called poaching Game preservation is one of the tactics used to prevent poaching Violations of hunting laws and regulations involving poaching are normally punishable by law 83 Punishment can include confiscation of equipment fines or a prison sentence Right to hunt Edit The right to hunt sometimes in combination with the right to fish is protected implicitly as a consequence of the right of ownership 84 or explicitly as a right on its own 85 86 in a number of jurisdictions For instance as of 2019 a total of 22 U S states explicitly recognize a subjective right to hunt in their constitutions 86 87 Bag limits Edit Main article Bag limits Red legged partridges on a game rack Bag limits are provisions under the law that control how many animals of a given species or group of species can be killed although there are often species for which bag limits do not apply There are also jurisdictions where bag limits are not applied at all or are not applied under certain circumstances The phrase bag limits comes from the custom among hunters of small game to carry successful kills in a small basket similar to a fishing creel Where bag limits are used there can be daily or seasonal bag limits for example ducks can often be harvested at a rate of six per hunter per day 88 Big game like moose most often have a seasonal bag limit of one animal per hunter citation needed Bag limits may also regulate the size sex or age of animal that a hunter can kill In many cases bag limits are designed to allocate harvest among the hunting population more equitably rather than to protect animal populations as protecting the population would necessitate regional density dependent maximum bags Closed and open season Edit A closed season is a time during which hunting an animal of a given species is contrary to law Typically closed seasons are designed to protect a species when they are most vulnerable or to protect them during their breeding season 89 By extension the period that is not the closed season is known as the open season Methods Edit Tswana hunting the lion 1841 American bison being chased off a cliff as seen and painted by Alfred Jacob Miller c 1860 Master or whipper in and fox hounds drawing a wood Hunting in Yorkshire northern England in 2005 on the last day of fully legal proper fox hunting Historical subsistence and sport hunting techniques can differ radically with modern hunting regulations often addressing issues of where when and how hunts are conducted Techniques may vary depending on government regulations a hunter s personal ethics local custom hunting equipment and the animal being hunted Often a hunter will use a combination of more than one technique Laws may forbid sport hunters from using some methods used primarily in poaching and wildlife management Baiting is the use of decoys lures scent or food Battue involves scaring animals by beating sticks into a killing zone or ambush Beagling is the use of beagles in hunting rabbits and sometimes in hunting foxes Beating uses human beaters to flush out game from an area or drive it into position Stand hunting or blind hunting is waiting for animals from a concealed or elevated position for example from tree stands hunting blinds or other types of shooting stands Calling is the use of animal noises to attract or drive animals Camouflage is the use of visual or odour concealment to blend with the environment Dogs may be used to course or to help flush herd drive track point at pursue or retrieve prey Driving is the herding of animals in a particular direction usually toward another hunter in the group Flushing is the practice of scaring animals from concealed areas Ghillie suit is a type of gear a person can wear to blend with environment 90 Glassing is the use of optics such as binoculars to locate animals more easily Glue is an indiscriminate passive form to kill birds 91 Internet hunting is a method of hunting over the Internet using webcams and remotely controlled guns Netting involves using nets including active netting with the use of cannon nets and rocket nets Persistence hunting is the use of running and tracking to pursue the prey to exhaustion 92 Posting is done by sitting or standing in a particular place with the intentions of intercepting your game of choice along their travel corridor 93 Scouting for game is typically done prior to a hunt and will ensure the desired species are in a chosen area Looking for animal sign such as tracks scat etc and utilizing trail cameras are commonly used tactics while scouting Shooting is the use of a ranged weapon such as a gun bow crossbow or slingshot Solunar theory says that animals move according to the location of the moon in comparison to their bodies and is said to have been used long before this by hunters to know the best times to hunt their desired game 94 Spotlighting or shining is the use of artificial light to find or blind animals before killing Stalking or still hunting is the practice of walking quietly in search of animals or in pursuit of an individual animal Tracking is the practice of reading physical evidence in pursuing animals Trapping is the use of devices such as snares pits and deadfalls to capture or kill an animal Statistics EditTable Edit Number of hunters in various European and North American countries Sources Europe 2016 17 95 Ireland 2007 96 Canada 2012 97 Russia 2012 98 United States 2016 99 Country Hunters Population millions Hunters as percentage of the total population Relation hunters inhabitants Area km2 Hunters per km2 Canada 2 482 678 34 7 7 15 1 14 9 984 670 0 25 Finland 308 000 5 2 5 92 1 17 338 448 0 91 Cyprus 45 000 0 8 5 63 1 18 5 896 7 63 Norway 190 000 4 7 4 04 1 25 385 207 0 49 Malta 15 000 0 4 3 75 1 27 316 47 47 United States 11 453 000 323 1 3 54 1 28 9 826 675 1 17 Sweden 290 000 9 0 3 22 1 31 447 435 0 65 Denmark 165 000 5 5 3 00 1 33 42 921 3 84 Ireland 104 000 4 2 2 48 1 46 70 273 1 48 Greece 235 000 10 7 2 20 1 46 131 957 1 78 Spain 980 000 45 0 2 18 1 46 505 970 1 94 Portugal 230 000 10 7 2 15 1 47 92 212 2 49 France 1 331 000 64 1 2 08 1 48 543 965 2 45 Russia 2 800 000 143 2 1 96 1 51 17 125 200 0 16 Bulgaria 110 000 7 7 1 43 1 70 110 994 0 99 Austria 118 000 8 3 1 42 1 70 83 879 1 41 United Kingdom 800 000 61 1 1 31 1 76 242 495 3 30 Italy 750 000 58 1 1 29 1 77 301 338 2 49 Estonia 16 600 1 3 1 28 1 78 45 339 0 37 Croatia 55 000 4 5 1 22 1 82 56 594 0 97 Slovenia 22 000 2 0 1 10 1 91 20 273 1 09 Latvia 25 000 2 3 1 09 1 92 64 589 0 39 Czech Republic 110 000 10 2 1 08 1 93 78 866 1 39 Slovakia 55 000 5 4 1 02 1 98 49 034 1 12 Lithuania 32 000 3 6 0 89 1 113 65 300 0 49 Hungary 55 000 9 9 0 56 1 180 93 036 0 59 Germany 351 000 82 5 0 43 1 235 357 578 0 98 Luxembourg 2 000 0 5 0 40 1 250 2 586 0 77 Switzerland 30 000 7 6 0 39 1 253 41 285 0 73 Poland 106 000 38 5 0 28 1 363 312 696 0 34 Romania 60 000 22 2 0 27 1 370 238 391 0 25 Belgium 23 000 10 4 0 22 1 452 30 688 0 75 Netherlands 28 170 16 7 0 17 1 593 41 543 0 68Graph Edit Trophy hunting EditMain article Trophy hunting Trophy collection of the Princely Family of Liechtenstein at Usov Chateau the Czech Republic A hunter and local guides with an elephant they shot 1970 Trophy hunting is the selective seeking and killing of wild game animals to take trophies for personal collection bragging rights or as a status symbol It may also include the controversial hunting of captive or semi captive animals expressly bred and raised under controlled or semi controlled conditions so as to attain trophy characteristics this is sometimes known as canned hunts 100 History Edit In the 19th century southern and central European sport hunters often pursued game only for a trophy usually the head or pelt of an animal which was then displayed as a sign of prowess The rest of the animal was typically discarded Some cultures however disapprove of such waste In Nordic countries hunting for trophies was and still is frowned upon Hunting in North America in the 19th century was done primarily as a way to supplement food supplies although it is now undertaken mainly for sport citation needed The safari method of hunting was a development of sport hunting that saw elaborate travel in Africa India and other places in pursuit of trophies In modern times trophy hunting persists and is a significant industry in some areas citation needed Conservation tool Edit According to the U S Fish and Wildlife Service hunting provides an economic incentive for ranchers to continue to breed those species and that hunting reduces the threat of the species extinction 101 102 A scientific study in the journal Biological Conservation states that trophy hunting is of major importance to conservation in Africa by creating economic incentives for conservation over vast areas including areas which may be unsuitable for alternative wildlife based land uses such as photographic ecotourism 103 However another study states that less than 3 of a trophy hunters expenditures reach the local level meaning that the economic incentive and benefit is minimal particularly when we consider the vast areas of land that hunting concessions occupy 104 Financial incentives from trophy hunting effectively more than double the land area that is used for wildlife conservation relative to what would be conserved relying on national parks alone according to Biological Conservation 103 although local communities usually derive no more than 18 cents per hectare from trophy hunting 104 Trophy hunting has been considered essential for providing economic incentives to conserve large carnivores according to research studies in Conservation Biology 105 Journal of Sustainable Tourism 106 Wildlife Conservation by Sustainable Use 107 and Animal Conservation 105 108 Studies by the Centre for Responsible Tourism 109 and the IUCN state that ecotourism which includes more than hunting is a superior economic incentive generating twice the revenue per acre and 39 times more permanent employment 110 At the crosssection of trophy hunting ecotourism and conservation is green hunting a trophy hunting alternative where hunters pay to dart animals that need to be tranquilized for conservation projects 111 The U S House Committee on Natural Resources in 2016 concluded that trophy hunting may be contributing to the extinction of certain animals 112 Animal welfare organizations including the International Fund for Animal Welfare claim that trophy hunting is a key factor in the silent extinction of giraffes 113 According to a national survey that the U S Fish and Wildlife Service conducts every five years fewer people are hunting even as population rises National Public Radio reported a graph shows 2016 statistics that only about 5 percent of Americans 16 years old and older actually hunt which is half of what it was 50 years ago The decline in popularity of hunting is expected to accelerate over the next decade which threatens how US will pay for conservation 114 Controversy Edit See also Killing of Cecil the lion Trophy hunting is most often criticised when it involves rare or endangered animals 115 Opponents may also see trophy hunting as an issue of morality 116 or animal cruelty criticising the killing of living creatures for recreation Victorian era dramatist W S Gilbert remarked Deer stalking would be a very fine sport if only the deer had guns 117 There is also debate about the extent to which trophy hunting benefits the local economy Hunters pay substantial fees to the game outfitters and hunting guides which contributes to the local economy and provides value to animals that would otherwise be seen as competition for grazing livestock and crops 118 However the argument is disputed by animal welfare organizations and other opponents of trophy hunting 119 120 It is argued that the animals are worth more to the community for ecotourism than hunting 121 122 Economics Edit Chatelherault built by William Adam in 1743 as the Duke of Hamilton s hunting lodge Marshal s Cabin a former hunting lodge in Loppi Finland A variety of industries benefit from hunting and support hunting on economic grounds In Tanzania it is estimated that a safari hunter spends fifty to one hundred times that of the average ecotourist While the average photo tourist may seek luxury accommodation the average safari hunter generally stays in tented camps Safari hunters are also more likely to use remote areas uninviting to the typical ecotourist Advocates argue that these hunters allow for anti poaching activities and revenue for local communities citation needed In the United Kingdom the game hunting of birds as an industry is said to be extremely important to the rural economy The Cobham Report of 1997 suggested it to be worth around 700 million and hunting and shooting lobby groups claimed it to be worth over a billion pounds less than ten years later citation needed Hunting also has a significant financial impact in the United States with many companies specialising in hunting equipment or speciality tourism Many different technologies have been created to assist hunters Today s hunters come from a broad range of economic social and cultural backgrounds In 2001 over thirteen million hunters averaged eighteen days hunting and spent over 20 5 billion on their sport 123 In the US proceeds from hunting licences contribute to state game management programs including preservation of wildlife habitat Hunting contributes to a portion of caloric intake of people and may have positive impacts on greenhouse gas emissions by avoidance of utilization of meat raised under industrial methods 124 Environmental problems Edit Right 40 S amp W round with hollow point bullet Left Expanded bullet of the same calibre with exposed lead core Lead bullets that miss their target or remain in an unretrieved carcass could become a toxicant in the environment but lead in ammunition because of its metallic form has a lower solubility and higher resistance to corrosion than other forms of lead making it hardly available to biological systems 125 Waterfowl or other birds may ingest the lead and poison themselves with the neurotoxicant but studies have demonstrated that effects of lead in ammunition are negligible on animal population size and growth 126 127 Since 1991 US federal law forbids lead shot in waterfowl hunts and 30 states have some type of restriction 128 In December 2014 a federal appeals court denied a lawsuit by environmental groups that the EPA must use the Toxic Substances Control Act to regulate lead in shells and cartridges The groups sought EPA to regulate spent lead yet the court found EPA could not regulate spent lead without also regulating cartridges and shells 129 Conservation EditMain articles Conservation ethic and Conservation movement This section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed April 2012 Learn how and when to remove this template message This article may be unbalanced towards certain viewpoints Please improve the article by adding information on neglected viewpoints or discuss the issue on the talk page May 2012 Punishment of a Hunter c 1647 by Paulus Potter Hunters have been driving forces throughout history in the movement to ensure the preservation of wildlife habitats and wildlife for further hunting 130 However excessive hunting and poachers have also contributed heavily to the endangerment extirpation and extinction of many animals such as the quagga the great auk Steller s sea cow the thylacine the bluebuck the Arabian oryx the Caspian and Javan tigers the markhor the Sumatran rhinoceros the bison the North American cougar the Altai argali sheep the Asian elephant and many more primarily for commercial sale or sport All these animals have been hunted to endangerment or extinction 142 Poaching currently threatens bird and mammalian populations around the world 143 144 145 The 2019 Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services lists the direct exploitation of organisms including hunting as the second leading cause of biodiversity loss after land use for agriculture 146 In 2022 IPBES released another report which stated that unsustainable hunting along with unsustainable logging and fishing are primary drivers of the global extinction crisis 147 Legislation Edit Pittman Robertson Wildlife Restoration Act of 1937 Edit In 1937 American hunters successfully lobbied the US Congress to pass the Pittman Robertson Wildlife Restoration Act which placed an eleven percent tax on all hunting equipment This self imposed tax now generates over 700 million each year and is used exclusively to establish restore and protect wildlife habitats 148 The act is named for Nevada Senator Key Pittman and Virginia Congressman Absalom Willis Robertson Federal Duck Stamp program Edit On 16 March 1934 President Franklin D Roosevelt signed the Migratory Bird Hunting Stamp Act which requires an annual stamp purchase by all hunters over the age of sixteen The stamps are created on behalf of the program by the US Postal Service and depict wildlife artwork chosen through an annual contest They play an important role in habitat conservation because ninety eight percent of all funds generated by their sale go directly toward the purchase or lease of wetland habitat for protection in the National Wildlife Refuge System 149 In addition to waterfowl it is estimated that one third of the nation s endangered species seek food and shelter in areas protected using Duck Stamp funds 150 Since 1934 the sale of Federal Duck Stamps has generated 670 million and helped to purchase or lease 5 200 000 acres 8 100 sq mi 21 000 km2 of habitat The stamps serve as a license to hunt migratory birds an entrance pass for all National Wildlife Refuge areas and are also considered collectors items often purchased for aesthetic reasons outside of the hunting and birding communities Although non hunters buy a significant number of Duck Stamps eighty seven percent of their sales are contributed by hunters Distribution of funds is managed by the Migratory Bird Conservation Commission MBCC 151 Species Edit Arabian oryx Edit The Arabian oryx a species of large antelope once inhabited much of the desert areas of the Middle East 136 However the species striking appearance made it along with the closely related scimitar horned oryx and addax a popular quarry for sport hunters especially foreign executives of oil companies working in the region citation needed The use of automobiles and high powered rifles destroyed their only advantage speed and they became extinct in the wild exclusively due to sport hunting in 1972 The scimitar horned oryx followed suit while the addax became critically endangered 152 However the Arabian oryx has now made a comeback and been upgraded from extinct in the wild to vulnerable due to conservation efforts like captive breeding 153 Markhor Edit The markhor is an endangered species of wild goat which inhabits the mountains of Central Asia and Pakistan The colonization of these regions by Britain gave British sport hunters access to the species and they were hunted heavily almost to the point of extinction Only their willingness to breed in captivity and the inhospitability of their mountainous habitat prevented this Despite these factors the markhor is still endangered 154 American bison Edit The American bison is a large bovid which inhabited much of western North America prior to the 1800s living on the prairies in large herds However the vast herds of bison attracted market hunters who killed dozens of bison for their hides only leaving the rest to rot Thousands of these hunters quickly eliminated the bison herds bringing the population from several million in the early 1800s to a few hundred by the 1880s Conservation efforts have allowed the population to increase but the bison remains near threatened due to lack of habitat 155 White rhino Edit The Journal of International Wildlife Law and Policy cites that the legalization of white rhinoceros hunting in South Africa motivated private landowners to reintroduce the species onto their lands As a result the country saw an increase in white rhinos from fewer than one hundred individuals to more than 11 000 even while a limited number were killed as trophies 156 However the illegal hunting of rhinoceros for their horns is highly damaging to the population and is currently growing globally 157 with 1004 being killed in South Africa alone according to the most recent estimate 158 The White Rhino along with the other 4 rhino species are poached due to beliefs that the Rhinos horns can be used to cure Cancer Arthritis and other diseases and illnesses even though they are scientifically proven wrong 159 Other species Edit According to Richard Conniff Namibia is home to 1 750 of the roughly 5 000 black rhinos surviving in the wild because it allows trophy hunting of various species Namibia s mountain zebra population has increased to 27 000 from 1 000 in 1982 Elephants which are gunned down elsewhere for their ivory have gone to 20 000 from 15 000 in 1995 Lions which were on the brink of extinction from Senegal to Kenya are increasing in Namibia 160 In contrast Botswana in 2012 banned trophy hunting following a precipitous wildlife decline 161 The numbers of antelope plummeted across Botswana with a resultant decline in predator numbers while elephant numbers remained stable and hippopotamus numbers rose According to the government of Botswana trophy hunting is at least partly to blame for this but many other factors such as poaching drought and habitat loss are also to blame 162 Uganda recently did the same arguing that the share of benefits of sport hunting were lopsided and unlikely to deter poaching or improve Uganda s capacity to manage the wildlife reserves 163 In 2020 Botswana reopened trophy hunting on public lands 164 Studies Edit Cage trap live trap for cheetahs on a farm in Namibia A study published by the Wildlife Society concluded that hunting and trapping are cost effective tools that reduce wildlife damage by reducing a population below the capacity of the environment to carry it and changing the behaviors of animals to stop them from causing damage The study furthermore states that the cessation of hunting could cause wildlife to be severely harmed rural property values to fall and the incentive of landowners to maintain natural habitats to diminish 165 Although deforestation and forest degradation have long been considered the most significant threats to tropical biodiversity across Southeast Asia Northeast India Indochina Sundaland Philippines substantial areas of natural habitat have few wild animals gt 1 kg bar a few hunting tolerant species 166 167 168 Opposition to hunting EditThis section needs expansion You can help by adding to it December 2018 Main article Opposition to hunting It has been argued by animal rights activists that killing animals for sport is unethical cruel and unnecessary 16 They note the suffering and cruelty inflicted on animals hunted for sport Many animals endure prolonged painful deaths when they are injured but not killed by hunters Hunting disrupts migration and hibernation patterns and destroys families 16 Animal rights activists also comment that hunting is not needed to maintain an ecological balance and that nature takes care of its own 16 They say that hunting can be combated on public lands by spread ing deer repellent or human hair from barber shops near hunting areas 16 Animal rights activists also argue that hunting is speciesist 17 Whether hunters try to justify their killing by citing human deaths caused by wild animals by making conservationist claims by claiming that it s acceptable to hunt as long as the animals bodies are eaten or simply because of the pleasure it brings them the fact remains that hunting is morally unacceptable if we consider the interests of nonhuman animals Hunted animals endure fear and pain and then are deprived of their lives Understanding the injustices of speciesism and the interests of nonhuman animals makes it clear that human pleasure cannot justify nonhuman animals pain 17 Hunting in the arts Edit Limbourg Brothers Boar hunt with hounds illumination from the Tres Riches Heures du duc de Berry c 1445 Gustave Courbet The Kill Deer Hunting in the Grand Jura Forests 1857 Albert Gleizes La Chasse The Hunt 1911 oil on canvas depicting a scene in the Cubist style of hunting by horseback in France Hunting of deer and ibex Minoan larnax prepalatial period Hunting in the papyrus thicket mural from a tomb in Thebes Egypt before 1350 BC The Stag hunt mosaic c 300 BC Pella Greece Man hunting a boar Roman mosaic 4th century AD Illustration from the falconry book De arte venandi cum avibus written by Emperor Frederick II c 1245 Giovanni di Francesco La caccia c 1455 tempera on wood detail Paolo Uccello Caccia notturna The Hunt in the Forest c 1475 Vittore Carpaccio Caccia in laguna Hunt in the Lagoon c 1490 Piero di Cosimo A Hunting Scene 1508 Lucas Cranach the Elder A Stag Hunt with the Elector Friedrich the Wise 1529 Peter Paul Rubens Hippopotamus and Crocodile Hunt c 1615 Peter Paul Rubens Tiger and Lion Hunt 1618 Peter Paul Rubens A Forest at Dawn with a Deer Hunt c 1635 Charles Andre van Loo Halte de chasse Halt During the Hunt 1737 Francisco Goya The Quail Shoot 1775 Gustave Courbet Biche morte Dead hind 1857 Gustave Courbet The Hunt Breakfast 1858 Eugene Delacroix Chasse au lion Lion Hunt 1858 Gustave Courbet Apres la chasse After the Hunt 1859 Edouard Manet Portrait of Monsieur Pertuiset the Lion Hunter 1881See also EditAir travel with firearms and ammunition Anti hunting Bambi effect Blood sport Bowhunting Bushfood Bushmeat Chase Defaunation Federation of Associations for Hunting and Conservation of the EU Hiking equipment Human hunting Hunt Saboteurs Association HSA Hunting horn Nimrod Esau Sir Gawain and the Green Knight Tapetum lucidum eyeshine The Sound of His Horn Wilderness backpackingReferences Edit Oxford Dictionary of English Stevenson Angus 3 ed Oxford Oxford University Press 2010 p 856 ISBN 9780199571123 OCLC 729551189 hunt pursue and kill a wild animal for sport or food hunting the activity of hunting wild animals or game a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint others link Peterson M Nils 2019 Hunting in Fath Brian D ed Encyclopedia of Ecology vol 3 2 ed Elsevier pp 438 440 doi 10 1016 b978 0 12 409548 9 11168 6 ISBN 978 0 444 64130 4 Hunting is the practice of pursuing capturing or killing wildlife Park Chris Allaby Michael 2013 A Dictionary of Environment and Conservation 2 ed Oxford Oxford University Press p 208 ISBN 978 0 19 964166 6 OCLC 993020467 hunting The activity of finding and killing or capturing wild animals for food pelts or as a field sport Neves Garca Katja 2007 Hunting In Robbins Paul ed Encyclopedia of Environment and Society Vol 3 Thousand Oaks SAGE Publications pp 894 896 ISBN 978 1 4129 5627 7 OCLC 228071686 In very general terms hunting refers to the activity of pursuing and killing free roaming animals Collin P H Peter Hodgson 2009 Dictionary of Environment and Ecology Over 7 000 terms clearly defined Bloomsbury Reference 5 ed London Bloomsbury p 108 ISBN 978 1 4081 0222 0 OCLC 191700369 hunting the activity of following and killing wild animals for sport HUNTING meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary Cambridge English Dictionary Archived from the original on 10 December 2019 Retrieved 10 December 2019 hunting chasing and killing an animal or bird for food sport or profit Hunting definition and meaning Collins English Dictionary Collins English Dictionary Archived from the original on 10 December 2019 Retrieved 10 December 2019 Hunting is the chasing and killing of wild animals by people or other animals for food or as a sport hunting History Methods amp Management Encyclopedia Britannica Archived from the original on 10 December 2019 Retrieved 10 December 2019 Hunting sport that involves the seeking pursuing and killing of wild animals and birds called game and game birds Cartmill Matt 1996 A View to a Death in the Morning Hunting and Nature Through History 1 ed Cambridge Massachusetts Harvard University Press ISBN 9780674029255 OCLC 298105066 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Williams Ted Wanted More Hunters Audubon magazine March 2002 copy retrieved 26 October 2007 Recreational Hunting Areas doc govt nz Retrieved 13 August 2019 Harper Craig A Quality Deer Management Guidelines for Implementation PDF Agricultural Extension Service The University of Tennessee Archived from the original PDF on 12 September 2006 Retrieved 20 December 2006 Nugent Graham Choquenot David 2004 Comparing Cost Effectiveness of Commercial Harvesting State Funded Culling and Recreational Deer Hunting in New Zealand Wildlife Society Bulletin 32 2 481 492 doi 10 2193 0091 7648 2004 32 481 CCOCHS 2 0 CO 2 ISSN 0091 7648 JSTOR 3784988 S2CID 86110872 a b Red List Overview IUCN Red List International Union for Conservation of Nature Retrieved 8 September 2010 a b c d e Why Sport Hunting Is Cruel and Unnecessary PETA 15 December 2003 Retrieved 20 March 2020 a b c Hunting Animal Ethics Archived from the original on 9 September 2017 Retrieved 20 March 2020 10 Hunting Hunting Equipment Reviews And Buying Guide Retrieved 20 February 2023 Harper Douglas Hunt Online Etymology Dictionary Retrieved 24 December 2016 Gaudzinski S 2004 Subsistence patterns of Early Pleistocene hominids in the Levant Taphonomic evidence from the Ubeidiya Formation Israel Journal of Archaeological Science 31 65 75 doi 10 1016 s0305 4403 03 00100 6 Rabinovich R Gaudzinski Windheuser S Goren Inbar N 2008 Systematic butchering of fallow deer Dama at the early Middle Pleistocene Acheulian site of Gesher Benot Ya aqov Israel Journal of Human Evolution 54 1 134 49 doi 10 1016 j jhevol 2007 07 007 PMID 17868780 1992 trace element studies of the strontium calcium ratios in robust australopithecine fossils suggested the possibility of animal consumption as did a 1994 using stable carbon isotopic analysis Billings Tom Comparative Anatomy and Physiology Brought Up to Date continued Part 3B Retrieved 6 January 2007 Bonobos Hunt Other Primates livescience com 2008 Retrieved 5 August 2012 Courtney Laird Bonobo social spacing Davidson College Archived from the original on 23 January 2008 Retrieved 10 March 2008 Plummer T W Bishop L Ditchfield P Kingston J Ferraro J Hertel F amp D Braun 2009 The environmental context of Oldowan hominin activities at Kanjera South Kenya In Hovers E amp D Braun eds Interdisciplinary Approaches to Understanding the Oldowan Springer Dordrecht pp 149 60 Tom Plummer The Hard Stuff of Culture Oldowan Archaeology at Kanjera South Kenya Popular Archaeology June 2012 Binford Louis 1986 Human ancestors Changing views of their behavior Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 4 4 292 327 doi 10 1016 0278 4165 85 90009 1 Blumenschine Robert J 1986 Early hominid scavenging opportunities Implications of carcass availability in the Serengeti and Ngorongoro ecosystems Oxford England B A R Monte Morin Stone tipped spear may have much earlier origin Los Angeles Times 16 November 2012 Rick Weiss Chimps Observed Making Their Own Weapons The Washington Post 22 February 2007 Thieme Hartmut 1997 Lower Palaeolithic hunting spears from Germany Nature 385 6619 807 810 Bibcode 1997Natur 385 807T doi 10 1038 385807a0 PMID 9039910 S2CID 4283393 1 Nibert David 2013 Animal Oppression and Human Violence Domesecration Capitalism and Global Conflict Columbia University Press p 10 ISBN 978 0231151894 Randall Haas et al 2020 Female hunters of the early Americas Vol 6 no 45 Science Advances doi 10 1126 sciadv abd0310 Surovell Todd Nicole Waguespack P Jeffrey Brantingham 13 April 2005 Global archaeological evidence for proboscidean overkill Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 102 17 6231 36 Bibcode 2005PNAS 102 6231S doi 10 1073 pnas 0501947102 PMC 1087946 PMID 15829581 Dembitzer Jacob Barkai Ran Ben Dor Miki Meiri Shai 2022 Levantine overkill 1 5 million years of hunting down the body size distribution Quaternary Science Reviews 276 107316 Bibcode 2022QSRv 27607316D doi 10 1016 j quascirev 2021 107316 S2CID 245236379 Retrieved 22 December 2021 American Geophysical Union paper PP43A 01 abstract Archived 27 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine retrieved 26 October 2007 Miller G H 2005 Ecosystem Collapse in Pleistocene Australia and a Human Role in Megafaunal Extinction PDF Science 309 5732 287 90 Bibcode 2005Sci 309 287M doi 10 1126 science 1111288 PMID 16002615 S2CID 22761857 Prideaux G J et al 2007 An arid adapted middle Pleistocene vertebrate fauna from south central Australia Nature 445 7126 422 25 Bibcode 2007Natur 445 422P doi 10 1038 nature05471 PMID 17251978 S2CID 4429899 Saltre F Chadoeuf J Peters K J McDowell M C Friedrich T Timmermann A Ulm S Bradshaw C J 2019 Climate human interaction associated with southeast Australian megafauna extinction patterns Nature Communications 10 1 5311 doi 10 1038 s41467 019 13277 0 PMC 6876570 PMID 31757942 Zenin Vasiliy N Evgeny N Mashenko Sergey V Leshchinskiy Aleksandr F Pavlov Pieter M Grootes Marie Josee Nadeau 24 29 May 2003 The First Direct Evidence of Mammoth Hunting in Asia Lugovskoye Site Western Siberia L 3rd International Mammoth Conference Dawson City Yukon Territory Canada Government of Yukon Archived from the original on 17 November 2006 Retrieved 1 January 2007 In North America and Eurasia the species has long been an important resource in many areas the most important resource for peoples inhabiting the northern boreal forest and tundra regions Known human dependence on caribou wild reindeer has a long history beginning in the Middle Pleistocene Banfield 1961 170 Kurten 1968 170 and continuing to the present The caribou wild reindeer is thus an animal that has been a major resource for humans throughout a tremendous geographic area and across a time span of tens of thousands of years Burch Ernest S Jr 1972 The Caribou Wild Reindeer as a Human Resource American Antiquity 37 3 339 68 doi 10 2307 278435 JSTOR 278435 S2CID 161921691 The Nature Conservancy The Nature Conservancy Retrieved 15 September 2016 Porter V I 2018 Mystique Melodies Pittsburgh PA Dorrance Publishing p 48 ISBN 978 1 4809 5591 2 Allsen Thomas T 2011 2006 The Royal Hunt in Eurasian History Encounters with Asia Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press ISBN 9780812201079 Retrieved 27 March 2023 Connor Steven 15 November 2011 Winning A Philosophy of Sport London Reaktion Books ISBN 9781861899736 Retrieved 27 March 2023 From classical times onwards games and sports were thought of as training for actual combat The most important and sustained mediator between battle and sport was hunting one of several sports regularly designated the Sport of Kings Machiavelli provides a rationale if not the origin of noble hunting Machiavelli Niccolo 1531 Discourses on the first decade of Titus Livius Book 3 In Gilbert Allan ed Machiavelli The Chief Works and Others Vol 1 Duke University Press published 1989 p 516 ISBN 978 0 8223 8157 0 Retrieved 27 December 2013 hunting expeditions as Xenophon makes plain are images of war therefore to men of rank such activity is honorable and necessary Dunlap Thomas R 1999 Remaking Worlds European models in New Lands Nature and the English Diaspora Environment and History in the United States Canada Australia and New Zealand Studies in Environment and History Cambridge University Press p 61 ISBN 978 0 521 65700 6 Retrieved 24 December 2013 The settlers adopted sport hunting as they did other elements of British culture but they had to adapt it Social circumstances and biological realities reshaped it and gave it new meaning There was no elite monopolizing access to land Indeed the great attraction and boast of these nations were of land for all In his commentary on Martianus Capella s early 5th century work The Marriage of Philology and Mercury one of the main sources for medieval reflection on the liberal arts The Hunting Guide gt gt Read Before Hunt Hunting Guide Retrieved 15 December 2017 Hunting with dogs Defra Defra gov uk 18 February 2005 Retrieved 20 April 2012 Diana Roman Religion Encyclopaedia Britannica com Retrieved 21 December 2021 a b c CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA Hunting www newadvent org Retrieved 29 December 2021 Canons On Hunting Catholic Answers Retrieved 23 March 2022 The Jewish Ethicist Judaism and Hunting aish com 13 February 2011 The Jewish View on Hunting for Sport chabad org New Muslim Guide Hunting according to Islamic Law newmuslimguide com Brennan Claire 3 July 2015 An Africa on your own front door step the development of an Australian safari Journal of Australian Studies 39 3 396 410 doi 10 1080 14443058 2015 1052833 ISSN 1444 3058 S2CID 142998322 Definition of SAFARI www merriam webster com Retrieved 28 October 2022 Helplinelaw Indian Wildlife Protection Act 1972 Helplinelaw com Retrieved 20 April 2012 Pegler Martin 2004 Out of nowhere a history of the military sniper Oxford Osprey Publishing p 16 ISBN 1 84176 854 5 OCLC 56654780 Snipe Online Etymology Dictionary Retrieved 8 April 2019 Ratcliffe Roger 6 October 2006 Blast from the past The Yorkshire Post Johnston Publishing Ltd Retrieved 17 March 2015 BASC site Archived from the original on 9 February 2014 Retrieved 3 April 2014 Coggins George Cameron Modrcin William 1979 Native American Indians and Federal Wildlife Law Stanford Law Review 31 3 375 423 doi 10 2307 1228367 ISSN 0038 9765 JSTOR 1228367 Results Archived 15 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine from a 2006 poll 813 people were polled done by Responsive Management National statistics from US Department of the Interior Fish and Wildlife Service and US Department of Commerce US Census Bureau 2001 National Survey of Fishing Hunting and Wildlife Associated Recreation 27 Jackson Patrick Number of hunters is dwindling Urbanization and cultural changes discourage newcomers to the sport Archived 22 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine Interpretations of the Fair Chase can be found on the web sites of various hunter s organizations such as the Boone and Crockett Club and Hunt Fair Chase Posewitz Jim 1 August 1994 Beyond Fair Chase The Ethic and Tradition of Hunting Globe Pequot Press p 57 ISBN 978 1 56044 283 7 Humane Society Wildlife Abuse Campaign Fact Sheet on Internet Hunting The Rules of Fair Chase Chatfield Minnesota Pope and Young Club Archived from the original on 15 March 2012 Retrieved 24 May 2012 While inside escape proof fenced enclosures Hunter Kathryn M 2009 Hunting a New Zealand history Auckland Random House New Zealand ISBN 9781869791544 Taonga New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu 5 Introduced animal pests Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand teara govt nz Retrieved 13 August 2019 Clarke C M H Dzieciolowski R M September 1991 Feral pigs in the northern South Island New Zealand I Origin distribution and density Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 21 3 237 247 doi 10 1080 03036758 1991 10418181 ISSN 0303 6758 McDowall R M 1994 Gamekeepers for the nation the story of New Zealand s acclimatisation societies 1861 1990 Christchurch N Z Canterbury University Press ISBN 9780908812417 HUNTING IN IRAN i In the pre Islamic Period Encyclopaedia Iranica iranicaonline org Retrieved 10 November 2020 مجوز شکار در ایران ۲۰ دلار یا ۲۰ هزار دلار پاسخ محیط زیست به انتقادات صدور پروانه شکار کاملا فنی و کارشناسی شده است همشهری آنلاین in Persian 11 October 2020 Retrieved 10 November 2020 همه با شکار اتباع خارجی در کشور مخالفند حتی شکارچیان ایرانی اخبار محیط زیست اخبار اجتماعی تسنیم Tasnim خبرگزاری تسنیم Tasnim in Persian Retrieved 10 November 2020 ژست جدید شکارچیان خارجی با حیوانات شکار شده در ایران تصاویر اخبار محیط زیست اخبار اجتماعی تسنیم Tasnim خبرگزاری تسنیم Tasnim in Persian Retrieved 10 November 2020 Nenreibetsu shuryō menkyo shojishasu 年齢別狩猟免許所持者数 Number of hunting license holders by age PDF Chardonnet P Clers B Fischer J Gerhold R Jori F Lamarque F 2002 The Value of Wildlife PDF Rev Sci Tech Off Int Epiz 21 1 15 51 doi 10 20506 rst 21 1 1323 PMID 11974626 Archived from the original PDF on 19 December 2006 posted by the Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study Accessed 12 December 2006 Herring Hal Today s sportsmen and sportswomen are a powerful force for conservation Archived 22 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine The hunting section of the U S Fish and Wildlife Service site includes articles and statistics relating to wildlife management Hunting for Wildlife Population Control and Ethical Eating Free From Harm 14 January 2015 Retrieved 2 November 2017 Hunting Laws and Regulations knifemetrics com 2020 Retrieved 3 January 2020 Brenner Michael 2018 Quo vadis Jagdrecht In Dietlein Johannes Froese Judith eds Jagdliches Eigentum Bibliothek des Eigentums Vol 17 Berlin Heidelberg Springer Berlin Heidelberg pp 289 308 doi 10 1007 978 3 662 54771 7 ISBN 9783662547700 Gordon Stacey 2014 A Solution in Search of a Problem The Difficulty with State Constitutional Right to Hunt Amendments Public Land and Resources Law Review University of Montana School of Law 35 3 2 50 ISSN 1093 6858 a b Eisemann John D O Hare Jeanette R Fagerstone Kathleen A 2013 State level approaches to managing the use of contraceptives in wildlife in the United States Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 44 4s 47 51 doi 10 1638 1042 7260 44 4S S47 ISSN 1042 7260 PMID 24437085 S2CID 44747567 Right to hunt and fish constitutional amendments Ballotpedia Retrieved 19 July 2019 Debbie Young US Fish and Wildlife Service 2003 proposed bag limits for waterfowl Fws gov Retrieved 20 April 2012 When can I hunt Game Hunting Recreation and Tourism The Department of Sustainability and Environment DSE Government of Victoria Australia Accessed 4 December 2008 Archived 1 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine Ghillie Suit For Sale Ghillie Suit Kits Ponchos For Hunting ghilliesuitshop Catalonian fiat with picture Gepec org Archived from the original on 14 May 2008 Retrieved 20 April 2012 Nancy L Struna People of Prowess Sport Leisure and Labor in Early Anglo America 1996 ISBN 0 252 06552 2 Posting US Hunter Ed com www hunter ed com Retrieved 20 December 2019 Knight John Solunar Tables for Fishermen Produced by Register Guard The Register Guard 11 May 1949 10 Print Jager in Europa 2017 PDF Deutscher Jagdverband in German 2018 Archived PDF from the original on 29 August 2019 Scallan David 20 March 2012 The Place of Hunting in Rural Ireland PDF Galway National University of Ireland p 95 Archived from the original PDF on 19 December 2016 Retrieved 25 January 2020 2012 Canadian Nature Survey Awareness participation and expenditures in nature based recreation conservation and subsistence activities PDF Ottawa ON Canada Federal Provincial and Territorial Governments of Canada 2014 p 52 ISBN 978 1 100 23241 6 archived PDF from the original on 29 August 2019 retrieved 29 August 2019 Braden Kathleen 3 September 2014 Illegal recreational hunting in Russia the role of social norms and elite violators Eurasian Geography and Economics 55 5 457 490 doi 10 1080 15387216 2015 1020320 ISSN 1538 7216 S2CID 154573305 2016 National Survey of Fishing Hunting and Wildlife Associated Recreation PDF U S Fish and Wildlife Service U S Census Bureau May 2018 p 113 archived PDF from the original on 29 August 2019 retrieved 29 August 2019 Motivations of International Trophy Hunters Choosing to Hunt in South Africa Archived 3 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine http www fws gov policy library 2005 05 17432 pdf bare URL PDF Can hunting endangered animals save the species cbsnews com a b Archived copy PDF Archived from the original PDF on 17 November 2015 Retrieved 16 November 2015 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint archived copy as title link a b Archived copy PDF Archived from the original PDF on 19 January 2015 Retrieved 16 July 2014 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint archived copy as title link a b Archived copy PDF Archived from the original PDF on 14 July 2014 Retrieved 12 July 2014 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint archived copy as title link Baker Joni E 1997 Trophy Hunting as a Sustainable Use of Wildlife Resources in Southern and Eastern Africa Journal of Sustainable Tourism 5 4 306 321 doi 10 1080 09669589708667294 S2CID 153994508 Hurt Robin Ravn Pauline 2000 Hunting and Its Benefits an Overview of Hunting in Africa with Special Reference to Tanzania Wildlife Conservation by Sustainable Use pp 295 313 doi 10 1007 978 94 011 4012 6 15 ISBN 978 94 010 5773 8 S2CID 168071478 Archived copy PDF Archived from the original PDF on 14 July 2014 Retrieved 12 July 2014 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint archived copy as title link Bear watching more profitable than bear hunting says study cbc ca Bland Alastair Should Trophy Hunting of Lions Be Banned smithsonianmag com Cousins Jenny A Sadler Jon P Evans James 2010 The Challenge of Regulating Private Wildlife Ranches for Conservation in South Africa Ecology and Society 15 2 doi 10 5751 es 03349 150228 ISSN 1708 3087 Smith Jada F 13 June 2016 Trophy Hunting Fees Do Little to Help Threatened Species Report Says The New York Times Retrieved 26 May 2017 Milman Oliver 19 April 2017 Giraffes must be listed as endangered conservationists formally tell US The Guardian Retrieved 1 May 2018 Decline in Hunters Threatens How U S Pays For Conservation npr org Early Day Motion on trophy hunting Archived 22 February 2006 at the Wayback Machine see for example this internet page Archived 10 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine Grossmith George in The Daily Telegraph 7 June 1911 Martin Glen The lion once king of vast African savanna suffers alarming decline in population San Francisco Chronicle 6 October 2005 Retrieved 30 October 2007 League Against Cruel Sports Trophy Hunting July 2017 Morell Virginia 18 November 2017 What Trophy Hunting Does to the Elephants It Leaves Behind The Atlantic Retrieved 20 November 2017 Persecution and Hunting endangeredspecieshandbook org Dead or Alive Valuing an Elephant PDF iworry org David Sheldrick Wildlife Trust 2013 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Retrieved 20 November 2017 Why You re Wrong About the Right Behind the Myths The Surprising Truth About Conservatives p 137 By S E Cupp amp Brett Joshpe Published by Simon and Schuster 2009 Johnson Jamie L Zamzow Benjamin K Taylor Nathan T Moran Matthew D 2020 Reported U S Wild game consumption and greenhouse gas emissions savings Human Dimensions of Wildlife 26 1 11 doi 10 1080 10871209 2020 1799266 S2CID 225489395 Dr Gottlein Axel 7 April 2016 Eco toxicological assessment of hunting rifle ammunition Bavarian Ministry of Nutrition Agriculture and Forestry upon an initiative of the Bavarian Hunting Association Archived from the original on 18 October 2017 Retrieved 17 February 2017 Frederik Verdonck 7 April 2016 Population Trend modelling of European Upland Birds due to Lead Shot Ingestion Angelo Moretto Piermannuccio Mannucci Lead in game meat and implications for human health Retrieved 18 February 2013 Michael Todd 14 October 2013 Gunning for Lead Bullets Pacific Standard Archived from the original on 28 December 2014 Retrieved 30 December 2014 Zack Colman 23 December 2014 EPA can t regulate lead bullets says federal court Washington Examiner Retrieved 30 December 2014 Brockington Dan Nature unbound conservation capitalism and the future of protected areas Earthscan 2008 The birth of the international conservation movement as we recognize it today was due to the influence of powerful aristocratic hunters who wished to preserve suitable specimens for their sport from the alleged depredations of Africans Mackenzie 1988 The international hunting fraternity remains a powerful force behind conservation today Hack M A East R amp Rubenstein D I 2008 Equus quagga quagga In IUCN 2008 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species Downloaded on 5 January 2008 Montevecchi William A David A Kirk 1996 Demography Great Auk Pinguinus impennis The Birds of North America Online Cornell Lab of Ornithology Retrieved 2010 04 29 Ellis Richard 2004 No Turning Back The Life and Death of Animal Species New York City Harper Perennial p 134 ISBN 0 06 055804 0 Additional Thylacine Topics Persecution The Thylacine Museum 2006 Retrieved 27 November 2006 Skead C J 1987 Historical mammal incidence in the Cape Province Volume 1 The Western and Northern Cape The Department of Nature and Environmental Conservation of the Provincial Administration of the Cape of Good Hope Cape Town a b Talbot Lee Merriam 1960 A Look at Threatened Species The Fauna Preservation Society pp 84 91 Geptner V G Sludskii A A 1972 Mlekopitaiuscie Sovetskogo Soiuza Vyssaia Skola Moskva In Russian English translation Heptner V G Sludskii A A Bannikov A G 1992 Mammals of the Soviet Union Volume II Part 2 Carnivora Hyaenas and Cats Valdez R 2008 Capra falconeri In IUCN 2008 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species Downloaded on 5 April 2009 Database entry includes a brief justification of why this species is regarded as endangered Staff December January2012 Restoring a Prairie Icon National Wildlife National Wildlife Federation 50 1 20 25 Cardoza J E Langlois S A 2002 The eastern cougar A management failure Wildlife Society Bulletin 30 1 265 73 Endangered Animals A Reference Guide to Conflicting Issues 15 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 Pennisi Elizabeth 18 October 2016 People are hunting primates bats and other mammals to extinction Science Retrieved 26 May 2017 Ripple William J Abernethy Katharine Betts Matthew G Chapron Guillaume Dirzo Rodolfo Galetti Mauro Levi Taal Lindsey Peter A Macdonald David W Machovina Brian Newsome Thomas M Peres Carlos A Wallach Arian D Wolf Christopher Young Hillary 2016 Bushmeat hunting and extinction risk to the world s mammals Royal Society Open Science 3 10 1 16 Bibcode 2016RSOS 360498R doi 10 1098 rsos 160498 PMC 5098989 PMID 27853564 Benitez Lopez A Alkemade R Schipper A M Ingram D J Verweij P A Eikelboom J A J Huijbregts M A J 14 April 2017 The impact of hunting on tropical mammal and bird populations PDF Science 356 6334 180 83 Bibcode 2017Sci 356 180B doi 10 1126 science aaj1891 hdl 1874 349694 PMID 28408600 S2CID 19603093 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Stokstad E 5 May 2019 Landmark analysis documents the alarming global decline of nature Science AAAS Retrieved 10 May 2021 For the first time at a global scale the report has ranked the causes of damage Topping the list changes in land use principally agriculture that have destroyed habitat Second hunting and other kinds of exploitation These are followed by climate change pollution and invasive species which are being spread by trade and other activities Climate change will likely overtake the other threats in the next decades the authors note Driving these threats are the growing human population which has doubled since 1970 to 7 6 billion and consumption Per capita of use of materials is up 15 over the past 5 decades Briggs Helen 8 July 2022 Unsustainable logging fishing and hunting driving extinction BBC Retrieved 12 August 2022 The Pittman Robertson Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act United States Fish and Wildlife Service Retrieved 11 May 2007 Migratory Bird Hunting amp Conservation Stamp Act U S Fish and Wildlife Service Retrieved 15 August 2019 H R 4315 Wetlands Loan Act and Migratory Bird Hunting and Conservation Stamp Act U S Fish amp Wildlife Service FWS gov Retrieved 26 December 2022 Migratory Bird Conservation Commission United States Fish and Wildlife Service Retrieved 31 May 2007 The Fundamentals of Conservation Biology Malcolm L Hunter Jr James P Gibbs Platt John Arabian Oryx Makes History as First Species to Be Upgraded from Extinct in the Wild to Vulnerable scientificamerican com Endangered Wildlife and Plants of the World 2001 American Bison A Natural History By Dale F Lott Harry W Greene ebrary Inc Contributor Harry W Greene Edition illustrated Published by University of California Press 2003 ISBN 978 0 520 24062 9 Can trophy hunting actually help conservation conservationmagazine org Conservation 15 January 2014 Global surge in rhino poaching BBC 1 December 2009 946 rhino killed in 2013 Eyewitness News 19 December 2013 Retrieved 25 December 2013 Why Are Rhinos Poached International Anti Poaching Foundation IAPF 4 February 2021 Conniff Richard 20 January 2014 Opinion A Trophy Hunt That s Good for Rhinos The New York Times Botswana to ban wildlife hunting BBC News 29 November 2012 Smith David 17 June 2011 Drought and poachers take Botswana s natural wonder to brink of catastrophe The Guardian National Geographic Society Newsroom Archived from the original on 13 March 2014 Retrieved 16 July 2014 Botswana to Kickstart Elephant Hunting With Auction This Week Bloomberg 3 February 2020 Conover Michael R Effect of Hunting and Trapping on Wildlife Damage PDF Wildlife Society Bulletin Allen Press 29 No 2 Summer 2001 521 32 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Retrieved 19 August 2015 Harrison Rhett D Sreekar Rachakonda Brodie Jedediah F Brook Sarah Luskin Matthew O Kelly Hannah Rao Madhu Scheffers Brett Velho Nandini 12 October 2016 Impacts of hunting on tropical forests in Southeast Asia Hunting in Tropical Forests Conservation Biology 30 5 972 981 doi 10 1111 cobi 12785 via DOI org Crossref Sreekar Rachakonda Huang Guohualing Zhao Jiang Bo Pasion Bonifacio O Yasuda Mika Zhang Kai Peabotuwage Indika Wang Ximin Quan Rui Chang Ferry Slik J W Corlett Richard T Goodale Eben Harrison Rhett D 2015 The use of species area relationships to partition the effects of hunting and deforestation on bird extirpations in a fragmented landscape Diversity and Distributions 21 4 441 450 doi 10 1111 ddi 12292 S2CID 55972282 Huang G Sreekar R Velho N Corlett R T Quan R C Tomlinson K W 2020 Combining camera trap surveys and hunter interviews to determine the status of mammals in protected rainforests and rubber plantations of Menglun Xishuangbanna SW China Animal Conservation 23 6 689 699 doi 10 1111 acv 12588 S2CID 218779515 Further reading EditInternational Journal of Environmental Studies 2013 Special Edition Conservation and Hunting in North America IJES v 70 International Journal of Environmental Studies 2015 Special Edition Conservation and Hunting in North America II IJES v72 IUCN 2016 Briefing Paper Informing Decisions on Trophy Hunting Archived 4 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine IUCN Species Survival Commission 2012 Guiding Principles on Trophy Hunting as a Tool for Creating Conservation Incentives Archived 13 January 2018 at the Wayback Machine Dickson D Bruce Jr Mississippi Quarterly Spring 1977 Kenneth S Greenberg Honor and Slavery Lies Duels Noses Masks Dressing as a Woman Gifts Strangers Humanitarianism Death Slave Rebellions the Pro Slavery Argument Baseball Hunting and Gambling in the Old South 1996 Steven Hahn Radical History Review 1982 Charles H Hudson Jr in Indians Animals and the Fur Trade ed Shephard Krech III 1981 Stuart A Marks Southern Hunting in Black and White Nature History and Ritual in a Carolina Community 1991 Ted Ownby Subduing Satan Religion Recreation and Manhood in the Rural South 1865 1920 1990 Wiley C Prewitt The Best of All Breathing Hunting and Environmental Change in Mississippi 1900 1980 M A thesis 1991 Nicolas W Proctor Bathed in Blood Hunting and Mastery in the Old South 2002 Jacob F Rivers III Cultural Values in the Southern Sporting Narrative 2002 Salem D J and A N Rowan eds 2003 The State of the Animals II 2003 Archived 24 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine Washington D C Humane Society Press ISBN 0 9658942 7 4 Timothy Silver A New Face on the Countryside Indians Colonists and Slaves in South Atlantic Forests 1500 1800 1990 Richard C Stedman and Thomas A Heberlein Rural Sociology 2001 Nancy L Struna People of Prowess Sport Leisure and Labor in Early Anglo America 1996 Marek Zukow Karczewski Polowania w dawnej Polsce Hunting in the old Poland AURA A Monthly for the protection and shaping of human environment 12 1990 External links Edit Look up hunting in Wiktionary the free dictionary Wikiquote has quotations related to Hunting Media related to Hunting at Wikimedia Commons The Theodore Roosevelt Hunting Library at the Library of Congress has 254 items on this topic Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Hunting amp oldid 1146834934, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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