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Mukti Bahini

January 26, 2023

The Mukti Bahini (Bengali: মুক্তিবাহিনী,[3] translates as 'freedom fighters', or liberation army),[4] also known as the Bangladesh Forces, was the guerrilla resistance movement consisting of the Bangladeshi military, paramilitary and civilians during the War of Liberation that transformed East Pakistan into Bangladesh in 1971.[5] They were initially called the Mukti Fauj.[6]

Mukti Bahini
মুক্তিবাহিনী (Freedom Fighters)
Mukti Bahini Flag
LeadersM. A. G. Osmani, Commander-in-Chief
M. A. Rab, Chief of Staff
A K Khandker, Deputy Chief of Staff
Dates of operationMarch–December 1971
Group(s)Bangladesh Army
 ∟ K Force
 ∟ S Force
 ∟ Z Force
Bangladesh Navy
Bangladesh Air Force
Bangladesh Rifles
Bangladesh Ansar
Bangladesh Police
Special Guerrilla Forces
 ∟ Gono Bahini
 ∟ Mujib Bahini
 ∟ Kader Bahini
 ∟ Hemayet Bahini
 ∟ Afsar Bahini
Crack Platoon
Active regionsEast Pakistan
IdeologyBengali nationalism
Secularism
Socialism
Resistance to the 1971 Bangladesh Genocide[1]
Size180,000
Part ofProvisional Government of Bangladesh[2]
Allies Soviet Union
 India
Opponents Pakistan
Battles and warsBattle of Gazipur, Battle of Goalhati, Battle of Garibpur, Battle of Kamalpur , Battle of Dhalai, Battle of Rangamati, Battle of Kushtia, Battle of Daruin, Operation Barisal, Operation Jackpot
War flag

On 7 March 1971 Sheikh Mujibur Rahman issued a call to the people of East Pakistan to prepare themselves for an all-out struggle.[7] Later that evening resistance demonstrations began,[7] and the military began a full-scale retaliation with Operation Searchlight, which continued through May 1971.[7]

A formal military leadership of the resistance was created in April 1971 under the Provisional Government of Bangladesh. The military council was headed by General M. A. G. Osmani[8] and eleven sector commanders.[9] The Bangladesh Armed Forces were established on 4 April 1971. In addition to regular units, such as the East Bengal Regiment and the East Pakistan Rifles, the Mukti Bahini also consisted of the civilian Gonobahini (People's Force).[citation needed] The most prominent divisions of the Mukti Bahini were the Z Force led by Major Ziaur Rahman, the K Force led by Major Khaled Mosharraf and the S Force led by Major K M Shafiullah. Awami League student leaders formed militia units, including the Mujib Bahini, the Kader Bahini and Hemayet Bahini.[9] The Communist Party of Bangladesh, led by Comrade Moni Singh, and activists from the National Awami Party also operated several guerrilla battalions.[10]

Using guerrilla warfare tactics, the Mukti Bahini secured control over large parts of the Bengali countryside. It conducted successful "ambush and sabotage" campaigns,[11] and included the nascent Bangladesh Air Force and the Bangladesh Navy. The Mukti Bahini received training and weapons from India,[12] where people in West Bengal shared a common Bengali ethnic and linguistic heritage with East Pakistan.[13]

During the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, the Mukti Bahini became part of the Bangladesh-India Allied Forces.[14] It was instrumental in securing the Surrender of Pakistan and the liberation of Dacca and other cities in December 1971.[14][15]

Organization

The "Mukti Bahini" was divided into two groups; the "Niomito Bahini" – or "regular forces" – who came from the paramilitary, military and police forces of East Pakistan, and the Gonnobahini – or "people's forces" – who were civilians. These names were given and defined by the Government of Bangladesh. The Indians referred to the Niomito Bahini as "Mukti Fauj", and the Gonnobahini were called "freedom fighters".[16][17]

Background

 
Flag of Bangladesh in 1971, used during the Bangladesh Liberation War.

East Pakistan campaigned against the usage of Urdu as the sole official language of Pakistan. The Awami League had won the majority in the 1970 Pakistan election. Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, as the leader of the Awami League, was prevented from forming a government.[18] Bengali was the only language in Pakistan not written in the Persian-Arabic script. The administrative change that merged the administrative provinces of West Pakistan into one "unit" caused great suspicion in East Pakistan.[19] Pakistan's unwillingness to give autonomy to East Bengal and Bengali nationalism are both cited as reasons for the separation.[20] The 1970 Bhola Cyclone had caused the death of 500,000 people while the infrastructure, transport and other services were severely damaged. The central government of Pakistan was blamed for the slow response and misuse of funds.[21] It created resentment in the population of East Pakistan.[22] The resentment allowed Awami League to win 160 of the 162 parliamentary seats allocated to East Pakistan which made the Awami League the majority party in the 300 seat parliament of Pakistan.[23][24] After the 1971 elections, Yahya Khan hoped for a power sharing agreement between Mujib and Bhutto, though talks between them did not result in a solution. Mujib wanted full autonomy, Bhutto advised Yahya to break off talks. In March, General Yahya Khan suspended the National Assembly of Pakistan.[25]

On 7 March 1971, Sheikh Mujib made his now famous speech in Ramna Race course (Suhrawardy Udyan) where he declared "The struggle this time is for our freedom. The struggle this time is for our independence".[26] East Pakistan television broadcasters started broadcasting Rabindranath songs, a taboo in Pakistan, while reducing the air-time of shows from West Pakistan. Civilian interaction with the Pakistan Army were decreased and they were increasingly seen as an occupying force, while local contractors stopped providing supplies to the Pakistan Army.[27] The Pakistan Army also tried to disarm and dismiss personnel of Bengali origin in the East Pakistan Rifles, the police and the regular army. The Bengali officers mutinied against the Pakistan Army, and attacked officers from West Pakistan.[28] The Pakistan Army's crackdown on the civilian population had contributed to the revolt of East Pakistani soldiers. The East Pakistani soldiers moved to India and formed the main body of Mukti Bahini.[29] Sheikh Mujib on 26 March 1971 declared the independence of Bangladesh, while Pakistan's president Yahya Khan declared Mujib a traitor during a national broadcast on the same day.[30][31] The Pakistan Army moved infantry and armoured units to East Pakistan in preparation for the coming conflicts.[32]

Early resistance

 
Location of West Pakistani (marked green) and rebel Bangladeshi (marked red) military units in March 1971.

On 25 March, martial law was declared, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was arrested and Operation Searchlight started in East Pakistan. Foreign journalists were expelled and the Awami League was banned. Members of the Awami league, the East Pakistan Rifles, the East Bengal Regiment and others thought to be disloyal to Pakistan were attacked by the Pakistan army. The survivors of the attack would form the backbone of the Mukti Bahini.[33] When the Pakistan Army started the military crackdown on the Bengali population, they did not expect prolonged resistance.[34] Five battalions of the East Bengal Regiment mutinied and initiated the war for liberation of Bangladesh.[35]

On 27 March, Major Ziaur Rahman declared Bangladesh's independence from Pakistan and fought his way out of Chittagong City with his unit of Bengali soldiers.[27] The East Pakistan Rifles and the East Pakistan Police suffered heavy casualties[quantify] while challenging the Pakistan Army in Dhaka, where West Pakistani forces began the 1971 Bangladesh genocide with the massacre at Dhaka University. Civilians took control of arms depots in various cities and began resisting Pakistani forces with the acquired weapons supply. Chittagong experienced heavy fighting between rebel Bengali military units and Pakistani forces. The Bangladeshi Declaration of Independence was broadcast from Kalurghat Radio Station in Chittagong by Major Rahman on behalf of Sheikh Rahman.[33]

Bengali forces took control of numerous districts in the initial months of the war, including Brahmanbaria, Faridpur, Barisal, Mymensingh, Comilla and Kushtia among others. With the support of the local population, many towns remained under the control of Bengali forces until April and May 1971. Notable engagements during this period included the Battle of Kamalpur, the Battle of Daruin and the Battle of Rangamati-Mahalchari waterway in the Chittagong Hill Tracts.[36]

On 18 April, the Deputy High Commission of Pakistan in Kolkata defected and hoisted the flag of Bangladesh.[37] On 17 April, the Mujibnagar Government was formed.[38]

During May, Foreign Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto asked General Yahya Khan to hand over power in West Pakistan to his party. Khan refused on the grounds that doing so would support the view of Mukti Bahini and the Provisional Government of Bangladesh that East Pakistan was a colony of West Pakistan. Tensions were raised when Bhutto told his followers that "by November [he] would either be in power or in jail".[39]

On 9 June, Mukti Bahini members hijacked a car and launched a grenade attack on Dhaka Intercontinental Hotel, the office of the Pro-Junta Morning Post and the house of Golam Azam.[40]

July–November

July

 
Italian howitzers used by the Mujib Battery;[41] now preserved at the Bangladesh Military Museum.

The Mukti Bahini divided the war zone into eleven sectors. The war strategy included a huge guerrilla force operating inside Bangladesh that targeted Pakistani installations through raids, ambushes and sabotaging West Pakistani-controlled shipping ports, power plants, industries, railways and warehouses. The wide dispersion of West Pakistani forces allowed Bengali guerrillas to target smaller groups of enemy soldiers. Groups ranging in size from five to ten guerrillas were assigned specific missions. Bridges, culverts, fuel depots and ships were destroyed to decrease the mobility of the Pakistan Army.[42] However, the Mukti Bahini failed in its Monsoon Offensive after Pakistani reinforcements successfully countered Bengali engagements. Attacks on border outposts in Sylhet, Comilla and Mymensingh had limited success. The training period slowed the momentum of the Bangladesh Forces, which began to pick up after August.[43] After the monsoon, the Mukti Bahini became more effective while the Indian army created a number of bases inside East Pakistan for the Mukti Bahini.[44] The railways in East Pakistan were almost completely shut down due to the Mukti Bahini's sabotage. The provincial capital, Dhaka, had become a ghost town with gun-fire and explosions heard throughout the day.[45]

August

[relevant?]

After a visit to East Pakistan refugee camps in India in August 1971, US Senator Ted Kennedy believed that Pakistan was committing a genocide.[46] Golam Azam called for Pakistan to attack India and to annexe Assam in retaliation for India providing help to the Mukti Bahini.[46] Azam accused India of shelling East Pakistani border areas on a daily basis. Oxfam predicted the deaths of over one hundred thousand children in refugee camps and that more could die from food shortages in East Pakistan because of the conflict.[46]

September

Regular Mukti Bahini battalions were formed in September 1971,[47] increasing the effectiveness of the Mukti Bahini. Sabotage and ambush missions continued to be carried out, demoralising the Pakistan army.[48]

October

In October, conventional Bangladesh Forces mounted various successful offensives, capturing 90 of the 300 border outposts. The Mukti Bahini intensified guerrilla attacks inside Bangladesh while Pakistan increased reprisals on Bengali civilians,[49] though the movement of Mukti Bahini into, out of, and inside East Pakistan became easier and more common.[50]

November

In November, Indian involvement increased, with the Indian artillery and Indian Air force providing direct cover for the Mukti Bahini in some offensives.[51] Attacks on infrastructure and the increase in the reach of the provisional government weakened the control of the Pakistan government.[52]

Air operations

The Bangladesh Air Force (BAF) was established on 28 September 1971 under the command of Air Commodore A. K. Khandker. It initially operated from a jungle airstrip near Dimapur in Nagaland, India. When taking over liberated territories, the Bangladesh Forces gained control of World War II airstrips in Lalmonirhat, Shalutikar, Sylhet and Comilla in November and December. The BAF launched "Kilo Flights" under the command of Squadron Leader Sultan Mahmud on 3 December 1971. Sorties by Otter DHC-3 aircraft destroyed Pakistani fuel supplies in Narayanganj and Chittagong where targets included the Burmah Oil Refinery, numerous ships and oil depots.[53]

Naval operations

The Bangladesh naval forces took shape in July. Operation Jackpot was launched by the Bangladesh Forces on 15 August 1971. Bangladesh Navy commandos sank vessels of the Pakistan Navy in Mongla, Chittagong, Chandpur and Narayanganj.[54][55][56][57] The operation was a major propaganda success for Bangladeshi forces, as it exposed to the international community the fragile hold of the West Pakistani occupation.[58] The Bangladesh Navy commandos targeted patrol craft and ships carrying ammunition and commodities. With Indian aid, the Mukti Bahini acquired two vessels, the Padma and Palash, which were retrofitted into gunboats with mine-laying capabilities. The boat crews extensively mined the Passur River in the Sundarbans, reducing the ability of Pakistani forces to operate from the Port of Mongla but were mistakenly bombed by Indian Air Force troops that resulted in the loss of both vessels and some of the lives of the Mukti Bahini and Indian personnel on board.[59] The developing Bangladesh Navy carried out attacks on ships and used sea mines to prevent supply ships from docking in East Pakistani ports. Frogmen were deployed to damage and sabotage ships.[60]

Organization

See also: List of sectors in the Bangladesh Liberation War
 
Mukti Bahini propaganda posters, one referencing Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's 7 March speech and calling all Bengali Muslims, Christians, Buddhists and Hindus to unite as one nation.

M. A. G. Osmani, a Bengali veteran of the British Raj forces in World War II and the Pakistan army, established the Bangladesh Armed Forces on 4 April 1971. The Provisional Government of Bangladesh placed all Bangladeshi forces under the command of Osmani, who was appointed as the defence minister with the rank of Commander-in-Chief as a four star general. Osmani designated the composition of the Mukti Bahini into several divisions. It included the regular armed forces which covered the Army, Navy and Air Forces; as well as special brigades including the Z Force. Paramilitary forces, including the East Pakistan Rifles and police, were designated as the Niyomito Bahini (Regular Forces). They were divided between forward battalions and sector troops. Another civilian force was raised and known as the Gonobahini (People's Forces) consisting of lightly trained civilian brigades under military command; the Gonobahini also consisted of battalions created by political activists from the pro-Western Awami League, the pro-Chinese and socialist National Awami Party, led by Maulana Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani, and the pro-Soviet Communist Party of East Pakistan.[42]

The guerrilla movement was composed of three wings: well-armed Action Groups which took part in frontal attacks; military intelligence units; and guerrilla bases. The first conference of sector commanders was held during July 1971, starting on 11 July and ending 17 July. Prominent sector commanders included defector officers and soldiers from the Pakistan Armed Forces, including Major Ziaur Rahman, Major Khaled Mosharraf, Major K M Shafiullah, Captain A. N. M. Nuruzzaman, Major Chitta Ranjan Dutta, Wing Commander M Khademul Bashar, Major Nazmul Huq, Major Quazi Nuruzzaman, Major Abu Osman Chowdhury, Major Abul Manzoor, Major M. A. Jalil, Major Abu Taher and Squadron Leader M. Hamidullah Khan.[61] The Mujib Bahini was led by Awami League youth leaders Serajul Alam Khan, Sheikh Fazlul Huq Moni, Tofael Ahmed and Abdur Razzak. An Australian war veteran, William A. S. Ouderland, organised guerrilla warfare in Dacca and provided vital intelligence to the Bangladesh Forces. He was awarded the Bir Protik for his actions by the government of Bangladesh.[62][63] Left-wing politicians Kader Siddique, Hemayet Uddin and Moni Singh created several guerrilla units. Kader Siddique operated in the Tangail District.[64] Hemayet was a former soldier in East Pakistan and his Bahini was raised almost entirely on local supplies.[65] Moni Singh was a communist leader in East Pakistan.[66][self-published source?]

The Independent Bangladesh Radio Station was one of the cultural wings of the Mukti Bahini. The Bangladesh liberation movement released five prominent propaganda posters which promoted the independence struggle – irrespective of religious affiliations and gender. One of the posters famously portrayed Pakistan's military ruler, Yahya Khan, as a demon. The Mukti Bahini operated field hospitals, wireless stations, training camps and prisons.[67][self-published source?]

Equipment

The Mukti Bahini benefited from the early control of Pakistani arms depots, which were overtaken by Bengali forces during March and April 1971. The Mukti Bahini purchased large quantities of military-grade equipment through the arms market in Calcutta, including Italian howitzers, Alouette III helicopters, "Dakota" DC-3 aircraft and "Otter" DHC-3 fighter planes. The Mukti Bahini also received a limited supply of equipment from the Indian military, as New Delhi allowed the Bangladeshi forces to operate an independent weapons supply through Calcutta Port.[68] The Mukti Bahini used Sten Guns, Lee–Enfield rifles and Indian-made hand grenades.[69] Some of the arms and equipment used by Mukti Bahini are given below:

See:"Arms for freedom". 29 December 2017. Retrieved 31 August 2019.

Bangladesh-India Allied Forces

 
Pakistan's Lt. Gen. A. A. K. Niazi signing the Pakistani Instrument of Surrender in Dhaka on 16 December 1971, in the presence of India's Lt. Gen. Aurora. Standing behind them are various officers from India's Army, Navy and Air Force.

The launch of Operation Chengiz Khan by West Pakistan on North India finally drew India into the Bangladesh conflict and a joint command structure was established between the Bangladeshi and Indian forces. Three corps of the Indian Armed Forces were supported by three brigades of the Mukti Bahini and the Bengali guerrilla army. The Mukti Bahini and its supporters guided the Indian army and provided them with information about Pakistani troop movements.[70] The Indian and Mukti Bahini greatly outnumbered the three Pakistani army divisions of East Pakistan. The Battle of Sylhet, the Battle of Garibpur, the Battle of Boyra, the Battle of Hilli and the Battle of Kushtia were major joint engagements for the Bangladeshi and Indian forces, who swiftly captured surrounding land by selectively engaging or bypassing heavily defended strongholds. For example, the Meghna Heli Bridge airlifted Bangladeshi and Indian forces from Brahmanbaria to Narsingdi over Pakistani defences in Ashuganj. The cities of Jessore, Mymensingh, Sylhet, Kushtia, Noakhali and Moulvibazar quickly fell to the Mukti Bahini-Indian joint forces. In Dhaka, the Pakistan Army and its supporting militias began the mass murder of Bengali intellectuals and professionals in a final attempt to eliminate the Bengali intelligentsia.[citation needed] Historian Yasmin Saikia writes that the Mukti-Bahini, Indian forces, the Pakistani Army, and pro-Pakistani militias looted, raped, and killed civilians in East Pakistan.[71] The Mukti Bahini liberated most of the Dhaka District by mid-December. In Western Pakistan, Indian forces advanced deep into Pakistani territory as the Port of Karachi was subjected to a naval blockade by the Indian Navy. Pakistani generals surrendered to the Mukti Bahini-Indian forces in Dhaka on 16 December 1971.[72]

Relations with India

Ten million Bengali refugees fled into neighbouring India because of famine and ravages of the Pakistan army,[12] where the regions of West Bengal, Tripura and the Barak Valley shared strong ethnic, linguistic and cultural links with East Pakistan. The war sparked an unprecedented level of unity in the Bengali-speaking world. There was strong support for Bengalis and Mukti Bahini from the Indian media and public.[73] India feared that if the movement for Bangladesh came to be dominated by communists then it would adversely affect its own fight with the left-wing Naxalites. It also did not want the millions of refugees to be permanently stranded in India.[73]

Indian Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi, authorised diplomatic, economic and military support to the Bangladesh Forces in April 1971.[74][36] The Provisional Government of Bangladesh established its secretariat in exile in Calcutta. The Indian Armed Forces provided substantial training and the use of its bases for the Bangladesh Forces. The Bangladesh liberation guerrillas operated training camps in the Indian states of Bihar, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Nagaland, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Tripura and West Bengal.[75][76] Mukti Bahini were allowed by India to cross the border at will.[77]

Some Mukti Bahini, especially those who served in the security services of Pakistan, were suspicious of Indian involvement and wished to minimise its role. They also resented the formation of the Mujib Bahini by India which was composed of Sheikh Mujib-loyalists but was not under the command of Mukti Bahini or the provisional government of Bangladesh.[5]

On 6 December 1971, India officially recognised Bangladesh as an independent country only hours after Bhutan did the same.[78]

International reactions

The genocide by Pakistani forces caused widespread international outrage against West Pakistan.[79] In the United States, Democratic senator Ted Kennedy led a chorus of strong domestic criticism against the Nixon administration for ignoring the genocide of Bengalis in East Pakistan.[80][81]

The Mukti Bahini enjoyed significant international public support. The Bangladeshi provisional government considered setting up an "International Brigade" with European and North American students.[68] French Minister of Cultural Affairs André Malraux vowed to fight on the battlefield alongside the Bangladesh Forces.[82]

The Soviet Union threw its weight behind the Bangladesh Forces and India after being convinced of Pakistan's unwillingness for a political solution.[68] Separately, US efforts to woo China through Pakistan led to India signing a friendship treaty with Moscow in August 1971. India increased support to Mukti Bahini after the signing of the treaty.[83] For India, the treaty was an important insurance policy against a possible Chinese intervention on the side of Pakistan. China had fought a brief war with India in 1962. Both the US and China, however, ultimately failed to mobilise adequate support for Pakistan.[75][76]

Honours

Bir Sreshtho (The Most Valiant Hero) is the highest military honour in Bangladesh and was awarded to seven Mukti Bahini fighters. They were Ruhul Amin, Mohiuddin Jahangir, Mostafa Kamal, Hamidur Rahman, Munshi Abdur Rouf, Nur Mohammad Sheikh and Matiur Rahman.[84]

The other three gallantry awards in decreasing order of importance are Bir Uttom, Bir Bikrom and Bir Protik.[85]

In the Section 2(11) of the Bangladesh Freedom Fighters Welfare Trust Act, 2018 (Act No. 51 of 2018) everyone participated in the liberation war is defined as Bir Muktijoddha (Bengali: বীর মুক্তিযোদ্ধা).[86] The government issued an order by gazette notification on 29 October 2020 saying that the word Bir (heroic) will have to be added to the term freedom fighter.[87] To compulsorily comply with the law, in the 13th meeting of the Standing Committee, the Ministry of Liberation War Affairs of the 11th National Parliament issued another order by gazette notification on 18 December 2021 stating that the word Bir (heroic) must be used as an honorific prefix before the names of freedom fighters and the English synonym for Bir Muktijoddha will be Heroic Freedom Fighter.[88]

Women

Women had served in the Mukti Bahini during the Bangladesh Liberation War. The Mukti Bahini trained several female battalions for guerrilla warfare. Taramon Bibi is one of the two female wars heroes of the Bangladesh Liberation War. Captain Sitara Begum is noted for setting up field hospitals for injured Mukti Bahini fighters.[89] Professor Nazma Shaheen, University of Dhaka, and her sister were female members in the Mukti Bahini.[90]

Post-war

 
Aparajeyo Bangla (Invincible Bengal) was finished on 16 December 1978 by Syed Abdullah Khalid at University of Dhaka Campus, is a Monument to Mukti Bahini.[91]

The Mukti Bahini was succeeded by the Bangladesh Armed Forces, the Bangladesh Rifles and the Bangladesh Police. Civilian fighters were provided with numerous privileges, including reservations in government jobs and universities.[92][93] The Bangladesh Freedom Fighters Assembly was formed to represent former guerrillas. Bangladesh Liberation War ministry is responsible for looking after the welfare of Mukti Bahini members.[94] The widespread availability of arms created serious law and order concerns for the Bangladesh government after the war. A few militia units are alleged to have taken part in reprisal attacks against the Urdu-speaking population following the Pakistani surrender.[95]

Indemnity

On 28 February 1973 the government of Bangladesh enacted the National Liberation Struggle (Indemnity) Order to provide indemnity "to those persons in respect of acts done in connection with the national liberation struggle, the maintenance or restoration of order" which was to be enforced retrospectively from 26 March 1972.[95]

Criticism

Human rights violations

The Mukti Bahini has been accused of human rights violations by historians on West Pakistanis and Biharis.[96][97]

On 27 March 1971, members of the Mukti Bahini were alleged to have massacred 15000 Biharis in the town of Santahar in the district of Naogaon.[98][99] They are also accused of raping Bihari women during the war.[96] This was in retaliation to Operation Searchlight.

Mukti Bahini, the Bengali resistance force, backed by Indian government, from East Pakistan, killed non-Bengalis (primarily West Pakistanis and Biharis) in the aftermath of the Bangladesh Liberation War. [100]

After the Liberation War of Bangladesh ended, many people who had been denied repatriation to Pakistan were forcefully relocated to refugee camps, were referred to as Stranded Pakistanis and denied citizenship of Bangladesh.[101] Since 2007, Biharis living in Bangladesh have been granted full citizenship and voting rights.

Cultural legacy

 
The National Martyrs' Memorial in Bangladesh
See also: Artistic depictions of the Bangladesh Liberation War

The Mukti Bahini has been the subject of numerous artwork, literature, films and television productions.

See also

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Further reading

  • Ahmed, Helal Uddin (2012). "Mukti Bahini". In Islam, Sirajul; Jamal, Ahmed A. (eds.). Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh (Second ed.). Asiatic Society of Bangladesh.
  • Ayub, Muhammad (2005). An Army, its Role and Rule: A History of the Pakistan Army from Independence to Kargil, 1947–1999. Pittsburgh, PA: RoseDog Books. ISBN 0-8059-9594-3.

January 26, 2023
mukti, bahini, bengali, translates, freedom, fighters, liberation, army, also, known, bangladesh, forces, guerrilla, resistance, movement, consisting, bangladeshi, military, paramilitary, civilians, during, liberation, that, transformed, east, pakistan, into, . The Mukti Bahini Bengali ম ক ত ব হ ন 3 translates as freedom fighters or liberation army 4 also known as the Bangladesh Forces was the guerrilla resistance movement consisting of the Bangladeshi military paramilitary and civilians during the War of Liberation that transformed East Pakistan into Bangladesh in 1971 5 They were initially called the Mukti Fauj 6 Mukti Bahiniম ক ত ব হ ন Freedom Fighters Mukti Bahini FlagLeadersM A G Osmani Commander in Chief M A Rab Chief of Staff A K Khandker Deputy Chief of StaffDates of operationMarch December 1971Group s Bangladesh Army K Force S Force Z Force Bangladesh Navy Bangladesh Air Force Bangladesh RiflesBangladesh AnsarBangladesh Police Special Guerrilla Forces Gono Bahini Mujib Bahini Kader Bahini Hemayet Bahini Afsar BahiniCrack PlatoonActive regionsEast PakistanIdeologyBengali nationalismSecularismSocialism Resistance to the 1971 Bangladesh Genocide 1 Size180 000Part ofProvisional Government of Bangladesh 2 Allies Soviet Union IndiaOpponents PakistanBattles and warsBattle of Gazipur Battle of Goalhati Battle of Garibpur Battle of Kamalpur Battle of Dhalai Battle of Rangamati Battle of Kushtia Battle of Daruin Operation Barisal Operation JackpotWar flagSucceeded byBangladesh Armed Forces On 7 March 1971 Sheikh Mujibur Rahman issued a call to the people of East Pakistan to prepare themselves for an all out struggle 7 Later that evening resistance demonstrations began 7 and the military began a full scale retaliation with Operation Searchlight which continued through May 1971 7 A formal military leadership of the resistance was created in April 1971 under the Provisional Government of Bangladesh The military council was headed by General M A G Osmani 8 and eleven sector commanders 9 The Bangladesh Armed Forces were established on 4 April 1971 In addition to regular units such as the East Bengal Regiment and the East Pakistan Rifles the Mukti Bahini also consisted of the civilian Gonobahini People s Force citation needed The most prominent divisions of the Mukti Bahini were the Z Force led by Major Ziaur Rahman the K Force led by Major Khaled Mosharraf and the S Force led by Major K M Shafiullah Awami League student leaders formed militia units including the Mujib Bahini the Kader Bahini and Hemayet Bahini 9 The Communist Party of Bangladesh led by Comrade Moni Singh and activists from the National Awami Party also operated several guerrilla battalions 10 Using guerrilla warfare tactics the Mukti Bahini secured control over large parts of the Bengali countryside It conducted successful ambush and sabotage campaigns 11 and included the nascent Bangladesh Air Force and the Bangladesh Navy The Mukti Bahini received training and weapons from India 12 where people in West Bengal shared a common Bengali ethnic and linguistic heritage with East Pakistan 13 During the Indo Pakistani War of 1971 the Mukti Bahini became part of the Bangladesh India Allied Forces 14 It was instrumental in securing the Surrender of Pakistan and the liberation of Dacca and other cities in December 1971 14 15 Contents 1 Organization 2 Background 3 Early resistance 4 July November 4 1 July 4 2 August 4 3 September 4 4 October 4 5 November 5 Air operations 6 Naval operations 7 Organization 8 Equipment 9 Bangladesh India Allied Forces 10 Relations with India 11 International reactions 12 Honours 13 Women 14 Post war 14 1 Indemnity 15 Criticism 15 1 Human rights violations 16 Cultural legacy 17 See also 18 References 19 Further readingOrganization EditThe Mukti Bahini was divided into two groups the Niomito Bahini or regular forces who came from the paramilitary military and police forces of East Pakistan and the Gonnobahini or people s forces who were civilians These names were given and defined by the Government of Bangladesh The Indians referred to the Niomito Bahini as Mukti Fauj and the Gonnobahini were called freedom fighters 16 17 Background Edit Flag of Bangladesh in 1971 used during the Bangladesh Liberation War East Pakistan campaigned against the usage of Urdu as the sole official language of Pakistan The Awami League had won the majority in the 1970 Pakistan election Sheikh Mujibur Rahman as the leader of the Awami League was prevented from forming a government 18 Bengali was the only language in Pakistan not written in the Persian Arabic script The administrative change that merged the administrative provinces of West Pakistan into one unit caused great suspicion in East Pakistan 19 Pakistan s unwillingness to give autonomy to East Bengal and Bengali nationalism are both cited as reasons for the separation 20 The 1970 Bhola Cyclone had caused the death of 500 000 people while the infrastructure transport and other services were severely damaged The central government of Pakistan was blamed for the slow response and misuse of funds 21 It created resentment in the population of East Pakistan 22 The resentment allowed Awami League to win 160 of the 162 parliamentary seats allocated to East Pakistan which made the Awami League the majority party in the 300 seat parliament of Pakistan 23 24 After the 1971 elections Yahya Khan hoped for a power sharing agreement between Mujib and Bhutto though talks between them did not result in a solution Mujib wanted full autonomy Bhutto advised Yahya to break off talks In March General Yahya Khan suspended the National Assembly of Pakistan 25 On 7 March 1971 Sheikh Mujib made his now famous speech in Ramna Race course Suhrawardy Udyan where he declared The struggle this time is for our freedom The struggle this time is for our independence 26 East Pakistan television broadcasters started broadcasting Rabindranath songs a taboo in Pakistan while reducing the air time of shows from West Pakistan Civilian interaction with the Pakistan Army were decreased and they were increasingly seen as an occupying force while local contractors stopped providing supplies to the Pakistan Army 27 The Pakistan Army also tried to disarm and dismiss personnel of Bengali origin in the East Pakistan Rifles the police and the regular army The Bengali officers mutinied against the Pakistan Army and attacked officers from West Pakistan 28 The Pakistan Army s crackdown on the civilian population had contributed to the revolt of East Pakistani soldiers The East Pakistani soldiers moved to India and formed the main body of Mukti Bahini 29 Sheikh Mujib on 26 March 1971 declared the independence of Bangladesh while Pakistan s president Yahya Khan declared Mujib a traitor during a national broadcast on the same day 30 31 The Pakistan Army moved infantry and armoured units to East Pakistan in preparation for the coming conflicts 32 Early resistance Edit Location of West Pakistani marked green and rebel Bangladeshi marked red military units in March 1971 On 25 March martial law was declared Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was arrested and Operation Searchlight started in East Pakistan Foreign journalists were expelled and the Awami League was banned Members of the Awami league the East Pakistan Rifles the East Bengal Regiment and others thought to be disloyal to Pakistan were attacked by the Pakistan army The survivors of the attack would form the backbone of the Mukti Bahini 33 When the Pakistan Army started the military crackdown on the Bengali population they did not expect prolonged resistance 34 Five battalions of the East Bengal Regiment mutinied and initiated the war for liberation of Bangladesh 35 On 27 March Major Ziaur Rahman declared Bangladesh s independence from Pakistan and fought his way out of Chittagong City with his unit of Bengali soldiers 27 The East Pakistan Rifles and the East Pakistan Police suffered heavy casualties quantify while challenging the Pakistan Army in Dhaka where West Pakistani forces began the 1971 Bangladesh genocide with the massacre at Dhaka University Civilians took control of arms depots in various cities and began resisting Pakistani forces with the acquired weapons supply Chittagong experienced heavy fighting between rebel Bengali military units and Pakistani forces The Bangladeshi Declaration of Independence was broadcast from Kalurghat Radio Station in Chittagong by Major Rahman on behalf of Sheikh Rahman 33 Bengali forces took control of numerous districts in the initial months of the war including Brahmanbaria Faridpur Barisal Mymensingh Comilla and Kushtia among others With the support of the local population many towns remained under the control of Bengali forces until April and May 1971 Notable engagements during this period included the Battle of Kamalpur the Battle of Daruin and the Battle of Rangamati Mahalchari waterway in the Chittagong Hill Tracts 36 On 18 April the Deputy High Commission of Pakistan in Kolkata defected and hoisted the flag of Bangladesh 37 On 17 April the Mujibnagar Government was formed 38 During May Foreign Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto asked General Yahya Khan to hand over power in West Pakistan to his party Khan refused on the grounds that doing so would support the view of Mukti Bahini and the Provisional Government of Bangladesh that East Pakistan was a colony of West Pakistan Tensions were raised when Bhutto told his followers that by November he would either be in power or in jail 39 On 9 June Mukti Bahini members hijacked a car and launched a grenade attack on Dhaka Intercontinental Hotel the office of the Pro Junta Morning Post and the house of Golam Azam 40 July November EditJuly Edit Italian howitzers used by the Mujib Battery 41 now preserved at the Bangladesh Military Museum The Mukti Bahini divided the war zone into eleven sectors The war strategy included a huge guerrilla force operating inside Bangladesh that targeted Pakistani installations through raids ambushes and sabotaging West Pakistani controlled shipping ports power plants industries railways and warehouses The wide dispersion of West Pakistani forces allowed Bengali guerrillas to target smaller groups of enemy soldiers Groups ranging in size from five to ten guerrillas were assigned specific missions Bridges culverts fuel depots and ships were destroyed to decrease the mobility of the Pakistan Army 42 However the Mukti Bahini failed in its Monsoon Offensive after Pakistani reinforcements successfully countered Bengali engagements Attacks on border outposts in Sylhet Comilla and Mymensingh had limited success The training period slowed the momentum of the Bangladesh Forces which began to pick up after August 43 After the monsoon the Mukti Bahini became more effective while the Indian army created a number of bases inside East Pakistan for the Mukti Bahini 44 The railways in East Pakistan were almost completely shut down due to the Mukti Bahini s sabotage The provincial capital Dhaka had become a ghost town with gun fire and explosions heard throughout the day 45 August Edit relevant After a visit to East Pakistan refugee camps in India in August 1971 US Senator Ted Kennedy believed that Pakistan was committing a genocide 46 Golam Azam called for Pakistan to attack India and to annexe Assam in retaliation for India providing help to the Mukti Bahini 46 Azam accused India of shelling East Pakistani border areas on a daily basis Oxfam predicted the deaths of over one hundred thousand children in refugee camps and that more could die from food shortages in East Pakistan because of the conflict 46 September Edit Regular Mukti Bahini battalions were formed in September 1971 47 increasing the effectiveness of the Mukti Bahini Sabotage and ambush missions continued to be carried out demoralising the Pakistan army 48 October Edit In October conventional Bangladesh Forces mounted various successful offensives capturing 90 of the 300 border outposts The Mukti Bahini intensified guerrilla attacks inside Bangladesh while Pakistan increased reprisals on Bengali civilians 49 though the movement of Mukti Bahini into out of and inside East Pakistan became easier and more common 50 November Edit In November Indian involvement increased with the Indian artillery and Indian Air force providing direct cover for the Mukti Bahini in some offensives 51 Attacks on infrastructure and the increase in the reach of the provisional government weakened the control of the Pakistan government 52 Air operations EditThe Bangladesh Air Force BAF was established on 28 September 1971 under the command of Air Commodore A K Khandker It initially operated from a jungle airstrip near Dimapur in Nagaland India When taking over liberated territories the Bangladesh Forces gained control of World War II airstrips in Lalmonirhat Shalutikar Sylhet and Comilla in November and December The BAF launched Kilo Flights under the command of Squadron Leader Sultan Mahmud on 3 December 1971 Sorties by Otter DHC 3 aircraft destroyed Pakistani fuel supplies in Narayanganj and Chittagong where targets included the Burmah Oil Refinery numerous ships and oil depots 53 Naval operations EditThe Bangladesh naval forces took shape in July Operation Jackpot was launched by the Bangladesh Forces on 15 August 1971 Bangladesh Navy commandos sank vessels of the Pakistan Navy in Mongla Chittagong Chandpur and Narayanganj 54 55 56 57 The operation was a major propaganda success for Bangladeshi forces as it exposed to the international community the fragile hold of the West Pakistani occupation 58 The Bangladesh Navy commandos targeted patrol craft and ships carrying ammunition and commodities With Indian aid the Mukti Bahini acquired two vessels the Padma and Palash which were retrofitted into gunboats with mine laying capabilities The boat crews extensively mined the Passur River in the Sundarbans reducing the ability of Pakistani forces to operate from the Port of Mongla but were mistakenly bombed by Indian Air Force troops that resulted in the loss of both vessels and some of the lives of the Mukti Bahini and Indian personnel on board 59 The developing Bangladesh Navy carried out attacks on ships and used sea mines to prevent supply ships from docking in East Pakistani ports Frogmen were deployed to damage and sabotage ships 60 Organization EditSee also List of sectors in the Bangladesh Liberation War Mukti Bahini propaganda posters one referencing Sheikh Mujibur Rahman s 7 March speech and calling all Bengali Muslims Christians Buddhists and Hindus to unite as one nation M A G Osmani a Bengali veteran of the British Raj forces in World War II and the Pakistan army established the Bangladesh Armed Forces on 4 April 1971 The Provisional Government of Bangladesh placed all Bangladeshi forces under the command of Osmani who was appointed as the defence minister with the rank of Commander in Chief as a four star general Osmani designated the composition of the Mukti Bahini into several divisions It included the regular armed forces which covered the Army Navy and Air Forces as well as special brigades including the Z Force Paramilitary forces including the East Pakistan Rifles and police were designated as the Niyomito Bahini Regular Forces They were divided between forward battalions and sector troops Another civilian force was raised and known as the Gonobahini People s Forces consisting of lightly trained civilian brigades under military command the Gonobahini also consisted of battalions created by political activists from the pro Western Awami League the pro Chinese and socialist National Awami Party led by Maulana Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani and the pro Soviet Communist Party of East Pakistan 42 The guerrilla movement was composed of three wings well armed Action Groups which took part in frontal attacks military intelligence units and guerrilla bases The first conference of sector commanders was held during July 1971 starting on 11 July and ending 17 July Prominent sector commanders included defector officers and soldiers from the Pakistan Armed Forces including Major Ziaur Rahman Major Khaled Mosharraf Major K M Shafiullah Captain A N M Nuruzzaman Major Chitta Ranjan Dutta Wing Commander M Khademul Bashar Major Nazmul Huq Major Quazi Nuruzzaman Major Abu Osman Chowdhury Major Abul Manzoor Major M A Jalil Major Abu Taher and Squadron Leader M Hamidullah Khan 61 The Mujib Bahini was led by Awami League youth leaders Serajul Alam Khan Sheikh Fazlul Huq Moni Tofael Ahmed and Abdur Razzak An Australian war veteran William A S Ouderland organised guerrilla warfare in Dacca and provided vital intelligence to the Bangladesh Forces He was awarded the Bir Protik for his actions by the government of Bangladesh 62 63 Left wing politicians Kader Siddique Hemayet Uddin and Moni Singh created several guerrilla units Kader Siddique operated in the Tangail District 64 Hemayet was a former soldier in East Pakistan and his Bahini was raised almost entirely on local supplies 65 Moni Singh was a communist leader in East Pakistan 66 self published source The Independent Bangladesh Radio Station was one of the cultural wings of the Mukti Bahini The Bangladesh liberation movement released five prominent propaganda posters which promoted the independence struggle irrespective of religious affiliations and gender One of the posters famously portrayed Pakistan s military ruler Yahya Khan as a demon The Mukti Bahini operated field hospitals wireless stations training camps and prisons 67 self published source Equipment EditThe Mukti Bahini benefited from the early control of Pakistani arms depots which were overtaken by Bengali forces during March and April 1971 The Mukti Bahini purchased large quantities of military grade equipment through the arms market in Calcutta including Italian howitzers Alouette III helicopters Dakota DC 3 aircraft and Otter DHC 3 fighter planes The Mukti Bahini also received a limited supply of equipment from the Indian military as New Delhi allowed the Bangladeshi forces to operate an independent weapons supply through Calcutta Port 68 The Mukti Bahini used Sten Guns Lee Enfield rifles and Indian made hand grenades 69 Some of the arms and equipment used by Mukti Bahini are given below Smith amp Wesson Model 10 Revolver SKS rifle British L1A1 SLR rifle Mostly obtained from India Sterling submachine gun Type 56 Chinese assault rifle Lee Enfield 303 Rifle British Sten sub machine gun HE 36 Grenade MG 42 Machinegun 105mm Howitzer Bren gun British Lewis 303 Machine gun 120mm Heavy Mortar ZB 53 Czechoslovakian machine gun G3 Type 53 machine gun M40 recoilless rifle ENERGA anti tank rifle grenade M18 Recoilless Rifle Tula Tokarev 33 Pistol Italian 9mm 3842 Beretta Model 38 Sub machine gun SA 44 RifleSee Arms for freedom 29 December 2017 Retrieved 31 August 2019 Bangladesh India Allied Forces Edit Pakistan s Lt Gen A A K Niazi signing the Pakistani Instrument of Surrender in Dhaka on 16 December 1971 in the presence of India s Lt Gen Aurora Standing behind them are various officers from India s Army Navy and Air Force The launch of Operation Chengiz Khan by West Pakistan on North India finally drew India into the Bangladesh conflict and a joint command structure was established between the Bangladeshi and Indian forces Three corps of the Indian Armed Forces were supported by three brigades of the Mukti Bahini and the Bengali guerrilla army The Mukti Bahini and its supporters guided the Indian army and provided them with information about Pakistani troop movements 70 The Indian and Mukti Bahini greatly outnumbered the three Pakistani army divisions of East Pakistan The Battle of Sylhet the Battle of Garibpur the Battle of Boyra the Battle of Hilli and the Battle of Kushtia were major joint engagements for the Bangladeshi and Indian forces who swiftly captured surrounding land by selectively engaging or bypassing heavily defended strongholds For example the Meghna Heli Bridge airlifted Bangladeshi and Indian forces from Brahmanbaria to Narsingdi over Pakistani defences in Ashuganj The cities of Jessore Mymensingh Sylhet Kushtia Noakhali and Moulvibazar quickly fell to the Mukti Bahini Indian joint forces In Dhaka the Pakistan Army and its supporting militias began the mass murder of Bengali intellectuals and professionals in a final attempt to eliminate the Bengali intelligentsia citation needed Historian Yasmin Saikia writes that the Mukti Bahini Indian forces the Pakistani Army and pro Pakistani militias looted raped and killed civilians in East Pakistan 71 The Mukti Bahini liberated most of the Dhaka District by mid December In Western Pakistan Indian forces advanced deep into Pakistani territory as the Port of Karachi was subjected to a naval blockade by the Indian Navy Pakistani generals surrendered to the Mukti Bahini Indian forces in Dhaka on 16 December 1971 72 Relations with India EditTen million Bengali refugees fled into neighbouring India because of famine and ravages of the Pakistan army 12 where the regions of West Bengal Tripura and the Barak Valley shared strong ethnic linguistic and cultural links with East Pakistan The war sparked an unprecedented level of unity in the Bengali speaking world There was strong support for Bengalis and Mukti Bahini from the Indian media and public 73 India feared that if the movement for Bangladesh came to be dominated by communists then it would adversely affect its own fight with the left wing Naxalites It also did not want the millions of refugees to be permanently stranded in India 73 Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi authorised diplomatic economic and military support to the Bangladesh Forces in April 1971 74 36 The Provisional Government of Bangladesh established its secretariat in exile in Calcutta The Indian Armed Forces provided substantial training and the use of its bases for the Bangladesh Forces The Bangladesh liberation guerrillas operated training camps in the Indian states of Bihar Arunachal Pradesh Assam Nagaland Mizoram Meghalaya Tripura and West Bengal 75 76 Mukti Bahini were allowed by India to cross the border at will 77 Some Mukti Bahini especially those who served in the security services of Pakistan were suspicious of Indian involvement and wished to minimise its role They also resented the formation of the Mujib Bahini by India which was composed of Sheikh Mujib loyalists but was not under the command of Mukti Bahini or the provisional government of Bangladesh 5 On 6 December 1971 India officially recognised Bangladesh as an independent country only hours after Bhutan did the same 78 International reactions EditThe genocide by Pakistani forces caused widespread international outrage against West Pakistan 79 In the United States Democratic senator Ted Kennedy led a chorus of strong domestic criticism against the Nixon administration for ignoring the genocide of Bengalis in East Pakistan 80 81 The Mukti Bahini enjoyed significant international public support The Bangladeshi provisional government considered setting up an International Brigade with European and North American students 68 French Minister of Cultural Affairs Andre Malraux vowed to fight on the battlefield alongside the Bangladesh Forces 82 The Soviet Union threw its weight behind the Bangladesh Forces and India after being convinced of Pakistan s unwillingness for a political solution 68 Separately US efforts to woo China through Pakistan led to India signing a friendship treaty with Moscow in August 1971 India increased support to Mukti Bahini after the signing of the treaty 83 For India the treaty was an important insurance policy against a possible Chinese intervention on the side of Pakistan China had fought a brief war with India in 1962 Both the US and China however ultimately failed to mobilise adequate support for Pakistan 75 76 Honours EditBir Sreshtho The Most Valiant Hero is the highest military honour in Bangladesh and was awarded to seven Mukti Bahini fighters They were Ruhul Amin Mohiuddin Jahangir Mostafa Kamal Hamidur Rahman Munshi Abdur Rouf Nur Mohammad Sheikh and Matiur Rahman 84 The other three gallantry awards in decreasing order of importance are Bir Uttom Bir Bikrom and Bir Protik 85 In the Section 2 11 of the Bangladesh Freedom Fighters Welfare Trust Act 2018 Act No 51 of 2018 everyone participated in the liberation war is defined as Bir Muktijoddha Bengali ব র ম ক ত য দ ধ 86 The government issued an order by gazette notification on 29 October 2020 saying that the word Bir heroic will have to be added to the term freedom fighter 87 To compulsorily comply with the law in the 13th meeting of the Standing Committee the Ministry of Liberation War Affairs of the 11th National Parliament issued another order by gazette notification on 18 December 2021 stating that the word Bir heroic must be used as an honorific prefix before the names of freedom fighters and the English synonym for Bir Muktijoddha will be Heroic Freedom Fighter 88 Women EditWomen had served in the Mukti Bahini during the Bangladesh Liberation War The Mukti Bahini trained several female battalions for guerrilla warfare Taramon Bibi is one of the two female wars heroes of the Bangladesh Liberation War Captain Sitara Begum is noted for setting up field hospitals for injured Mukti Bahini fighters 89 Professor Nazma Shaheen University of Dhaka and her sister were female members in the Mukti Bahini 90 Post war Edit Aparajeyo Bangla Invincible Bengal was finished on 16 December 1978 by Syed Abdullah Khalid at University of Dhaka Campus is a Monument to Mukti Bahini 91 The Mukti Bahini was succeeded by the Bangladesh Armed Forces the Bangladesh Rifles and the Bangladesh Police Civilian fighters were provided with numerous privileges including reservations in government jobs and universities 92 93 The Bangladesh Freedom Fighters Assembly was formed to represent former guerrillas Bangladesh Liberation War ministry is responsible for looking after the welfare of Mukti Bahini members 94 The widespread availability of arms created serious law and order concerns for the Bangladesh government after the war A few militia units are alleged to have taken part in reprisal attacks against the Urdu speaking population following the Pakistani surrender 95 Indemnity Edit On 28 February 1973 the government of Bangladesh enacted the National Liberation Struggle Indemnity Order to provide indemnity to those persons in respect of acts done in connection with the national liberation struggle the maintenance or restoration of order which was to be enforced retrospectively from 26 March 1972 95 Criticism EditHuman rights violations Edit The Mukti Bahini has been accused of human rights violations by historians on West Pakistanis and Biharis 96 97 On 27 March 1971 members of the Mukti Bahini were alleged to have massacred 15000 Biharis in the town of Santahar in the district of Naogaon 98 99 They are also accused of raping Bihari women during the war 96 This was in retaliation to Operation Searchlight Mukti Bahini the Bengali resistance force backed by Indian government from East Pakistan killed non Bengalis primarily West Pakistanis and Biharis in the aftermath of the Bangladesh Liberation War 100 After the Liberation War of Bangladesh ended many people who had been denied repatriation to Pakistan were forcefully relocated to refugee camps were referred to as Stranded Pakistanis and denied citizenship of Bangladesh 101 Since 2007 Biharis living in Bangladesh have been granted full citizenship and voting rights Cultural legacy Edit The National Martyrs Memorial in Bangladesh See also Artistic depictions of the Bangladesh Liberation War The Mukti Bahini has been the subject of numerous artwork literature films and television productions See also EditKader Bahini Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini Mujib Bahini Timeline of Bangladesh Liberation War Human rights in Bangladesh Freedom of religion in Bangladesh 1971 WarReferences Edit Bass Gary J 2013 The Blood Telegram Random House India ISBN 9788184004830 via Google Books Lal PC My Years with the IAF Lancer Publishers LLC p 168 ISBN 978 1 935501 75 6 Oakley Don 4 August 1971 East Pakistan s Unheeded Agony The Nevada Daily Mail Editorial Archived from the original on 11 September 2016 Retrieved 10 January 2016 via The Daily Star Mujibnagar History s first Bengali government bdnews24 com Opinion 16 April 2015 Retrieved 14 January 2016 Jahan Rounaq February 1973 Bangladesh in 1972 Nation Building in a New State Asian Survey 13 2 199 210 doi 10 2307 2642736 JSTOR 2642736 Benvenisti Eyal 2012 First published 1992 The International Law of Occupation 2nd ed Oxford University Press p 189 ISBN 978 0 19 163957 9 Although India portrayed itself at that time as neutral the Indian government in fact nurtured the Bangladeshi Mukti Bahini liberation army guerrillas and the Awami League India supplied them with arms ammunition and logistical support and permitted them to recruit and train volunteers most of the refugees on Indian soil a b Alagappa Muthiah ed 2001 Coercion and governance the declining political role of the military in Asia Stanford Univ Press p 212 ISBN 0 8047 4227 8 Ahmed Helal Uddin 2012 Mukti Bahini In Islam Sirajul Jamal Ahmed A eds Banglapedia National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh Second ed Asiatic Society of Bangladesh a b c Abu Md Delwar Hossain 2012 Operation Searchlight in Sirajul Islam and Ahmed A Jamal ed Banglapedia National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh Second ed Asiatic Society of Bangladesh Unconventional Warfare in South Asia Shadow Warriors and Counterinsurgency Gates and Roy Routledge 2016 a b The Colonel Who Would Not Repent The Bangladesh War and Its Unquiet Legacy Salil Tripathi Yale University Press 2016 p 146 Communist and Marxist parties of the world Charles Hobday Longman 1986 p 228 Jamal Ahmed Abdullah October December 2008 Mukti Bahini and the Liberation War of Bangladesh A Review of Conflicting Views PDF Asian Affairs Centre for Development Research Bangladesh 30 4 Archived from the original PDF on 3 January 2015 a b Bangladesh and Pakistan The Forgotten War Photo Essays Time Retrieved 31 March 2016 Fraser Bashabi 2008 Bengal Partition 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Pakistan Guilty of Genocide The Sydney Morning Herald 18 August 1971 Archived from the original on 24 February 2018 Retrieved 10 January 2016 via The Daily Star Mazumder Shahzaman 12 December 2015 Songs of Freedom The Daily Star Retrieved 9 January 2016 Hiranandani G M 2000 Transition to triumph history of the Indian Navy 1965 1975 New Delhi Lancer Publishers p 129 ISBN 9781897829721 The World Bangladesh Out of War a Nation Is Born Time 20 December 1971 Zeitlin Arnold East Pakistan Rebels Unafraid of Being Caught Or Identified The Daily Star Observer Reporter Retrieved 10 January 2016 Sission Richard Rose Leo E 1991 War and secession Pakistan India and the creation of Bangladesh Berkeley University of California Press p 212 ISBN 9780520076655 Islam Asif God was with me But so were a lot of people Dhaka Tribune Retrieved 9 January 2016 Administrator Muktijuddho Bangladesh Liberation War 1971 part 37 Bangladesh Biman Bahini Bangladesh Air Force or BAF History of Bangladesh Londoni 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978 0 8223 5038 5 Jacob JFR 2000 Surrender at Dacca Birth of a Nation Dhaka University Press Ltd ISBN 984 05 1395 8 a b Datta Antara 2012 Refugees and borders in South Asia the great exodus of 1971 New York Routledge p 28 ISBN 978 0 415 52472 8 ব ল দ শ র ম ক ত য দ ধ ন জ ক ওতপ র তভ ব জড য ছ ল ভ রত জ ন ন ন ইত হ স The Bengali Chronicle 16 December 2022 Retrieved 28 July 2022 a b Shelley Mizanur Rahman 16 December 2012 Victory Day Special 2012 The Daily Star a b Feroze Shahriar 15 December 2014 1971 A Global History of the Creation of Bangladesh The Daily Star Sagar Krishna Chandra 1997 The war of the twins New Delhi Northern Book Centre p 244 ISBN 9788172110826 Bhutan not India was first to recognize Bangladesh The Times of India Press Trust of India Retrieved 14 January 2016 Dummett Mark 16 December 2011 Bangladesh war The article that changed history BBC News Retrieved 17 January 2016 Ahmed Saeed In Bangladesh Ted Kennedy revered CNN Retrieved 17 January 2016 J Bass Gary What a senator can do The Boston Globe Retrieved 17 January 2016 Levy Bernard Henri 28 April 2014 Bernard Henri Levy Andre Malraux s Bangladesh Before the Radicals The Daily Beast Jillani Shahzeb 13 December 2011 Scars of Bangladesh independence war 40 years on BBC News BBC Retrieved 15 February 2016 War heroes honoured The Daily Star UNB 21 November 2009 Retrieved 17 January 2016 The Bangladesh Gazette 15 December 1973 ব ল দ শ ম ক ত য দ ধ কল য ণ ট র স ট আইন ২০১৮ ২ স জ ঞ bdlaws minlaw gov bd Retrieved 8 September 2022 ম ক ত য দ ধ দ র ন ম র আগ ব র ল খ র ব ধ ন কর গ জ ট প রক শ Bangla Tribune in Bengali Retrieved 8 September 2022 ব র ম ক ত য দ ধ র ই র জ প রত শব দ ন র ধ রণ কর গ জ ট jagonews24 com in Bengali Retrieved 8 September 2022 Amin Aasha Mehreen Ahmed Lavina Ambreen Ahsan Shamim 16 December 2006 The women in our liberation war Tales of Endurance and Courage mukto mona com Gupta Jayanta 17 December 2015 Women Mukti Joddhas recall guerrilla days The Times of India Retrieved 10 January 2016 The Dossier of Khalid The Daily Star 19 February 2015 Retrieved 22 April 2016 Freedom Fighter s quota A son explains his burden bdnews24 com Opinion 13 July 2013 Retrieved 17 January 2016 Bangladesh reducing age limit for freedom fighters to below 13 AsiaOne 21 December 2015 Archived from the original on 17 February 2016 Retrieved 17 January 2016 No extension on freedom fighters retirement age The Daily Star 18 January 2016 Retrieved 18 January 2016 a b Zia Kamran 17 May 2016 Politics of genocide in Bangladesh International The News International The News Retrieved 28 September 2016 a b The Untold Stories of the Independence War in Bangladesh jacobinmag com Retrieved 20 March 2022 Khan Engr Imtiaz Alam 15 December 2019 HISTORY THE FALL OF DHAKA FROM BIHARI EYES DAWN COM Retrieved 20 March 2022 Fall of Dhaka How Mukti Bahini cleansed Santahar town of non Bengalis The Express Tribune 15 December 2017 Retrieved 27 February 2022 Mukul M R Akhtar Ami Bijoy Dekhechi I have seen victory Dhaka Dead Reckoning Memories of the 1971 Bangladesh War Mohiuddin Yasmeen Niaz 2007 Pakistan a global studies handbook Santa Barbara Calif u a ABC Clio p 174 ISBN 9781851098019 Further reading EditAhmed Helal Uddin 2012 Mukti Bahini In Islam Sirajul Jamal Ahmed A eds Banglapedia National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh Second ed Asiatic Society of Bangladesh Ayub Muhammad 2005 An Army its Role and Rule A History of the Pakistan Army from Independence to Kargil 1947 1999 Pittsburgh PA RoseDog Books ISBN 0 8059 9594 3 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Mukti Bahini amp oldid 1128903813, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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