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Black rhinoceros

April 04, 2023

The black rhinoceros, black rhino or hook-lipped rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) is a species of rhinoceros, native to eastern and southern Africa including Angola, Botswana, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Eswatini, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Although the species is referred to as black, its colours vary from brown to grey. It is the only extant species of the genus Diceros.

Black rhinoceros or
hook-lipped rhinoceros[1]
Temporal range: Pliocene - Recent 3.6–0 Ma
↓
A south-western black rhinoceros (D. b. occidentalis) in Etosha National Park, Namibia
CITES Appendix I (CITES)[3]
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Perissodactyla
Family: Rhinocerotidae
Genus: Diceros
Species:
D. bicornis
Binomial name
Diceros bicornis
Subspecies

Diceros bicornis bicornis †
Diceros bicornis brucii †
Diceros bicornis chobiensis
Diceros bicornis ladoensis
Diceros bicornis longipes †
Diceros bicornis michaeli
Diceros bicornis minor
Diceros bicornis occidentalis

Historical black rhinoceros range (ca. 1700 A.D.).[4] Hatched: Possible historical range in West Africa.[5]
Current black rhinoceros range
  Extant, resident
  Extinct
  Extant & Reintroduced (resident)
  Extant & Assisted Colonisation (resident)
Synonyms
  • Rhinoceros bicornis Linnaeus, 1758

The other African rhinoceros is the white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum). The word "white" in the name "white rhinoceros" is often said to be a misinterpretation of the Afrikaans word wyd (Dutch wijd) meaning wide, referring to its square upper lip, as opposed to the pointed or hooked lip of the black rhinoceros. These species are now sometimes referred to as the square-lipped (for white) or hook-lipped (for black) rhinoceros.[6]

The species overall is classified as critically endangered (even though the south-western black rhinoceros is classified as near threatened) and is threatened by multiple factors including poaching and habitat reduction. Three subspecies have been declared extinct, including the western black rhinoceros, which was declared extinct by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in 2011.[7][8] The IUCN estimates that there are 3,142 mature individuals remaining in the wild.[2]

Taxonomy

The species was first named Rhinoceros bicornis by Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of his Systema naturae in 1837. The name means "double-horned rhinoceros". There is some confusion about what exactly Linnaeus conceived under this name as this species was probably based upon the skull of a single-horned Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), with a second horn artificially added by the collector. Such a skull is known to have existed and Linnaeus even mentioned India as origin of this species. However he also referred to reports from early travellers about a double-horned rhino in Africa and when it emerged that there is only one, single-horned species of rhino in India, Rhinoceros bicornis was used to refer to the African rhinos (the white rhino only became recognised in 1812).[9] In 1911 this was formally fixed and the Cape of Good Hope officially declared the type locality of the species.[10]

Subspecies

The intraspecific variation in the black rhinoceros has been discussed by various authors and is not finally settled.[11] The most accepted scheme considers seven or eight subspecies,[4][12][13] of which three became extinct in historical times and one is on the brink of extinction:

  • Southern black rhinoceros or Cape black rhinoceros (D. b. bicornis) – Extinct. Once abundant from the Cape of Good Hope to Transvaal, South Africa and probably into the south of Namibia, this was the largest subspecies. It became extinct due to excessive hunting and habitat destruction around 1850.[14]
  • North-eastern black rhinoceros (D. b. brucii) – Extinct. Formerly central Sudan, Eritrea, northern and southeastern Ethiopia, Djibouti and northern and southeastern Somalia. Primal populations in northern Somalia vanished during the early 20th century.
  • Chobe black rhinoceros (D. b. chobiensis) – A local subspecies restricted to the Chobe Valley in southeastern Angola, Namibia (Zambezi Region) and northern Botswana. Nearly extinct, possibly only one surviving specimen in Botswana.[13]
  • Uganda black rhinoceros (D. b. ladoensis) – Former distribution from South Sudan, across Uganda into western Kenya and southwesternmost Ethiopia. Black rhinos are considered extinct across most of this area and its conservational status is unclear. Probably surviving in Kenyan reserves.
  • Western black rhinoceros (D. b. longipes) – Extinct. Once lived in South Sudan, northern Central African Republic, southern Chad, northern Cameroon, northeastern Nigeria and south-eastern Niger. The range possibly stretched west to the Niger River in western Niger, though this is unconfirmed. The evidence from Liberia and Burkina Faso mainly rests upon the existence of indigenous names for the rhinoceros.[5] A far greater former range in West Africa as proposed earlier[15] is doubted by a 2004 study.[5] The last known wild specimens lived in northern Cameroon. In 2006 an intensive survey across its putative range in Cameroon failed to locate any, leading to fears that it was extinct in the wild.[7][16] On 10 November 2011 the IUCN declared the western black rhinoceros extinct.[7]
  • Eastern black rhinoceros (D. b. michaeli) – Had a historical distribution from South Sudan, Uganda, Ethiopia, down through Kenya into north-central Tanzania. Today, its range is limited primarily to Kenya and Tanzania.
  • South-central black rhinoceros (D. b. minor) – Most widely distributed subspecies, characterised by a compact body, proportionally large head and prominent skin-folds. Ranged from north-eastern South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal) to northeastern Tanzania and southeastern Kenya. Preserved in reserves throughout most of its former range but probably extinct in eastern Angola, southern Democratic Republic of Congo and possibly Mozambique. Extinct but reintroduced in Malawi, Botswana, and Zambia. It also ranges in parts of Namibia and inhabit national parks in South Africa.
  • South-western black rhinoceros (D. b. occidentalis) – A small subspecies, adapted to survival in desert and semi-desert conditions. Originally distributed in north-western Namibia and southwestern Angola, today restricted to wildlife reserves in Namibia with sporadic sightings in Angola. These populations are often referred to D. b. bicornis or D. b. minor, but some experts consider them a subspecies in their own right.[13]

The most widely adopted alternative scheme only recognizes five subspecies or "eco-types": D. b. bicornis, D. b. brucii, D. b. longipes, D. b. michaeli, and D. b. minor.[17] This concept is also used by the IUCN, listing three surviving subspecies and recognizing D. b. brucii and D. b. longipes as extinct. The most important difference to the above scheme is the inclusion of the extant southwestern subspecies from Namibia in D. b. bicornis instead of in its own subspecies, whereupon the nominal subspecies is considered extant.[2]

Evolution

The rhinoceros originated in the Eocene about fifty million years ago alongside other members of Perissodactyla.[18] Ancestors of the black and the white rhinoceros were present in Africa by the end of the Late Miocene about ten million years ago.[18] The two species evolved from the common ancestral species Ceratotherium neumayri during this time. The clade comprising the genus Diceros is characterised by an increased adaptation to browsing. Between four and five million years ago, the black rhinoceros diverged from the white rhinoceros.[18] After this split, the direct ancestor of Diceros bicornis, Diceros praecox was present in the Pliocene of East Africa (Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania). D. bicornis evolved from this species during the Late Pliocene – Early Pleistocene,[19] with the oldest definitive record at the Pliocene–Pleistocene boundary c. 2.5 million years ago at Koobi Fora, Kenya.[20]

Description

An adult black rhinoceros stands 140–180 cm (55–71 in) high at the shoulder and is 3–3.75 m (9.8–12.3 ft) in length.[21][22] An adult typically weighs from 800 to 1,400 kg (1,760 to 3,090 lb), however unusually large male specimens have been reported at up to 2,896 kg (6,385 lb).[4][21] The cows are smaller than the bulls. Two horns on the skull are made of keratin with the larger front horn typically 50 cm (20 in) long, exceptionally up to 140 cm (55 in).

The longest known black rhinoceros horn measured nearly 1.5 m (4.9 ft) in length.[23] Sometimes a third, smaller horn may develop.[24] These horns are used for defense, intimidation, and digging up roots and breaking branches during feeding. The black rhino is smaller than the white rhino and close in size to the Javan rhino of Indonesia. It has a pointed and prehensile upper lip, which it uses to grasp leaves and twigs when feeding,[23] whereas the white rhinoceros has square lips used for eating grass. The black rhinoceros can also be distinguished from the white rhinoceros by its size, smaller skull, and ears; and by the position of the head, which is held higher than the white rhinoceros, since the black rhinoceros is a browser and not a grazer.

 
A black rhinoceros skull with restored horn

Their thick-layered skin helps to protect black rhinos from thorns and sharp grasses. Their skin harbors external parasites, such as mites and ticks, which may be eaten by oxpeckers and egrets.[25] Such behaviour was originally thought to be an example of mutualism, but recent evidence suggests that oxpeckers may be parasites instead, feeding on rhino blood.[26] It is commonly assumed that black rhinos have poor eyesight, relying more on hearing and smell. However, studies have shown that their eyesight is comparatively good, at about the level of a rabbit.[27] Their ears have a relatively wide rotational range to detect sounds. An excellent sense of smell alerts rhinos to the presence of predators.

Distribution

Prehistorical range

As with many other components of the African large mammal fauna, black rhinos probably had a wider range in the northern part of the continent in prehistoric times than today. However this seems to have not been as extensive as that of the white rhino. Unquestionable fossil remains have not yet been found in this area and the abundant petroglyphs found across the Sahara desert are often too schematic to unambiguously decide whether they depict black or white rhinos. Petroglyphs from the Eastern Desert of southeastern Egypt relatively convincingly show the occurrence of black rhinos in these areas in prehistoric times.[28]

Historical and extant range

The natural range of the black rhino included most of southern and eastern Africa, but it did not occur in the Congo Basin, the tropical rainforest areas along the Bight of Benin, the Ethiopian Highlands, and the Horn of Africa.[4] Its former native occurrence in the extremely dry parts of the Kalahari desert of southwestern Botswana and northwestern South Africa is uncertain.[29] In western Africa it was abundant in an area stretching east to west from Eritrea and Sudan through South Sudan to southeastern Niger, and especially around Lake Chad. Its occurrence further to the west is questionable, though often purported to in literature.[5] Today it is totally restricted to protected nature reserves and has vanished from many countries in which it once thrived, especially in the west and north of its former range. The remaining populations are highly scattered. Some specimens have been relocated from their habitat to better protected locations, sometimes across national frontiers.[2] The black rhino has been successfully reintroduced to Malawi since 1993, where it became extinct in 1990.[30] Similarly it was reintroduced to Zambia (North Luangwa National Park) in 2008, where it had become extinct in 1998,[31] and to Botswana (extinct in 1992, reintroduced in 2003).[32]

In May 2017, 18 eastern black rhinos were translocated from South Africa to the Akagera National Park in Rwanda. The park had around 50 rhinos in the 1970s but the numbers dwindled to zero by 2007. In September 2017, the birth of a calf raised the population to 19. The park has dedicated rhino monitoring teams to protect the animals from poaching.[33][34]

In October 2017, The governments of Chad and South Africa reached an agreement to transfer six black rhinos from South Africa to Zakouma National Park in Chad. Once established, this will be the northernmost population of the species. The species was wiped out from Chad in the 1970s and is under severe pressure from poaching in South Africa. The agreement calls for South African experts to assess the habitat, local management capabilities, security and the infrastructure before the transfer can take place.[35]

Behavior

 
A cow with calf
 
Black rhino at Moringa waterhole, Etosha National Park

Black rhinos are generally thought to be solitary, with the only strong bond between a mother and her calf. In addition, bulls and cows have a consort relationship during mating, also subadults and young adults frequently form loose associations with older individuals of either sex.[36] They are not very territorial and often intersect other rhino territories. Home ranges vary depending on season and the availability of food and water. Generally they have smaller home ranges and larger density in habitats that have plenty of food and water available, and vice versa if resources are not readily available. Sex and age of an individual black rhino influence home range and size, with ranges of cows larger than those of bulls, especially when accompanied by a calf.[37] In the Serengeti home ranges are around 70 to 100 km2 (27 to 39 sq mi), while in the Ngorongoro it is between 2.6 to 58.0 km2 (1.0 to 22.4 sq mi).[36] Black rhinos have also been observed to have a certain area they tend to visit and rest frequently called "houses" which are usually on a high ground level.[citation needed] These "home" ranges can vary from 2.6 km2 to 133 km2 with smaller home ranges having more abundant resources than larger home ranges.[38]

Black rhinos in captivity and reservations sleep patterns have been recently studied to show that males sleep longer on average than females by nearly double the time. Other factors that play a role in their sleeping patterns is the location of where they decide to sleep. Although they do not sleep any longer in captivity, they do sleep at different times due to their location in captivity, or section of the park.[39]

Black rhinos have a reputation for being extremely aggressive, and charge readily at perceived threats. They have even been observed to charge tree trunks and termite mounds.[citation needed] Black rhinos will fight each other, and they have the highest rates of mortal combat recorded for any mammal: about 50% of males and 30% of females die from combat-related injuries.[40] Adult rhinos normally have no natural predators, thanks to their imposing size as well as their thick skin and deadly horns.[41] However, adult black rhinos have fallen prey to crocodiles in exceptional circumstances.[42] Calves and, very seldom, small sub-adults may be preyed upon by lions as well.[4]

Black rhinos follow the same trails that elephants use to get from foraging areas to water holes. They also use smaller trails when they are browsing. They are very fast and can get up to speeds of 55 kilometres per hour (34 mph) running on their toes.[43][44]

While it was assumed all rhinoceros are short-sighted, a study involving black rhinoceros retinas suggests they have better eyesight than previously assumed.[45]

Diet

 
Chewing on plants

Black rhinos are herbivorous browsers that eat leafy plants, branches, shoots, thorny wood bushes, and fruit.[46] The optimum habitat seems to be one consisting of thick scrub and bushland, often with some woodland, which supports the highest densities. Their diet can reduce the number of woody plants, which may benefit grazers (who focus on leaves and stems of grass), but not competing browsers (who focus on leaves, stems of trees, shrubs or herbs). It has been known to eat up to 220 species of plants. They have a significantly restricted diet with a preference for a few key plant species and a tendency to select leafy species in the dry season.[47] The plant species they seem to be most attracted to when not in dry season are the woody plants. There are 18 species of woody plants known to the diet of the black rhinoceros, and 11 species that could possibly be a part of their diet too.[48] Black rhinos also have a tendency to choose food based on quality over quantity, where researchers find more populations in areas where the food has better quality.[49] In accordance with their feeding habit, adaptations of the chewing apparatus have been described for rhinos. The black rhinoceros has a two phased chewing activity with a cutting ectoloph and more grinding lophs on the lingual side. The black rhinoceros can also be considered a more challenging herbivore to feed in captivity compared to its grazing relatives.[50] They can live up to 5 days without water during drought. Black rhinos live in several habitats including bushlands, Riverine woodland, marshes, and their least favorable, grasslands. Habitat preferences are shown in two ways, the amount of sign found in the different habitats, and the habitat content of home ranges and core areas. Habitat types are also identified based on the composition of dominant plant types in each area. Different subspecies live in different habitats including Vachellia and Senegalia savanna, Euclea bushlands, Albany thickets, and even desert.[36] They browse for food in the morning and evening. They are selective browsers but, studies done in Kenya show that they do add the selection material with availability in order to satisfy their nutritional requirements.[51] In the hottest part of the day they are most inactive- resting, sleeping, and wallowing in mud. Wallowing helps cool down body temperature during the day and protects against parasites. When black rhinos browse they use their lips to strip the branches of their leaves. Competition with elephants is causing the black rhinoceros to shift its diet. The black rhinoceros alters its selectivity with the absence of the elephant.[52]

There is some variance in the exact chemical composition of rhinoceros horns. This variation is directly linked to diet and can be used as a means of rhino identification. Horn composition has helped scientists pinpoint the original location of individual rhinos, allowing for law enforcement to more accurately and more frequently identify and penalize poachers.[53]

Communication

Black rhinos use several forms of communication. Due to their solitary nature, scent marking is often used to identify themselves to other black rhinos. Urine spraying occurs on trees and bushes, around water holes and feeding areas. Cows urine spray more often when receptive for breeding. Defecation sometimes occurs in the same spot used by different black rhinos, such as around feeding stations and watering tracks. Coming upon these spots, rhinos will smell to see who is in the area and add their own marking. When presented with adult feces, bulls and cows respond differently than when they are presented with subadult feces. The urine and feces of one black rhinoceros helps other black rhinoceroses to determine its age, sex, and identity.[54] Less commonly they will rub their heads or horns against tree trunks to scent-mark.

The black rhino has powerful tube-shaped ears that can freely rotate in all directions. This highly developed sense of hearing allows black rhinos to detect sound over vast distances.[55]

Reproduction

 
Mother and calf in Lewa, central Kenya

The adults are solitary in nature, coming together only for mating. Mating does not have a seasonal pattern but births tend to be towards the end of the rainy season in more arid environments.

When in season the cows will mark dung piles. Bulls will follow cows when they are in season; when she defecates he will scrape and spread the dung, making it more difficult for rival adult bulls to pick up her scent trail.

Courtship behaviors before mating include snorting and sparring with the horns among males. Another courtship behavior is called bluff and bluster, where the black rhino will snort and swing its head from side to side aggressively before running away repeatedly. Breeding pairs stay together for 2–3 days and sometimes even weeks. They mate several times a day over this time and copulation lasts for a half-hour.

The gestation period for a black rhino is 15 months. The single calf weighs about 35–50 kilograms (80–110 lb) at birth, and can follow its mother around after just three days. Weaning occurs at around 2 years of age for the offspring. The mother and calf stay together for 2–3 years until the next calf is born; female calves may stay longer, forming small groups. The young are occasionally taken by hyenas and lions. Sexual maturity is reached from 5 to 7 years old for females, and 7 to 8 years for males. The life expectancy in natural conditions (without poaching pressure) is from 35 to 50 years.[56]

Conservation

 
Black rhino in the Maasai Mara

For most of the 20th century the continental black rhino was the most numerous of all rhino species. Around 1900 there were probably several hundred thousand[2] living in Africa. During the latter half of the 20th century their numbers were severely reduced from an estimated 70,000[57] in the late 1960s to only 10,000 to 15,000 in 1981. In the early 1990s the number dipped below 2,500, and in 2004 it was reported that only 2,410 black rhinos remained. According to the International Rhino Foundation—housed in Yulee, Florida at White Oak Conservation, which breeds black rhinos[58]—the total African population had recovered to 4,240 by 2008 (which suggests that the 2004 number was low).[59] By 2009 the population of 5,500 was either steady or slowly increasing.[60]

In 1992, nine black rhinos were brought from Chete National Park, Zimbabwe to Australia via Cocos Island. After the natural deaths of the males in the group, four males were brought in from United States and have since adapted well to captivity and new climate.[61] Calves and some subadults are preyed on by lions, but predation is rarely taken into account in managing the black rhinoceros.[citation needed] This is a major flaw because predation should be considered when attributing cause to the poor performance of the black rhinoceros population.[62] In 2002 only ten western black rhinos remained in Cameroon, and in 2006 intensive surveys across its putative range failed to locate any, leading to fears that this subspecies had become extinct.[16] In 2011 the IUCN declared the western black rhino extinct.[63] There was a conservation effort in which black rhinos were translocated, but their population did not improve, as they did not like to be in an unfamiliar habitat.

Under CITES Appendix I all international commercial trade of the black rhino horn is prohibited since 1977.[38] China though having joined CITES since 8 April 1981 is the largest importer of black rhino horns.[64][citation needed] However, this is a trade in which not only do the actors benefit, but so do the nation states ignoring them as well. Nevertheless, people continue to remove the rhino from its natural environment and allow for a dependence on human beings to save them from endangerment.[65] Parks and reserves have been made for protecting the rhinos with armed guards keeping watch, but even still many poachers get through and harm the rhinos for their horns. Many have considered extracting rhino horns in order to deter poachers from slaughtering these animals or potentially bringing them to other breeding grounds such as the US and Australia.[65] This method of extracting the horn, known as dehorning, consists of tranquilizing the rhino then sawing the horn almost completely off to decrease initiative for poaching, although the effectiveness of this in reducing poaching is not known and rhino mothers are known to use their horns to fend off predators.[66]

The only rhino subspecies that has recovered somewhat from the brink of extinction is the southern white rhinoceros, whose numbers now are estimated around 14,500, up from fewer than 50 in the first decade of the 20th century.[67] But there seems to be hope for the black rhinoceros in recovering their gametes from dead rhinos in captivity. This shows promising results for producing black rhinoceros embryos, which can be used for testing sperm in vitro.[68]

A January 2014 auction for a permit to hunt a black rhinoceros in Namibia sold for $350,000 at a fundraiser hosted by the Dallas Safari Club. The auction drew considerable criticism as well as death threats directed towards members of the club and the man who purchased the permit.[69] This permit was issued for 1 of 18 black rhinoceros specifically identified by Namibia's Ministry of Environment and Tourism as being past breeding age and considered a threat to younger rhinos. The $350,000 that the hunter paid for the permit was used by the Namibian government to fund anti-poaching efforts in the country.[70]

In 2022 South Africa granted permits to hunt 10 black rhinos, stating that the population is growing.[71]

Threats

Today, there are various threats posed to black rhinos including habitat changes, illegal poaching, and competing species. Civil disturbances, such as war, have made mentionably negative effects on the black rhinoceros populations in since the 1960s in countries including, but not limited to, Chad, Cameroon, Rwanda, Mozambique, and Somalia.[2] In the Addo Elephant National Park in South Africa, the African bush elephant (Loxodonta africana) is posing slight concern involving the black rhinoceroses who also inhabit the area. Both animals are browsers; however, the elephant's diet consists of a wider variety of foraging capacity, while the black rhinoceros primarily sticks to dwarf shrubs. The black rhinoceros has been found to eat grass as well; however, the shortening of its range of available food could be potentially problematic.[72]

Black rhinos face problems associated with the minerals they ingest. They have become adjusted to ingesting less iron in the wild due to their evolutionary progression, which poses a problem when placed in captivity. These rhinoceroses can overload on iron, which leads to build up in the lungs, liver, spleen and small intestine.[73] Not only do these rhinoceros face threats being in the wild, but in captivity too. Black rhinoceros have become more susceptible to disease in captivity with high rates of mortality.[68]

Illegal poaching for the international rhino horn trade is the main and most detrimental threat.[2] The killing of these animals is not unique to modern-day society. The Chinese have maintained reliable documents of these happenings dating back to 1200 B.C.[74] The ancient Chinese often hunted rhino horn for the making of wine cups, as well as the rhino's skin to manufacture imperial crowns, belts and armor for soldiers.[74] A major market for rhino horn has historically been in the Middle East nations to make ornately carved handles for ceremonial daggers called jambiyas. Demand for these exploded in the 1970s, causing the black rhinoceros population to decline 96% between 1970 and 1992. The horn is also used in traditional Chinese medicine, and is said by herbalists to be able to revive comatose patients, facilitate exorcisms and various methods of detoxification, and cure fevers.[74] It is also hunted for the Chinese superstitious belief that the horns allow direct access to Heaven due to their unique location and hollow nature.[74] The purported effectiveness of the use of rhino horn in treating any illness has not been confirmed, or even suggested, by medical science. In June 2007, the first-ever documented case of the medicinal sale of black rhino horn in the United States (confirmed by genetic testing of the confiscated horn) occurred at a traditional Chinese medicine supply store in Portland, Oregon's Chinatown.[75]

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Further reading

  • Emslie, R. & Brooks, M. (1999). African Rhino. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan. IUCN/SSC African Rhino Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. ISBN 2-8317-0502-9.
  • Rookmaaker, L. C. (2005). "Review of the European perception of the African rhinoceros". Journal of Zoology. 265 (4): 365–376. doi:10.1017/S0952836905006436. S2CID 86237288.

External links

 
Wikispecies has information related to Diceros bicornis.
 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Diceros bicornis.
  • Black rhinoceros at Curlie
  • Black Rhino Info & Black Rhino Pictures on the Rhino Resource Center website.
  • (PDF). Zoological Parks Board of New South Wales. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 September 2007. Retrieved 9 October 2007.
  • WildLifeNow Website for the Tony Fitzjohn/George Adamson African Wildlife Preservation Trust, supporting the Mkomazi Game Reserve and Mkomazi Rhino Sanctuary in Tanzania
  • U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service Species Profile
  • Sebakwe Black Rhino Trust dedicated to black rhino conservation in Zimbabwe
  • A Radiolab interview with the man that won the auction to hunt a black rhino

April 04, 2023
black, rhinoceros, black, rhinoceros, black, rhino, hook, lipped, rhinoceros, diceros, bicornis, species, rhinoceros, native, eastern, southern, africa, including, angola, botswana, kenya, malawi, mozambique, namibia, south, africa, eswatini, tanzania, zambia,. The black rhinoceros black rhino or hook lipped rhinoceros Diceros bicornis is a species of rhinoceros native to eastern and southern Africa including Angola Botswana Kenya Malawi Mozambique Namibia South Africa Eswatini Tanzania Zambia and Zimbabwe Although the species is referred to as black its colours vary from brown to grey It is the only extant species of the genus Diceros Black rhinoceros orhook lipped rhinoceros 1 Temporal range Pliocene Recent 3 6 0 Ma PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg N A south western black rhinoceros D b occidentalis in Etosha National Park NamibiaConservation statusCritically Endangered IUCN 3 1 2 CITES Appendix I CITES 3 Scientific classificationKingdom AnimaliaPhylum ChordataClass MammaliaOrder PerissodactylaFamily RhinocerotidaeGenus DicerosSpecies D bicornisBinomial nameDiceros bicornis Linnaeus 1758 SubspeciesDiceros bicornis bicornis Diceros bicornis brucii Diceros bicornis chobiensisDiceros bicornis ladoensisDiceros bicornis longipes Diceros bicornis michaeliDiceros bicornis minorDiceros bicornis occidentalisHistorical black rhinoceros range ca 1700 A D 4 Hatched Possible historical range in West Africa 5 Current black rhinoceros range Extant resident Extinct Extant amp Reintroduced resident Extant amp Assisted Colonisation resident SynonymsRhinoceros bicornis Linnaeus 1758The other African rhinoceros is the white rhinoceros Ceratotherium simum The word white in the name white rhinoceros is often said to be a misinterpretation of the Afrikaans word wyd Dutch wijd meaning wide referring to its square upper lip as opposed to the pointed or hooked lip of the black rhinoceros These species are now sometimes referred to as the square lipped for white or hook lipped for black rhinoceros 6 The species overall is classified as critically endangered even though the south western black rhinoceros is classified as near threatened and is threatened by multiple factors including poaching and habitat reduction Three subspecies have been declared extinct including the western black rhinoceros which was declared extinct by the International Union for Conservation of Nature IUCN in 2011 7 8 The IUCN estimates that there are 3 142 mature individuals remaining in the wild 2 Contents 1 Taxonomy 1 1 Subspecies 2 Evolution 3 Description 4 Distribution 4 1 Prehistorical range 4 2 Historical and extant range 5 Behavior 5 1 Diet 5 2 Communication 5 3 Reproduction 6 Conservation 7 Threats 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External linksTaxonomy EditThe species was first named Rhinoceros bicornis by Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of his Systema naturae in 1837 The name means double horned rhinoceros There is some confusion about what exactly Linnaeus conceived under this name as this species was probably based upon the skull of a single horned Indian rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis with a second horn artificially added by the collector Such a skull is known to have existed and Linnaeus even mentioned India as origin of this species However he also referred to reports from early travellers about a double horned rhino in Africa and when it emerged that there is only one single horned species of rhino in India Rhinoceros bicornis was used to refer to the African rhinos the white rhino only became recognised in 1812 9 In 1911 this was formally fixed and the Cape of Good Hope officially declared the type locality of the species 10 Subspecies Edit The intraspecific variation in the black rhinoceros has been discussed by various authors and is not finally settled 11 The most accepted scheme considers seven or eight subspecies 4 12 13 of which three became extinct in historical times and one is on the brink of extinction Southern black rhinoceros or Cape black rhinoceros D b bicornis Extinct Once abundant from the Cape of Good Hope to Transvaal South Africa and probably into the south of Namibia this was the largest subspecies It became extinct due to excessive hunting and habitat destruction around 1850 14 North eastern black rhinoceros D b brucii Extinct Formerly central Sudan Eritrea northern and southeastern Ethiopia Djibouti and northern and southeastern Somalia Primal populations in northern Somalia vanished during the early 20th century Chobe black rhinoceros D b chobiensis A local subspecies restricted to the Chobe Valley in southeastern Angola Namibia Zambezi Region and northern Botswana Nearly extinct possibly only one surviving specimen in Botswana 13 Uganda black rhinoceros D b ladoensis Former distribution from South Sudan across Uganda into western Kenya and southwesternmost Ethiopia Black rhinos are considered extinct across most of this area and its conservational status is unclear Probably surviving in Kenyan reserves Western black rhinoceros D b longipes Extinct Once lived in South Sudan northern Central African Republic southern Chad northern Cameroon northeastern Nigeria and south eastern Niger The range possibly stretched west to the Niger River in western Niger though this is unconfirmed The evidence from Liberia and Burkina Faso mainly rests upon the existence of indigenous names for the rhinoceros 5 A far greater former range in West Africa as proposed earlier 15 is doubted by a 2004 study 5 The last known wild specimens lived in northern Cameroon In 2006 an intensive survey across its putative range in Cameroon failed to locate any leading to fears that it was extinct in the wild 7 16 On 10 November 2011 the IUCN declared the western black rhinoceros extinct 7 Eastern black rhinoceros D b michaeli Had a historical distribution from South Sudan Uganda Ethiopia down through Kenya into north central Tanzania Today its range is limited primarily to Kenya and Tanzania South central black rhinoceros D b minor Most widely distributed subspecies characterised by a compact body proportionally large head and prominent skin folds Ranged from north eastern South Africa KwaZulu Natal to northeastern Tanzania and southeastern Kenya Preserved in reserves throughout most of its former range but probably extinct in eastern Angola southern Democratic Republic of Congo and possibly Mozambique Extinct but reintroduced in Malawi Botswana and Zambia It also ranges in parts of Namibia and inhabit national parks in South Africa South western black rhinoceros D b occidentalis A small subspecies adapted to survival in desert and semi desert conditions Originally distributed in north western Namibia and southwestern Angola today restricted to wildlife reserves in Namibia with sporadic sightings in Angola These populations are often referred to D b bicornis or D b minor but some experts consider them a subspecies in their own right 13 The most widely adopted alternative scheme only recognizes five subspecies or eco types D b bicornis D b brucii D b longipes D b michaeli and D b minor 17 This concept is also used by the IUCN listing three surviving subspecies and recognizing D b brucii and D b longipes as extinct The most important difference to the above scheme is the inclusion of the extant southwestern subspecies from Namibia in D b bicornis instead of in its own subspecies whereupon the nominal subspecies is considered extant 2 Evolution EditThe rhinoceros originated in the Eocene about fifty million years ago alongside other members of Perissodactyla 18 Ancestors of the black and the white rhinoceros were present in Africa by the end of the Late Miocene about ten million years ago 18 The two species evolved from the common ancestral species Ceratotherium neumayri during this time The clade comprising the genus Diceros is characterised by an increased adaptation to browsing Between four and five million years ago the black rhinoceros diverged from the white rhinoceros 18 After this split the direct ancestor of Diceros bicornis Diceros praecox was present in the Pliocene of East Africa Ethiopia Kenya Tanzania D bicornis evolved from this species during the Late Pliocene Early Pleistocene 19 with the oldest definitive record at the Pliocene Pleistocene boundary c 2 5 million years ago at Koobi Fora Kenya 20 Description EditAn adult black rhinoceros stands 140 180 cm 55 71 in high at the shoulder and is 3 3 75 m 9 8 12 3 ft in length 21 22 An adult typically weighs from 800 to 1 400 kg 1 760 to 3 090 lb however unusually large male specimens have been reported at up to 2 896 kg 6 385 lb 4 21 The cows are smaller than the bulls Two horns on the skull are made of keratin with the larger front horn typically 50 cm 20 in long exceptionally up to 140 cm 55 in The longest known black rhinoceros horn measured nearly 1 5 m 4 9 ft in length 23 Sometimes a third smaller horn may develop 24 These horns are used for defense intimidation and digging up roots and breaking branches during feeding The black rhino is smaller than the white rhino and close in size to the Javan rhino of Indonesia It has a pointed and prehensile upper lip which it uses to grasp leaves and twigs when feeding 23 whereas the white rhinoceros has square lips used for eating grass The black rhinoceros can also be distinguished from the white rhinoceros by its size smaller skull and ears and by the position of the head which is held higher than the white rhinoceros since the black rhinoceros is a browser and not a grazer A black rhinoceros skull with restored horn Their thick layered skin helps to protect black rhinos from thorns and sharp grasses Their skin harbors external parasites such as mites and ticks which may be eaten by oxpeckers and egrets 25 Such behaviour was originally thought to be an example of mutualism but recent evidence suggests that oxpeckers may be parasites instead feeding on rhino blood 26 It is commonly assumed that black rhinos have poor eyesight relying more on hearing and smell However studies have shown that their eyesight is comparatively good at about the level of a rabbit 27 Their ears have a relatively wide rotational range to detect sounds An excellent sense of smell alerts rhinos to the presence of predators Distribution EditPrehistorical range Edit As with many other components of the African large mammal fauna black rhinos probably had a wider range in the northern part of the continent in prehistoric times than today However this seems to have not been as extensive as that of the white rhino Unquestionable fossil remains have not yet been found in this area and the abundant petroglyphs found across the Sahara desert are often too schematic to unambiguously decide whether they depict black or white rhinos Petroglyphs from the Eastern Desert of southeastern Egypt relatively convincingly show the occurrence of black rhinos in these areas in prehistoric times 28 Historical and extant range Edit The natural range of the black rhino included most of southern and eastern Africa but it did not occur in the Congo Basin the tropical rainforest areas along the Bight of Benin the Ethiopian Highlands and the Horn of Africa 4 Its former native occurrence in the extremely dry parts of the Kalahari desert of southwestern Botswana and northwestern South Africa is uncertain 29 In western Africa it was abundant in an area stretching east to west from Eritrea and Sudan through South Sudan to southeastern Niger and especially around Lake Chad Its occurrence further to the west is questionable though often purported to in literature 5 Today it is totally restricted to protected nature reserves and has vanished from many countries in which it once thrived especially in the west and north of its former range The remaining populations are highly scattered Some specimens have been relocated from their habitat to better protected locations sometimes across national frontiers 2 The black rhino has been successfully reintroduced to Malawi since 1993 where it became extinct in 1990 30 Similarly it was reintroduced to Zambia North Luangwa National Park in 2008 where it had become extinct in 1998 31 and to Botswana extinct in 1992 reintroduced in 2003 32 In May 2017 18 eastern black rhinos were translocated from South Africa to the Akagera National Park in Rwanda The park had around 50 rhinos in the 1970s but the numbers dwindled to zero by 2007 In September 2017 the birth of a calf raised the population to 19 The park has dedicated rhino monitoring teams to protect the animals from poaching 33 34 In October 2017 The governments of Chad and South Africa reached an agreement to transfer six black rhinos from South Africa to Zakouma National Park in Chad Once established this will be the northernmost population of the species The species was wiped out from Chad in the 1970s and is under severe pressure from poaching in South Africa The agreement calls for South African experts to assess the habitat local management capabilities security and the infrastructure before the transfer can take place 35 Behavior Edit A cow with calf Black rhino at Moringa waterhole Etosha National Park Black rhinos are generally thought to be solitary with the only strong bond between a mother and her calf In addition bulls and cows have a consort relationship during mating also subadults and young adults frequently form loose associations with older individuals of either sex 36 They are not very territorial and often intersect other rhino territories Home ranges vary depending on season and the availability of food and water Generally they have smaller home ranges and larger density in habitats that have plenty of food and water available and vice versa if resources are not readily available Sex and age of an individual black rhino influence home range and size with ranges of cows larger than those of bulls especially when accompanied by a calf 37 In the Serengeti home ranges are around 70 to 100 km2 27 to 39 sq mi while in the Ngorongoro it is between 2 6 to 58 0 km2 1 0 to 22 4 sq mi 36 Black rhinos have also been observed to have a certain area they tend to visit and rest frequently called houses which are usually on a high ground level citation needed These home ranges can vary from 2 6 km2 to 133 km2 with smaller home ranges having more abundant resources than larger home ranges 38 Black rhinos in captivity and reservations sleep patterns have been recently studied to show that males sleep longer on average than females by nearly double the time Other factors that play a role in their sleeping patterns is the location of where they decide to sleep Although they do not sleep any longer in captivity they do sleep at different times due to their location in captivity or section of the park 39 Black rhinos have a reputation for being extremely aggressive and charge readily at perceived threats They have even been observed to charge tree trunks and termite mounds citation needed Black rhinos will fight each other and they have the highest rates of mortal combat recorded for any mammal about 50 of males and 30 of females die from combat related injuries 40 Adult rhinos normally have no natural predators thanks to their imposing size as well as their thick skin and deadly horns 41 However adult black rhinos have fallen prey to crocodiles in exceptional circumstances 42 Calves and very seldom small sub adults may be preyed upon by lions as well 4 Black rhinos follow the same trails that elephants use to get from foraging areas to water holes They also use smaller trails when they are browsing They are very fast and can get up to speeds of 55 kilometres per hour 34 mph running on their toes 43 44 While it was assumed all rhinoceros are short sighted a study involving black rhinoceros retinas suggests they have better eyesight than previously assumed 45 Diet Edit Chewing on plants Black rhinos are herbivorous browsers that eat leafy plants branches shoots thorny wood bushes and fruit 46 The optimum habitat seems to be one consisting of thick scrub and bushland often with some woodland which supports the highest densities Their diet can reduce the number of woody plants which may benefit grazers who focus on leaves and stems of grass but not competing browsers who focus on leaves stems of trees shrubs or herbs It has been known to eat up to 220 species of plants They have a significantly restricted diet with a preference for a few key plant species and a tendency to select leafy species in the dry season 47 The plant species they seem to be most attracted to when not in dry season are the woody plants There are 18 species of woody plants known to the diet of the black rhinoceros and 11 species that could possibly be a part of their diet too 48 Black rhinos also have a tendency to choose food based on quality over quantity where researchers find more populations in areas where the food has better quality 49 In accordance with their feeding habit adaptations of the chewing apparatus have been described for rhinos The black rhinoceros has a two phased chewing activity with a cutting ectoloph and more grinding lophs on the lingual side The black rhinoceros can also be considered a more challenging herbivore to feed in captivity compared to its grazing relatives 50 They can live up to 5 days without water during drought Black rhinos live in several habitats including bushlands Riverine woodland marshes and their least favorable grasslands Habitat preferences are shown in two ways the amount of sign found in the different habitats and the habitat content of home ranges and core areas Habitat types are also identified based on the composition of dominant plant types in each area Different subspecies live in different habitats including Vachellia and Senegalia savanna Euclea bushlands Albany thickets and even desert 36 They browse for food in the morning and evening They are selective browsers but studies done in Kenya show that they do add the selection material with availability in order to satisfy their nutritional requirements 51 In the hottest part of the day they are most inactive resting sleeping and wallowing in mud Wallowing helps cool down body temperature during the day and protects against parasites When black rhinos browse they use their lips to strip the branches of their leaves Competition with elephants is causing the black rhinoceros to shift its diet The black rhinoceros alters its selectivity with the absence of the elephant 52 There is some variance in the exact chemical composition of rhinoceros horns This variation is directly linked to diet and can be used as a means of rhino identification Horn composition has helped scientists pinpoint the original location of individual rhinos allowing for law enforcement to more accurately and more frequently identify and penalize poachers 53 Communication Edit A male south western black rhinoceros D b occidentalis in Etosha National Park Namibia Black rhinos use several forms of communication Due to their solitary nature scent marking is often used to identify themselves to other black rhinos Urine spraying occurs on trees and bushes around water holes and feeding areas Cows urine spray more often when receptive for breeding Defecation sometimes occurs in the same spot used by different black rhinos such as around feeding stations and watering tracks Coming upon these spots rhinos will smell to see who is in the area and add their own marking When presented with adult feces bulls and cows respond differently than when they are presented with subadult feces The urine and feces of one black rhinoceros helps other black rhinoceroses to determine its age sex and identity 54 Less commonly they will rub their heads or horns against tree trunks to scent mark The black rhino has powerful tube shaped ears that can freely rotate in all directions This highly developed sense of hearing allows black rhinos to detect sound over vast distances 55 Reproduction Edit Mother and calf in Lewa central Kenya The adults are solitary in nature coming together only for mating Mating does not have a seasonal pattern but births tend to be towards the end of the rainy season in more arid environments When in season the cows will mark dung piles Bulls will follow cows when they are in season when she defecates he will scrape and spread the dung making it more difficult for rival adult bulls to pick up her scent trail Courtship behaviors before mating include snorting and sparring with the horns among males Another courtship behavior is called bluff and bluster where the black rhino will snort and swing its head from side to side aggressively before running away repeatedly Breeding pairs stay together for 2 3 days and sometimes even weeks They mate several times a day over this time and copulation lasts for a half hour The gestation period for a black rhino is 15 months The single calf weighs about 35 50 kilograms 80 110 lb at birth and can follow its mother around after just three days Weaning occurs at around 2 years of age for the offspring The mother and calf stay together for 2 3 years until the next calf is born female calves may stay longer forming small groups The young are occasionally taken by hyenas and lions Sexual maturity is reached from 5 to 7 years old for females and 7 to 8 years for males The life expectancy in natural conditions without poaching pressure is from 35 to 50 years 56 Conservation Edit Black rhino in the Maasai Mara For most of the 20th century the continental black rhino was the most numerous of all rhino species Around 1900 there were probably several hundred thousand 2 living in Africa During the latter half of the 20th century their numbers were severely reduced from an estimated 70 000 57 in the late 1960s to only 10 000 to 15 000 in 1981 In the early 1990s the number dipped below 2 500 and in 2004 it was reported that only 2 410 black rhinos remained According to the International Rhino Foundation housed in Yulee Florida at White Oak Conservation which breeds black rhinos 58 the total African population had recovered to 4 240 by 2008 which suggests that the 2004 number was low 59 By 2009 the population of 5 500 was either steady or slowly increasing 60 In 1992 nine black rhinos were brought from Chete National Park Zimbabwe to Australia via Cocos Island After the natural deaths of the males in the group four males were brought in from United States and have since adapted well to captivity and new climate 61 Calves and some subadults are preyed on by lions but predation is rarely taken into account in managing the black rhinoceros citation needed This is a major flaw because predation should be considered when attributing cause to the poor performance of the black rhinoceros population 62 In 2002 only ten western black rhinos remained in Cameroon and in 2006 intensive surveys across its putative range failed to locate any leading to fears that this subspecies had become extinct 16 In 2011 the IUCN declared the western black rhino extinct 63 There was a conservation effort in which black rhinos were translocated but their population did not improve as they did not like to be in an unfamiliar habitat Under CITES Appendix I all international commercial trade of the black rhino horn is prohibited since 1977 38 China though having joined CITES since 8 April 1981 is the largest importer of black rhino horns 64 citation needed However this is a trade in which not only do the actors benefit but so do the nation states ignoring them as well Nevertheless people continue to remove the rhino from its natural environment and allow for a dependence on human beings to save them from endangerment 65 Parks and reserves have been made for protecting the rhinos with armed guards keeping watch but even still many poachers get through and harm the rhinos for their horns Many have considered extracting rhino horns in order to deter poachers from slaughtering these animals or potentially bringing them to other breeding grounds such as the US and Australia 65 This method of extracting the horn known as dehorning consists of tranquilizing the rhino then sawing the horn almost completely off to decrease initiative for poaching although the effectiveness of this in reducing poaching is not known and rhino mothers are known to use their horns to fend off predators 66 The only rhino subspecies that has recovered somewhat from the brink of extinction is the southern white rhinoceros whose numbers now are estimated around 14 500 up from fewer than 50 in the first decade of the 20th century 67 But there seems to be hope for the black rhinoceros in recovering their gametes from dead rhinos in captivity This shows promising results for producing black rhinoceros embryos which can be used for testing sperm in vitro 68 A January 2014 auction for a permit to hunt a black rhinoceros in Namibia sold for 350 000 at a fundraiser hosted by the Dallas Safari Club The auction drew considerable criticism as well as death threats directed towards members of the club and the man who purchased the permit 69 This permit was issued for 1 of 18 black rhinoceros specifically identified by Namibia s Ministry of Environment and Tourism as being past breeding age and considered a threat to younger rhinos The 350 000 that the hunter paid for the permit was used by the Namibian government to fund anti poaching efforts in the country 70 In 2022 South Africa granted permits to hunt 10 black rhinos stating that the population is growing 71 Threats EditToday there are various threats posed to black rhinos including habitat changes illegal poaching and competing species Civil disturbances such as war have made mentionably negative effects on the black rhinoceros populations in since the 1960s in countries including but not limited to Chad Cameroon Rwanda Mozambique and Somalia 2 In the Addo Elephant National Park in South Africa the African bush elephant Loxodonta africana is posing slight concern involving the black rhinoceroses who also inhabit the area Both animals are browsers however the elephant s diet consists of a wider variety of foraging capacity while the black rhinoceros primarily sticks to dwarf shrubs The black rhinoceros has been found to eat grass as well however the shortening of its range of available food could be potentially problematic 72 Black rhinos face problems associated with the minerals they ingest They have become adjusted to ingesting less iron in the wild due to their evolutionary progression which poses a problem when placed in captivity These rhinoceroses can overload on iron which leads to build up in the lungs liver spleen and small intestine 73 Not only do these rhinoceros face threats being in the wild but in captivity too Black rhinoceros have become more susceptible to disease in captivity with high rates of mortality 68 Illegal poaching for the international rhino horn trade is the main and most detrimental threat 2 The killing of these animals is not unique to modern day society The Chinese have maintained reliable documents of these happenings dating back to 1200 B C 74 The ancient Chinese often hunted rhino horn for the making of wine cups as well as the rhino s skin to manufacture imperial crowns belts and armor for soldiers 74 A major market for rhino horn has historically been in the Middle East nations to make ornately carved handles for ceremonial daggers called jambiyas Demand for these exploded in the 1970s causing the black rhinoceros population to decline 96 between 1970 and 1992 The horn is also used in traditional Chinese medicine and is said by herbalists to be able to revive comatose patients facilitate exorcisms and various methods of detoxification and cure fevers 74 It is also hunted for the Chinese superstitious belief that the horns allow direct access to Heaven due to their unique location and hollow nature 74 The purported effectiveness of the use of rhino horn in treating any illness has not been confirmed or even suggested by medical science In June 2007 the first ever documented case of the medicinal sale of black rhino horn in the United States confirmed by genetic testing of the confiscated horn occurred at a traditional Chinese medicine supply store in Portland Oregon s Chinatown 75 References Edit Grubb P 2005 Order Perissodactyla In Wilson D E Reeder D M eds Mammal Species of the World A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference 3rd ed Johns Hopkins University Press pp 635 636 ISBN 978 0 8018 8221 0 OCLC 62265494 a b c d e f g Emslie R 2020 Diceros bicornis IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2020 e T6557A152728945 doi 10 2305 IUCN UK 2020 1 RLTS T6557A152728945 en Retrieved 12 November 2021 Appendices CITES cites org Retrieved 14 January 2022 a b c d e Hillman Smith A K K amp Groves C P 1994 Diceros bicornis PDF Mammalian Species 455 1 8 doi 10 2307 3504292 JSTOR 3504292 S2CID 253955264 a b c d Rookmaaker L C 2004 Historical distribution of the black rhinoceros Diceros bicornis in West Africa PDF African Zoology 39 1 63 70 White rhinoceros Animal Corner a b c Emslie R 2020 Diceros bicornis ssp longipes IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2020 e T39319A45814470 doi 10 2305 IUCN UK 2020 1 RLTS T39319A45814470 en Retrieved 12 November 2021 Knight Matthew 10 November 2011 Western black rhino declared extinct Us cnn com Rookmaaker L C 2005 Review of the European perception of the African Rhinoceros PDF Journal of Zoology 265 4 365 376 doi 10 1017 S0952836905006436 Thomas O 1911 The mammals of the tenth edition of Linnaeus an attempt to fix the types of the genera and the exact bases and localities of the species Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 1 120 158 Biostor Rookmaaker L C 1982 Die Unterarten des Spitzmaulnashorns Diceros bicornis und ihre Zucht in Menschenobhut PDF Internationales Zuchtbuch fur afrikanische Nashorner Zoologischer Garten Berlin 2 41 45 Groves C P 1967 Geographic variation in the black rhinoceros Diceros bicornis Linnaeus 1758 Zeitschrift fur Saugetierkunde 32 267 276 a b c Groves C Grubb P 2011 Ungulate Taxonomy Baltimore The Johns Hopkins University Press p 317 ISBN 978 1 4214 0093 8 Rookmaaker L C amp Groves C P 1978 The extinct Cape Rhinoceros Diceros bicornis bicornis Linnaeus 1758 PDF Saugetierkundliche Mitteilungen 26 2 117 126 Emslie R H Brooks M 1999 African Rhinos Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan PDF Gland and Cambridge IUCN SSC African Rhino Specialist Group pp x 92 Retrieved 7 October 2012 a b Meldrum Andrew 12 July 2006 West African black rhino feared extinct The Guardian London Retrieved 9 October 2007 du Toit R 1987 The existing basis for subspecies classification of black and white rhino PDF Pachyderm 9 3 5 a b c Mammals EDGE of Existence N p n d Web 23 October 2013 Geraads D 2005 Pliocene Rhinocerotidae Mammalia from Hadar and Dikika Lower Awash Ethiopia and a revision of the origin of modern African rhinos Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 25 2 451 461 doi 10 1671 0272 4634 2005 025 0451 PRMFHA 2 0 CO 2 S2CID 52105151 Geraads D 2010 Rhinocerotidae in Werdelin L Sanders W J eds Cenozoic mammals of Africa University of California Press Berkeley pp 669 683 a b Kurnit Jennifer Diceros bicornis black rhinoceros Animaldiversity ummz umich edu Black Rhinoceros Archived 2 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine Arkive a b Ellis Richard 2004 No Turning Back The Life and Death of Animal Species New York Harper Perennial pp 205 208 ISBN 0 06 055804 0 About the Black Rhino Archived from the original on 22 February 2014 Retrieved 25 February 2014 Mikula P Hadrava J Albrecht T Tryjanowski P 2018 Large scale assessment of commensalistic mutualistic associations between African birds and herbivorous mammals using internet photos PeerJ 6 e4520 doi 10 7717 peerj 4520 PMC 5863707 PMID 29576981 Weeks P 2000 Red billed oxpeckers vampires or tickbirds Behavioral Ecology 11 2 154 160 doi 10 1093 beheco 11 2 154 Pettigrew Manger 2008 Retinal ganglion cell density of the black rhinoceros Diceros bicornis Calculating visual resolution Visual Neuroscience 25 2 215 20 doi 10 1017 S0952523808080498 PMID 18442443 S2CID 14047256 Osborn D J Osbornova J 1998 The Natural History of Egypt Vol IV The Mammals of Ancient Egypt PDF Warminster Aris amp Phillips Ltd pp x 213 Retrieved 9 October 2012 Smithers R H N 1971 Mammals of Botswana PDF National Museums of Rhodesia Museum Memoir 4 1 340 Patton F 2011 Black Rhino spearheads Malawi Wildlife Makeover PDF Swara East African Wildlife Society 2011 1 48 53 Re establishment of black rhino in Zambia PDF Zambia Wildlife Authority Frankfurt Zoological Society 2008 Retrieved 9 October 2012 Collins K Ives M Proust N Botswana Rhino Relocation and Reintroduction Wilderness Wildlife Trust Archived from the original on 8 April 2014 year 2006 2012 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link Black rhinos return to Rwanda 10 years after disappearance TheGuardian com 3 May 2017 Retrieved 22 May 2019 Dan Ngabonziza 23 September 2017 Black Rhino Gives Birth at Akagera National Park Rwanda Eye Ed Stoddard 9 October 2017 South Africa to restock Chad with black rhinos Reuters a b c Tatman Susan C Stevens Wood Barry Smith Vincent B T 2000 Ranging behaviour and habitat usage in black rhinoceros Diceros bisornis in a Kenyan sanctuary African Journal of Ecology 38 2 163 182 doi 10 1046 j 1365 2028 2000 00235 x Reid C Slotow R Howison O Balfour D 2007 Habitat changes reduce the carrying capacity of Hluhluwe Umfolozi Park South Africa for Critically Endangered black rhinoceros Diceros bicornis PDF Oryx 41 2 247 doi 10 1017 S0030605307001780 S2CID 4844779 a b Kurnit Jennifer 2009 Diceros bicornis black rhinoceros Animal Diversity Web Retrieved 23 October 2013 Santymire R Meyer J Freeman E W 2012 Characterizing Sleep Behavior of the Wild Black Rhinoceros Diceros bicornis bicornis Sleep 35 11 1569 1574 doi 10 5665 sleep 2212 PMC 3466804 PMID 23115406 Berger J Cunningham C 1998 Natural Variation in Horn Size and Social Dominance and Their Importance to the Conservation of Black Rhinoceros Conservation Biology 12 3 708 711 doi 10 1111 j 1523 1739 1998 97207 x JSTOR 2387253 S2CID 84263172 Wildlife Rhinoceros AWF Retrieved 24 February 2012 Wood G L 1983 The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats Sterling Pub Co Inc ISBN 978 0 85112 235 9 Rhino facts World Wildlife Fund Black rhino information Save the Rhino How far can a rhino see www thesouthafrican com 8 November 2018 Retrieved 17 August 2021 Oloo Timothy W Brett Robert amp Young Truman P 1994 Seasonal variation in the feeding ecology of black rhinoceros Diceros bicornis L in Laikipia Kenya African Journal of Ecology 32 2 142 157 doi 10 1111 j 1365 2028 1994 tb00565 x Buk Kenneth Gregers Knight Mike H 2012 Seasonal diet preferences of black rhinoceros in three arid South African National Parks PDF African Journal of Ecology 42 4 82 93 doi 10 1111 j 1365 2028 2010 01213 x Malan E W Reilly B K Landman M Myburgh W J 2012 Diet of black rhinoceros Diceros bicornis minor as determined by fecal microhistological analysis at the Mokopane Biodiversity Conservation Centre Limpopo Province a preliminary investigation South African Journal of Wildlife Research 42 60 62 doi 10 3957 056 042 0104 S2CID 129175836 Buk K G Knight M H 2012 Habitat Suitability Model for Black Rhinoceros in Augrabies Falls National Park South Africa South African Journal of Wildlife Research 42 2 82 93 doi 10 3957 056 042 0206 S2CID 55260786 Steuer P Clauss M Sudekum K H Hatt J M Silinski S Klomburg S Zimmermann W Fickel J Streich W J Hummel J 2010 Comparative investigations on digestion in grazing Ceratotherium simum and browsing Diceros bicornis rhinoceroses Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology A 156 4 380 388 doi 10 1016 j cbpa 2010 03 006 PMID 20227512 Muya S M Oguge N O 2000 Effects of browse availability and quality on black rhino Diceros bicornis michaeli Groves 1967 diet in Nairobi National Park Kenya PDF African Journal of Ecology 38 62 71 doi 10 1046 j 1365 2028 2000 00213 x Landman M Schoeman D S Kerley G I H 2013 Hayward Matt ed Shift in Black Rhinoceros Diet in the Presence of Elephant Evidence for Competition PLOS ONE 8 7 e69771 Bibcode 2013PLoSO 869771L doi 10 1371 journal pone 0069771 PMC 3714249 PMID 23874997 Rhino Horn Use Fact vs Fiction pbs org Linklater W L Mayer K Swaisgood R R 2013 Chemical signals of age sex and identity in black rhinoceros PDF Animal Behaviour 85 3 671 677 doi 10 1016 j anbehav 2012 12 034 S2CID 4839879 Black Rhinoceros Chicago Zoological Society Dollinger Peter amp Geser Silvia Black Rhinoceros World Association of Zoos and Aquariums Archived from the original on 16 July 2009 Retrieved 9 October 2007 WWF Factsheet Black Rhinoceros Diceros Bicornis PDF World Wildlife Fund October 2004 Archived from the original PDF on 19 November 2008 Retrieved 9 October 2007 Southern Black Rhino Retrieved 21 June 2013 Black Rhino Information International Rhino Foundation Archived from the original on 10 August 2007 Retrieved 4 February 2011 Rhino killed every 10 hours in Africa births not keeping up with poaching losses DispatchLive TimesLive 9 October 2019 Retrieved 20 January 2020 Kelly J D Blyde D J Denney I S 1995 The importation of the black rhinoceros Diceros bicornis from Zimbabwe into Australia PDF Australian Veterinary Journal 72 10 369 374 doi 10 1111 j 1751 0813 1995 tb06173 x PMID 8599568 Archived from the original PDF on 3 March 2016 Retrieved 28 August 2015 Plotz Roan D amp Linklater Wayne L 2009 Black Rhinoceros Diceros Ricornis Calf Succumb After Lion Predation Attempt Implications For Conservation Management African Zoology 44 2 283 287 doi 10 3377 004 044 0216 S2CID 59033431 Boettcher Daniel 9 November 2011 Western black rhino declared extinct BBC Retrieved 10 November 2011 Rhino Horn Import Ban RHINO american edu Archived from the original on 9 December 2000 a b Black Rhino and Trade Archived 29 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine american edu Retrieved 7 November 2013 Kasnoff C Black Rhino An Endangered Species bagheera com Retrieved 23 October 2013 Markey Sean 12 July 2006 West African Black Rhino Extinct Group Says National Geographic Retrieved 9 October 2007 a b Stoops M A O Brien J K Roth T L 2011 Gamete rescue in the African black rhinoceros Diceros bicornis PDF Theriogenology 76 7 1258 1265 doi 10 1016 j theriogenology 2011 05 032 PMID 21752452 Black Rhino Hunting Permit Auctioned For 350 000 NY Daily News 12 January 2014 Texas hunter bags his rhino on controversial hunt in Namibia CNN 21 May 2015 South Africa grants permits to hunt 10 critically endangered black rhino The Guardian 2022 Rookmaaker L C 2004 Historical Distribution of the Black Rhinoceros Diceros Bicornis In West Africa PDF African Zoology 39 1 63 70 Olias P Mundhenk L Bothe M Ochs A Gruber A D Klopfleisch R 2012 Iron Overload Syndrome in the Black Rhinoceros Diceros bicornis Microscopical Lesions and Comparison with Other Rhinoceros Species Journal of Comparative Pathology 147 4 542 549 doi 10 1016 j jcpa 2012 07 005 PMID 22935088 a b c d RRC China and the rhino Rhinoresourcecenter com Retrieved 7 November 2013 Patte David 26 June 2007 Portland Man Pleads Guilty to Selling Black Rhino Horn U S Fish amp Wildlife Service Archived from the original on 8 August 2007 Retrieved 29 June 2007 a href Template Cite news html title Template Cite news cite news a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link Further reading EditEmslie R amp Brooks M 1999 African Rhino Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan IUCN SSC African Rhino Specialist Group IUCN Gland Switzerland and Cambridge UK ISBN 2 8317 0502 9 Rookmaaker L C 2005 Review of the European perception of the African rhinoceros Journal of Zoology 265 4 365 376 doi 10 1017 S0952836905006436 S2CID 86237288 External links Edit Wikispecies has information related to Diceros bicornis Wikimedia Commons has media related to Diceros bicornis Black rhinoceros at Curlie Black Rhino Info amp Black Rhino Pictures on the Rhino Resource Center website Black Rhinoceros PDF Zoological Parks Board of New South Wales Archived from the original PDF on 28 September 2007 Retrieved 9 October 2007 WildLifeNow Website for the Tony Fitzjohn George Adamson African Wildlife Preservation Trust supporting the Mkomazi Game Reserve and Mkomazi Rhino Sanctuary in Tanzania U S Fish amp Wildlife Service Species Profile Sebakwe Black Rhino Trust dedicated to black rhino conservation in Zimbabwe A Radiolab interview with the man that won the auction to hunt a black rhino Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Black rhinoceros amp oldid 1145784024, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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