fbpx
Wikipedia

Indo-Pakistani War of 1971

The Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 was a military confrontation between India and Pakistan that occurred during the Bangladesh Liberation War in East Pakistan from 3 December 1971 until the Pakistani capitulation in Dhaka on 16 December 1971. The war began with Pakistan's Operation Chengiz Khan, consisting of preemptive aerial strikes on 11 Indian air stations. The strikes led to India declaring war on Pakistan, marking their entry into the war for East Pakistan's independence, on the side of Bengali nationalist forces. India's entry expanded the existing conflict with Indian and Pakistani forces engaging on both the eastern and western fronts.[43] Thirteen days after the war started, India achieved a clear upper hand, and the Eastern Command of the Pakistan military signed the instrument of surrender[44][45] on 16 December 1971 in Dhaka, marking the formation of East Pakistan as the new nation of Bangladesh. Approximately 93,000 Pakistani servicemen were taken prisoner by the Indian Army, which included 79,676 to 81,000 uniformed personnel of the Pakistan Armed Forces, including some Bengali soldiers who had remained loyal to Pakistan.[46][47] The remaining 10,324 to 12,500 prisoners were civilians, either family members of the military personnel or collaborators (Razakars).[48][49][50]

Indo-Pakistani War of 1971
Part of the Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts, Cold War, and Bangladesh Liberation War

First Row: Lt-Gen. A.A.K. Niazi, the Cdr. of Pakistani Eastern Comnd., signing the documented Instrument of Surrender in Dacca in the presence of Lt. Gen. Jagjit Singh Aurora (GOC-in-C of Indian Eastern Comnd.). Surojit Sen of All India Radio is seen holding a microphone on the right.
Second Row (left to right): Vice Adm. N. Krishnan (FOC-in-C Eastern Naval Comnd.), Air Mshl. H.C. Dewan, (AOC-in-C Eastern Air Comnd.), Lt Gen. Sagat Singh (Cdr. IV Corps), Maj Gen. JFR Jacob (COS Eastern Comnd.) and Flt Lt Krishnamurthy (peering over Jacob‘s shoulder).
Date3–16 December 1971
(1 week and 6 days)
Location
Result Indian victory[14][15][16]
Eastern front:
Surrender of East Pakistan military command
Western front:
Unilateral ceasefire[17]
Territorial
changes

Eastern Front:

Western Front:

Belligerents
Supported by:
Supported by:
Commanders and leaders

V. V. Giri
(President of India)
Indira Gandhi
(Prime Minister of India)
Swaran Singh
(External Minister of India)
Jagjivan Ram
(Defence Minister of India)
Gen Sam Manekshaw
(Chief of Army Staff)
Adm S. M. Nanda
(Chief of Naval Staff)
ACM Pratap C. Lal
(Chief of Air Staff)
Lt Gen J.S. Arora
(GOC-in-C Eastern Command)
Lt Gen G.G. Bewoor
(GOC-in-C Southern Command)
Lt Gen K. P. Candeth
(GOC-in-C Western Command)
Lt Gen Premindra Bhagat
(GOC-in-C Central Command)
VAdm S. N. Kohli
(FOC-in-C Western Naval Command)
VAdm Nilakanta Krishnan
FOC-in-C Eastern Naval Command)
Air Mshl H. C. Dewan
(AOC-in-C Eastern Air Command)
Lt Gen Sagat Singh Rathore
(GOC IV Corps)
Lt Gen T. N. Raina
(GOC II Corps)
Lt Gen Sartaj Singh
(GOC XV Corps)
Lt Gen K. K. Singh
(GOC I Corps)
Maj Gen J. F. R. Jacob
(COS, Eastern Command)
Maj Gen Inderjit Singh Gill
(Dir, Military Operations)
RAdm E. C. Kuruvila
(FOCWF)
RAdm S. H. Sarma
(FOCEF)
AVM I. H. Latif
(ACAS(Plans)- Assistant Chief of Air Staff Plans)
Rameshwar Kao
(Director of RAW)


Sheikh Mujibur Rahman
(President of the Provisional Government)
Tajuddin Ahmad
(Prime Minister of the Provisional Government of Bangladesh)
Col. M. A. G. Osmani
(Commander-in-chief, Mukti Bahini)


Yahya Khan
(President of Pakistan)
Nurul Amin
(Prime Minister of Pakistan)
Gen A.H. Khan
(Chief of Staff, Army GHQ)
Lt Gen A.A.K. Niazi 
(Commander, Eastern Command)
Lt Gen Gul Hassan Khan
(Chief of General Staff)
VAdm Muzaffar Hassan
(C-in-C, Navy)
Air Mshl Abdul Rahim Khan
(C-in-C, Air Force)
Lt Gen Abdul Ali Malik
(GOC I Corps)
Lt Gen Tikka Khan
(GOC II Corps)
Lt Gen Bahadur Sher Khan
(GOC IV Corps)
Maj Gen Iftikhar Janjua  
(GOC 23rd Infantry Division)
Maj Gen Khadim Hussain
(GOC 14th Infantry Division)
RAdm Rashid Ahmed
(COS, NHQ)
RAdm Md Shariff  
(FOC Eastern Naval Command)
RAdm M.A.K. Lodhi
(FOC Western Naval Command)
RAdm Leslie Norman
(Commander Pakistan Marines)
AVM P.D. Callaghan
(Chief Ins, Pakistan Air Force)
Air Cdre Inamul Haq 
(Cdr Eastern Air Command)
Gp Capt Z.A. Khan 
(COS, AHQ Dhaka)

Abdul Motaleb Malik  
(Governor of East Pakistan)
Strength

Indian Armed Forces: 825,000[21] – 860,000[22]


Mukti Bahini: 180,000[23]

Pakistan Armed Forces: 350,000[24] – 365,000[22]


Razakars: 35,000[25]
Casualties and losses

 India
2,500[25]–3,843 killed[26][27]
9,851[26]–12,000[28] injured

Pakistani claims

Indian claims

Neutral claims[25]

 Pakistan
9,000 killed[37]
25,000 wounded[28]
93,000 captured
2 destroyers[38]
1 Minesweeper[38]
1 Submarine[39]
3 Patrol vessels
7 gunboats

  • Pakistani main port Karachi facilities damaged/fuel tanks destroyed[38][40]
  • Pakistani airfields damaged and cratered[41]

Pakistani claims

Indian claims

Neutral claims[25]

It is estimated that members of the Pakistani military and supporting pro-Pakistani Islamist militias killed between 300,000 and 3,000,000 civilians in Bangladesh.[51][52][53][54][55] As a result of the conflict, a further eight to ten million people fled the country to seek refuge in India.[56]

During the 1971 Bangladesh war for independence, members of the Pakistani military and supporting pro-Pakistani Islamist militias called the Razakars raped between 200,000 and 400,000 Bangladeshi women and girls in a systematic campaign of genocidal rape.[57][58][59][60]

Background

The Indo-Pakistani conflict was sparked by the Bangladesh Liberation War, a conflict between the traditionally dominant West Pakistanis and the majority East Pakistanis.[38] The political tensions between East Bengal and West Pakistan had its origin in the creation of Pakistan as a result of the partition of India by the United Kingdom in 1947; the popular language movement in 1950; mass riots in East Bengal in 1964; and the mass protests in 1969. These led to the resignation of President Ayub Khan, who invited army chief General Yahya Khan to take over the central government.[61]: xxx  The geographical distance between the eastern and western wings of Pakistan was vast; East Pakistan lay over 1,600 kilometres (1,000 mi) away, which greatly hampered any attempt to integrate the Bengali and the Pakistani cultures.[62]: 13–14 [63]

To overcome the Bengali domination and prevent formation of the central government in Islamabad, the controversial One Unit programme established the two wings of East and West Pakistan. West Pakistanis' opposition to these efforts made it difficult to effectively govern both wings.[61]: xxx  In 1969, President Yahya Khan announced the first general elections and disestablished the status of West Pakistan as a single province in 1970, in order to restore it to its original heterogeneous status comprising four provinces, as defined at the time of establishment of Pakistan in 1947.[64] In addition, there were religious and racial tensions between Bengalis and the multi-ethnic West Pakistanis, as Bengalis looked different from the dominant West Pakistanis.[65]

The general elections, held in 1970, resulted in East Pakistan's Awami League gaining 167 out of 169 seats for the East Pakistan Legislative Assembly, and a near-absolute majority in the 313-seat National Assembly, while the vote in West Pakistan was mostly won by the socialist Pakistan Peoples Party.[66]: 686–687  The Awami League leader Sheikh Mujibur Rahman stressed his political position by presenting his Six Points and endorsing the Bengalis' right to govern.[61]: xxx  The League's election success caused many West Pakistanis to fear that it would allow the Bengalis to draft the constitution based on the six-points and liberalism.[67]: xlv 

To resolve the crisis, the Admiral Ahsan Mission was formed to provide recommendations. Its findings were met with favourable reviews from the political leaders of West Pakistan, with the exception of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, the chairman of the Pakistan Peoples Party.[68]: 109–110 

 
The map shows Pakistan and East Pakistan; between them was 1,600 km (1,000 mi) of Indian territory.

However, the military top brass vetoed the mission's proposal.[68]: 110  Zulfikar Ali Bhutto endorsed the veto,[68]: 110  and subsequently refused to yield the premiership of Pakistan to Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. The Awami League called for general strikes in the country. President Yahya Khan postponed the inauguration of the National Assembly, causing a shattering disillusionment to the Awami League and their supporters throughout East Pakistan.[69] In reaction, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman called for general strikes that eventually shutdown the government, and dissidents in the East began targeting the ethnic Bihari community, which largely supported West Pakistan.[70]

In early March 1971, approximately 300 Biharis were slaughtered in riots by Bengali mobs in Chittagong alone.[70] The Government of Pakistan used the "Bihari massacre" to justify its deployment of the military in East Pakistan on 25 March, when it initiated its military crackdown.[70] President Yahya Khan called on the military – which was overwhelmingly led by West Pakistanis – to suppress dissent in the East, after accepting the resignation of Lieutenant-General Yaqub Ali Khan, the chief of staff of the East-Pakistani military.[71][72]

Mass arrests of dissidents began and, after several days of strikes and non-cooperation, the Pakistani military, led by Lieutenant-General Tikka Khan, cracked down on Dhaka on the night of 25 March 1971. The government outlawed the Awami League, which forced many of its members and sympathisers into refuge in Eastern India. Mujib was arrested on the night of 25/26 March 1971 at about 1:30 am (as per Radio Pakistan's news on 29 March 1971) and taken to West Pakistan. Operation Searchlight, followed by Operation Barisal, attempted to kill the intellectual elite of the east.[73]

On 26 March 1971, Major Ziaur Rahman of Pakistan Army declared the independence of Bangladesh on behalf of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman.[74][75][76]

In April, the exiled Awami League leaders formed a government-in-exile in Baidyanathtala of Meherpur. The East Pakistan Rifles and Bengali officers in Pakistan's army, navy, and marines, defected to the rebellion after taking refuge in different parts of India. The Bangladesh Force, namely the Mukti Bahini, consisting of Niyomito Bahini (Regular Force) and Oniyomito Bahini (Guerilla Force), was formed under the retired colonel Mohammad Ataul Gani Osmani.[77] There was also a meeting between Prime Minister Gandhi and President Nixon in November 1971,[clarification needed] where she rejected the US advice against intervening in the conflict.[78]: 596 

India's involvement in Bangladesh Liberation War

After the resignations of Admiral S.M. Ahsan and Lieutenant-General Yaqub Ali Khan, the media correspondents began airing reports of the Pakistani military's widespread genocide against their Bengali citizens,[79] particularly aimed at the minority Bengali Hindu population,[80][81][43] which led to approximately 10 million people seeking refuge in the neighbouring states of Eastern India.[80][79][82] The Indian government opened the East Pakistan–India border to allow the Bengali refugees to find safe shelter; the governments of West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Meghalaya and Tripura established refugee camps along the border.[83]: 23–24  The resulting flood of impoverished East Pakistani refugees strained India's already overburdened economy.[81]

The Indian government repeatedly appealed to the international community for assistance, but failed to elicit any response, despite the External Affairs minister Swaran Singh meeting foreign ministers of other countries.[84] Prime Minister Indira Gandhi on 27 March 1971 expressed full support of her government for the independence struggle of the people of East Pakistan, and concluded that instead of taking in millions of refugees, it was economical to go to war against Pakistan.[82] On 28 April 1971, the Gandhi cabinet had ordered the Chief of the Army Staff General Sam Manekshaw to "Go into East Pakistan".[85][86][87] Defected East Pakistan military officers and the elements of Indian Research and Analysis Wing (RAW) immediately started using the Indian refugee camps for recruitment and training of Mukti Bahini guerrillas that were to be trained against Pakistan.[88]

Indian authorities also attempted to carry on psychological warfare and keep up the morale of comrades in East Pakistan. The Swadhin Bangla Betar Kendra (Free Bangladesh Radio Centre), which had broadcast Major Rahman's independence declaration, was relocated from Kalurghat in East Pakistan to India after the transmission building was shelled by Pakistani Sabre jets on 30 March 1971. It resumed broadcasts on 3 April from Tripura, aided by the Indian Border Security Force. The clandestine station was finally shifted to Kolkata, where it was joined by a large number of Bangladeshi radio programmers, newscasters, poets, singers and journalists. Its jurisdiction was transferred to the provisional Bangladesh government-in-exile, and made its first broadcast on 25 May, the birth anniversary of poet Kazi Nazrul Islam (who would later be named Bangladesh's national poet). Among the Indian contributors to the radio station's nationalistic programmes was Salil Chowdhury. Akashvani Kolkata also actively took part in this effort.[89][90]

The news media's mood in Pakistan had also turned increasingly jingoistic and militaristic against East Pakistan and India when the Pakistani news media reported the complexity of the situation in the East, though the reactions from Pakistan's news media pundits were mixed.[91][92] By the end of September 1971, a propaganda campaign, possibly orchestrated by elements within the Government of Pakistan, resulted in stickers endorsing "Crush India" becoming a standard feature on the rear windows of vehicles in Rawalpindi, Islamabad and Lahore; this soon spread to the rest of West Pakistan.[93] By October, other stickers proclaimed Hang the Traitor in an apparent reference to Sheikh Mujibur Rahman.[94] By the first week of December, the conservative print media outlets in the country had published jihad related materials to boost the recruitment in the military.[93]

India's official engagement with Pakistan

Objective

 
An illustration showing military units and troop movements during operations in the Eastern sector of the war.

By the end of April 1971, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi had asked the Indian Army chief General Sam Manekshaw if he was ready to go to war with Pakistan.[95][96] According to Manekshaw's own personal account, he refused, citing the onset of monsoon season in East Pakistan and also the fact that the army tanks were being refitted.[96] He offered his resignation, which Gandhi declined.[96] He then said he could guarantee victory if she would allow him to prepare for the conflict on his terms, and set a date for it; Gandhi accepted his conditions.[96][97] In reality, Gandhi was well aware of the difficulties of a hasty military action, but she needed to get the military's views to satisfy her hawkish colleagues and the public opinion, which were critical of India's restraint.[87]

By November 1971, an Indian-Pakistani war seemed inevitable. The Soviet Union reportedly warned Pakistan against the war, which they termed as "suicidal course for Pakistan's unity."[98]: part-3  Despite this warning, in November 1971, thousands of people led by conservative Pakistani politicians marched in Lahore and across Pakistan, calling for Pakistan to "crush India".[99][100] India responded by starting a massive buildup of the Indian Army on the western borders; the army waited until December, when the drier ground in the East made for easier operations and the Himalayan passes were closed by snow, preventing any Chinese intervention.[101]: 174–175  On 23 November, President Yahya Khan declared a national state of emergency and told the country to prepare for war.[102]

On the evening of 3 December, at about 17:40,[citation needed] the Pakistan Air Force (PAF) launched surprise pre-emptive strikes on eleven airfields in north-western India, including Agra, which was 480 kilometres (300 mi) from the border.[103]: 82–83  At the time of the attack, the Taj Mahal had been camouflaged with a forest of twigs and leaves and draped with burlap, because its marble glowed like a white beacon in the moonlight.[104]

These pre-emptive strikes, known as Operation Chengiz Khan, were inspired by the success of Israeli Operation Focus in the Arab–Israeli Six-Day War. Unlike the Israeli attack on Arab airbases in 1967, which involved a large number of Israeli planes, Pakistan flew no more than 50 planes to India.[103]: 82 [105]

In an address to the nation on radio that same evening, Prime Minister Gandhi held that the air strikes were a declaration of war against India[106][107] and the Indian Air Force (IAF) responded with initial air strikes the same night.[17] These expanded to massive retaliatory air strikes the next morning.[17]

This air action marked the official[clarification needed] start of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971; Gandhi ordered the immediate mobilisation of troops and launched a full-scale invasion of Pakistan.[108]: 333  This involved Indian forces in massive coordinated air, sea and land assaults on Pakistan from all fronts.[108]: 333  The main Indian objective on the Eastern front was to capture Dacca, and on the Western front was to prevent Pakistan from entering Indian soil.[citation needed]

Naval hostilities

 
Pakistan's PNS Ghazi sank off the fairway buoy of Visakhapatnam near the eastern coast of India, making it the first submarine casualty in the waters around the Indian subcontinent.

Unlike the 1965 war, the Navy NHQ staffers and commanders of the Pakistan Navy knew very well that the Navy was ill-prepared for the naval conflict with India.[109]: 65  The Pakistan Navy was in no condition of fighting an offensive war in deep sea against the Indian Navy, and neither was it in a condition to mount serious defence against Indian Navy's seaborne encroachment.[110]: 75–76 

In the western theatre of the war, the Indian Navy's Western Naval Command under Vice admiral S.N. Kohli, successfully launched a surprise attack on Karachi port on the night of 4/5 December 1971 under the codename Trident.[38] The naval attack involving the Soviet-built Osa missile boats sank the Pakistan Navy's destroyer PNS Khaibar and minesweeper PNS Muhafiz while PNS Shah Jahan was also badly damaged.[38] Pakistani naval sources reported that about 720 Pakistani sailors were killed or wounded, and Pakistan lost reserve fuel and many commercial ships, thus crippling the Pakistan Navy's further involvement in the conflict.[110]: 85–87  In retaliation, the Pakistan Navy submarines, Hangor, Mangro, and Shushuk, began their operations to seek out the major Indian warships.[110]: 86–95 [111] On 9 December 1971, Hangor sank INS Khukri, inflicting 194 Indian casualties, and this attack was the first submarine kill since World War II.[112]: 229 [113]

The sinking of INS Khukri was followed by another Indian attack on Karachi port on the night of 8/9 December 1971 under the codename Python.[38] A squadron of Indian Navy's Osa missile boats approached the Karachi port and launched a series of Soviet-acquired Styx missiles, that resulted in further destruction of reserve fuel tanks and the sinking of three Pakistani merchant ships, as well as foreign ships docked in Karachi.[114] The Pakistan Air Force did not attack the Indian Navy ships, and confusion remained the next day when the civilian pilots of Pakistan International, acting as reconnaissance war pilots, misidentified PNS Zulfiqar and the air force attacked its own warship, inflicting major damages and killing several officers on board.[115]

In the eastern theatre of the war, the Indian Eastern Naval Command, under Vice Admiral Nilakanta Krishnan, completely isolated East Pakistan by a naval blockade in the Bay of Bengal, trapping the Eastern Pakistan Navy and eight foreign merchant ships in their ports.[110]: 82–83  From 4 December onwards, the aircraft carrier INS Vikrant was deployed, and its Sea Hawk fighter-bombers attacked many coastal towns in East Pakistan, including Chittagong and Cox's Bazar.[116] Pakistan countered the threat by sending the submarine PNS Ghazi, which sank off Visakhapatnam's coast, due to an internal explosion, though whether this was triggered by Indian depth charges, diving to avoid them or some other reason has never been established.[117][118]

Due to high number of defections, the Navy relied on deploying the Pakistan Marines, led by Rear Admiral Leslie Mungavin, where they had to conduct riverine operations against the Indian Army, but they too suffered major losses, mainly due to their lack of understanding of expeditionary warfare and the wet terrain of East Pakistan.[119]

 
Indian aircraft carrier INS Vikrant launches an Alize aircraft

The damage inflicted on the Pakistan Navy stood at 7 gunboats, 1 minesweeper, 1 submarine, 2 destroyers, 3 patrol crafts belonging to the coast guard, 18 cargo, supply and communication vessels; and large-scale damage inflicted on the naval base and docks in the coastal town of Karachi. Three merchant navy ships – Anwar Baksh, Pasni and Madhumathi –[120] and ten smaller vessels were captured.[121] Around 1900 personnel were lost, while 1413 servicemen were captured by Indian forces in Dacca.[122] According to one Pakistani scholar, Tariq Ali, Pakistan lost half its navy in the war.[123]

Air operations

 
Indian Air Force MiG-21s during the war.

After the attempted pre-emptive attack, the PAF adopted a defensive stance in response to the Indian retaliation. As the war progressed, the IAF continued to battle the PAF over conflict zones, but the number of sorties flown by the PAF decreased day–by–day.[124][125] The IAF flew 4,000 sorties while the PAF offered little in retaliation, partly because of the paucity of non-Bengali technical personnel.[38]

This lack of retaliation has also been attributed to the deliberate decision of the PAF's AHQ to cut its losses, as it had already incurred huge losses in the conflict in the liberation war in the East.[126] The PAF avoided making contacts with the Indian Navy after the latter raided the port of Karachi twice, but the PAF did retaliate by bombing Okha harbour, destroying the fuel tanks used by the boats that had attacked.[34][127]

In the east, No. 14 Squadron "Tail Choppers" was destroyed and its CO, Squadron Leader PQ Mehdi, was taken POW, putting Pakistan's air command in Dhaka out of commission. India thereby achieved total air superiority on the eastern front.[38]

At the end of the war, PAF pilots made successful escapes from East Pakistan to neighbouring Burma; many PAF personnel had already left the East for Burma on their own before Dacca was overrun by the Indian military in December 1971.[128]

Indian attacks on Pakistan

 
A destroyed aircraft hangar at Dacca airfield after an Indian air attack.

As the Indian Army tightened its grip in East Pakistan, the Indian Air Force continued with its attacks against Pakistan as the campaign developed into a series of daylight anti-airfield, anti-radar, and close-support attacks by fighter jets, with night attacks against airfields and strategic targets by Canberras and An-12s, while Pakistan responded with similar night attacks with its B-57s and C-130s.[13]: 107–108 

The PAF deployed its F-6s mainly on defensive combat air patrol missions over their own bases, leaving the PAF unable to conduct effective offensive operations.[13]: 107  The IAF's raids damaged one USAF and one UN aircraft in Dacca, while a RCAF DHC-4 Caribou was destroyed in Islamabad, along with the USAF's Beech U-8 owned by the US military's liaison chief Brigadier-General Chuck Yeager.[13]: 107 [129] Sporadic raids by the IAF continued against PAF forward air bases in Pakistan until the end of the war, and interdiction and close-support operations were maintained.[13]: 107–108 

One of the most successful air raids by India into West Pakistan happened on 8 December 1971, when Indian Hunter aircraft from the Pathankot-based 20 Squadron, attacked the Pakistani base in Murid and destroyed 5 F-86 aircraft on the ground. This was confirmed by Pakistan's military historian, Air Commodore M Kaiser Tufail, in his book In The Ring and on Its Feet: Pakistan Air Force in the 1971 Indo-Pak War.[130]

The PAF played a more limited role in the operations. They were reinforced by Mirages from an unidentified Middle Eastern ally (whose identity remains unknown).[13]: 107  According to author Martin Bowman, "Libyan F-5s were reportedly deployed to Sargodha AFB, perhaps as a potential training unit to prepare Pakistani pilots for an influx of more F-5s from Saudi Arabia."[13]: 112  The IAF was able to conduct a wide range of missions – troop support; air combat; deep penetration strikes; para-dropping behind enemy lines; feints to draw enemy fighters away from the actual target; bombing and reconnaissance.[13]: 107  The PAF, which was solely focused on air combat, was blown out of the subcontinent's skies within the first week of the war.[13]: 107  Those PAF aircraft that survived took refuge at Iranian air bases or in concrete bunkers, refusing to offer a fight.[131]

India flew 1,978 sorties in the East and about 4,000 in Pakistan, while the PAF flew about 30 and 2,840 at the respective fronts.[13]: 107  More than 80 percent of IAF sorties were close-support and interdiction and about 45 IAF aircraft were lost.[25]

Pakistan lost 60 to 75 aircraft,[25] not including any F-6s, Mirage IIIs, or the six Jordanian F-104s which failed to return to their donors.[25] The imbalance in air losses was explained by the IAF's considerably higher sortie rate and its emphasis on ground-attack missions.[25]

Ground operations

 
The Indian T-55 tanks penetrating the Indo-East Pakistan border towards Dacca.
 
105 mm Jonga-mounted RCL gun which destroyed most of the tanks during the Battle of Longewala

Before the start of the war, the Indian Army was well organised on both fronts and enjoyed significant numerical superiority over the Pakistan Army.[78]: 596  The Indian Army's extraordinary war performance at both fronts restored the prestige, confidence, and dignity that it had lost during the Sino-Indian War in 1962.[132]

When the conflict started, the war immediately took a decisive turn in favour of India and their Bengali rebel allies militarily and diplomatically.[78]: 596  On both fronts, Pakistan launched several ground offensives, but the Indian Army held its ground and initiated well-coordinated ground operations on both fronts.[78]: 596  Major ground attacks were concentrated on the western border by the Pakistan Army, fighting together with the Pakistan Marines in the southern border, but the Indian Army was successful in penetrating into Pakistani soil. It eventually made some quick and initial gains, including the capture of around 15,010 km2 (5,795 sq mi)[18][19] of Pakistani territory; this land gained by India in Azad Kashmir, Punjab and Sindh sectors was later ceded in the Simla Agreement of 1972, as a gesture of goodwill[20] Casualties inflicted to Pakistan Army's I Corps, II Corps, and Pakistan Marines' Punjab detachment were very high, and many soldiers and marines perished due to lack of operational planning and lack of coordination within the marine-army formations against Indian Army's Southern and Western Commands.[133]: 82–93  By the time the war came to end, the army soldiers and marines were highly demoralised– both emotionally and psychologically– on the western front and had no will to put up a defensive fight against the approaching Indian Army soldiers.[134]: 1–2 

The War Enquiry Commission later exposed the fact that for the Pakistan Army and Pakistan Marines, the arms and training of marines, soldiers and officers were needed at every level, and every level of command.[135]

On 23 November 1971, the Indian Army conventionally penetrated to the eastern fronts and crossed East Pakistan's borders to join their Bengali nationalist allies.[136]: 156  Contrary to the 1965 war, which had emphasised set-piece battles and slow advances, this time the strategy adopted was a swift, three-pronged assault of nine infantry divisions with attached armoured units and close air support that rapidly converged on Dacca, the capital of East Pakistan.[136]: 156  Lieutenant General Jagjit Singh Aurora, the General Officer Commanding-in-Chief of the Indian Army's Eastern Command, led the full Indian thrust into East Pakistan. As the Indian Eastern Command attacked the Pakistan Eastern Command, the Indian Air Force rapidly destroyed the small air contingent in East Pakistan and put the Dacca airfield out of commission.[136]: 156  In the meantime, the Indian Navy effectively blockaded East Pakistan.[136]: 156 

The Indian campaign's "blitzkrieg" techniques exploited weaknesses in the Pakistani positions and bypassed opposition; this resulted in a swift victory.[137]: 802  Faced with insurmountable losses, the Pakistani military capitulated in less than a fortnight and psychological panic spread in the Eastern Command's military leadership.[137]: 802  Subsequently, the Indian Army encircled Dacca and issued an ultimatum to surrender in "30-minutes" time window on 16 December 1971.[138] Upon hearing the ultimatum, the East-Pakistan government collapsed when the Lt-Gen. A.A.K. Niazi (Cdr. of Eastern Command) and his deputy, V-Adm. M.S. Khan, surrendered without offering any resistance.[136] On 16 December 1971, Pakistan ultimately called for unilateral ceasefire and surrendered its entire four-tier military to the Indian Army– hence ending the Indo-Pakistani war of 1971.[136]

On the ground, Pakistan suffered the most, with 8,000 killed and 25,000 wounded, while India only had 3,000 dead and 12,000 wounded.[28] The loss of armoured vehicles was similarly imbalanced and this finally represented a major defeat for Pakistan.[28]

Surrender of Pakistan Eastern Command in East Pakistan

Officially, the Instrument of Surrender of Pakistan Eastern Command stationed in East Pakistan, was signed between the Lieutenant General Jagjit Singh Aurora, the GOC-in-C of Indian Eastern Command and Lieutenant-General A.A.K. Niazi, the Commander of the Pakistan Eastern Command, at the Ramna Race Course in Dacca at 16:31Hrs IST on 16 December 1971.[citation needed] There was a problem over who would represent the Bangladesh government, as the three Bangladeshi battalion commanders - Lt Cols Shafiullah, Khaled Musharraf and Ziaur Rahman - were located too far away to be airlifted on time. The responsibility fell on the only armed forces officer available, Gp Capt AK Khondkar, chief of the newly formed BAF.[139] As the surrender was accepted silently by Lieutenant-General Aurora, the surrounding crowds on the race course started shouting anti-Pakistan slogans, and there were reports of abuses aimed at the surrendering commanders of Pakistani military.[140] Indian officers and an Indian diplomat, MEA joint secretary for Pakistan AK Ray, had to form a human chain around Lt Gen Niazi to protect him from being lynched.[139]

Hostilities officially ended at 14:30 GMT on 17 December, after the surrender on 16 December, and India claimed large gains of territory in Pakistan (although pre-war boundaries were recognised after the war). The war confirmed the independence of Bangladesh.[13]: 107 

Following the surrender, the Indian Army took approximately 90,000 Pakistani servicemen and their Bengali supporters as POWs, making it the largest surrender since World War II.[141] Initial counts recorded that approximately 79,676 war prisoners were uniformed personnel, and the overwhelming majority of the war prisoners were officers – most of them from the army and navy, while relatively small numbers were from the air force and marines; others in larger number were serving in paramilitary units.[142]

The remaining prisoners were civilians who were either family members of the military personnel or collaborators (razakars). The Hamoodur Rahman Commission and the POW Investigation Commission reports instituted by Pakistan lists the Pakistani POWs as given in the table below. Apart from soldiers, it was estimated that 15,000 Bengali civilians were also made prisoners of war.[143]

Foreign reaction and involvement

United States and Soviet Union

The Soviet Union sympathised with the East Pakistanis, and supported the Indian Army and Mukti Bahini's incursion against Pakistan during the war, in a broader view of recognising that the secession of East Pakistan as Independent Bangladesh would weaken the position of its rivals— the United States and China. The Soviet Union gave assurances to India that if a confrontation with the United States or China developed, it would take counter-measures. This assurance was enshrined in the Indo-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation signed in August 1971.[1]

The Soviet Union accepted the Indian position that any resolution to the crisis in East Pakistan would have to be on terms acceptable to India and the Awami League, but the Indo-Soviet treaty did not mean a total commitment to the Indian stance, according to author Robert Jackson. The Soviet Union continued economic aid to Pakistan and made sympathetic gestures to Pakistan until mid-October 1971.[144] By November 1971, the Soviet ambassador to Pakistan Alexei Rodionov directed a secretive message (Rodionov message) that ultimately warned Pakistan that "it will be embarking on a suicidal course if it escalates tensions in the subcontinent".[98]: part-3 

The United States stood with Pakistan by supporting it morally, politically, economically and materially when U.S. President Richard Nixon and his Secretary of State Henry Kissinger refused to use rhetoric in a hopeless attempt to intervene in a large civil war. The U.S. establishment had the impression that the Soviets were in an informal alliance with India, and the US therefore needed Pakistan to help to limit Soviet influence in South Asia.[5]: 281  During the Cold War, Pakistan was a close formal ally of the United States and also had close relations with the People's Republic of China, with whom Nixon had been negotiating a rapprochement and where he intended to visit in February 1972.[145] Nixon feared that an Indian invasion of Pakistan would mean total Soviet domination of the region, and that it would seriously undermine the global position of the United States and the regional position of America's new tactical ally, China.[5]: 281–282  Nixon encouraged Iran to send military supplies to Pakistan.[7] The Nixon administration also ignored reports it received of the "genocidal" activities of the Pakistani military in East Pakistan, most notably the Blood telegram, and this prompted widespread criticism and condemnation – both by the United States Congress and in the international press.[79][146][147]

Then U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations, George H. W. Bush, introduced a resolution in the UN Security Council calling for a cease-fire and the withdrawal of armed forces by India and Pakistan.[148] However, it was vetoed by the Soviet Union, and the following days witnessed the use of great pressure on the Soviets from the Nixon-Kissinger duo to get India to withdraw, but to no avail.[149]

When Pakistan's defeat in the eastern sector seemed certain, Nixon deployed Task Force 74, led by the aircraft carrier USS Enterprise, into the Bay of Bengal. Enterprise and its escort ships arrived on station on 11 December 1971.[6]: xxxx  According to a Russian documentary, the United Kingdom also deployed a carrier battle group led by the aircraft carrier HMS Eagle to the Bay,[1][150][better source needed] on her final deployment.

On 6 and 13 December, the Soviet Navy dispatched two groups of cruisers and destroyers from Vladivostok;[1] they trailed US Task Force 74 into the Indian Ocean from 18 December 1971 until 7 January 1972. The Soviets also had a nuclear submarine to help ward off the threat posed by the USS Enterprise task force in the Indian Ocean.[2][3]

As the war progressed, it became apparent to the United States that India was going to invade and disintegrate Pakistan in a matter of weeks, therefore President Nixon spoke with the USSR General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev on a hotline on 10 December, where Nixon reportedly urged Brezhnev to restrain India as he quoted: "in the strongest possible terms to restrain India with which ... you [Brezhnev] have great influence and for whose actions you must share responsibility."[151]

After the war, the United States accepted the new balance of power and recognised India as a dominant player in South Asia; the US immediately engaged in strengthening bilateral relations between the two countries in the successive years.[152] The Soviet Union, while being sympathetic to Pakistan's loss, decided to engage with Pakistan after sending an invitation through Rodionov to Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, who paid a state visit to the Soviet Union in 1972 to strengthen bilateral relations that continued over the years.[153]: 16 

A 2019 study argues "that Nixon and Kissinger routinely demonstrated psychological biases that led them to overestimate the likelihood of West Pakistani victory" in the war, and that they overestimated "the importance of the crisis to broader U.S. policy. The evidence fails to support Nixon and Kissinger's own framing of the 1971 crisis as a contest between cool-headed realpolitik and idealistic humanitarianism, and instead shows that Kissinger and Nixon's policy decisions harmed their stated goals because of repeated decision-making errors."[154]

China

During the course of the war, China harshly criticised India for its involvement in the East Pakistan crises, and accused India of having imperialistic designs in South Asia.[155]: 19  Before the war started, Chinese leaders and officials had long been philosophically advising the Pakistan government to make peaceful political settlements with the East Pakistani leaders, as China feared that India was secretly supporting, infiltrating, and arming the Bengali rebels against the East Pakistani government.[156][157] China was also critical of the Government of East Pakistan, led by its Governor Lieutenant-General Tikka Khan, which used ruthless measures to deal with the Bengali opposition, and did not endorse the Pakistani position on that issue.[157]

When the war started, China reproached India for its direct involvement and infiltration in East Pakistan.[157] It disagreed with Pakistani President Yahya Khan's consideration of military options, and criticised East Pakistan Awami League politicians' ties with India.[157] China reacted with great alarm when the prospects of Indian invasion of Pakistan and integration of Pakistan-administered Kashmir into their side of Kashmir, became imminent.[106] US President Nixon encouraged China to mobilise its armed forces along its border with India to discourage the Indian assault, but the Chinese did not respond to this encouragement since the Indian Army's Northern Command was well prepared to guard the Line of Actual Control, and was already engaging and making advances against the Pakistan Army's X Corps in the Line of Control.[citation needed]

China did not welcome the break-up of Pakistan's unity by the East Pakistani politicians, and effectively vetoed the membership of Bangladesh when it applied to the United Nations in 1972.[158] China objected to admitting Bangladesh on the grounds that two UN resolutions concerning Bangladesh, requiring the repatriation of Pakistani POWs and civilians, had not yet been implemented.[159] Furthermore, China was also among the last countries to recognise the independence of Bangladesh, refusing to do so until 31 August 1975.[160][158][161] To this date, its relations with Bangladesh are determined by the Pakistan factor.[162]

Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka saw the partition of Pakistan as an example for themselves and feared India might use its enhanced power against them in the future.[9] Despite the left wing government of Sirimavo Bandaranaike following a neutral non-aligned foreign policy Sri Lanka decided to help Pakistan in the war.[10][11] As Pakistani aircraft could not fly over Indian territory, they would have to take a longer route around India and so they stopped at Bandaranaike Airport in Sri Lanka where they were refuelled before flying to East Pakistan.[12]

Arab World

As many Arab countries were allied with both the United States and Pakistan, it was easy for Kissinger to encourage them to participate. He sent letters to both, the King of Jordan and the King of Saudi Arabia. President Nixon gave permission for Jordan to send ten F-104s and promised to provide replacements.[163] F-86s from Saudi Arabia helped camouflage the extent of PAF losses, and some Libyan F-5s were reportedly deployed to Sargodha AFB, perhaps as a potential training unit to prepare Pakistani pilots for an influx of more F-5s from Saudi Arabia.[13]: 112  In addition to these three countries, an unidentified Middle Eastern ally also supplied Pakistan with Mirage IIIs. However, other countries such as Syria and Tunisia were against interfering describing it as an internal matter of Pakistan.[164]

Aftermath

India

The war stripped Pakistan of more than half of its population, and with nearly one-third of its army in captivity, clearly established India's military and political dominance of the subcontinent.[43] India successfully led a diplomatic campaign to isolate Pakistan.[78]: 596  In addition, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi's state visit to United Kingdom and France further helped break ice with the United States, and blocked any pro-Pakistan resolution in the United Nations.[78]: 596 

The victory also defined India's much broader role in foreign politics, as many countries in the world had come to realise – including the United States – that the balance of power had shifted to India as a major player in the region.[8]: 80 [165]: 57  In the wake of changing geopolitical realities, India sought to establish closer relations with regional countries such as Iran, which was a traditional ally of Pakistan.[165]: 57  The United States itself accepted a new balance of power, and when India conducted a surprise nuclear test in 1974, the US notified India that it had no "interest in actions designed to achieve new balance of power."[152]

In spite of the magnitude of the victory, India was surprisingly restrained in its reaction.[43] Mostly, Indian leaders seemed pleased by the relative ease with which they had accomplished their goals—the establishment of Bangladesh and the prospect of an early return to their homeland of the 10 million Bengali refugees who were the cause of the war.[43] In announcing the Pakistani surrender, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi declared in the Indian Parliament:

Dacca is now the free capital of a free country. We hail the people of Bangladesh in their hour of triumph. All nations who value the human spirit will recognise it as a significant milestone in man's quest for liberty.[43]

Colonel John Gill of National Defense University, US, remarks that, while India achieved a military victory, it was not able to reap the political fruits it might have hoped for in Bangladesh. After a brief 'honeymoon' phase between India and Bangladesh, their relationship began to sour.[166][167] The perceived Indian overstay revived Bangladeshi anxieties of Hindu control.[168] Many were concerned that Mujib was permitting Indian interference in the country's internal matters[169] and many in the Bangladeshi army resented his attachment with India.[170] Whilst India enjoys excellent relations with Bangladesh during the Awami League tenures, relations deteriorated when the Bangladesh Nationalist Party assumed power. A 2014 Pew Research Center opinion poll found that 27% of Bangladeshis were wary of India. However, 70% of Bangladeshis held a positive view of India: while 50% of Bangladeshis held a positive view of Pakistan.[171]

Pakistan

For Pakistan, the war was a complete and humiliating defeat,[43] a psychological setback that came from a defeat at the hands of rival India.[49] Pakistan lost half its population and a significant portion of its economy, and suffered setbacks to its geopolitical role in South Asia.[43][49] In the post-war era, Pakistan struggled to absorb the lessons learned from the military interventions in the democratic system and the impact of the Pakistani military's failure was grave and long-lasting.[172][173]

From the geopolitical point of view, the war ended in the breaking-up of the unity of Pakistan from being the largest Muslim country in the world to its politico-economic and military collapse that resulted from a direct foreign intervention by India in 1971.[174]: 50 [175]: 1 [176][177] Pakistani policy-makers further feared that the two-nation theory had been disproved by the war, that Muslim nationalism had proved insufficient to keep Bengalis a part of Pakistan.[178]

The Pakistani people were not mentally prepared to accept the magnitude of this kind of defeat, as the state media had been projecting imaginary victories.[178] When the ceasefire that came from the surrender of East Pakistan was finally announced, the people could not come to terms with the magnitude of defeat; spontaneous demonstrations and massive protests erupted on the streets of major metropolitan cities in Pakistan. According to Pakistani historians, the trauma was extremely severe, and the cost of the war for Pakistan in monetary terms and in human resources was very high.[179]: xxx [180] Demoralized and finding itself unable to control the situation, the Yahya administration fell when President Yahya Khan turned over his presidency to Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, who was sworn in on 20 December 1971 as President with the control of the military.[181]

The loss of East Pakistan shattered the prestige of the Pakistani military.[49] Pakistan lost half its navy, a quarter of its air force, and a third of its army.[123] The war also exposed the shortcomings of Pakistan's declared strategic doctrine that the "defence of East Pakistan lay in West Pakistan".[182] Hussain Haqqani, in his book Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military notes,

Moreover, the army had failed to fulfill its promises of fighting until the last man. The eastern command had laid down arms after losing only thirteen hundred men in battle. In West Pakistan, too, twelve hundred military deaths had accompanied lackluster military performance.[49]

In his book The 1971 Indo-Pak War: A Soldier's Narrative, Pakistan Army's Major General Hakeem Arshad Qureshi, a veteran of this conflict, noted:

We must accept the fact that, as a people, we had also contributed to the bifurcation of our own country. It was not a Niazi, or a Yahya, even a Mujib, or a Bhutto, or their key assistants, who alone were the cause of our break-up, but a corrupted system and a flawed social order that our own apathy had allowed to remain in place for years. At the most critical moment in our history we failed to check the limitless ambitions of individuals with dubious antecedents and to thwart their selfish and irresponsible behaviour. It was our collective 'conduct' that had provided the enemy an opportunity to dismember us.

— Qureshi, p. 288[183]

After the war, the Pakistan Army's generals in the East held each other responsible for the atrocities committed, but most of the burden was laid on Lieutenant-General Tikka Khan, who earned notoriety from his actions as governor of the East; he was called the "Butcher of Bengal" because of the widespread atrocities committed within the areas of his responsibility.[184] Unlike his contemporary Yaqub who was a pacifist and knew well of the limits of force, Tikka was a "soldier known for his eager use of force" to settle his differences.[185]: 100 [186][187][188]

Lieutenant-General A. A. K. Niazi commented on Tikka's actions: "On the night between 25/26 March 1971, General Tikka struck. Peaceful night was turned into a time of wailing, crying and burning. General Tikka let loose everything at his disposal as if raiding an enemy, not dealing with his own misguided and misled people. The military action was a display of stark cruelty more merciless than the massacres at Bukhara and Baghdad by Chengiz Khan and Halaku Khan ... General Tikka ... resorted to the killing of civilians and a scorched earth policy. His orders to his troops were: 'I want the land and not the people'".[189] Major-General Rao Farman wrote in his table diary: "Green land of East Pakistan will be painted red," which has been interpreted to mean that he planned to massacre Bengalis.[190] Farman said the entry was not expressing a thirst for blood, but concern that East Pakistan's future could be the red flag of Communism.[191]

Major reforms were carried out by successive governments in Pakistan after the war in the light of many recommendations made in the Hamoodur Rahman Commission Report.[192]: 254  To address the economic disparity, the National Finance Commission system was established to equally distribute the taxation revenue among the four provinces, the large-scale nationalisation of industries and nationwide census were carried out in 1972.[193] The Constitution was promulgated in 1973 that reflected this equal balance and a compromise between Islamism and Humanism, and provided guaranteed equal human rights to all.[194] The military was heavily reconstructed and heavily reorganised, with President Bhutto appointing chiefs of staff in each inter-service, contrary to C-in-Cs, and making instruction on human rights compulsory in the military syllabus in each branch of inter-services.[195]: 62–100  Major investments were directed towards modernising the navy.[110]: 100  The military's chain of command was centralized in Joint Staff Headquarters (JS HQ) led by an appointed Chairman Joint Chiefs Committee to coordinars military efforts to safeguard the nation's defence and unity.[195]: 62–63  In addition, Pakistan sought to have a diversified foreign policy, as Pakistani geostrategists had been shocked that both China and the United States provided limited support to Pakistan during the course of the war, with the US displaying an inability to supply weapons that Pakistan needed the most.[196]: xxxiii 

On 20 January 1972, Pakistan under Bhutto launched the clandestine development of nuclear weapons with a view to "never to allow[ing] another foreign invasion of Pakistan."[197]: 133–135  This crash programme reached parity[clarification needed] in 1977 when the first weapon design was successfully achieved.[198]

Bangladesh

As a result of the war, East Pakistan became an independent country, Bangladesh, as the world's fourth most populous Muslim state on 16 December 1971.[citation needed] West Pakistan, now just Pakistan, secured the release of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman from the Headquarter Prison and allowed him to return to Dacca. On 19 January 1972, Mujib was inaugurated as the first President of Bangladesh, later becoming the Prime Minister of Bangladesh in 1974.[citation needed]

On the brink of defeat in around 14 December 1971, the media reports indicated that the Pakistan Army soldiers, the local East Pakistan Police they controlled, razakars and the Shanti Committee carried out systematic killings of professionals such as physicians, teachers, and other intellectuals,[199][200] as part of a pogrom against the Bengali Hindu minorities who constituted the majority of urban educated intellectuals.[201][202]

Young men, especially students, who were seen as possible rebels and recruiters were also targeted by the stationed military, but the extent of casualties in East Pakistan is not known, and the issue is itself controversial and contradictory among the authors who wrote books on the pogrom;[203][204] the Pakistani government denied the charges of involvement in 2015.[205] R.J. Rummel cites estimates ranging from one to three million people killed.[206] Other estimates place the death toll lower, at 300,000. Bangladesh government figures state that Pakistani forces aided by collaborators killed three million people, raped 200,000 women and displaced millions of others.[207][208]

According to authors Kenton Worcester, Sally Bermanzohn and Mark Ungar, Bengalis themselves killed about 150,000 non-Bengalis living in the East.[209] There had been reports of Bengali insurgents indiscriminately killing non-Bengalis throughout the East; however, neither side provided substantial proofs for their claims and both Bangladeshi and Pakistani figures contradict each other over this issue.[210][211] Bihari representatives in June 1971 claimed a higher figure of 500,000 killed by Bengalis.[212]

In 2010, the Awami League's government decided to set up a tribunal to prosecute the people involved in alleged war crimes and those who collaborated with Pakistan.[213] According to the government, the defendants would be charged with crimes against humanity, genocide, murder, rape and arson.[214]

According to John H. Gill, there was widespread polarisation between pro-Pakistan Bengalis and pro-liberation Bengalis during the war, and those internal battles are still playing out in the domestic politics of modern-day Bangladesh.[215] To this day, the issue of committed atrocities and pogroms is an influential factor in the Bangladesh–Pakistan relations.[216]

Impact

Pakistan: War Enquiry Commission and War prisoners

In the aftermath of the war, the Pakistani Government constituted the War Enquiry Commission, to be headed by Chief Justice Hamoodur Rahman, who was an ethnic Bengali,[217] and composed of the senior justices of the Supreme Court of Pakistan.[217] The War Enquiry Commission was mandated with carrying out thorough investigations into the intelligence, strategic, political and military failures that causes the defeat in the war.[citation needed]

The War Commission also looked into Pakistan's political and military involvement in the history of East Pakistan that encompasses 1947–71.[citation needed] The First War Report was submitted in July 1972, but it was very critically opined and penned on political misconducts of politicians and the military interference in national politics.[218]: 22–197  Written in moral and philosophical perspective, the First Report was lengthy and provided accounts that were unpalatable to be released to the public. Initially, there were 12 copies that were all destroyed, except for the one that was kept and marked as "Top Secret" to prevent the backlash effects on the demoralised military.[219] In 1976, the Supplementary Report was submitted, which was the comprehensive report compiled together with the First Report; this report was also marked as classified.[220]

In 2000, the excerpts of the Supplementary Report were leaked to a political correspondent of Pakistan's Dawn, which the Dawn published together with India Today.[221][222] The First Report is still marked as classified, while the Supplementary Report's excerpts were suppressed by the news correspondents.[223] The War Report's supplementary section was published by the Pakistan Government, but it did not officially hand over the report to Bangladesh despite its requests.[222]

The War Report exposed many military failures, from the strategic to the tactical–intelligence levels, while it confirmed the looting, rapes and the unnecessary killings by the Pakistan military and their local agents.[224] It laid the blame squarely on Pakistan Army generals, accusing them of debauchery, smuggling, war crimes and neglect of duty.[225] The War Commission had recommended public trial of Pakistan Army generals on the charges that they had been responsible for the situation in the first place and that they had succumbed without a fight,[226] but no actions were ever taken against those responsible, except the dismissal of chiefs of the Pakistan Army, Pakistan Air Force, Pakistan Navy, and decommissioning of the Pakistan Marines.[221][226]

The War Commission, however, rejected the charge that 200,000 Bengali girls were raped by the Pakistan Army, remarking, "It is clear that the figures mentioned by the Dacca authorities are altogether fantastic and fanciful," and cited the evidence of a British abortion team that had carried out the termination of "only a hundred or more pregnancies".[217][227][228] The Commission also claimed that "approximately 26,000 persons (were) killed during the action by the Pakistan military"[227][229]Bina D'Costa states that the War Commission was aware of the military's brutality in East Pakistan, but "chose to downplay the scale of the atrocities committed."[230]

The second commission was known as Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 Prisoners of War Investigation, conducted solely by the Pakistani government, that was to determine the numbers of Pakistani military personnel who surrendered, including the number of civilian POWs.[231] The official number of the surrendered military personnel was soon released by the Government of Pakistan after the war was over.[231]

India: Indo-Pakistani summits

On 2 July 1972, the Indo-Pakistani summit was held in Simla, Himachal Pradesh, India where the Simla Agreement was reached and signed between President Zulfikar Ali Bhutto and Prime Minister Indira Gandhi.[232] The treaty provided insurance to Bangladesh that Pakistan recognised Bangladesh's sovereignty, in exchange for the return of the Pakistani POWs.[104] Over the next five months, India released more than 90,000 war prisoners, with Lieutenant-General A.A.K. Niazi being the last war prisoner to be handed over to Pakistan.[104]

The treaty also gave back more than 13,000 km2 of land that the Indian Army had seized in Pakistan during the war, though India retained a few strategic areas, including Turtuk, Dhothang, Tyakshi (earlier called Tiaqsi) and Chalunka of Chorbat Valley,[233][234] which was more than 804 km2.[235][236][237] The Indian hardliners, however, felt that the treaty had been too lenient to President Bhutto, who had pleaded for leniency, arguing that the fragile stability in Pakistan would crumble if the accord was perceived as being overly harsh by Pakistanis and that he would be accused of losing Kashmir in addition to the loss of East Pakistan.[238] As a result, Prime Minister Gandhi was criticised by a section in India for believing Bhutto's "sweet talk and false vows", while the other section claimed the agreement to be successful, for not letting it to fall into "Versailles Syndrome” trap.[239]

In 1973, India and Pakistan reached another compromise when both countries signed a trilateral agreement with Bangladesh that actually brought the war prisoners, non-Bengali and Pakistan-loyal Bengali bureaucrats and civilian servants to Pakistan.[240] The Delhi Agreement witnessed the largest mass population transfer since the Partition of India in 1947.[241]

Bangladesh: International Crimes Tribunal

In 2009, the issue of establishing the International Crimes Tribunal began to take public support. The tribunal was formally established in 2010 to investigate and prosecute suspects for the genocide committed in 1971 by the Pakistan Army and their local collaborators, Razakars, Al-Badr and Al-Shams during the Bangladesh Liberation War.[242]: 169 

Long-term consequences

  • Steve Coll, in his book Ghost Wars, argues that the Pakistan military's experience with India, including Pervez Musharraf's experience in 1971, influenced the Pakistani government to support jihadist groups in Afghanistan even after the Soviets left, because the jihadists were a tool to use against India, including bogging down the Indian Army in Kashmir.[243][244]
  • Writing about the war in Foreign Affairs magazine, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto stated "There is no parallel in contemporary history to the cataclysm which engulfed Pakistan in 1971. A tragic civil war, which rent asunder the people of the two parts of Pakistan, was seized by India as an opportunity for armed intervention. The country was dismembered, its economy shattered and the nation's self-confidence totally undermined."[245] This statement of Bhutto has given rise to the myth of betrayal prevalent in modern Pakistan. This view was contradicted by the post-War Hamoodur Rahman Commission, ordered by Bhutto himself, which in its 1974 report indicted generals of the Pakistan Army for creating conditions which led to the eventual loss of East Pakistan and for inept handling of military operations in the East.[221]

Military awards

Battle honours

After the war, 41 battle honours and 4 theatre honours were awarded to units of the Indian Army; notable among them are:[246]

  • East Pakistan 1971 (theatre honour)
  • Sindh 1971 (theatre honour)
  • Jammu and Kashmir 1971 (theatre honour)
  • Punjab 1971 (theatre honour)
  • Basantar River
  • Bogra
  • Chachro
  • Chhamb
  • Defence of Punch
  • Dera Baba Nanak
  • Gadra City
  • Harar Kalan
  • Hilli
  • Longewala
  • Parbat Ali
  • Poongli Bridge
  • Shehjra
  • Shingo River Valley
  • Sylhet

Gallantry awards

For bravery, a number of soldiers and officers on both sides were awarded the highest gallantry award of their respective countries. Following is a list of the recipients of the Indian award Param Vir Chakra, Bangladeshi award Bir Sreshtho and the Pakistani award Nishan-E-Haider:

India

Recipients of the Param Vir Chakra:[247][248]

Bangladesh

Recipients of the Bir Sreshtho:[249][250]

Pakistan

Recipients of the Nishan-E-Haider:[251][252]

Civilian awards

On 25 July 2011, Bangladesh Swadhinata Sammanona, the Bangladesh Freedom Honour, was posthumously conferred on former Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi.[253]

R. M. Muzumdar - IOFS officer. Second Indian Director General of the Indian Ordnance Factories. He was awarded the Padma Bhushan by the Government of India, in 1973, in the Civil service category, for his contributions during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971.

O. P. Bahl, an IOFS officer. Former Additional Director General Ordnance Factories and Member of the Ordnance Factory Board. Received Padma Shri, in 1972 in the civil-service category for his efforts during the war.[254][255][256]

On 28 March 2012, President of Bangladesh Zillur Rahman and the Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina conferred Bangladesh Liberation War Honour and Friends of Liberation War Honour to 75 people, six organisations, Mitra Bahini and the people of India at a special ceremony at the Bangabandhu International Conference Centre, Dhaka. This included eight heads of states: former Nepalese President Ram Baran Yadav, the third King of Bhutan Jigme Dorji Wangchuck, former Soviet General Secretary Leonid IIyich Brezhnev, former Soviet head of state Nikolai Viktorovich Podgorny, former Soviet Prime Minister Alexei Nikolaevich Kosygin, former Yugoslav President Marshal Josip Broz Tito, former UK Prime Minister Sir Edward Richard George Heath and former Nepalese Prime Minister Bishweshwar Prasad Koirala. The organisations include the BBC, Akashbani (All India Radio), International Committee of the Red Cross, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Oxfam and Kolkata University Shahayak Samiti.

The list of foreign friends of Bangladesh has since been extended to 568 people. It includes 257 Indians, 88 Americans, 41 Pakistanis, 39 Britons, 9 Russians, 18 Nepalese, 16 French and 18 Japanese.[257][258]

In media

Films

Short films

Miniseries/Dramas

See also

General

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g "1971 India Pakistan War: Role of Russia, China, America and Britain". The World Reporter. 30 October 2011. from the original on 1 November 2011. Retrieved 30 October 2011.
  2. ^ a b c . Bharat Rakshak. Archived from the original on 9 June 2011. Retrieved 20 October 2009.
  3. ^ a b c "Birth of a nation". The Indian Express. 11 December 2009. from the original on 5 June 2020. Retrieved 14 April 2011.
  4. ^ Raghavan, Srinath (2013). 1971: A Global History of the Creation of Bangladesh. Harvard University Press. pp. 182–183. ISBN 9780674731295.
  5. ^ a b c VSM, Brig Amar Cheema (31 March 2015). The Crimson Chinar: The Kashmir Conflict: A Politico Military Perspective. Lancer Publishers. ISBN 9788170623014. from the original on 12 October 2020. Retrieved 27 December 2016.
  6. ^ a b Rajagopalan, Rajesh; Mishra, Atul (2015). Nuclear South Asia: Keywords and Concepts. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-32475-1. from the original on 20 April 2020. Retrieved 18 September 2018.
  7. ^ a b Alvandi, Roham (2016). Nixon, Kissinger, and the Shah: The United States and Iran in the Cold War. Oxford University Press. p. 61. ISBN 978-0-19-061068-5. from the original on 20 October 2020. Retrieved 27 December 2016.
  8. ^ a b Mudiam, Prithvi Ram (1994). India and the Middle East. British Academic Press. ISBN 9781850437031. from the original on 29 October 2020. Retrieved 24 December 2016.
  9. ^ a b "India and Its Neighbors: Cooperation or Confrontation?" (PDF). CIA. p. 7. (PDF) from the original on 13 April 2021. Retrieved 13 April 2021.
  10. ^ a b "The Island". from the original on 13 December 2010. Retrieved 8 April 2019.
  11. ^ a b "Brief Overview of Sri Lanka's Foreign Relations to Post-Independence". Foreign Ministry – Sri Lanka. from the original on 8 April 2019. Retrieved 8 April 2019.
  12. ^ a b "Pak thanks Lanka for help in 1971 war". Hindustan Times. 11 June 2011. from the original on 21 March 2021. Retrieved 14 February 2019.
  13. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Bowman, Martin (30 January 2016). Cold War Jet Combat: Air-to-Air Jet Fighter Operations 1950–1972. Pen and Sword. ISBN 9781473874633. from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 24 December 2016.
  14. ^ Lyon, Peter (2008). Conflict between India and Pakistan: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 166. ISBN 978-1-57607-712-2. India's decisive victory over Pakistan in the 1971 war and emergence of independent Bangladesh dramatically transformed the power balance of South Asia
  15. ^ Kemp, Geoffrey (2010). The East Moves West India, China, and Asia's Growing Presence in the Middle East. Brookings Institution Press. p. 52. ISBN 978-0-8157-0388-4. However, India's decisive victory over Pakistan in 1971 led the Shah to pursue closer relations with India
  16. ^ Byman, Daniel (2005). Deadly connections: States that Sponsor Terrorism. Cambridge University Press. p. 159. ISBN 978-0-521-83973-0. India's decisive victory in 1971 led to the signing of the Simla Agreement in 1972
  17. ^ a b c "Indian Air Force. Squadron 5, Tuskers". Global Security. from the original on 17 July 2017. Retrieved 20 October 2009.
  18. ^ a b Nawaz, Shuja (2008). Crossed Swords: Pakistan, Its Army, and the Wars Within. Oxford University Press. p. 329. ISBN 978-0-19-547697-2.
  19. ^ a b Chitkara, M. G (1996). Benazir, a Profile – M. G. Chitkara. ISBN 9788170247524. from the original on 12 October 2020. Retrieved 27 July 2012.
  20. ^ a b Schofield, Victoria (18 January 2003). Kashmir in Conflict: India, Pakistan and the Unending War – Victoria Schofield. ISBN 9781860648984. from the original on 28 October 2020. Retrieved 27 July 2012.
  21. ^ Palit, Maj Gen DK (1998). The Lightning Campaign: The Indo-Pakistan War, 1971. Lancer Publishers. p. 44. ISBN 978-1-897829-37-0. from the original on 15 October 2020. Retrieved 24 December 2016.
  22. ^ a b Cloughley, Brian (5 January 2016). A History of the Pakistan Army: Wars and Insurrections. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-1-63144-039-7. from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 12 November 2020.
  23. ^ Rashiduzzaman, M. (March 1972). "Leadership, Organization, Strategies and Tactics of the Bangla Desh Movement". Asian Survey. 12 (3): 191. doi:10.2307/2642872. JSTOR 2642872. The Pakistan Government, however, claimed [in June 1971] that the combined fighting strength of the 'secessionists' amounted to about 180,000 armed personnel.
  24. ^ Dixit, J.N. (2 September 2003). India-Pakistan in War and Peace. Routledge. ISBN 1134407572. while the size of the Indian armed forces remained static at one million men and Pakistan's at around 350,000.
  25. ^ a b c d e f g h Leonard, Thomas M. (2006). Encyclopedia of the Developing World. Taylor & Francis. p. 806. ISBN 978-0-415-97664-0.
  26. ^ a b "This Vijay Diwas, remember the sacrifices and do good by our disabled soldiers". The Times of India. 16 December 2018. from the original on 17 December 2018. About 3,843 Indian soldiers died in this war that resulted in the unilateral surrender of the Pakistan Army and led to the creation of Bangladesh. Among the soldiers who returned home triumphant were also 9,851 injured; many of them disabled.
  27. ^ Kapur, Anu (11 March 2010). Vulnerable India: A Geographical Study of Disasters. SAGE Publications India. ISBN 9788132105428. from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 12 November 2020 – via Google Books.
  28. ^ a b c d The Encyclopedia of 20th Century Air Warfare, edited by Chris Bishop (Amber publishing 1997, republished 2004 pages 384–387 ISBN 1-904687-26-1)
  29. ^ . Indian Navy. Archived from the original on 23 February 2012.
  30. ^ . Orbat.com. Archived from the original on 19 March 2012. Retrieved 27 July 2012.
  31. ^ "Pakistan Air Force Combat Expirence". Global Security. 9 July 2011. from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 6 September 2019. Pakistan retaliated by causing extensive damage through a single B-57 attack on Indian naval base Okha. The bombs scored direct hits on fuel dumps, ammunition dump and the missile boats jetty.
  32. ^ Dr. He Hemant Kumar Pandey & Manish Raj Singh (1 August 2017). INDIA'S MAJOR MILITARY & RESCUE OPERATIONS. Horizon Books ( A Division of Ignited Minds Edutech P Ltd), 2017. p. 117.
  33. ^ Col Y Udaya Chandar (Retd) (2 January 2018). Independent India's All the Seven Wars. Notion Press, 2018.
  34. ^ a b "Pakistan Air Force Combat Experience". Globalsecurity.org. from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 27 July 2012.
  35. ^ . Paf.gov.pk. Archived from the original on 15 December 2011. Retrieved 27 July 2012.
  36. ^ a b (PDF). orbat.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 January 2014. Retrieved 20 December 2011.
  37. ^ Leonard, Thomas M. (2006). Encyclopedia of the developing world, Volume 1. Taylor & Francis. p. 806. ISBN 978-0-415-97662-6.
  38. ^ a b c d e f g h i "Indo-Pakistani War of 1971". Global Security. from the original on 26 November 2016. Retrieved 20 October 2009.
  39. ^ . Bharat Rakshak Monitor, 4(2). Archived from the original on 28 November 2011. Retrieved 20 October 2009.
  40. ^ "How west was won...on the waterfront". The Tribune. from the original on 30 June 2017. Retrieved 24 December 2011.
  41. ^ . acig.com. Archived from the original on 10 September 2012. Retrieved 22 December 2011.
  42. ^ . Archived from the original on 1 May 2009. Retrieved 24 April 2010.
  43. ^ a b c d e f g h "India: Easy Victory, Uneasy Peace". Time. 27 December 1971. from the original on 13 June 2017. Retrieved 24 April 2016.
  44. ^ Azhar, M. u. R., Masood, S., & Malek, N. M. (2018). Conflict and Development: A case study of East Pakistan Crisis, 1971. International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science, 2(9).
  45. ^ . Sify.com. Archived from the original on 6 December 2010. Retrieved 14 April 2011.
  46. ^ Burke, S. M (1974). Mainsprings of Indian and Pakistani Foreign Policies – S. M. Burke. ISBN 9780816607204. from the original on 15 October 2020. Retrieved 27 July 2012.
  47. ^ Bose, Sarmila (November 2011). "The question of genocide and the quest for justice in the 1971 war" (PDF). Journal of Genocide Research. 13 (4): 398. doi:10.1080/14623528.2011.625750. S2CID 38668401. (PDF) from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 27 March 2016.
  48. ^ "Jamaat claims denied by evidence". THE DAILY STAR. 28 February 2008. from the original on 11 August 2017. Retrieved 10 March 2016.
  49. ^ a b c d e Haqqani, Hussain (2005). Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. p. 87. ISBN 978-0-87003-214-1.
  50. ^ Burke, Samuel Martin (1974). Mainsprings of Indian and Pakistani Foreign Policies. University of Minnesota Press. p. 216. ISBN 978-0-8166-5714-8. from the original on 30 October 2020. Retrieved 15 September 2020.
  51. ^ Alston, Margaret (2015). Women and Climate Change in Bangladesh. Routledge. p. 40. ISBN 9781317684862. from the original on 13 October 2020. Retrieved 8 March 2016.
  52. ^ Debnath, Angela (2012) [First published 2009]. "The Bangladesh Genocide: The Plight of Women". In Totten, Samuel (ed.). Plight and Fate of Women During and Following Genocide. Transaction Publishers. p. 55. ISBN 978-1-4128-4759-9. from the original on 15 October 2020. Retrieved 8 March 2016.
  53. ^ Myers, David G. (2004). Exploring Social Psychology 4E. Tata McGraw-Hill Education. p. 269. ISBN 9780070700628. from the original on 10 October 2020. Retrieved 8 March 2016.
  54. ^ Consulate (Dacca) Cable, Sitrep: Army Terror Campaign Continues in Dacca; Evidence Military Faces Some Difficulties Elsewhere 21 December 2011 at the Wayback Machine, 31 March 1971, Confidential, 3 pp.
  55. ^ Kennedy, Senator Edward, "Crisis in South Asia – A report to the Subcommittee investigating the Problem of Refugees and Their Settlement, Submitted to U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee", 1 November 1971, U.S. Govt. Press, page 66. Sen. Kennedy wrote, "Field reports to the U.S. Government, countless eye-witness journalistic accounts, reports of International agencies such as World Bank and additional information available to the subcommittee document the reign of terror which grips East Bengal (East Pakistan). Hardest hit have been members of the Hindu community who have been robbed of their lands and shops, systematically slaughtered, and in some places, painted with yellow patches marked 'H'. All of this has been officially sanctioned, ordered and implemented under martial law from Islamabad."
  56. ^ Rummel, Rudolph J., "Statistics of Democide: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900" 21 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine, ISBN 3-8258-4010-7, Chapter 8, Table 8.2 Pakistan Genocide in Bangladesh Estimates, Sources, and Calculations 4 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine: lowest estimate 2 million claimed by Pakistan (reported by Aziz, Qutubuddin. Blood and tears Karachi: United Press of Pakistan, 1974. pp. 74, 226), some other sources used by Rummel suggest a figure of between 8 and 10 million with one (Johnson, B. L. C. Bangladesh. New York: Barnes & Noble, 1975. pp. 73, 75) that "could have been" 12 million.
  57. ^ Sharlach, Lisa (2000). "Rape as Genocide: Bangladesh, the Former Yugoslavia, and Rwanda". New Political Science. 22 (1): 92–93. doi:10.1080/713687893. S2CID 144966485.
  58. ^ Sharlach, Lisa (2002). "State Rape: Sexual Violence as Genocide". In Kent Worcester; Sally A. Bermanzohn; Mark Ungar (eds.). Violence and Politics: Globalization's Paradox. Routledge. p. 111. ISBN 978-0-415-93111-3.
  59. ^ Sajjad, Tazreena (2012) [First published 2009]. "The Post-Genocidal Period and its Impact on Women". In Tottne, Samuel (ed.). Plight and Fate of Women During and Following Genocide. Transaction Publishers. p. 225. ISBN 978-1-4128-4759-9.
  60. ^ Mookherjee, Nayanika (2012). "Mass rape and the inscription of gendered and racial domination during the Bangladesh War of 1971". In Raphaëlle Branche; Fabrice Virgili (eds.). Rape in Wartime. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-230-36399-1.
  61. ^ a b c Lieven, Anatol (2012). Pakistan: A Hard Country. PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-1610391627. from the original on 11 October 2020. Retrieved 23 December 2016.
  62. ^ Abbott, David (2015). Changing World: Pakistan. Minnesota, U.S.: Encyclopaedia Britannica. ISBN 9781625133212. from the original on 29 October 2020. Retrieved 8 January 2017.
  63. ^ "1971 war: The story of India's victory, Pak's surrender, Bangladesh freedom". Business Standard India. 16 December 2018. from the original on 12 July 2020. Retrieved 6 July 2020.
  64. ^ "Legal Framework Order 1970". Story of Pakistan. Nazaria-e-Pakistan Trust, 2003. 1 June 2003. from the original on 3 December 2016. Retrieved 23 December 2016.
  65. ^ Chatterjee, Pranab (2010). A Story of Ambivalent Modernization in Bangladesh and West Bengal: The Rise and Fall of Bengali Elitism in South Asia. Peter Lang. p. 24. ISBN 978-1-4331-0820-4. from the original on 19 October 2020. Retrieved 15 September 2020.
  66. ^ Nohlen, Dieter (2004). Elections in Asia and the Pacific (Reprint ed.). Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0-19-924958-9.
  67. ^ Guha, Ramachandra (2011). India After Gandhi: The History of the World's Largest Democracy. Pan Macmillan. ISBN 9780330540209. from the original on 14 October 2020. Retrieved 23 December 2016.
  68. ^ a b c Ehtisham, S. Akhtar (1998). A Medical Doctor Examines Life on Three Continents: A Pakistani View. Algora Publishing. ISBN 978-0-87586-634-5. from the original on 14 October 2020. Retrieved 9 December 2016.
  69. ^ Ghazali, Abdus Sattar. "Islamic Pakistan: Illusions and Reality". ghazali.net. National Book Club. from the original on 30 May 2014. Retrieved 23 December 2016.
  70. ^ a b c D'Costa, Bina (2011). Nationbuilding, Gender and War Crimes in South Asia. Routledge. p. 103. ISBN 978-0-415-56566-0.
  71. ^ Bose, Sarmila (8 October 2005). . Economic and Political Weekly. Archived from the original on 1 March 2007.
  72. ^ Salik, Siddiq (1977). Witness To Surrender. Oxford University Press. pp. 63, 228–9. ISBN 978-984-05-1373-4.
  73. ^ Riedel, Bruce O. (2011). Deadly Embrace: Pakistan, America, and the Future of the Global Jihad. Brookings Institution. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-8157-0557-4.
  74. ^ Matinuddin, Kamal (1994). Tragedy of Errors: East Pakistan Crisis, 1968–1971. Wajidalis. ISBN 978-969-8031-19-0. from the original on 18 May 2016. Retrieved 15 November 2015.
  75. ^ Khan, Fazal Muqueem (1973). Pakistan's Crisis in Leadership. National Book Foundation. ISBN 978-0-88386-302-2. from the original on 11 June 2016. Retrieved 15 November 2015.
  76. ^ Qureshi, Hakeem Arshad (2003). Through the 1971 Crisis: An Eyewitness Account by a Soldier. Oxford University Press. p. 33. ISBN 978-0-19-579778-7.
  77. ^ Raja, Dewan Mohammad Tasawwar (2010). O General My General – Life and Works of General M A G Osmany. Osmany Memorial Trust. pp. 35–109. ISBN 978-984-8866-18-4.
  78. ^ a b c d e f DeRouen, Karl Jr.; Heo, Uk (10 May 2007). Civil Wars of the World: Major Conflicts Since World War II. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781851099191. from the original on 19 August 2020. Retrieved 24 December 2016.
  79. ^ a b c "The U.S.: A Policy in Shambles". Time. 20 December 1971. from the original on 30 September 2013. Retrieved 20 October 2009.
  80. ^ a b U.S. Consulate (Dacca) Cable, Sitrep: Army Terror Campaign Continues in Dacca; Evidence Military Faces Some Difficulties Elsewhere 21 December 2011 at the Wayback Machine, 31 March 1971, Confidential, 3 pp.
  81. ^ a b . Time. 25 October 1971. Archived from the original on 4 November 2007. Retrieved 20 October 2009.
  82. ^ a b "Indo-Pakistani Wars". MSN Encarta. Archived from the original on 1 November 2009. Retrieved 20 October 2009.
  83. ^ International, Rotary (1971). The Rotarian. Rotary International. from the original on 13 October 2020. Retrieved 23 December 2016.
  84. ^ . Kashmirlive, 14 September 2006. Archived from the original on 17 October 2009. Retrieved 20 October 2009.
  85. ^ Pravel, K. C. (2009) [First published 1987]. Indian Army After Independence. Atlanta: Lancer Publishers. p. 415. ISBN 978-1-935501-61-9. from the original on 20 April 2020. Retrieved 18 July 2017.
  86. ^ Bass, Gary J. (2013). The Blood Telegram: Nixon, Kissinger, and a Forgotten Genocide. Alfred A. Knopf. p. 94. ISBN 978-0-307-70020-9.
  87. ^ a b Raghavan, Srinath (2012), "Soldiers, Statesmen, and India's Security Policy", India Review, 11 (2): 116–133, doi:10.1080/14736489.2012.674829, S2CID 154213504
  88. ^ "I had to find troops for Dhaka". Rediff News. 14 December 2006. from the original on 25 August 2009. Retrieved 20 October 2009.
  89. ^ PTI (25 May 2021). "50 years on, B'desh remembers Kolkata radio station that gave them hope during liberation war". The New Indian Express. from the original on 4 December 2021. Retrieved 4 December 2021.
  90. ^ Dasgupta, Priyanka (29 November 2021). "How a secret radio station broadcast hope in 1971". The Times of India. from the original on 4 December 2021. Retrieved 4 December 2021.
  91. ^ Ahmad, Dawood (16 December 2011). "Rethinking the big lies from 1971". The Express Tribune. from the original on 24 December 2016. Retrieved 23 December 2016.
  92. ^ Ahmed, Khalid (26 December 2013). "Pakistan,1971". The Indian Express. from the original on 24 December 2016. Retrieved 23 December 2016.
  93. ^ a b "1971 'Jihad': Print ads from West Pakistan". Dawn (Editorial). 16 December 2014. from the original on 24 December 2016. Retrieved 23 December 2016.
  94. ^ "New Twist In 'Crush India' Propaganda Campaign". US Department of State Telegram. 26 October 1971. from the original on 2 November 2011. Retrieved 29 September 2011.
  95. ^ Dikshit, Sandeep (28 June 2008). "How he and his men won those wars". The Hindu. from the original on 24 December 2016. Retrieved 24 December 2016.
  96. ^ a b c d "Sam Manekshaw: Sam Manekshaw, soldier, died on 27 June, aged 94". The Economist. 3 July 2008. p. 107. from the original on 12 April 2017. Retrieved 7 July 2008.
  97. ^ Manekshaw, SHFJ. (11 November 1998). "Lecture at Defence Services Staff College on Leadership and Discipline" (Appendix V) in Singh (2002)Field Marshal Sam Manekshaw, M.C. – Soldiering with Dignity.
  98. ^ a b Summary of World Broadcasts: Far East. London, UK: Monitoring Service of the British Broadcasting Corporation. 1971. from the original on 16 October 2020. Retrieved 22 December 2016.
  99. ^ "Anti-India Demonstration and Procession". US Department of State Telegram. 9 November 1971. from the original on 2 April 2012. Retrieved 29 September 2011.
  100. ^ "Crush India" (PDF). Pakistan Observer. 30 November 1971. (PDF) from the original on 11 May 2012. Retrieved 29 September 2011.
  101. ^ Mohiuddin, Yasmeen Niaz (2007). Pakistan: A Global Studies Handbook. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-85109-801-9. from the original on 14 October 2020. Retrieved 24 December 2016.
  102. ^ . Archived from the original on 23 August 2009. Retrieved 20 October 2009.
  103. ^ a b Davies, Peter E. (20 November 2014). F-104 Starfighter Units in Combat. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-78096-314-3. from the original on 9 April 2022. Retrieved 24 December 2016.
  104. ^ a b c "Bangladesh: Out of War, a Nation Is Born". Time. 20 December 1971. from the original on 28 September 2013. Retrieved 20 October 2009.
  105. ^ "Trying to catch the Indian Air Force napping, Yahya Khan, launched a Pakistani version of Israel's 1967 air blitz in hopes that one rapid attack would cripple India's far superior air power. But India was alert, Pakistani pilots were inept, and Yahya's strategy of scattering his thin air force over a dozen air fields was a bust!", p. 34, Newsweek, 20 December 1971
  106. ^ a b "India and Pakistan: Over the Edge". Time. 13 December 1971. from the original on 8 October 2013. Retrieved 20 October 2009.
  107. ^ "1971: Pakistan intensifies air raids on India". BBC News. 3 December 1971. from the original on 30 October 2018. Retrieved 20 October 2009.
  108. ^ a b Garver, John W. (1 December 2015). China's Quest: The History of the Foreign Relations of the People's Republic of China. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-026106-1. from the original on 11 October 2020. Retrieved 24 December 2016.
  109. ^ Goldrick, James (1997). No Easy Answers. New Delhi: Lancer's Publications and Distributors. ISBN 978-1-897829-02-8. from the original on 18 October 2020. Retrieved 15 September 2020.
  110. ^ a b c d e Goldrick, James (1997). No Easy Answers (PDF). New Delhi, India: Sona Printers, India. ISBN 1-897829-02-7. (PDF) from the original on 24 December 2016. Retrieved 24 December 2016.
  111. ^ Seapower: A Guide for the Twenty-first Century By Geoffrey Till page 179
  112. ^ Branfill-Cook, Roger (27 August 2014). Torpedo: The Complete History of the World's Most Revolutionary Naval Weapon. Seaforth Publishing. ISBN 9781848322158. from the original on 22 October 2020. Retrieved 24 December 2016.
  113. ^ . Bharat Rakshak. Archived from the original on 26 September 2009. Retrieved 20 October 2009.
  114. ^ Shabir, Usman. . pakdef.org. Pakistan Defence, Usman. Archived from the original on 24 December 2016. Retrieved 24 December 2016.
  115. ^ . defencejournal.com. Archived from the original on 1 January 2012. Retrieved 25 April 2012.
  116. ^ Olsen, John Andreas (2011). Global Air Power. Potomac Books. p. 237. ISBN 978-1-59797-680-0.
  117. ^ . The Hindu. Chennai, India. 2 December 2006. Archived from the original on 7 November 2012.
  118. ^ "Does the US want war with India?". Rediff.com. 31 December 2004. from the original on 25 October 2010. Retrieved 14 April 2011.
  119. ^ Pike, John. "Pakistan Marines (PM)". globalsecurity.org. Global security, Marines. from the original on 16 October 2014. Retrieved 24 December 2016.
  120. ^ . Irfc-nausena.nic.in. Archived from the original on 1 March 2012. Retrieved 27 July 2012.
  121. ^ (PDF). B. Harry. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 May 2010. Retrieved 20 June 2010.
  122. ^ . Venik. Archived from the original on 25 February 2002. Retrieved 30 May 2005.
  123. ^ a b Tariq Ali (1983). Can Pakistan Survive? The Death of a State. Penguin Books. p. 95. ISBN 978-0-14-022401-6. In a two-week war, Pakistan lost half its navy, a quarter of its air force and a third of its army.
  124. ^ Jon Lake, "Air Power Analysis: Indian Airpower", World Air Power Journal, Volume 12
  125. ^ Group Captain M. Kaiser Tufail, "Great Battles of the Pakistan Airforce" and "Pakistan Air Force Combat Heritage" (pafcombat) et al., Feroze sons, ISBN 969-0-01892-2
  126. ^ "Indo-Pakistani conflict". Library of Congress Country Studies. from the original on 19 October 2015. Retrieved 20 October 2009.
  127. ^ . PAF Falcons. Archived from the original on 30 August 2011. Retrieved 27 July 2012.
  128. ^ Khan, Sher. "Last Flight from East Pakistan". defencejournal.com. from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 24 December 2016.
  129. ^ Simha, Rakesh Krishnan (17 January 2012). "How India brought down the US' supersonic man". Russia & India Report. Russia & India Report. from the original on 11 May 2017. Retrieved 24 December 2016.
  130. ^ Vishnu Som. . NDTV. Archived from the original on 25 January 2018. Retrieved 25 January 2018.
  131. ^ Simha, Rakesh Krishnan (4 June 2015). "Why the Indian Air Force has a high crash rate". www.rbth.com. from the original on 21 March 2017. Retrieved 27 October 2020.
  132. ^ Singh, Dipender (27 June 2008). "Sam gave dignity to Army in 1971, after 1962 debacle". Hindustan Times. from the original on 26 December 2016. Retrieved 26 December 2016.
  133. ^ Palit, Maj Gen DK (10 October 2012). The Lightning Campaign: The Indo-Pakistan War, 1971. Lancer Publishers. ISBN 9781897829370. Retrieved 24 December 2016.
  134. ^ Hasnat, Syed Farooq (2011). Pakistan. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9780313346972. from the original on 16 October 2020. Retrieved 24 December 2016.
  135. ^ Alam, Dr Shah (12 June 2012). Pakistan Army: Modernisation, Arms Procurement and Capacity Building. Vij Books India Pvt Ltd. ISBN 9789381411797. from the original on 29 October 2020. Retrieved 12 November 2020.
  136. ^ a b c d e f Nair, Sreekumar (1 March 2010). Interpretation. Pustak Mahal. ISBN 9788122311112. from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 24 December 2016.
  137. ^ a b Paret, Peter; Gordon A. Craig; Felix Gilbert (1986). Makers of Modern Strategy: From Machiavelli to the Nuclear Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-820097-0. from the original on 17 October 2020. Retrieved 15 September 2020., pp802
  138. ^ Sengupta, Ramananda. . Sify. Sify, Sengupta. Archived from the original on 24 December 2016. Retrieved 24 December 2016.
  139. ^ a b TNN (15 December 1971). "1971 war: When Indian officers rescued Pakistan general from a lynch mob". The Times of India. from the original on 22 December 2021. Retrieved 22 December 2021.
  140. ^ Nayar, Kuldip (3 February 1998). . The Indian Express. Archived from the original on 23 August 2009. Retrieved 20 October 2009.
  141. ^ "Vijay Diwas: All you need to know about 1971 war with Pakistan | India News". The Times of India. from the original on 26 November 2021. Retrieved 26 November 2021.
  142. ^ Cloughley, Brian (2016). A History of the Pakistan Army: Wars and Insurrections. Skyhorse Publishing, Inc. ISBN 9781631440397. from the original on 28 October 2020. Retrieved 8 August 2017.
  143. ^ Burke, S. M. (1974). Mainsprings of Indian and Pakistani Foreign Policies. ISBN 9780816607204. from the original on 15 October 2020. Retrieved 27 July 2012.
  144. ^ Jackson, Robert (1975). South Asian Crisis: India — Pakistan — Bangla Desh. Chatto & Windus. pp. 72–73. ISBN 978-1-349-04163-3. from the original on 1 October 2021. Retrieved 2 October 2021.
  145. ^ Harold H. Saunders, "What Really Happened in Bangladesh" Foreign Affairs (2014) 93#4 d
  146. ^ Hanhimäki, Jussi (2004). The flawed architect: Henry Kissinger and American foreign policy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-517221-8. from the original on 15 October 2020. Retrieved 15 September 2020.
  147. ^ Lewis, John P. (9 December 1971). "Mr. Nixon and South Asia". The New York Times. from the original on 23 July 2018. Retrieved 23 July 2018. The Nixon Administration's South Asia policy... is beyond redemption
  148. ^ . nixontapes.org. Archived from the original on 9 April 2022. Retrieved 30 March 2020. WHT 016-048 12/08/1971 11:06 – 11:14 am P, GHWB[1] 9 April 2022 at the Wayback Machine
  149. ^ "1971 War: How the US tried to corner India". Rediff.com. 26 December 2006. from the original on 28 August 2013. Retrieved 14 April 2011.
  150. ^ . Frontier India. 18 December 2010. Archived from the original on 10 January 2016. Retrieved 27 July 2012.
  151. ^ "Nixon/Kissinger Saw India as "Soviet Stooge" in 1971 South Asia Crisis". nsarchive.gwu.edu. George Washington University press. from the original on 24 December 2016. Retrieved 24 December 2016.
  152. ^ a b Wetering, Carina (2016). Changing US Foreign Policy toward India. Springer. p. 69. ISBN 9781137548627. from the original on 9 October 2020. Retrieved 15 September 2020.
  153. ^ News Review on South Asia and Indian Ocean. Institute for Defence Studies & Analyses. 1972. from the original on 12 October 2020. Retrieved 22 December 2016.
  154. ^ Clary, Christopher (2019). "Tilting at windmills: The flawed U.S. policy toward the 1971 Indo-Pakistani war". Journal of Strategic Studies. 42 (5): 677–700. doi:10.1080/01402390.2019.1570143. S2CID 159267611.
  155. ^ Jayapalan, N. (2000). India and Her Neighbours. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. ISBN 9788171569120. from the original on 16 October 2020. Retrieved 25 December 2016.
  156. ^ Singh, Swaran, ed. (2007). China-Pakistan strategic cooperation : Indian perspectives. New Delhi: Manohar. p. 61. ISBN 978-8173047619.
  157. ^ a b c d Jaffrelot, Christophe (2016). Pakistan at the Crossroads: Domestic Dynamics and External Pressures. Columbia University Press. p. 285. ISBN 9780231540254. from the original on 11 October 2020. Retrieved 15 September 2020.
  158. ^ a b "China Recognizes Bangladesh". Oxnard, California, USA. Associated Press. 1 September 1975. from the original on 28 October 2020. Retrieved 15 September 2020.
  159. ^ "China Veto Downs Bangladesh UN Entry". Montreal, Quebec, Canada. United Press International. 26 August 1972. from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 15 September 2020.
  160. ^ Chau, Donovan C.; Kane, Thomas M. (2014). China and International Security: History, Strategy, and 21st-Century Policy [3 volumes]: History, Strategy, and 21st-Century Policy. ABC-CLIO. pp. 226–227. ISBN 9781440800023. from the original on 10 October 2020. Retrieved 26 December 2016.
  161. ^ . Bangladesh Strategic and Development Forum. Archived from the original on 25 July 2011. Retrieved 17 August 2011.
  162. ^ Raghavan, V. R. (2013). Internal Conflicts- A Four State Analysis: India-Nepal-Sri Lanka-Myanmar. Vij Books India Pvt Ltd. p. 69. ISBN 9789382573418. from the original on 11 October 2020. Retrieved 15 September 2020.
  163. ^ "Documents reveal US tilt to Pak in 1971 - India News". The Times of India. 20 December 2002. from the original on 20 August 2022. Retrieved 20 August 2022.
  164. ^ Ward, Richard Edmund (1992). India's Pro-Arab Policy: A Study in Continuity. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 80. ISBN 9780275940867. from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 15 September 2020.
  165. ^ a b Kemp, Geoffrey (2012). The East Moves West: India, China, and Asia's Growing Presence in the Middle East. Brookings Institution Press. ISBN 978-0815724070. from the original on 14 October 2020. Retrieved 24 December 2016.
  166. ^ Gill, John H. (2003). An Atlas of the 1971 India – Pakistan War: The Creation of Bangladesh. Washington DC: National Defense University. Near East South Asia Center for Strategic Studies. p. 66. from the original on 18 April 2016. Retrieved 9 April 2016.
  167. ^ Higham, Robin D. S. (April 2005), "An Atlas of the 1971 India – Pakistan war : the creation of Bangladesh (review)", The Journal of Military History, 69 (2), doi:10.1353/jmh.2005.0101, S2CID 162129844, from the original on 19 November 2015, retrieved 9 April 2016
  168. ^ Craig Baxter (2002). Government and politics in South Asia (5th ed.). Westview Press. p. 269.
  169. ^ David Lewis (31 October 2011). Bangladesh: Politics, Economy and Civil Society. Cambridge University Press. p. 81. ISBN 978-1-139-50257-3. from the original on 6 January 2017. Retrieved 18 February 2019. There were high levels of corruption and cronyism within the administration and widespread concerns that he [Mujib] was allowing India to interfere in Bangladesh's domestic affairs existed.
  170. ^ Willem van Schendel (12 February 2009). A History of Bangladesh. Cambridge University Press. p. 182. ISBN 978-1-316-26497-3. from the original on 26 May 2019. Retrieved 18 February 2019. Another, far more dangerous group felt deeply affronted: the army ... Their resentment originated in the final days of the war of 1971. According to them, the Indian army had robbed the Bangladeshi fighters of the glory of liberating Bangladesh, walking in when the freedom fighters had already finished the job, and had taken away to India all sophisticated weaponry and vehicles captured from the Pakistanis ... they also felt bitter about Mujib's closeness to India, which, they thought, undermined the sovereignty of Bangladesh. By 1973, many in the army were both anti-Indian and anti-Mujib; in the elections that year the garrisons voted solidly for opposition candidates.
  171. ^ "Chapter 4: How Asians View Each Other". Pew Research Center's Global Attitudes Project. 14 July 2014. from the original on 15 October 2015. Retrieved 9 April 2016.
  172. ^ "Pakistan's leaders should heed the lesson of Bangladesh". The Guardian. 15 August 2010. from the original on 26 December 2016. Retrieved 26 December 2016.
  173. ^ "No lessons learnt in forty years". The Express Tribune. 15 December 2011. from the original on 24 October 2016. Retrieved 26 December 2016.
  174. ^ Malik, Anas (22 October 2010). Political Survival in Pakistan: Beyond Ideology. Routledge. ISBN 9781136904196. from the original on 19 October 2020. Retrieved 7 November 2016.
  175. ^ Waines, David (6 November 2003). An Introduction to Islam. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521539067. from the original on 13 October 2020. Retrieved 7 November 2016.
  176. ^ Dogra, Wg Cdr C. Deepak (9 December 2015). Pakistan: Caught in the Whirlwind. Lancer Publishers LLC. ISBN 9781940988221. from the original on 15 October 2020. Retrieved 7 November 2016.
  177. ^ Further information relates in Hamoodur Rahman Commission.
  178. ^ a b Haqqani, Hussain (2005). Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. p. 88. ISBN 978-0-87003-214-1.
  179. ^ Siddique, Abubakar (10 June 2014). The Pashtuns: The Unresolved Key to the Future of Pakistan and Afghanistan. Random House India. ISBN 9788184006254. from the original on 22 October 2020. Retrieved 23 December 2016.
  180. ^ Langewiesche, William (November 2005). "The Wrath of Khan". The Atlantic. Retrieved 31 July 2016.
  181. ^ Abdus Sattar Ghazali. "Islamic Pakistan, The Second Martial Law". from the original on 30 May 2014. Retrieved 20 October 2009.
  182. ^ . Defence Journal. Archived from the original on 12 March 2009. Retrieved 20 October 2009.
  183. ^ Qureshi, Hakeem Arshad (2002). The 1971 Indo-Pak War: A Soldier's Narrative. Oxford University Press. p. 288. ISBN 978-0-19-579778-7.
  184. ^ "Gen. Tikka Khan, 87; 'Butcher of Bengal' Led Pakistani Army". Los Angeles Times. 30 March 2002. from the original on 19 June 2021. Retrieved 11 April 2010.
  185. ^ Bhutto, Fatima (6 September 2011). Songs of Blood and Sword: A Daughter's Memoir. Nation Books. p. 100. ISBN 978-1-56858-712-7. Retrieved 19 August 2016.
  186. ^ Baixas, Lionel (21 June 2008). "Khan (1917–2002), General Tikka". Online Encyclopedia of Mass Violence. from the original on 13 December 2013. Retrieved 17 July 2013.
  187. ^ Alamgir, Aurangzaib (November–December 2012). . World Affairs. 174 (4): 33–38. JSTOR 41639031. Archived from the original on 20 July 2013. Retrieved 17 July 2013.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  188. ^ Col (retd) Anil Athale (29 August 2006). "Is Balochistan another Bangladesh?". Rediff India Abroad. from the original on 18 October 2012. Retrieved 17 July 2013.
  189. ^ Haqqani, Hussain (2005). Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military. Carnegie Endowment. p. 74. ISBN 978-0-87003-214-1. from the original on 12 January 2016. Retrieved 11 April 2010.
  190. ^ Khan, M. H. (2016). Memoir of M H Khan: Turbulence in the Indian Subcontinent. Mereo Books. p. 144. ISBN 978-1-86151-569-8. from the original on 1 May 2022. Retrieved 1 May 2022.
  191. ^ Mamoon, Muntassir (2000). The Vanquished Generals and the Liberation War of Bangladesh. Translated by Ibrahim, Kushal. Somoy Prokashan. pp. 88, 148–149. ISBN 984-458-210-5.
  192. ^ Burki, Shahid Javed (1 November 1988). Pakistan Under Bhutto, 1971–1977. Springer. ISBN 9781349195299. from the original on 28 October 2020. Retrieved 12 November 2020.
  193. ^ GoP, Government of Pakistan. "Population of Pakistan in 1972" (PDF). Bureau of Statistics. (PDF) from the original on 20 September 2018. Retrieved 24 December 2016.
  194. ^ "Constitution of Pakistan". Story of Pakistan. Nazaria-e-Pakistan, Part IV. June 2003. from the original on 2 October 2013. Retrieved 2 June 2014.
  195. ^ a b Singh, Ravi Shekhar Narain Singh (2008). The Military Factor in Pakistan. Lancer Publishers. ISBN 9780981537894. from the original on 9 October 2020. Retrieved 24 December 2016.
  196. ^ Kapur, Ashok (14 December 2010). India and the South Asian Strategic Triangle. Routledge. ISBN 9781136902611. from the original on 13 October 2020. Retrieved 26 December 2016.
  197. ^ Paul, T. V.; Studies, Teleglobe Raoul-Dandurand Chair of Strategic and Diplomatic; sécurité, Université du Québec à Montréal Centre d'études des politiques étrangères et de (2000). Power Versus Prudence: Why Nations Forgo Nuclear Weapons. McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP. ISBN 9780773520875. from the original on 10 October 2020. Retrieved 24 December 2016.
  198. ^ "Pakistan's Nuclear Weapons Program – The Beginning". nuclearweaponarchive.org. Retrieved 24 December 2016.
  199. ^ "125 Slain in Dacca Area, Believed Elite of Bengal". The New York Times. New York. 19 December 1971. p. 1. from the original on 28 March 2014. Retrieved 4 January 2008. At least 125 persons, believed to be physicians, professors, writers and teachers, were found murdered today in a field outside Dacca. All the victims' hands were tied behind their backs and they had been bayoneted, garroted or shot. These victims were among an estimated 300 Bengali intellectuals who had been seized by West Pakistani soldiers and locally recruited supporters.
  200. ^ Murshid, Tazeen M. (1997). "State, Nation, Identity: The Quest for Legitimacy in Bangladesh". South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies. 20 (2): 1–34. doi:10.1080/00856409708723294. ISSN 1479-0270.
  201. ^ Khan, Muazzam Hussain (2012). "Killing of Intellectuals". In Islam, Sirajul; Jamal, Ahmed A. (eds.). Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh (Second ed.). Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. from the original on 26 May 2019. Retrieved 4 July 2015.
  202. ^ Shaiduzzaman. . The New Age. South Africa. Archived from the original on 1 December 2010. Retrieved 20 October 2009.
  203. ^ Bose, Sarmila (2010). Dead reckoning : memories of the 1971 Bangladesh war. London: C. Hurst. pp. 164–165, 176–181. ISBN 978-1-84904-049-5.
  204. ^ Mikaberidze, Alexander (2013). Atrocities, Massacres, and War Crimes: An Encyclopedia [2 Volumes]: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 511–512. ISBN 978-1-59884-926-4. from the original on 20 April 2020. Retrieved 7 February 2019.
  205. ^ Staff correspondents (1 December 2015). "Pakistan denies committing war crimes in 1971". The Daily Star. The Daily Star, 2015. from the original on 5 December 2015. Retrieved 26 December 2016.
  206. ^ Rummel, Rudolph J., "Statistics of Democide: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900" 21 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine, ISBN 978-3-8258-4010-5, Chapter 8, table 8.1
  207. ^ "Birth of Bangladesh: When raped women and war babies paid the price of a new nation". The Indian Express. 19 December 2016. from the original on 6 April 2019. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
  208. ^ "Bangladesh sets up war crimes court". Al Jazeera. 26 March 2010. from the original on 5 June 2011. Retrieved 27 March 2010.
  209. ^ Worcester, Kenton; Bermanzohn, Sally Avery; Ungar, Mark (2013). Violence and Politics: Globalization's Paradox. Routledge. p. 111. ISBN 978-1-136-70125-2. from the original on 20 April 2020. Retrieved 18 September 2018.
  210. ^ Tripathi, Salil (2016). The Colonel Who Would Not Repent: The Bangladesh War and Its Unquiet Legacy. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-21818-3. from the original on 20 April 2020. Retrieved 18 September 2018.
  211. ^ Hossain, Mokerrom (2010). From Protest to Freedom: A Book for the New Generation: the Birth of Bangladesh. Mokerrom. p. 133. ISBN 978-0-615-48695-6. from the original on 20 April 2020. Retrieved 18 September 2018.
  212. ^ Gerlach, Christian (2010). Extremely Violent Societies: Mass Violence in the Twentieth-Century World. Cambridge University Press. p. 148. ISBN 978-1-139-49351-2. from the original on 26 May 2019. Retrieved 18 September 2018.
  213. ^ "Bangladesh sets up 1971 war crimes tribunal". BBC News. 25 March 2010. from the original on 28 March 2010. Retrieved 26 March 2010.
  214. ^ . Voice of America. 26 March 2010. Archived from the original on 29 March 2010. Retrieved 27 March 2010.
  215. ^ Gill, John H (1994). An Atlas of 1971 Indian-Pakistan war-the Creation of Bangladesh. NESA. p. 66.
  216. ^ "Dhaka demonstrators protest Pakistan's reaction to Molla's execution". The Express Tribune. 18 December 2013. from the original on 26 December 2016. Retrieved 18 December 2013.
  217. ^ a b c Bose, Sarmila (22 September 2007). "Losing the Victims: Problems of Using Women as Weapons in Recounting the Bangladesh War" (PDF). Economic and Political Weekly: 3865. (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2016. Retrieved 30 March 2016.
  218. ^ Kharal, Rāʼe Asad K̲h̲ān (2000). Pākistān kaise ṭūṭā?. Intelligence Publishers. from the original on 9 October 2020. Retrieved 26 December 2016.
  219. ^ Shah, Aqil (2014). The Army and Democracy. Harvard University Press. p. 127. ISBN 9780674419773. from the original on 11 October 2020. Retrieved 26 December 2016.
  220. ^ "The Hamood-ur-Rahman Commission Report | Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Pakistan". Story of Pakistan. 1 June 2003. from the original on 28 December 2020. Retrieved 26 December 2016.
  221. ^ a b c Halarnkar, Sameer (21 August 2000). "The Untold Story of 1971 – Behind Pakistan's Defeat". India Today. from the original on 13 January 2016. Retrieved 17 December 2011.
  222. ^ a b "Bangladesh requests war report". BBC News. 30 August 2000. from the original on 28 October 2009. Retrieved 24 April 2011.
  223. ^ Bhatt, Arunkumar (2015). Psychological Warfare and India. Lancer Publishers. pp. 288–289. ISBN 9788170621331. from the original on 23 October 2020. Retrieved 22 August 2016.
  224. ^ Halarnkar, Sameer (21 August 2000). "The Genesis of Defeat – How many Hindus have you killed?". India Today. from the original on 25 October 2013. Retrieved 17 December 2011.
  225. ^ Halarnkar, Sameer (21 August 2000). "The Loss of Character – "Lust for wine, greed for houses"". India Today. from the original on 2 June 2016. Retrieved 17 December 2011.
  226. ^ a b Halarnkar, Sameer (21 August 2000). "Bravado And Capitulation – "Further resistance is not humanly possible"". India Today. from the original on 2 June 2016. Retrieved 17 December 2011.
  227. ^ a b D'Costa, Bina (2011). Nationbuilding, Gender and War Crimes in South Asia. Routledge. p. 76. ISBN 978-0-415-56566-0. from the original on 20 April 2020. Retrieved 18 October 2016.
  228. ^ Hamoodur Rehman Commission (HRC) Report of Inquiry into the 1971 War (Vanguard Books Lahore, 513)
  229. ^ Hamoodur Rahman Commission Report 16 August 2016 at the Wayback Machine, chapter 2 12 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine, paragraph 33
  230. ^ D'Costa, Bina (2011). Nationbuilding, Gender and War Crimes in South Asia. Routledge. p. 78. ISBN 978-0-415-56566-0. from the original on 20 April 2020. Retrieved 18 October 2016.
  231. ^ a b "India Pakistan | Timeline". BBC News. from the original on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 27 November 2015.
  232. ^ "Simla Agreement". Bilateral/Multilateral Documents. Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India. from the original on 28 September 2021. Retrieved 27 September 2013.
  233. ^ "Turtuk, a Promised Land Between Two Hostile Neighbours". The Wire. from the original on 30 October 2020. Retrieved 27 October 2020.
  234. ^ Rajrishi Singhal, qz com. "An encounter with the 'king' of Turtuk, a border village near Gilgit-Baltistan". Scroll.in. from the original on 24 October 2020. Retrieved 27 October 2020.
  235. ^ "A portrait of a village on the border". 10 August 2017. from the original on 26 August 2017. Retrieved 26 August 2017.
  236. ^ "Have you heard about this Indian Hero?". Rediff.com. 22 December 2011. from the original on 14 June 2017. Retrieved 28 May 2015.
indo, pakistani, 1971, also, bangladesh, liberation, military, confrontation, between, india, pakistan, that, occurred, during, bangladesh, liberation, east, pakistan, from, december, 1971, until, pakistani, capitulation, dhaka, december, 1971, began, with, pa. See also Bangladesh Liberation War The Indo Pakistani War of 1971 was a military confrontation between India and Pakistan that occurred during the Bangladesh Liberation War in East Pakistan from 3 December 1971 until the Pakistani capitulation in Dhaka on 16 December 1971 The war began with Pakistan s Operation Chengiz Khan consisting of preemptive aerial strikes on 11 Indian air stations The strikes led to India declaring war on Pakistan marking their entry into the war for East Pakistan s independence on the side of Bengali nationalist forces India s entry expanded the existing conflict with Indian and Pakistani forces engaging on both the eastern and western fronts 43 Thirteen days after the war started India achieved a clear upper hand and the Eastern Command of the Pakistan military signed the instrument of surrender 44 45 on 16 December 1971 in Dhaka marking the formation of East Pakistan as the new nation of Bangladesh Approximately 93 000 Pakistani servicemen were taken prisoner by the Indian Army which included 79 676 to 81 000 uniformed personnel of the Pakistan Armed Forces including some Bengali soldiers who had remained loyal to Pakistan 46 47 The remaining 10 324 to 12 500 prisoners were civilians either family members of the military personnel or collaborators Razakars 48 49 50 Indo Pakistani War of 1971Part of the Indo Pakistani wars and conflicts Cold War and Bangladesh Liberation WarFirst Row Lt Gen A A K Niazi the Cdr of Pakistani Eastern Comnd signing the documented Instrument of Surrender in Dacca in the presence of Lt Gen Jagjit Singh Aurora GOC in C of Indian Eastern Comnd Surojit Sen of All India Radio is seen holding a microphone on the right Second Row left to right Vice Adm N Krishnan FOC in C Eastern Naval Comnd Air Mshl H C Dewan AOC in C Eastern Air Comnd Lt Gen Sagat Singh Cdr IV Corps Maj Gen JFR Jacob COS Eastern Comnd and Flt Lt Krishnamurthy peering over Jacob s shoulder Date3 16 December 1971 1 week and 6 days LocationEastern Front India East Pakistan border Bay of Bengal Pasha enclavesWestern Front India Pakistan border Line of Control Zero Point Indian Ocean Arabian SeaResultIndian victory 14 15 16 Eastern front Surrender of East Pakistan military commandWestern front Unilateral ceasefire 17 TerritorialchangesEastern Front Independence of East Pakistan as BangladeshWestern Front Indian forces captured around 15 010 km2 5 795 sq mi of land in the West but returned it in the 1972 Simla Agreement as a gesture of goodwill 18 19 20 Territory captured in Jammu and Kashmir was retained by both sides and a new Line of Control was defined Belligerents India Provisional Government of Bangladesh Supported by Soviet Union 1 2 3 Israel 4 Pakistan East Pakistan Supported by United States 1 5 281 282 6 2 3 United Kingdom 1 China 1 Iran 7 8 78 79 Ceylon 9 10 11 12 Saudi Arabia 13 112 Commanders and leadersV V Giri President of India Indira Gandhi Prime Minister of India Swaran Singh External Minister of India Jagjivan Ram Defence Minister of India Gen Sam Manekshaw Chief of Army Staff Adm S M Nanda Chief of Naval Staff ACM Pratap C Lal Chief of Air Staff Lt Gen J S Arora GOC in C Eastern Command Lt Gen G G Bewoor GOC in C Southern Command Lt Gen K P Candeth GOC in C Western Command Lt Gen Premindra Bhagat GOC in C Central Command VAdm S N Kohli FOC in C Western Naval Command VAdm Nilakanta KrishnanFOC in C Eastern Naval Command Air Mshl H C Dewan AOC in C Eastern Air Command Lt Gen Sagat Singh Rathore GOC IV Corps Lt Gen T N Raina GOC II Corps Lt Gen Sartaj Singh GOC XV Corps Lt Gen K K Singh GOC I Corps Maj Gen J F R Jacob COS Eastern Command Maj Gen Inderjit Singh Gill Dir Military Operations RAdm E C Kuruvila FOCWF RAdm S H Sarma FOCEF AVM I H Latif ACAS Plans Assistant Chief of Air Staff Plans Rameshwar Kao Director of RAW Sheikh Mujibur Rahman President of the Provisional Government Tajuddin Ahmad Prime Minister of the Provisional Government of Bangladesh Col M A G Osmani Commander in chief Mukti Bahini Yahya Khan President of Pakistan Nurul Amin Prime Minister of Pakistan Gen A H Khan Chief of Staff Army GHQ Lt Gen A A K Niazi Commander Eastern Command Lt Gen Gul Hassan Khan Chief of General Staff VAdm Muzaffar Hassan C in C Navy Air Mshl Abdul Rahim Khan C in C Air Force Lt Gen Abdul Ali Malik GOC I Corps Lt Gen Tikka Khan GOC II Corps Lt Gen Bahadur Sher Khan GOC IV Corps Maj Gen Iftikhar Janjua GOC 23rd Infantry Division Maj Gen Khadim Hussain GOC 14th Infantry Division RAdm Rashid Ahmed COS NHQ RAdm Md Shariff FOC Eastern Naval Command RAdm M A K Lodhi FOC Western Naval Command RAdm Leslie Norman Commander Pakistan Marines AVM P D Callaghan Chief Ins Pakistan Air Force Air Cdre Inamul Haq Cdr Eastern Air Command Gp Capt Z A Khan COS AHQ Dhaka Abdul Motaleb Malik Governor of East Pakistan StrengthIndian Armed Forces 825 000 21 860 000 22 Mukti Bahini 180 000 23 Pakistan Armed Forces 350 000 24 365 000 22 Razakars 35 000 25 Casualties and losses India2 500 25 3 843 killed 26 27 9 851 26 12 000 28 injured 1 naval aircraft 29 30 1 frigate Okha harbour damaged fuel tanks destroyed 31 32 33 Pakistani claims 130 IAF aircraft 34 35 Indian claims 45 IAF aircraft 36 Neutral claims 25 45 IAF aircraft 80 tanks Pakistan9 000 killed 37 25 000 wounded 28 93 000 captured 2 destroyers 38 1 Minesweeper 38 1 Submarine 39 3 Patrol vessels 7 gunboats Pakistani main port Karachi facilities damaged fuel tanks destroyed 38 40 Pakistani airfields damaged and cratered 41 Pakistani claims 42 PAF aircraft 42 Indian claims 94 PAF aircraft 36 Neutral claims 25 75 PAF aircraft 200 tanks It is estimated that members of the Pakistani military and supporting pro Pakistani Islamist militias killed between 300 000 and 3 000 000 civilians in Bangladesh 51 52 53 54 55 As a result of the conflict a further eight to ten million people fled the country to seek refuge in India 56 During the 1971 Bangladesh war for independence members of the Pakistani military and supporting pro Pakistani Islamist militias called the Razakars raped between 200 000 and 400 000 Bangladeshi women and girls in a systematic campaign of genocidal rape 57 58 59 60 Contents 1 Background 2 India s involvement in Bangladesh Liberation War 3 India s official engagement with Pakistan 3 1 Objective 3 2 Naval hostilities 3 3 Air operations 3 4 Indian attacks on Pakistan 3 5 Ground operations 3 6 Surrender of Pakistan Eastern Command in East Pakistan 4 Foreign reaction and involvement 4 1 United States and Soviet Union 4 2 China 4 3 Sri Lanka 4 4 Arab World 5 Aftermath 5 1 India 5 2 Pakistan 5 3 Bangladesh 6 Impact 6 1 Pakistan War Enquiry Commission and War prisoners 6 2 India Indo Pakistani summits 6 3 Bangladesh International Crimes Tribunal 7 Long term consequences 8 Military awards 8 1 Battle honours 8 2 Gallantry awards 8 2 1 India 8 2 2 Bangladesh 8 2 3 Pakistan 9 Civilian awards 10 In media 10 1 Films 10 2 Short films 10 3 Miniseries Dramas 11 See also 11 1 General 12 References 13 Further reading 14 External linksBackgroundMain articles Cable 1971 Admiral Ahsan Mission Bangladesh Liberation War Mukti Bahini Timeline of Bangladesh Liberation War and 1971 Bangladesh genocide The Indo Pakistani conflict was sparked by the Bangladesh Liberation War a conflict between the traditionally dominant West Pakistanis and the majority East Pakistanis 38 The political tensions between East Bengal and West Pakistan had its origin in the creation of Pakistan as a result of the partition of India by the United Kingdom in 1947 the popular language movement in 1950 mass riots in East Bengal in 1964 and the mass protests in 1969 These led to the resignation of President Ayub Khan who invited army chief General Yahya Khan to take over the central government 61 xxx The geographical distance between the eastern and western wings of Pakistan was vast East Pakistan lay over 1 600 kilometres 1 000 mi away which greatly hampered any attempt to integrate the Bengali and the Pakistani cultures 62 13 14 63 To overcome the Bengali domination and prevent formation of the central government in Islamabad the controversial One Unit programme established the two wings of East and West Pakistan West Pakistanis opposition to these efforts made it difficult to effectively govern both wings 61 xxx In 1969 President Yahya Khan announced the first general elections and disestablished the status of West Pakistan as a single province in 1970 in order to restore it to its original heterogeneous status comprising four provinces as defined at the time of establishment of Pakistan in 1947 64 In addition there were religious and racial tensions between Bengalis and the multi ethnic West Pakistanis as Bengalis looked different from the dominant West Pakistanis 65 The general elections held in 1970 resulted in East Pakistan s Awami League gaining 167 out of 169 seats for the East Pakistan Legislative Assembly and a near absolute majority in the 313 seat National Assembly while the vote in West Pakistan was mostly won by the socialist Pakistan Peoples Party 66 686 687 The Awami League leader Sheikh Mujibur Rahman stressed his political position by presenting his Six Points and endorsing the Bengalis right to govern 61 xxx The League s election success caused many West Pakistanis to fear that it would allow the Bengalis to draft the constitution based on the six points and liberalism 67 xlv To resolve the crisis the Admiral Ahsan Mission was formed to provide recommendations Its findings were met with favourable reviews from the political leaders of West Pakistan with the exception of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto the chairman of the Pakistan Peoples Party 68 109 110 The map shows Pakistan and East Pakistan between them was 1 600 km 1 000 mi of Indian territory However the military top brass vetoed the mission s proposal 68 110 Zulfikar Ali Bhutto endorsed the veto 68 110 and subsequently refused to yield the premiership of Pakistan to Sheikh Mujibur Rahman The Awami League called for general strikes in the country President Yahya Khan postponed the inauguration of the National Assembly causing a shattering disillusionment to the Awami League and their supporters throughout East Pakistan 69 In reaction Sheikh Mujibur Rahman called for general strikes that eventually shutdown the government and dissidents in the East began targeting the ethnic Bihari community which largely supported West Pakistan 70 In early March 1971 approximately 300 Biharis were slaughtered in riots by Bengali mobs in Chittagong alone 70 The Government of Pakistan used the Bihari massacre to justify its deployment of the military in East Pakistan on 25 March when it initiated its military crackdown 70 President Yahya Khan called on the military which was overwhelmingly led by West Pakistanis to suppress dissent in the East after accepting the resignation of Lieutenant General Yaqub Ali Khan the chief of staff of the East Pakistani military 71 72 Mass arrests of dissidents began and after several days of strikes and non cooperation the Pakistani military led by Lieutenant General Tikka Khan cracked down on Dhaka on the night of 25 March 1971 The government outlawed the Awami League which forced many of its members and sympathisers into refuge in Eastern India Mujib was arrested on the night of 25 26 March 1971 at about 1 30 am as per Radio Pakistan s news on 29 March 1971 and taken to West Pakistan Operation Searchlight followed by Operation Barisal attempted to kill the intellectual elite of the east 73 On 26 March 1971 Major Ziaur Rahman of Pakistan Army declared the independence of Bangladesh on behalf of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman 74 75 76 In April the exiled Awami League leaders formed a government in exile in Baidyanathtala of Meherpur The East Pakistan Rifles and Bengali officers in Pakistan s army navy and marines defected to the rebellion after taking refuge in different parts of India The Bangladesh Force namely the Mukti Bahini consisting of Niyomito Bahini Regular Force and Oniyomito Bahini Guerilla Force was formed under the retired colonel Mohammad Ataul Gani Osmani 77 There was also a meeting between Prime Minister Gandhi and President Nixon in November 1971 clarification needed where she rejected the US advice against intervening in the conflict 78 596 India s involvement in Bangladesh Liberation WarMain articles 1971 East Pakistan genocide Terrorism in Pakistan and Anti Pakistan sentiment After the resignations of Admiral S M Ahsan and Lieutenant General Yaqub Ali Khan the media correspondents began airing reports of the Pakistani military s widespread genocide against their Bengali citizens 79 particularly aimed at the minority Bengali Hindu population 80 81 43 which led to approximately 10 million people seeking refuge in the neighbouring states of Eastern India 80 79 82 The Indian government opened the East Pakistan India border to allow the Bengali refugees to find safe shelter the governments of West Bengal Bihar Assam Meghalaya and Tripura established refugee camps along the border 83 23 24 The resulting flood of impoverished East Pakistani refugees strained India s already overburdened economy 81 The Indian government repeatedly appealed to the international community for assistance but failed to elicit any response despite the External Affairs minister Swaran Singh meeting foreign ministers of other countries 84 Prime Minister Indira Gandhi on 27 March 1971 expressed full support of her government for the independence struggle of the people of East Pakistan and concluded that instead of taking in millions of refugees it was economical to go to war against Pakistan 82 On 28 April 1971 the Gandhi cabinet had ordered the Chief of the Army Staff General Sam Manekshaw to Go into East Pakistan 85 86 87 Defected East Pakistan military officers and the elements of Indian Research and Analysis Wing RAW immediately started using the Indian refugee camps for recruitment and training of Mukti Bahini guerrillas that were to be trained against Pakistan 88 Indian authorities also attempted to carry on psychological warfare and keep up the morale of comrades in East Pakistan The Swadhin Bangla Betar Kendra Free Bangladesh Radio Centre which had broadcast Major Rahman s independence declaration was relocated from Kalurghat in East Pakistan to India after the transmission building was shelled by Pakistani Sabre jets on 30 March 1971 It resumed broadcasts on 3 April from Tripura aided by the Indian Border Security Force The clandestine station was finally shifted to Kolkata where it was joined by a large number of Bangladeshi radio programmers newscasters poets singers and journalists Its jurisdiction was transferred to the provisional Bangladesh government in exile and made its first broadcast on 25 May the birth anniversary of poet Kazi Nazrul Islam who would later be named Bangladesh s national poet Among the Indian contributors to the radio station s nationalistic programmes was Salil Chowdhury Akashvani Kolkata also actively took part in this effort 89 90 The news media s mood in Pakistan had also turned increasingly jingoistic and militaristic against East Pakistan and India when the Pakistani news media reported the complexity of the situation in the East though the reactions from Pakistan s news media pundits were mixed 91 92 By the end of September 1971 a propaganda campaign possibly orchestrated by elements within the Government of Pakistan resulted in stickers endorsing Crush India becoming a standard feature on the rear windows of vehicles in Rawalpindi Islamabad and Lahore this soon spread to the rest of West Pakistan 93 By October other stickers proclaimed Hang the Traitor in an apparent reference to Sheikh Mujibur Rahman 94 By the first week of December the conservative print media outlets in the country had published jihad related materials to boost the recruitment in the military 93 India s official engagement with PakistanObjective An illustration showing military units and troop movements during operations in the Eastern sector of the war By the end of April 1971 Prime Minister Indira Gandhi had asked the Indian Army chief General Sam Manekshaw if he was ready to go to war with Pakistan 95 96 According to Manekshaw s own personal account he refused citing the onset of monsoon season in East Pakistan and also the fact that the army tanks were being refitted 96 He offered his resignation which Gandhi declined 96 He then said he could guarantee victory if she would allow him to prepare for the conflict on his terms and set a date for it Gandhi accepted his conditions 96 97 In reality Gandhi was well aware of the difficulties of a hasty military action but she needed to get the military s views to satisfy her hawkish colleagues and the public opinion which were critical of India s restraint 87 By November 1971 an Indian Pakistani war seemed inevitable The Soviet Union reportedly warned Pakistan against the war which they termed as suicidal course for Pakistan s unity 98 part 3 Despite this warning in November 1971 thousands of people led by conservative Pakistani politicians marched in Lahore and across Pakistan calling for Pakistan to crush India 99 100 India responded by starting a massive buildup of the Indian Army on the western borders the army waited until December when the drier ground in the East made for easier operations and the Himalayan passes were closed by snow preventing any Chinese intervention 101 174 175 On 23 November President Yahya Khan declared a national state of emergency and told the country to prepare for war 102 On the evening of 3 December at about 17 40 citation needed the Pakistan Air Force PAF launched surprise pre emptive strikes on eleven airfields in north western India including Agra which was 480 kilometres 300 mi from the border 103 82 83 At the time of the attack the Taj Mahal had been camouflaged with a forest of twigs and leaves and draped with burlap because its marble glowed like a white beacon in the moonlight 104 These pre emptive strikes known as Operation Chengiz Khan were inspired by the success of Israeli Operation Focus in the Arab Israeli Six Day War Unlike the Israeli attack on Arab airbases in 1967 which involved a large number of Israeli planes Pakistan flew no more than 50 planes to India 103 82 105 In an address to the nation on radio that same evening Prime Minister Gandhi held that the air strikes were a declaration of war against India 106 107 and the Indian Air Force IAF responded with initial air strikes the same night 17 These expanded to massive retaliatory air strikes the next morning 17 This air action marked the official clarification needed start of the Indo Pakistani War of 1971 Gandhi ordered the immediate mobilisation of troops and launched a full scale invasion of Pakistan 108 333 This involved Indian forces in massive coordinated air sea and land assaults on Pakistan from all fronts 108 333 The main Indian objective on the Eastern front was to capture Dacca and on the Western front was to prevent Pakistan from entering Indian soil citation needed Naval hostilities Main article Indo Pakistani Naval War of 1971 Pakistan s PNS Ghazi sank off the fairway buoy of Visakhapatnam near the eastern coast of India making it the first submarine casualty in the waters around the Indian subcontinent Unlike the 1965 war the Navy NHQ staffers and commanders of the Pakistan Navy knew very well that the Navy was ill prepared for the naval conflict with India 109 65 The Pakistan Navy was in no condition of fighting an offensive war in deep sea against the Indian Navy and neither was it in a condition to mount serious defence against Indian Navy s seaborne encroachment 110 75 76 In the western theatre of the war the Indian Navy s Western Naval Command under Vice admiral S N Kohli successfully launched a surprise attack on Karachi port on the night of 4 5 December 1971 under the codename Trident 38 The naval attack involving the Soviet built Osa missile boats sank the Pakistan Navy s destroyer PNS Khaibar and minesweeper PNS Muhafiz while PNS Shah Jahan was also badly damaged 38 Pakistani naval sources reported that about 720 Pakistani sailors were killed or wounded and Pakistan lost reserve fuel and many commercial ships thus crippling the Pakistan Navy s further involvement in the conflict 110 85 87 In retaliation the Pakistan Navy submarines Hangor Mangro and Shushuk began their operations to seek out the major Indian warships 110 86 95 111 On 9 December 1971 Hangor sank INS Khukri inflicting 194 Indian casualties and this attack was the first submarine kill since World War II 112 229 113 The sinking of INS Khukri was followed by another Indian attack on Karachi port on the night of 8 9 December 1971 under the codename Python 38 A squadron of Indian Navy s Osa missile boats approached the Karachi port and launched a series of Soviet acquired Styx missiles that resulted in further destruction of reserve fuel tanks and the sinking of three Pakistani merchant ships as well as foreign ships docked in Karachi 114 The Pakistan Air Force did not attack the Indian Navy ships and confusion remained the next day when the civilian pilots of Pakistan International acting as reconnaissance war pilots misidentified PNS Zulfiqar and the air force attacked its own warship inflicting major damages and killing several officers on board 115 In the eastern theatre of the war the Indian Eastern Naval Command under Vice Admiral Nilakanta Krishnan completely isolated East Pakistan by a naval blockade in the Bay of Bengal trapping the Eastern Pakistan Navy and eight foreign merchant ships in their ports 110 82 83 From 4 December onwards the aircraft carrier INS Vikrant was deployed and its Sea Hawk fighter bombers attacked many coastal towns in East Pakistan including Chittagong and Cox s Bazar 116 Pakistan countered the threat by sending the submarine PNS Ghazi which sank off Visakhapatnam s coast due to an internal explosion though whether this was triggered by Indian depth charges diving to avoid them or some other reason has never been established 117 118 Due to high number of defections the Navy relied on deploying the Pakistan Marines led by Rear Admiral Leslie Mungavin where they had to conduct riverine operations against the Indian Army but they too suffered major losses mainly due to their lack of understanding of expeditionary warfare and the wet terrain of East Pakistan 119 Indian aircraft carrier INS Vikrant launches an Alize aircraft The damage inflicted on the Pakistan Navy stood at 7 gunboats 1 minesweeper 1 submarine 2 destroyers 3 patrol crafts belonging to the coast guard 18 cargo supply and communication vessels and large scale damage inflicted on the naval base and docks in the coastal town of Karachi Three merchant navy ships Anwar Baksh Pasni and Madhumathi 120 and ten smaller vessels were captured 121 Around 1900 personnel were lost while 1413 servicemen were captured by Indian forces in Dacca 122 According to one Pakistani scholar Tariq Ali Pakistan lost half its navy in the war 123 Air operations Main article East Pakistan Air Operations 1971 Indian Air Force MiG 21s during the war After the attempted pre emptive attack the PAF adopted a defensive stance in response to the Indian retaliation As the war progressed the IAF continued to battle the PAF over conflict zones but the number of sorties flown by the PAF decreased day by day 124 125 The IAF flew 4 000 sorties while the PAF offered little in retaliation partly because of the paucity of non Bengali technical personnel 38 This lack of retaliation has also been attributed to the deliberate decision of the PAF s AHQ to cut its losses as it had already incurred huge losses in the conflict in the liberation war in the East 126 The PAF avoided making contacts with the Indian Navy after the latter raided the port of Karachi twice but the PAF did retaliate by bombing Okha harbour destroying the fuel tanks used by the boats that had attacked 34 127 In the east No 14 Squadron Tail Choppers was destroyed and its CO Squadron Leader PQ Mehdi was taken POW putting Pakistan s air command in Dhaka out of commission India thereby achieved total air superiority on the eastern front 38 At the end of the war PAF pilots made successful escapes from East Pakistan to neighbouring Burma many PAF personnel had already left the East for Burma on their own before Dacca was overrun by the Indian military in December 1971 128 Indian attacks on Pakistan A destroyed aircraft hangar at Dacca airfield after an Indian air attack As the Indian Army tightened its grip in East Pakistan the Indian Air Force continued with its attacks against Pakistan as the campaign developed into a series of daylight anti airfield anti radar and close support attacks by fighter jets with night attacks against airfields and strategic targets by Canberras and An 12s while Pakistan responded with similar night attacks with its B 57s and C 130s 13 107 108 The PAF deployed its F 6s mainly on defensive combat air patrol missions over their own bases leaving the PAF unable to conduct effective offensive operations 13 107 The IAF s raids damaged one USAF and one UN aircraft in Dacca while a RCAF DHC 4 Caribou was destroyed in Islamabad along with the USAF s Beech U 8 owned by the US military s liaison chief Brigadier General Chuck Yeager 13 107 129 Sporadic raids by the IAF continued against PAF forward air bases in Pakistan until the end of the war and interdiction and close support operations were maintained 13 107 108 One of the most successful air raids by India into West Pakistan happened on 8 December 1971 when Indian Hunter aircraft from the Pathankot based 20 Squadron attacked the Pakistani base in Murid and destroyed 5 F 86 aircraft on the ground This was confirmed by Pakistan s military historian Air Commodore M Kaiser Tufail in his book In The Ring and on Its Feet Pakistan Air Force in the 1971 Indo Pak War 130 The PAF played a more limited role in the operations They were reinforced by Mirages from an unidentified Middle Eastern ally whose identity remains unknown 13 107 According to author Martin Bowman Libyan F 5s were reportedly deployed to Sargodha AFB perhaps as a potential training unit to prepare Pakistani pilots for an influx of more F 5s from Saudi Arabia 13 112 The IAF was able to conduct a wide range of missions troop support air combat deep penetration strikes para dropping behind enemy lines feints to draw enemy fighters away from the actual target bombing and reconnaissance 13 107 The PAF which was solely focused on air combat was blown out of the subcontinent s skies within the first week of the war 13 107 Those PAF aircraft that survived took refuge at Iranian air bases or in concrete bunkers refusing to offer a fight 131 India flew 1 978 sorties in the East and about 4 000 in Pakistan while the PAF flew about 30 and 2 840 at the respective fronts 13 107 More than 80 percent of IAF sorties were close support and interdiction and about 45 IAF aircraft were lost 25 Pakistan lost 60 to 75 aircraft 25 not including any F 6s Mirage IIIs or the six Jordanian F 104s which failed to return to their donors 25 The imbalance in air losses was explained by the IAF s considerably higher sortie rate and its emphasis on ground attack missions 25 Ground operations The Indian T 55 tanks penetrating the Indo East Pakistan border towards Dacca 105 mm Jonga mounted RCL gun which destroyed most of the tanks during the Battle of Longewala Before the start of the war the Indian Army was well organised on both fronts and enjoyed significant numerical superiority over the Pakistan Army 78 596 The Indian Army s extraordinary war performance at both fronts restored the prestige confidence and dignity that it had lost during the Sino Indian War in 1962 132 When the conflict started the war immediately took a decisive turn in favour of India and their Bengali rebel allies militarily and diplomatically 78 596 On both fronts Pakistan launched several ground offensives but the Indian Army held its ground and initiated well coordinated ground operations on both fronts 78 596 Major ground attacks were concentrated on the western border by the Pakistan Army fighting together with the Pakistan Marines in the southern border but the Indian Army was successful in penetrating into Pakistani soil It eventually made some quick and initial gains including the capture of around 15 010 km2 5 795 sq mi 18 19 of Pakistani territory this land gained by India in Azad Kashmir Punjab and Sindh sectors was later ceded in the Simla Agreement of 1972 as a gesture of goodwill 20 Casualties inflicted to Pakistan Army s I Corps II Corps and Pakistan Marines Punjab detachment were very high and many soldiers and marines perished due to lack of operational planning and lack of coordination within the marine army formations against Indian Army s Southern and Western Commands 133 82 93 By the time the war came to end the army soldiers and marines were highly demoralised both emotionally and psychologically on the western front and had no will to put up a defensive fight against the approaching Indian Army soldiers 134 1 2 The War Enquiry Commission later exposed the fact that for the Pakistan Army and Pakistan Marines the arms and training of marines soldiers and officers were needed at every level and every level of command 135 On 23 November 1971 the Indian Army conventionally penetrated to the eastern fronts and crossed East Pakistan s borders to join their Bengali nationalist allies 136 156 Contrary to the 1965 war which had emphasised set piece battles and slow advances this time the strategy adopted was a swift three pronged assault of nine infantry divisions with attached armoured units and close air support that rapidly converged on Dacca the capital of East Pakistan 136 156 Lieutenant General Jagjit Singh Aurora the General Officer Commanding in Chief of the Indian Army s Eastern Command led the full Indian thrust into East Pakistan As the Indian Eastern Command attacked the Pakistan Eastern Command the Indian Air Force rapidly destroyed the small air contingent in East Pakistan and put the Dacca airfield out of commission 136 156 In the meantime the Indian Navy effectively blockaded East Pakistan 136 156 The Indian campaign s blitzkrieg techniques exploited weaknesses in the Pakistani positions and bypassed opposition this resulted in a swift victory 137 802 Faced with insurmountable losses the Pakistani military capitulated in less than a fortnight and psychological panic spread in the Eastern Command s military leadership 137 802 Subsequently the Indian Army encircled Dacca and issued an ultimatum to surrender in 30 minutes time window on 16 December 1971 138 Upon hearing the ultimatum the East Pakistan government collapsed when the Lt Gen A A K Niazi Cdr of Eastern Command and his deputy V Adm M S Khan surrendered without offering any resistance 136 On 16 December 1971 Pakistan ultimately called for unilateral ceasefire and surrendered its entire four tier military to the Indian Army hence ending the Indo Pakistani war of 1971 136 On the ground Pakistan suffered the most with 8 000 killed and 25 000 wounded while India only had 3 000 dead and 12 000 wounded 28 The loss of armoured vehicles was similarly imbalanced and this finally represented a major defeat for Pakistan 28 Surrender of Pakistan Eastern Command in East Pakistan Main articles Instrument of Surrender 1971 and East Pakistan Military Command Officially the Instrument of Surrender of Pakistan Eastern Command stationed in East Pakistan was signed between the Lieutenant General Jagjit Singh Aurora the GOC in C of Indian Eastern Command and Lieutenant General A A K Niazi the Commander of the Pakistan Eastern Command at the Ramna Race Course in Dacca at 16 31Hrs IST on 16 December 1971 citation needed There was a problem over who would represent the Bangladesh government as the three Bangladeshi battalion commanders Lt Cols Shafiullah Khaled Musharraf and Ziaur Rahman were located too far away to be airlifted on time The responsibility fell on the only armed forces officer available Gp Capt AK Khondkar chief of the newly formed BAF 139 As the surrender was accepted silently by Lieutenant General Aurora the surrounding crowds on the race course started shouting anti Pakistan slogans and there were reports of abuses aimed at the surrendering commanders of Pakistani military 140 Indian officers and an Indian diplomat MEA joint secretary for Pakistan AK Ray had to form a human chain around Lt Gen Niazi to protect him from being lynched 139 Hostilities officially ended at 14 30 GMT on 17 December after the surrender on 16 December and India claimed large gains of territory in Pakistan although pre war boundaries were recognised after the war The war confirmed the independence of Bangladesh 13 107 Following the surrender the Indian Army took approximately 90 000 Pakistani servicemen and their Bengali supporters as POWs making it the largest surrender since World War II 141 Initial counts recorded that approximately 79 676 war prisoners were uniformed personnel and the overwhelming majority of the war prisoners were officers most of them from the army and navy while relatively small numbers were from the air force and marines others in larger number were serving in paramilitary units 142 The remaining prisoners were civilians who were either family members of the military personnel or collaborators razakars The Hamoodur Rahman Commission and the POW Investigation Commission reports instituted by Pakistan lists the Pakistani POWs as given in the table below Apart from soldiers it was estimated that 15 000 Bengali civilians were also made prisoners of war 143 Inter service branch Number of captured Pakistani POWs Officer commanding Pakistan Army 54 154 Lieutenant General Amir Abdullah Khan Niazi Pakistan Navy Pakistan Marines 1 381 Rear Admiral Mohammad Shariff Pakistan Air Force 833 Air Commodore Inamul HaqParamilitary East Pakistan Rifles Police 22 000 Major General Rao Farman AliCivil government personnel 12 000 Governor Abdul Motaleb MalikTotal 90 368 Foreign reaction and involvementUnited States and Soviet Union The Blood Telegram The Soviet Union sympathised with the East Pakistanis and supported the Indian Army and Mukti Bahini s incursion against Pakistan during the war in a broader view of recognising that the secession of East Pakistan as Independent Bangladesh would weaken the position of its rivals the United States and China The Soviet Union gave assurances to India that if a confrontation with the United States or China developed it would take counter measures This assurance was enshrined in the Indo Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation signed in August 1971 1 The Soviet Union accepted the Indian position that any resolution to the crisis in East Pakistan would have to be on terms acceptable to India and the Awami League but the Indo Soviet treaty did not mean a total commitment to the Indian stance according to author Robert Jackson The Soviet Union continued economic aid to Pakistan and made sympathetic gestures to Pakistan until mid October 1971 144 By November 1971 the Soviet ambassador to Pakistan Alexei Rodionov directed a secretive message Rodionov message that ultimately warned Pakistan that it will be embarking on a suicidal course if it escalates tensions in the subcontinent 98 part 3 The United States stood with Pakistan by supporting it morally politically economically and materially when U S President Richard Nixon and his Secretary of State Henry Kissinger refused to use rhetoric in a hopeless attempt to intervene in a large civil war The U S establishment had the impression that the Soviets were in an informal alliance with India and the US therefore needed Pakistan to help to limit Soviet influence in South Asia 5 281 During the Cold War Pakistan was a close formal ally of the United States and also had close relations with the People s Republic of China with whom Nixon had been negotiating a rapprochement and where he intended to visit in February 1972 145 Nixon feared that an Indian invasion of Pakistan would mean total Soviet domination of the region and that it would seriously undermine the global position of the United States and the regional position of America s new tactical ally China 5 281 282 Nixon encouraged Iran to send military supplies to Pakistan 7 The Nixon administration also ignored reports it received of the genocidal activities of the Pakistani military in East Pakistan most notably the Blood telegram and this prompted widespread criticism and condemnation both by the United States Congress and in the international press 79 146 147 Then U S Ambassador to the United Nations George H W Bush introduced a resolution in the UN Security Council calling for a cease fire and the withdrawal of armed forces by India and Pakistan 148 However it was vetoed by the Soviet Union and the following days witnessed the use of great pressure on the Soviets from the Nixon Kissinger duo to get India to withdraw but to no avail 149 When Pakistan s defeat in the eastern sector seemed certain Nixon deployed Task Force 74 led by the aircraft carrier USS Enterprise into the Bay of Bengal Enterprise and its escort ships arrived on station on 11 December 1971 6 xxxx According to a Russian documentary the United Kingdom also deployed a carrier battle group led by the aircraft carrier HMS Eagle to the Bay 1 150 better source needed on her final deployment On 6 and 13 December the Soviet Navy dispatched two groups of cruisers and destroyers from Vladivostok 1 they trailed US Task Force 74 into the Indian Ocean from 18 December 1971 until 7 January 1972 The Soviets also had a nuclear submarine to help ward off the threat posed by the USS Enterprise task force in the Indian Ocean 2 3 As the war progressed it became apparent to the United States that India was going to invade and disintegrate Pakistan in a matter of weeks therefore President Nixon spoke with the USSR General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev on a hotline on 10 December where Nixon reportedly urged Brezhnev to restrain India as he quoted in the strongest possible terms to restrain India with which you Brezhnev have great influence and for whose actions you must share responsibility 151 After the war the United States accepted the new balance of power and recognised India as a dominant player in South Asia the US immediately engaged in strengthening bilateral relations between the two countries in the successive years 152 The Soviet Union while being sympathetic to Pakistan s loss decided to engage with Pakistan after sending an invitation through Rodionov to Zulfikar Ali Bhutto who paid a state visit to the Soviet Union in 1972 to strengthen bilateral relations that continued over the years 153 16 A 2019 study argues that Nixon and Kissinger routinely demonstrated psychological biases that led them to overestimate the likelihood of West Pakistani victory in the war and that they overestimated the importance of the crisis to broader U S policy The evidence fails to support Nixon and Kissinger s own framing of the 1971 crisis as a contest between cool headed realpolitik and idealistic humanitarianism and instead shows that Kissinger and Nixon s policy decisions harmed their stated goals because of repeated decision making errors 154 China During the course of the war China harshly criticised India for its involvement in the East Pakistan crises and accused India of having imperialistic designs in South Asia 155 19 Before the war started Chinese leaders and officials had long been philosophically advising the Pakistan government to make peaceful political settlements with the East Pakistani leaders as China feared that India was secretly supporting infiltrating and arming the Bengali rebels against the East Pakistani government 156 157 China was also critical of the Government of East Pakistan led by its Governor Lieutenant General Tikka Khan which used ruthless measures to deal with the Bengali opposition and did not endorse the Pakistani position on that issue 157 When the war started China reproached India for its direct involvement and infiltration in East Pakistan 157 It disagreed with Pakistani President Yahya Khan s consideration of military options and criticised East Pakistan Awami League politicians ties with India 157 China reacted with great alarm when the prospects of Indian invasion of Pakistan and integration of Pakistan administered Kashmir into their side of Kashmir became imminent 106 US President Nixon encouraged China to mobilise its armed forces along its border with India to discourage the Indian assault but the Chinese did not respond to this encouragement since the Indian Army s Northern Command was well prepared to guard the Line of Actual Control and was already engaging and making advances against the Pakistan Army s X Corps in the Line of Control citation needed China did not welcome the break up of Pakistan s unity by the East Pakistani politicians and effectively vetoed the membership of Bangladesh when it applied to the United Nations in 1972 158 China objected to admitting Bangladesh on the grounds that two UN resolutions concerning Bangladesh requiring the repatriation of Pakistani POWs and civilians had not yet been implemented 159 Furthermore China was also among the last countries to recognise the independence of Bangladesh refusing to do so until 31 August 1975 160 158 161 To this date its relations with Bangladesh are determined by the Pakistan factor 162 Sri Lanka See also Tamil Eelam Sri Lanka saw the partition of Pakistan as an example for themselves and feared India might use its enhanced power against them in the future 9 Despite the left wing government of Sirimavo Bandaranaike following a neutral non aligned foreign policy Sri Lanka decided to help Pakistan in the war 10 11 As Pakistani aircraft could not fly over Indian territory they would have to take a longer route around India and so they stopped at Bandaranaike Airport in Sri Lanka where they were refuelled before flying to East Pakistan 12 Arab World As many Arab countries were allied with both the United States and Pakistan it was easy for Kissinger to encourage them to participate He sent letters to both the King of Jordan and the King of Saudi Arabia President Nixon gave permission for Jordan to send ten F 104s and promised to provide replacements 163 F 86s from Saudi Arabia helped camouflage the extent of PAF losses and some Libyan F 5s were reportedly deployed to Sargodha AFB perhaps as a potential training unit to prepare Pakistani pilots for an influx of more F 5s from Saudi Arabia 13 112 In addition to these three countries an unidentified Middle Eastern ally also supplied Pakistan with Mirage IIIs However other countries such as Syria and Tunisia were against interfering describing it as an internal matter of Pakistan 164 AftermathIndia The war stripped Pakistan of more than half of its population and with nearly one third of its army in captivity clearly established India s military and political dominance of the subcontinent 43 India successfully led a diplomatic campaign to isolate Pakistan 78 596 In addition Prime Minister Indira Gandhi s state visit to United Kingdom and France further helped break ice with the United States and blocked any pro Pakistan resolution in the United Nations 78 596 The victory also defined India s much broader role in foreign politics as many countries in the world had come to realise including the United States that the balance of power had shifted to India as a major player in the region 8 80 165 57 In the wake of changing geopolitical realities India sought to establish closer relations with regional countries such as Iran which was a traditional ally of Pakistan 165 57 The United States itself accepted a new balance of power and when India conducted a surprise nuclear test in 1974 the US notified India that it had no interest in actions designed to achieve new balance of power 152 In spite of the magnitude of the victory India was surprisingly restrained in its reaction 43 Mostly Indian leaders seemed pleased by the relative ease with which they had accomplished their goals the establishment of Bangladesh and the prospect of an early return to their homeland of the 10 million Bengali refugees who were the cause of the war 43 In announcing the Pakistani surrender Prime Minister Indira Gandhi declared in the Indian Parliament Dacca is now the free capital of a free country We hail the people of Bangladesh in their hour of triumph All nations who value the human spirit will recognise it as a significant milestone in man s quest for liberty 43 Colonel John Gill of National Defense University US remarks that while India achieved a military victory it was not able to reap the political fruits it might have hoped for in Bangladesh After a brief honeymoon phase between India and Bangladesh their relationship began to sour 166 167 The perceived Indian overstay revived Bangladeshi anxieties of Hindu control 168 Many were concerned that Mujib was permitting Indian interference in the country s internal matters 169 and many in the Bangladeshi army resented his attachment with India 170 Whilst India enjoys excellent relations with Bangladesh during the Awami League tenures relations deteriorated when the Bangladesh Nationalist Party assumed power A 2014 Pew Research Center opinion poll found that 27 of Bangladeshis were wary of India However 70 of Bangladeshis held a positive view of India while 50 of Bangladeshis held a positive view of Pakistan 171 Pakistan For Pakistan the war was a complete and humiliating defeat 43 a psychological setback that came from a defeat at the hands of rival India 49 Pakistan lost half its population and a significant portion of its economy and suffered setbacks to its geopolitical role in South Asia 43 49 In the post war era Pakistan struggled to absorb the lessons learned from the military interventions in the democratic system and the impact of the Pakistani military s failure was grave and long lasting 172 173 From the geopolitical point of view the war ended in the breaking up of the unity of Pakistan from being the largest Muslim country in the world to its politico economic and military collapse that resulted from a direct foreign intervention by India in 1971 174 50 175 1 176 177 Pakistani policy makers further feared that the two nation theory had been disproved by the war that Muslim nationalism had proved insufficient to keep Bengalis a part of Pakistan 178 The Pakistani people were not mentally prepared to accept the magnitude of this kind of defeat as the state media had been projecting imaginary victories 178 When the ceasefire that came from the surrender of East Pakistan was finally announced the people could not come to terms with the magnitude of defeat spontaneous demonstrations and massive protests erupted on the streets of major metropolitan cities in Pakistan According to Pakistani historians the trauma was extremely severe and the cost of the war for Pakistan in monetary terms and in human resources was very high 179 xxx 180 Demoralized and finding itself unable to control the situation the Yahya administration fell when President Yahya Khan turned over his presidency to Zulfikar Ali Bhutto who was sworn in on 20 December 1971 as President with the control of the military 181 The loss of East Pakistan shattered the prestige of the Pakistani military 49 Pakistan lost half its navy a quarter of its air force and a third of its army 123 The war also exposed the shortcomings of Pakistan s declared strategic doctrine that the defence of East Pakistan lay in West Pakistan 182 Hussain Haqqani in his book Pakistan Between Mosque and Military notes Moreover the army had failed to fulfill its promises of fighting until the last man The eastern command had laid down arms after losing only thirteen hundred men in battle In West Pakistan too twelve hundred military deaths had accompanied lackluster military performance 49 In his book The 1971 Indo Pak War A Soldier s Narrative Pakistan Army s Major General Hakeem Arshad Qureshi a veteran of this conflict noted We must accept the fact that as a people we had also contributed to the bifurcation of our own country It was not a Niazi or a Yahya even a Mujib or a Bhutto or their key assistants who alone were the cause of our break up but a corrupted system and a flawed social order that our own apathy had allowed to remain in place for years At the most critical moment in our history we failed to check the limitless ambitions of individuals with dubious antecedents and to thwart their selfish and irresponsible behaviour It was our collective conduct that had provided the enemy an opportunity to dismember us Qureshi p 288 183 After the war the Pakistan Army s generals in the East held each other responsible for the atrocities committed but most of the burden was laid on Lieutenant General Tikka Khan who earned notoriety from his actions as governor of the East he was called the Butcher of Bengal because of the widespread atrocities committed within the areas of his responsibility 184 Unlike his contemporary Yaqub who was a pacifist and knew well of the limits of force Tikka was a soldier known for his eager use of force to settle his differences 185 100 186 187 188 Lieutenant General A A K Niazi commented on Tikka s actions On the night between 25 26 March 1971 General Tikka struck Peaceful night was turned into a time of wailing crying and burning General Tikka let loose everything at his disposal as if raiding an enemy not dealing with his own misguided and misled people The military action was a display of stark cruelty more merciless than the massacres at Bukhara and Baghdad by Chengiz Khan and Halaku Khan General Tikka resorted to the killing of civilians and a scorched earth policy His orders to his troops were I want the land and not the people 189 Major General Rao Farman wrote in his table diary Green land of East Pakistan will be painted red which has been interpreted to mean that he planned to massacre Bengalis 190 Farman said the entry was not expressing a thirst for blood but concern that East Pakistan s future could be the red flag of Communism 191 Major reforms were carried out by successive governments in Pakistan after the war in the light of many recommendations made in the Hamoodur Rahman Commission Report 192 254 To address the economic disparity the National Finance Commission system was established to equally distribute the taxation revenue among the four provinces the large scale nationalisation of industries and nationwide census were carried out in 1972 193 The Constitution was promulgated in 1973 that reflected this equal balance and a compromise between Islamism and Humanism and provided guaranteed equal human rights to all 194 The military was heavily reconstructed and heavily reorganised with President Bhutto appointing chiefs of staff in each inter service contrary to C in Cs and making instruction on human rights compulsory in the military syllabus in each branch of inter services 195 62 100 Major investments were directed towards modernising the navy 110 100 The military s chain of command was centralized in Joint Staff Headquarters JS HQ led by an appointed Chairman Joint Chiefs Committee to coordinars military efforts to safeguard the nation s defence and unity 195 62 63 In addition Pakistan sought to have a diversified foreign policy as Pakistani geostrategists had been shocked that both China and the United States provided limited support to Pakistan during the course of the war with the US displaying an inability to supply weapons that Pakistan needed the most 196 xxxiii On 20 January 1972 Pakistan under Bhutto launched the clandestine development of nuclear weapons with a view to never to allow ing another foreign invasion of Pakistan 197 133 135 This crash programme reached parity clarification needed in 1977 when the first weapon design was successfully achieved 198 Bangladesh Main article 1971 East Pakistan genocide As a result of the war East Pakistan became an independent country Bangladesh as the world s fourth most populous Muslim state on 16 December 1971 citation needed West Pakistan now just Pakistan secured the release of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman from the Headquarter Prison and allowed him to return to Dacca On 19 January 1972 Mujib was inaugurated as the first President of Bangladesh later becoming the Prime Minister of Bangladesh in 1974 citation needed On the brink of defeat in around 14 December 1971 the media reports indicated that the Pakistan Army soldiers the local East Pakistan Police they controlled razakars and the Shanti Committee carried out systematic killings of professionals such as physicians teachers and other intellectuals 199 200 as part of a pogrom against the Bengali Hindu minorities who constituted the majority of urban educated intellectuals 201 202 Young men especially students who were seen as possible rebels and recruiters were also targeted by the stationed military but the extent of casualties in East Pakistan is not known and the issue is itself controversial and contradictory among the authors who wrote books on the pogrom 203 204 the Pakistani government denied the charges of involvement in 2015 205 R J Rummel cites estimates ranging from one to three million people killed 206 Other estimates place the death toll lower at 300 000 Bangladesh government figures state that Pakistani forces aided by collaborators killed three million people raped 200 000 women and displaced millions of others 207 208 According to authors Kenton Worcester Sally Bermanzohn and Mark Ungar Bengalis themselves killed about 150 000 non Bengalis living in the East 209 There had been reports of Bengali insurgents indiscriminately killing non Bengalis throughout the East however neither side provided substantial proofs for their claims and both Bangladeshi and Pakistani figures contradict each other over this issue 210 211 Bihari representatives in June 1971 claimed a higher figure of 500 000 killed by Bengalis 212 In 2010 the Awami League s government decided to set up a tribunal to prosecute the people involved in alleged war crimes and those who collaborated with Pakistan 213 According to the government the defendants would be charged with crimes against humanity genocide murder rape and arson 214 According to John H Gill there was widespread polarisation between pro Pakistan Bengalis and pro liberation Bengalis during the war and those internal battles are still playing out in the domestic politics of modern day Bangladesh 215 To this day the issue of committed atrocities and pogroms is an influential factor in the Bangladesh Pakistan relations 216 ImpactPakistan War Enquiry Commission and War prisoners Main articles War Enquiry Commission and Indo Pakistani War of 1971 Prisoners of War Investigation In the aftermath of the war the Pakistani Government constituted the War Enquiry Commission to be headed by Chief Justice Hamoodur Rahman who was an ethnic Bengali 217 and composed of the senior justices of the Supreme Court of Pakistan 217 The War Enquiry Commission was mandated with carrying out thorough investigations into the intelligence strategic political and military failures that causes the defeat in the war citation needed The War Commission also looked into Pakistan s political and military involvement in the history of East Pakistan that encompasses 1947 71 citation needed The First War Report was submitted in July 1972 but it was very critically opined and penned on political misconducts of politicians and the military interference in national politics 218 22 197 Written in moral and philosophical perspective the First Report was lengthy and provided accounts that were unpalatable to be released to the public Initially there were 12 copies that were all destroyed except for the one that was kept and marked as Top Secret to prevent the backlash effects on the demoralised military 219 In 1976 the Supplementary Report was submitted which was the comprehensive report compiled together with the First Report this report was also marked as classified 220 In 2000 the excerpts of the Supplementary Report were leaked to a political correspondent of Pakistan s Dawn which the Dawn published together with India Today 221 222 The First Report is still marked as classified while the Supplementary Report s excerpts were suppressed by the news correspondents 223 The War Report s supplementary section was published by the Pakistan Government but it did not officially hand over the report to Bangladesh despite its requests 222 The War Report exposed many military failures from the strategic to the tactical intelligence levels while it confirmed the looting rapes and the unnecessary killings by the Pakistan military and their local agents 224 It laid the blame squarely on Pakistan Army generals accusing them of debauchery smuggling war crimes and neglect of duty 225 The War Commission had recommended public trial of Pakistan Army generals on the charges that they had been responsible for the situation in the first place and that they had succumbed without a fight 226 but no actions were ever taken against those responsible except the dismissal of chiefs of the Pakistan Army Pakistan Air Force Pakistan Navy and decommissioning of the Pakistan Marines 221 226 The War Commission however rejected the charge that 200 000 Bengali girls were raped by the Pakistan Army remarking It is clear that the figures mentioned by the Dacca authorities are altogether fantastic and fanciful and cited the evidence of a British abortion team that had carried out the termination of only a hundred or more pregnancies 217 227 228 The Commission also claimed that approximately 26 000 persons were killed during the action by the Pakistan military 227 229 Bina D Costa states that the War Commission was aware of the military s brutality in East Pakistan but chose to downplay the scale of the atrocities committed 230 The second commission was known as Indo Pakistani War of 1971 Prisoners of War Investigation conducted solely by the Pakistani government that was to determine the numbers of Pakistani military personnel who surrendered including the number of civilian POWs 231 The official number of the surrendered military personnel was soon released by the Government of Pakistan after the war was over 231 India Indo Pakistani summits Main articles Agreement Between the Government of India and the Government of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan on Bilateral Relations and Transfer of Population Under the Terms of the Delhi Agreement On 2 July 1972 the Indo Pakistani summit was held in Simla Himachal Pradesh India where the Simla Agreement was reached and signed between President Zulfikar Ali Bhutto and Prime Minister Indira Gandhi 232 The treaty provided insurance to Bangladesh that Pakistan recognised Bangladesh s sovereignty in exchange for the return of the Pakistani POWs 104 Over the next five months India released more than 90 000 war prisoners with Lieutenant General A A K Niazi being the last war prisoner to be handed over to Pakistan 104 The treaty also gave back more than 13 000 km2 of land that the Indian Army had seized in Pakistan during the war though India retained a few strategic areas including Turtuk Dhothang Tyakshi earlier called Tiaqsi and Chalunka of Chorbat Valley 233 234 which was more than 804 km2 235 236 237 The Indian hardliners however felt that the treaty had been too lenient to President Bhutto who had pleaded for leniency arguing that the fragile stability in Pakistan would crumble if the accord was perceived as being overly harsh by Pakistanis and that he would be accused of losing Kashmir in addition to the loss of East Pakistan 238 As a result Prime Minister Gandhi was criticised by a section in India for believing Bhutto s sweet talk and false vows while the other section claimed the agreement to be successful for not letting it to fall into Versailles Syndrome trap 239 In 1973 India and Pakistan reached another compromise when both countries signed a trilateral agreement with Bangladesh that actually brought the war prisoners non Bengali and Pakistan loyal Bengali bureaucrats and civilian servants to Pakistan 240 The Delhi Agreement witnessed the largest mass population transfer since the Partition of India in 1947 241 Bangladesh International Crimes Tribunal In 2009 the issue of establishing the International Crimes Tribunal began to take public support The tribunal was formally established in 2010 to investigate and prosecute suspects for the genocide committed in 1971 by the Pakistan Army and their local collaborators Razakars Al Badr and Al Shams during the Bangladesh Liberation War 242 169 Long term consequencesSteve Coll in his book Ghost Wars argues that the Pakistan military s experience with India including Pervez Musharraf s experience in 1971 influenced the Pakistani government to support jihadist groups in Afghanistan even after the Soviets left because the jihadists were a tool to use against India including bogging down the Indian Army in Kashmir 243 244 Writing about the war in Foreign Affairs magazine Zulfikar Ali Bhutto stated There is no parallel in contemporary history to the cataclysm which engulfed Pakistan in 1971 A tragic civil war which rent asunder the people of the two parts of Pakistan was seized by India as an opportunity for armed intervention The country was dismembered its economy shattered and the nation s self confidence totally undermined 245 This statement of Bhutto has given rise to the myth of betrayal prevalent in modern Pakistan This view was contradicted by the post War Hamoodur Rahman Commission ordered by Bhutto himself which in its 1974 report indicted generals of the Pakistan Army for creating conditions which led to the eventual loss of East Pakistan and for inept handling of military operations in the East 221 Military awardsBattle honours After the war 41 battle honours and 4 theatre honours were awarded to units of the Indian Army notable among them are 246 East Pakistan 1971 theatre honour Sindh 1971 theatre honour Jammu and Kashmir 1971 theatre honour Punjab 1971 theatre honour Basantar River Bogra Chachro Chhamb Defence of Punch Dera Baba Nanak Gadra City Harar Kalan Hilli Longewala Parbat Ali Poongli Bridge Shehjra Shingo River Valley Sylhet Gallantry awards For bravery a number of soldiers and officers on both sides were awarded the highest gallantry award of their respective countries Following is a list of the recipients of the Indian award Param Vir Chakra Bangladeshi award Bir Sreshtho and the Pakistani award Nishan E Haider India Recipients of the Param Vir Chakra 247 248 Lance Naik Albert Ekka Posthumously Flying Officer Nirmal Jit Singh Sekhon Posthumously Major Hoshiar Singh Second Lieutenant Arun Khetarpal Posthumously Bangladesh Recipients of the Bir Sreshtho 249 250 Captain Mohiuddin Jahangir Posthumously Lance Naik Munshi Abdur Rouf Posthumously Sepoy Hamidur Rahman Posthumously Sepoy Mostafa Kamal Posthumously ERA Mohammad Ruhul Amin Posthumously Flight Lieutenant Matiur Rahman Posthumously Lance Naik Nur Mohammad Sheikh Posthumously Pakistan Recipients of the Nishan E Haider 251 252 Major Muhammad Akram Posthumously Pilot Officer Rashid Minhas Posthumously Major Shabbir Sharif Posthumously Sarwar Muhammad Hussain Posthumously Lance Naik Muhammad Mahfuz Posthumously Civilian awardsOn 25 July 2011 Bangladesh Swadhinata Sammanona the Bangladesh Freedom Honour was posthumously conferred on former Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi 253 R M Muzumdar IOFS officer Second Indian Director General of the Indian Ordnance Factories He was awarded the Padma Bhushan by the Government of India in 1973 in the Civil service category for his contributions during the Indo Pakistani War of 1971 O P Bahl an IOFS officer Former Additional Director General Ordnance Factories and Member of the Ordnance Factory Board Received Padma Shri in 1972 in the civil service category for his efforts during the war 254 255 256 On 28 March 2012 President of Bangladesh Zillur Rahman and the Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina conferred Bangladesh Liberation War Honour and Friends of Liberation War Honour to 75 people six organisations Mitra Bahini and the people of India at a special ceremony at the Bangabandhu International Conference Centre Dhaka This included eight heads of states former Nepalese President Ram Baran Yadav the third King of Bhutan Jigme Dorji Wangchuck former Soviet General Secretary Leonid IIyich Brezhnev former Soviet head of state Nikolai Viktorovich Podgorny former Soviet Prime Minister Alexei Nikolaevich Kosygin former Yugoslav President Marshal Josip Broz Tito former UK Prime Minister Sir Edward Richard George Heath and former Nepalese Prime Minister Bishweshwar Prasad Koirala The organisations include the BBC Akashbani All India Radio International Committee of the Red Cross United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees Oxfam and Kolkata University Shahayak Samiti The list of foreign friends of Bangladesh has since been extended to 568 people It includes 257 Indians 88 Americans 41 Pakistanis 39 Britons 9 Russians 18 Nepalese 16 French and 18 Japanese 257 258 In mediaFilms Hindustan Ki Kasam a 1973 Bollywood war film directed by Chetan Anand about Operation Cactus Lilly 259 Aakraman 1975 Bollywood film set during this war featuring a romantic love triangle Border a 1997 Bollywood war film directed by J P Dutta This movie is an adaptation from real life events that happened at the Battle of Longewala fought in Rajasthan Western Theatre 259 260 16 December 2002 film directed by Mani Shankar 1971 Prisoners of War a 2007 Bollywood war film directed by Amrit Sagar Set against the backdrop of a prisoner of war camp in Pakistan it follows six Indian prisoners awaiting release after their capture in the 1971 India Pakistan war 259 The Ghazi Attack a 2017 war film directed by Sankalp Reddy It is based on the sinking of PNS Ghazi during the war 1971 Beyond Borders a 2017 Indian war drama film written and directed by Major Ravi 261 262 Raazi 2017 fictional spy film set before the events of war about the detection of plan to deploy PNS Ghazi 263 Romeo Akbar Walter 2019 spy film Bhuj The Pride of India 2021 action film set during the war 264 Short films Mukti Birth of a Nation a 2017 short film directed by Manu Chobe depicts the negotiations between Major General J F R Jacob and Lieutenant General A A K Niazi over the Pakistani Instrument of Surrender 265 Miniseries Dramas PNS Ghazi an Urdu Pakistani drama based on sinking of PNS Ghazi ISPRSee alsoPost World War II air to air combat losses List of aerial victories during the Indo Pakistani War of 1971 Indo Pakistani War of 1965 Separatist nationalism in Pakistan Muslim nationalism in South Asia Pakistani nationalism Conservatism in Pakistan Socialism in Pakistan Bangladesh Forces Timeline of the Bangladesh War Radcliffe Line India and state sponsored terrorism United States Pakistan relations before 1990 Soviet Union Pakistan relations before 1990 Tridev Roy Operation Searchlight Barisal Riverine Warfare Protest of 1969 in Pakistan Pakistan Air Force in East Pakistan Pakistan news media in Indo Pakistani war of 1971 International Crimes Tribunal Bangladesh Indian Army in East Pakistan Pakistan Afghanistan relations 1971 Winter POWs MIA Investigations Pakistan Pakistan military deployments in other countries Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction General History of Bangladesh History of Myanmar List of conflicts in AsiaReferences a b c d e f g 1971 India Pakistan War Role of Russia China America and Britain The World Reporter 30 October 2011 Archived from the original on 1 November 2011 Retrieved 30 October 2011 a b c Cold war games Bharat Rakshak Archived from the original on 9 June 2011 Retrieved 20 October 2009 a b c Birth of a nation The Indian Express 11 December 2009 Archived from the original on 5 June 2020 Retrieved 14 April 2011 Raghavan Srinath 2013 1971 A Global History of the Creation of Bangladesh Harvard University Press pp 182 183 ISBN 9780674731295 a b c VSM Brig Amar Cheema 31 March 2015 The Crimson Chinar The Kashmir Conflict A Politico Military Perspective Lancer Publishers ISBN 9788170623014 Archived from the original on 12 October 2020 Retrieved 27 December 2016 a b Rajagopalan Rajesh Mishra Atul 2015 Nuclear South Asia Keywords and Concepts Routledge ISBN 978 1 317 32475 1 Archived from the original on 20 April 2020 Retrieved 18 September 2018 a b Alvandi Roham 2016 Nixon Kissinger and the Shah The United States and Iran in the Cold War Oxford University Press p 61 ISBN 978 0 19 061068 5 Archived from the original on 20 October 2020 Retrieved 27 December 2016 a b Mudiam Prithvi Ram 1994 India and the Middle East British Academic Press ISBN 9781850437031 Archived from the original on 29 October 2020 Retrieved 24 December 2016 a b India and Its Neighbors Cooperation or Confrontation PDF CIA p 7 Archived PDF from the original on 13 April 2021 Retrieved 13 April 2021 a b The Island Archived from the original on 13 December 2010 Retrieved 8 April 2019 a b Brief Overview of Sri Lanka s Foreign Relations to Post Independence Foreign Ministry Sri Lanka Archived from the original on 8 April 2019 Retrieved 8 April 2019 a b Pak thanks Lanka for help in 1971 war Hindustan Times 11 June 2011 Archived from the original on 21 March 2021 Retrieved 14 February 2019 a b c d e f g h i j k l Bowman Martin 30 January 2016 Cold War Jet Combat Air to Air Jet Fighter Operations 1950 1972 Pen and Sword ISBN 9781473874633 Archived from the original on 14 April 2021 Retrieved 24 December 2016 Lyon Peter 2008 Conflict between India and Pakistan An Encyclopedia ABC CLIO p 166 ISBN 978 1 57607 712 2 India s decisive victory over Pakistan in the 1971 war and emergence of independent Bangladesh dramatically transformed the power balance of South Asia Kemp Geoffrey 2010 The East Moves West India China and Asia s Growing Presence in the Middle East Brookings Institution Press p 52 ISBN 978 0 8157 0388 4 However India s decisive victory over Pakistan in 1971 led the Shah to pursue closer relations with India Byman Daniel 2005 Deadly connections States that Sponsor Terrorism Cambridge University Press p 159 ISBN 978 0 521 83973 0 India s decisive victory in 1971 led to the signing of the Simla Agreement in 1972 a b c Indian Air Force Squadron 5 Tuskers Global Security Archived from the original on 17 July 2017 Retrieved 20 October 2009 a b Nawaz Shuja 2008 Crossed Swords Pakistan Its Army and the Wars Within Oxford University Press p 329 ISBN 978 0 19 547697 2 a b Chitkara M G 1996 Benazir a Profile M G Chitkara ISBN 9788170247524 Archived from the original on 12 October 2020 Retrieved 27 July 2012 a b Schofield Victoria 18 January 2003 Kashmir in Conflict India Pakistan and the Unending War Victoria Schofield ISBN 9781860648984 Archived from the original on 28 October 2020 Retrieved 27 July 2012 Palit Maj Gen DK 1998 The Lightning Campaign The Indo Pakistan War 1971 Lancer Publishers p 44 ISBN 978 1 897829 37 0 Archived from the original on 15 October 2020 Retrieved 24 December 2016 a b Cloughley Brian 5 January 2016 A History of the Pakistan Army Wars and Insurrections Simon and Schuster ISBN 978 1 63144 039 7 Archived from the original on 14 April 2021 Retrieved 12 November 2020 Rashiduzzaman M March 1972 Leadership Organization Strategies and Tactics of the Bangla Desh Movement Asian Survey 12 3 191 doi 10 2307 2642872 JSTOR 2642872 The Pakistan Government however claimed in June 1971 that the combined fighting strength of the secessionists amounted to about 180 000 armed personnel Dixit J N 2 September 2003 India Pakistan in War and Peace Routledge ISBN 1134407572 while the size of the Indian armed forces remained static at one million men and Pakistan s at around 350 000 a b c d e f g h Leonard Thomas M 2006 Encyclopedia of the Developing World Taylor amp Francis p 806 ISBN 978 0 415 97664 0 a b This Vijay Diwas remember the sacrifices and do good by our disabled soldiers The Times of India 16 December 2018 Archived from the original on 17 December 2018 About 3 843 Indian soldiers died in this war that resulted in the unilateral surrender of the Pakistan Army and led to the creation of Bangladesh Among the soldiers who returned home triumphant were also 9 851 injured many of them disabled Kapur Anu 11 March 2010 Vulnerable India A Geographical Study of Disasters SAGE Publications India ISBN 9788132105428 Archived from the original on 14 April 2021 Retrieved 12 November 2020 via Google Books a b c d The Encyclopedia of 20th Century Air Warfare edited by Chris Bishop Amber publishing 1997 republished 2004 pages 384 387 ISBN 1 904687 26 1 Chapter 10 Naval Operations in the Western Naval Command Indian Navy Archived from the original on 23 February 2012 Damage Assessment 1971 Indo Pak Naval War Orbat com Archived from the original on 19 March 2012 Retrieved 27 July 2012 Pakistan Air Force Combat Expirence Global Security 9 July 2011 Archived from the original on 12 June 2018 Retrieved 6 September 2019 Pakistan retaliated by causing extensive damage through a single B 57 attack on Indian naval base Okha The bombs scored direct hits on fuel dumps ammunition dump and the missile boats jetty Dr He Hemant Kumar Pandey amp Manish Raj Singh 1 August 2017 INDIA S MAJOR MILITARY amp RESCUE OPERATIONS Horizon Books A Division of Ignited Minds Edutech P Ltd 2017 p 117 Col Y Udaya Chandar Retd 2 January 2018 Independent India s All the Seven Wars Notion Press 2018 a b Pakistan Air Force Combat Experience Globalsecurity org Archived from the original on 12 June 2018 Retrieved 27 July 2012 Pakistan Air Force Official website Paf gov pk Archived from the original on 15 December 2011 Retrieved 27 July 2012 a b IAF Combat Kills 1971 Indo Pak Air War PDF orbat com Archived from the original PDF on 13 January 2014 Retrieved 20 December 2011 Leonard Thomas M 2006 Encyclopedia of the developing world Volume 1 Taylor amp Francis p 806 ISBN 978 0 415 97662 6 a b c d e f g h i Indo Pakistani War of 1971 Global Security Archived from the original on 26 November 2016 Retrieved 20 October 2009 The Sinking of the Ghazi Bharat Rakshak Monitor 4 2 Archived from the original on 28 November 2011 Retrieved 20 October 2009 How west was won on the waterfront The Tribune Archived from the original on 30 June 2017 Retrieved 24 December 2011 India Pakistan War 1971 Western Front Part I acig com Archived from the original on 10 September 2012 Retrieved 22 December 2011 Aircraft Losses in Pakistan 1971 War Archived from the original on 1 May 2009 Retrieved 24 April 2010 a b c d e f g h India Easy Victory Uneasy Peace Time 27 December 1971 Archived from the original on 13 June 2017 Retrieved 24 April 2016 Azhar M u R Masood S amp Malek N M 2018 Conflict and Development A case study of East Pakistan Crisis 1971 International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science 2 9 1971 War I will give you 30 minutes Sify com Archived from the original on 6 December 2010 Retrieved 14 April 2011 Burke S M 1974 Mainsprings of Indian and Pakistani Foreign Policies S M Burke ISBN 9780816607204 Archived from the original on 15 October 2020 Retrieved 27 July 2012 Bose Sarmila November 2011 The question of genocide and the quest for justice in the 1971 war PDF Journal of Genocide Research 13 4 398 doi 10 1080 14623528 2011 625750 S2CID 38668401 Archived PDF from the original on 10 October 2017 Retrieved 27 March 2016 Jamaat claims denied by evidence THE DAILY STAR 28 February 2008 Archived from the original on 11 August 2017 Retrieved 10 March 2016 a b c d e Haqqani Hussain 2005 Pakistan Between Mosque and Military Carnegie Endowment for International Peace p 87 ISBN 978 0 87003 214 1 Burke Samuel Martin 1974 Mainsprings of Indian and Pakistani Foreign Policies University of Minnesota Press p 216 ISBN 978 0 8166 5714 8 Archived from the original on 30 October 2020 Retrieved 15 September 2020 Alston Margaret 2015 Women and Climate Change in Bangladesh Routledge p 40 ISBN 9781317684862 Archived from the original on 13 October 2020 Retrieved 8 March 2016 Debnath Angela 2012 First published 2009 The Bangladesh Genocide The Plight of Women In Totten Samuel ed Plight and Fate of Women During and Following Genocide Transaction Publishers p 55 ISBN 978 1 4128 4759 9 Archived from the original on 15 October 2020 Retrieved 8 March 2016 Myers David G 2004 Exploring Social Psychology 4E Tata McGraw Hill Education p 269 ISBN 9780070700628 Archived from the original on 10 October 2020 Retrieved 8 March 2016 Consulate Dacca Cable Sitrep Army Terror Campaign Continues in Dacca Evidence Military Faces Some Difficulties Elsewhere Archived 21 December 2011 at the Wayback Machine 31 March 1971 Confidential 3 pp Kennedy Senator Edward Crisis in South Asia A report to the Subcommittee investigating the Problem of Refugees and Their Settlement Submitted to U S Senate Judiciary Committee 1 November 1971 U S Govt Press page 66 Sen Kennedy wrote Field reports to the U S Government countless eye witness journalistic accounts reports of International agencies such as World Bank and additional information available to the subcommittee document the reign of terror which grips East Bengal East Pakistan Hardest hit have been members of the Hindu community who have been robbed of their lands and shops systematically slaughtered and in some places painted with yellow patches marked H All of this has been officially sanctioned ordered and implemented under martial law from Islamabad Rummel Rudolph J Statistics of Democide Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900 Archived 21 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine ISBN 3 8258 4010 7 Chapter 8 Table 8 2 Pakistan Genocide in Bangladesh Estimates Sources and Calculations Archived 4 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine lowest estimate 2 million claimed by Pakistan reported by Aziz Qutubuddin Blood and tears Karachi United Press of Pakistan 1974 pp 74 226 some other sources used by Rummel suggest a figure of between 8 and 10 million with one Johnson B L C Bangladesh New York Barnes amp Noble 1975 pp 73 75 that could have been 12 million Sharlach Lisa 2000 Rape as Genocide Bangladesh the Former Yugoslavia and Rwanda New Political Science 22 1 92 93 doi 10 1080 713687893 S2CID 144966485 Sharlach Lisa 2002 State Rape Sexual Violence as Genocide In Kent Worcester Sally A Bermanzohn Mark Ungar eds Violence and Politics Globalization s Paradox Routledge p 111 ISBN 978 0 415 93111 3 Sajjad Tazreena 2012 First published 2009 The Post Genocidal Period and its Impact on Women In Tottne Samuel ed Plight and Fate of Women During and Following Genocide Transaction Publishers p 225 ISBN 978 1 4128 4759 9 Mookherjee Nayanika 2012 Mass rape and the inscription of gendered and racial domination during the Bangladesh War of 1971 In Raphaelle Branche Fabrice Virgili eds Rape in Wartime Palgrave Macmillan p 68 ISBN 978 0 230 36399 1 a b c Lieven Anatol 2012 Pakistan A Hard Country PublicAffairs ISBN 978 1610391627 Archived from the original on 11 October 2020 Retrieved 23 December 2016 Abbott David 2015 Changing World Pakistan Minnesota U S Encyclopaedia Britannica ISBN 9781625133212 Archived from the original on 29 October 2020 Retrieved 8 January 2017 1971 war The story of India s victory Pak s surrender Bangladesh freedom Business Standard India 16 December 2018 Archived from the original on 12 July 2020 Retrieved 6 July 2020 Legal Framework Order 1970 Story of Pakistan Nazaria e Pakistan Trust 2003 1 June 2003 Archived from the original on 3 December 2016 Retrieved 23 December 2016 Chatterjee Pranab 2010 A Story of Ambivalent Modernization in Bangladesh and West Bengal The Rise and Fall of Bengali Elitism in South Asia Peter Lang p 24 ISBN 978 1 4331 0820 4 Archived from the original on 19 October 2020 Retrieved 15 September 2020 Nohlen Dieter 2004 Elections in Asia and the Pacific Reprint ed Oxford Oxford Univ Press ISBN 978 0 19 924958 9 Guha Ramachandra 2011 India After Gandhi The History of the World s Largest Democracy Pan Macmillan ISBN 9780330540209 Archived from the original on 14 October 2020 Retrieved 23 December 2016 a b c Ehtisham S Akhtar 1998 A Medical Doctor Examines Life on Three Continents A Pakistani View Algora Publishing ISBN 978 0 87586 634 5 Archived from the original on 14 October 2020 Retrieved 9 December 2016 Ghazali Abdus Sattar Islamic Pakistan Illusions and Reality ghazali net National Book Club Archived from the original on 30 May 2014 Retrieved 23 December 2016 a b c D Costa Bina 2011 Nationbuilding Gender and War Crimes in South Asia Routledge p 103 ISBN 978 0 415 56566 0 Bose Sarmila 8 October 2005 Anatomy of Violence Analysis of Civil War in East Pakistan in 1971 Economic and Political Weekly Archived from the original on 1 March 2007 Salik Siddiq 1977 Witness To Surrender Oxford University Press pp 63 228 9 ISBN 978 984 05 1373 4 Riedel Bruce O 2011 Deadly Embrace Pakistan America and the Future of the Global Jihad Brookings Institution p 10 ISBN 978 0 8157 0557 4 Matinuddin Kamal 1994 Tragedy of Errors East Pakistan Crisis 1968 1971 Wajidalis ISBN 978 969 8031 19 0 Archived from the original on 18 May 2016 Retrieved 15 November 2015 Khan Fazal Muqueem 1973 Pakistan s Crisis in Leadership National Book Foundation ISBN 978 0 88386 302 2 Archived from the original on 11 June 2016 Retrieved 15 November 2015 Qureshi Hakeem Arshad 2003 Through the 1971 Crisis An Eyewitness Account by a Soldier Oxford University Press p 33 ISBN 978 0 19 579778 7 Raja Dewan Mohammad Tasawwar 2010 O General My General Life and Works of General M A G Osmany Osmany Memorial Trust pp 35 109 ISBN 978 984 8866 18 4 a b c d e f DeRouen Karl Jr Heo Uk 10 May 2007 Civil Wars of the World Major Conflicts Since World War II ABC CLIO ISBN 9781851099191 Archived from the original on 19 August 2020 Retrieved 24 December 2016 a b c The U S A Policy in Shambles Time 20 December 1971 Archived from the original on 30 September 2013 Retrieved 20 October 2009 a b U S Consulate Dacca Cable Sitrep Army Terror Campaign Continues in Dacca Evidence Military Faces Some Difficulties Elsewhere Archived 21 December 2011 at the Wayback Machine 31 March 1971 Confidential 3 pp a b East Pakistan Even the Skies Weep Time 25 October 1971 Archived from the original on 4 November 2007 Retrieved 20 October 2009 a b Indo Pakistani Wars MSN Encarta Archived from the original on 1 November 2009 Retrieved 20 October 2009 International Rotary 1971 The Rotarian Rotary International Archived from the original on 13 October 2020 Retrieved 23 December 2016 The four Indo Pak wars Kashmirlive 14 September 2006 Archived from the original on 17 October 2009 Retrieved 20 October 2009 Pravel K C 2009 First published 1987 Indian Army After Independence Atlanta Lancer Publishers p 415 ISBN 978 1 935501 61 9 Archived from the original on 20 April 2020 Retrieved 18 July 2017 Bass Gary J 2013 The Blood Telegram Nixon Kissinger and a Forgotten Genocide Alfred A Knopf p 94 ISBN 978 0 307 70020 9 a b Raghavan Srinath 2012 Soldiers Statesmen and India s Security Policy India Review 11 2 116 133 doi 10 1080 14736489 2012 674829 S2CID 154213504 I had to find troops for Dhaka Rediff News 14 December 2006 Archived from the original on 25 August 2009 Retrieved 20 October 2009 PTI 25 May 2021 50 years on B desh remembers Kolkata radio station that gave them hope during liberation war The New Indian Express Archived from the original on 4 December 2021 Retrieved 4 December 2021 Dasgupta Priyanka 29 November 2021 How a secret radio station broadcast hope in 1971 The Times of India Archived from the original on 4 December 2021 Retrieved 4 December 2021 Ahmad Dawood 16 December 2011 Rethinking the big lies from 1971 The Express Tribune Archived from the original on 24 December 2016 Retrieved 23 December 2016 Ahmed Khalid 26 December 2013 Pakistan 1971 The Indian Express Archived from the original on 24 December 2016 Retrieved 23 December 2016 a b 1971 Jihad Print ads from West Pakistan Dawn Editorial 16 December 2014 Archived from the original on 24 December 2016 Retrieved 23 December 2016 New Twist In Crush India Propaganda Campaign US Department of State Telegram 26 October 1971 Archived from the original on 2 November 2011 Retrieved 29 September 2011 Dikshit Sandeep 28 June 2008 How he and his men won those wars The Hindu Archived from the original on 24 December 2016 Retrieved 24 December 2016 a b c d Sam Manekshaw Sam Manekshaw soldier died on 27 June aged 94 The Economist 3 July 2008 p 107 Archived from the original on 12 April 2017 Retrieved 7 July 2008 Manekshaw SHFJ 11 November 1998 Lecture at Defence Services Staff College on Leadership and Discipline Appendix V in Singh 2002 Field Marshal Sam Manekshaw M C Soldiering with Dignity a b Summary of World Broadcasts Far East London UK Monitoring Service of the British Broadcasting Corporation 1971 Archived from the original on 16 October 2020 Retrieved 22 December 2016 Anti India Demonstration and Procession US Department of State Telegram 9 November 1971 Archived from the original on 2 April 2012 Retrieved 29 September 2011 Crush India PDF Pakistan Observer 30 November 1971 Archived PDF from the original on 11 May 2012 Retrieved 29 September 2011 Mohiuddin Yasmeen Niaz 2007 Pakistan A Global Studies Handbook ABC CLIO ISBN 978 1 85109 801 9 Archived from the original on 14 October 2020 Retrieved 24 December 2016 Indo Pakistani War of 1971 Archived from the original on 23 August 2009 Retrieved 20 October 2009 a b Davies Peter E 20 November 2014 F 104 Starfighter Units in Combat Bloomsbury Publishing ISBN 978 1 78096 314 3 Archived from the original on 9 April 2022 Retrieved 24 December 2016 a b c Bangladesh Out of War a Nation Is Born Time 20 December 1971 Archived from the original on 28 September 2013 Retrieved 20 October 2009 Trying to catch the Indian Air Force napping Yahya Khan launched a Pakistani version of Israel s 1967 air blitz in hopes that one rapid attack would cripple India s far superior air power But India was alert Pakistani pilots were inept and Yahya s strategy of scattering his thin air force over a dozen air fields was a bust p 34 Newsweek 20 December 1971 a b India and Pakistan Over the Edge Time 13 December 1971 Archived from the original on 8 October 2013 Retrieved 20 October 2009 1971 Pakistan intensifies air raids on India BBC News 3 December 1971 Archived from the original on 30 October 2018 Retrieved 20 October 2009 a b Garver John W 1 December 2015 China s Quest The History of the Foreign Relations of the People s Republic of China Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 026106 1 Archived from the original on 11 October 2020 Retrieved 24 December 2016 Goldrick James 1997 No Easy Answers New Delhi Lancer s Publications and Distributors ISBN 978 1 897829 02 8 Archived from the original on 18 October 2020 Retrieved 15 September 2020 a b c d e Goldrick James 1997 No Easy Answers PDF New Delhi India Sona Printers India ISBN 1 897829 02 7 Archived PDF from the original on 24 December 2016 Retrieved 24 December 2016 Seapower A Guide for the Twenty first Century By Geoffrey Till page 179 Branfill Cook Roger 27 August 2014 Torpedo The Complete History of the World s Most Revolutionary Naval Weapon Seaforth Publishing ISBN 9781848322158 Archived from the original on 22 October 2020 Retrieved 24 December 2016 Trident Grandslam and Python Attacks on Karachi Bharat Rakshak Archived from the original on 26 September 2009 Retrieved 20 October 2009 Shabir Usman The Second Missile Attack PakDef Military Consortium pakdef org Pakistan Defence Usman Archived from the original on 24 December 2016 Retrieved 24 December 2016 Defence Notes defencejournal com Archived from the original on 1 January 2012 Retrieved 25 April 2012 Olsen John Andreas 2011 Global Air Power Potomac Books p 237 ISBN 978 1 59797 680 0 Remembering our war heroes The Hindu Chennai India 2 December 2006 Archived from the original on 7 November 2012 Does the US want war with India Rediff com 31 December 2004 Archived from the original on 25 October 2010 Retrieved 14 April 2011 Pike John Pakistan Marines PM globalsecurity org Global security Marines Archived from the original on 16 October 2014 Retrieved 24 December 2016 Utilisation of Pakistan merchant ships seized during the 1971 war Irfc nausena nic in Archived from the original on 1 March 2012 Retrieved 27 July 2012 Damage Assesment sic 1971 Indo Pak Naval War PDF B Harry Archived from the original PDF on 8 May 2010 Retrieved 20 June 2010 Military Losses in the 1971 Indo Pakistani War Venik Archived from the original on 25 February 2002 Retrieved 30 May 2005 a b Tariq Ali 1983 Can Pakistan Survive The Death of a State Penguin Books p 95 ISBN 978 0 14 022401 6 In a two week war Pakistan lost half its navy a quarter of its air force and a third of its army Jon Lake Air Power Analysis Indian Airpower World Air Power Journal Volume 12 Group Captain M Kaiser Tufail Great Battles of the Pakistan Airforce and Pakistan Air Force Combat Heritage pafcombat et al Feroze sons ISBN 969 0 01892 2 Indo Pakistani conflict Library of Congress Country Studies Archived from the original on 19 October 2015 Retrieved 20 October 2009 Picture Gallery Aviation Art by Group Captain Syed Masood Akhtar Hussaini PAF Falcons Archived from the original on 30 August 2011 Retrieved 27 July 2012 Khan Sher Last Flight from East Pakistan defencejournal com Archived from the original on 3 March 2016 Retrieved 24 December 2016 Simha Rakesh Krishnan 17 January 2012 How India brought down the US supersonic man Russia amp India Report Russia amp India Report Archived from the original on 11 May 2017 Retrieved 24 December 2016 Vishnu Som Exclusive Details of How Air Force Raided A Pak Air Base NDTV Archived from the original on 25 January 2018 Retrieved 25 January 2018 Simha Rakesh Krishnan 4 June 2015 Why the Indian Air Force has a high crash rate www rbth com Archived from the original on 21 March 2017 Retrieved 27 October 2020 Singh Dipender 27 June 2008 Sam gave dignity to Army in 1971 after 1962 debacle Hindustan Times Archived from the original on 26 December 2016 Retrieved 26 December 2016 Palit Maj Gen DK 10 October 2012 The Lightning Campaign The Indo Pakistan War 1971 Lancer Publishers ISBN 9781897829370 Retrieved 24 December 2016 Hasnat Syed Farooq 2011 Pakistan ABC CLIO ISBN 9780313346972 Archived from the original on 16 October 2020 Retrieved 24 December 2016 Alam Dr Shah 12 June 2012 Pakistan Army Modernisation Arms Procurement and Capacity Building Vij Books India Pvt Ltd ISBN 9789381411797 Archived from the original on 29 October 2020 Retrieved 12 November 2020 a b c d e f Nair Sreekumar 1 March 2010 Interpretation Pustak Mahal ISBN 9788122311112 Archived from the original on 14 April 2021 Retrieved 24 December 2016 a b Paret Peter Gordon A Craig Felix Gilbert 1986 Makers of Modern Strategy From Machiavelli to the Nuclear Age Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 820097 0 Archived from the original on 17 October 2020 Retrieved 15 September 2020 pp802 Sengupta Ramananda 1971 War I will give you 30 minutes Sify Sify Sengupta Archived from the original on 24 December 2016 Retrieved 24 December 2016 a b TNN 15 December 1971 1971 war When Indian officers rescued Pakistan general from a lynch mob The Times of India Archived from the original on 22 December 2021 Retrieved 22 December 2021 Nayar Kuldip 3 February 1998 Of betrayal and bungling The Indian Express Archived from the original on 23 August 2009 Retrieved 20 October 2009 Vijay Diwas All you need to know about 1971 war with Pakistan India News The Times of India Archived from the original on 26 November 2021 Retrieved 26 November 2021 Cloughley Brian 2016 A History of the Pakistan Army Wars and Insurrections Skyhorse Publishing Inc ISBN 9781631440397 Archived from the original on 28 October 2020 Retrieved 8 August 2017 Burke S M 1974 Mainsprings of Indian and Pakistani Foreign Policies ISBN 9780816607204 Archived from the original on 15 October 2020 Retrieved 27 July 2012 Jackson Robert 1975 South Asian Crisis India Pakistan Bangla Desh Chatto amp Windus pp 72 73 ISBN 978 1 349 04163 3 Archived from the original on 1 October 2021 Retrieved 2 October 2021 Harold H Saunders What Really Happened in Bangladesh Foreign Affairs 2014 93 4 d Hanhimaki Jussi 2004 The flawed architect Henry Kissinger and American foreign policy Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 517221 8 Archived from the original on 15 October 2020 Retrieved 15 September 2020 Lewis John P 9 December 1971 Mr Nixon and South Asia The New York Times Archived from the original on 23 July 2018 Retrieved 23 July 2018 The Nixon Administration s South Asia policy is beyond redemption President Richard Nixon and the Presidents nixontapes org Archived from the original on 9 April 2022 Retrieved 30 March 2020 WHT 016 048 12 08 1971 11 06 11 14 am P GHWB 1 Archived 9 April 2022 at the Wayback Machine 1971 War How the US tried to corner India Rediff com 26 December 2006 Archived from the original on 28 August 2013 Retrieved 14 April 2011 British aircraft carrier HMS Eagle tried to intervene in 1971 India Pakistan war Frontier India 18 December 2010 Archived from the original on 10 January 2016 Retrieved 27 July 2012 Nixon Kissinger Saw India as Soviet Stooge in 1971 South Asia Crisis nsarchive gwu edu George Washington University press Archived from the original on 24 December 2016 Retrieved 24 December 2016 a b Wetering Carina 2016 Changing US Foreign Policy toward India Springer p 69 ISBN 9781137548627 Archived from the original on 9 October 2020 Retrieved 15 September 2020 News Review on South Asia and Indian Ocean Institute for Defence Studies amp Analyses 1972 Archived from the original on 12 October 2020 Retrieved 22 December 2016 Clary Christopher 2019 Tilting at windmills The flawed U S policy toward the 1971 Indo Pakistani war Journal of Strategic Studies 42 5 677 700 doi 10 1080 01402390 2019 1570143 S2CID 159267611 Jayapalan N 2000 India and Her Neighbours Atlantic Publishers amp Dist ISBN 9788171569120 Archived from the original on 16 October 2020 Retrieved 25 December 2016 Singh Swaran ed 2007 China Pakistan strategic cooperation Indian perspectives New Delhi Manohar p 61 ISBN 978 8173047619 a b c d Jaffrelot Christophe 2016 Pakistan at the Crossroads Domestic Dynamics and External Pressures Columbia University Press p 285 ISBN 9780231540254 Archived from the original on 11 October 2020 Retrieved 15 September 2020 a b China Recognizes Bangladesh Oxnard California USA Associated Press 1 September 1975 Archived from the original on 28 October 2020 Retrieved 15 September 2020 China Veto Downs Bangladesh UN Entry Montreal Quebec Canada United Press International 26 August 1972 Archived from the original on 14 April 2021 Retrieved 15 September 2020 Chau Donovan C Kane Thomas M 2014 China and International Security History Strategy and 21st Century Policy 3 volumes History Strategy and 21st Century Policy ABC CLIO pp 226 227 ISBN 9781440800023 Archived from the original on 10 October 2020 Retrieved 26 December 2016 The Recognition Story Bangladesh Strategic and Development Forum Archived from the original on 25 July 2011 Retrieved 17 August 2011 Raghavan V R 2013 Internal Conflicts A Four State Analysis India Nepal Sri Lanka Myanmar Vij Books India Pvt Ltd p 69 ISBN 9789382573418 Archived from the original on 11 October 2020 Retrieved 15 September 2020 Documents reveal US tilt to Pak in 1971 India News The Times of India 20 December 2002 Archived from the original on 20 August 2022 Retrieved 20 August 2022 Ward Richard Edmund 1992 India s Pro Arab Policy A Study in Continuity Greenwood Publishing Group p 80 ISBN 9780275940867 Archived from the original on 14 April 2021 Retrieved 15 September 2020 a b Kemp Geoffrey 2012 The East Moves West India China and Asia s Growing Presence in the Middle East Brookings Institution Press ISBN 978 0815724070 Archived from the original on 14 October 2020 Retrieved 24 December 2016 Gill John H 2003 An Atlas of the 1971 India Pakistan War The Creation of Bangladesh Washington DC National Defense University Near East South Asia Center for Strategic Studies p 66 Archived from the original on 18 April 2016 Retrieved 9 April 2016 Higham Robin D S April 2005 An Atlas of the 1971 India Pakistan war the creation of Bangladesh review The Journal of Military History 69 2 doi 10 1353 jmh 2005 0101 S2CID 162129844 archived from the original on 19 November 2015 retrieved 9 April 2016 Craig Baxter 2002 Government and politics in South Asia 5th ed Westview Press p 269 David Lewis 31 October 2011 Bangladesh Politics Economy and Civil Society Cambridge University Press p 81 ISBN 978 1 139 50257 3 Archived from the original on 6 January 2017 Retrieved 18 February 2019 There were high levels of corruption and cronyism within the administration and widespread concerns that he Mujib was allowing India to interfere in Bangladesh s domestic affairs existed Willem van Schendel 12 February 2009 A History of Bangladesh Cambridge University Press p 182 ISBN 978 1 316 26497 3 Archived from the original on 26 May 2019 Retrieved 18 February 2019 Another far more dangerous group felt deeply affronted the army Their resentment originated in the final days of the war of 1971 According to them the Indian army had robbed the Bangladeshi fighters of the glory of liberating Bangladesh walking in when the freedom fighters had already finished the job and had taken away to India all sophisticated weaponry and vehicles captured from the Pakistanis they also felt bitter about Mujib s closeness to India which they thought undermined the sovereignty of Bangladesh By 1973 many in the army were both anti Indian and anti Mujib in the elections that year the garrisons voted solidly for opposition candidates Chapter 4 How Asians View Each Other Pew Research Center s Global Attitudes Project 14 July 2014 Archived from the original on 15 October 2015 Retrieved 9 April 2016 Pakistan s leaders should heed the lesson of Bangladesh The Guardian 15 August 2010 Archived from the original on 26 December 2016 Retrieved 26 December 2016 No lessons learnt in forty years The Express Tribune 15 December 2011 Archived from the original on 24 October 2016 Retrieved 26 December 2016 Malik Anas 22 October 2010 Political Survival in Pakistan Beyond Ideology Routledge ISBN 9781136904196 Archived from the original on 19 October 2020 Retrieved 7 November 2016 Waines David 6 November 2003 An Introduction to Islam Cambridge University Press ISBN 9780521539067 Archived from the original on 13 October 2020 Retrieved 7 November 2016 Dogra Wg Cdr C Deepak 9 December 2015 Pakistan Caught in the Whirlwind Lancer Publishers LLC ISBN 9781940988221 Archived from the original on 15 October 2020 Retrieved 7 November 2016 Further information relates in Hamoodur Rahman Commission a b Haqqani Hussain 2005 Pakistan Between Mosque and Military Carnegie Endowment for International Peace p 88 ISBN 978 0 87003 214 1 Siddique Abubakar 10 June 2014 The Pashtuns The Unresolved Key to the Future of Pakistan and Afghanistan Random House India ISBN 9788184006254 Archived from the original on 22 October 2020 Retrieved 23 December 2016 Langewiesche William November 2005 The Wrath of Khan The Atlantic Retrieved 31 July 2016 Abdus Sattar Ghazali Islamic Pakistan The Second Martial Law Archived from the original on 30 May 2014 Retrieved 20 October 2009 Prince Soldier Statesman Sahabzada Yaqub Khan Defence Journal Archived from the original on 12 March 2009 Retrieved 20 October 2009 Qureshi Hakeem Arshad 2002 The 1971 Indo Pak War A Soldier s Narrative Oxford University Press p 288 ISBN 978 0 19 579778 7 Gen Tikka Khan 87 Butcher of Bengal Led Pakistani Army Los Angeles Times 30 March 2002 Archived from the original on 19 June 2021 Retrieved 11 April 2010 Bhutto Fatima 6 September 2011 Songs of Blood and Sword A Daughter s Memoir Nation Books p 100 ISBN 978 1 56858 712 7 Retrieved 19 August 2016 Baixas Lionel 21 June 2008 Khan 1917 2002 General Tikka Online Encyclopedia of Mass Violence Archived from the original on 13 December 2013 Retrieved 17 July 2013 Alamgir Aurangzaib November December 2012 Pakistan s Balochistan Problem An Insurgency s Rebirth World Affairs 174 4 33 38 JSTOR 41639031 Archived from the original on 20 July 2013 Retrieved 17 July 2013 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint unfit URL link Col retd Anil Athale 29 August 2006 Is Balochistan another Bangladesh Rediff India Abroad Archived from the original on 18 October 2012 Retrieved 17 July 2013 Haqqani Hussain 2005 Pakistan Between Mosque and Military Carnegie Endowment p 74 ISBN 978 0 87003 214 1 Archived from the original on 12 January 2016 Retrieved 11 April 2010 Khan M H 2016 Memoir of M H Khan Turbulence in the Indian Subcontinent Mereo Books p 144 ISBN 978 1 86151 569 8 Archived from the original on 1 May 2022 Retrieved 1 May 2022 Mamoon Muntassir 2000 The Vanquished Generals and the Liberation War of Bangladesh Translated by Ibrahim Kushal Somoy Prokashan pp 88 148 149 ISBN 984 458 210 5 Burki Shahid Javed 1 November 1988 Pakistan Under Bhutto 1971 1977 Springer ISBN 9781349195299 Archived from the original on 28 October 2020 Retrieved 12 November 2020 GoP Government of Pakistan Population of Pakistan in 1972 PDF Bureau of Statistics Archived PDF from the original on 20 September 2018 Retrieved 24 December 2016 Constitution of Pakistan Story of Pakistan Nazaria e Pakistan Part IV June 2003 Archived from the original on 2 October 2013 Retrieved 2 June 2014 a b Singh Ravi Shekhar Narain Singh 2008 The Military Factor in Pakistan Lancer Publishers ISBN 9780981537894 Archived from the original on 9 October 2020 Retrieved 24 December 2016 Kapur Ashok 14 December 2010 India and the South Asian Strategic Triangle Routledge ISBN 9781136902611 Archived from the original on 13 October 2020 Retrieved 26 December 2016 Paul T V Studies Teleglobe Raoul Dandurand Chair of Strategic and Diplomatic securite Universite du Quebec a Montreal Centre d etudes des politiques etrangeres et de 2000 Power Versus Prudence Why Nations Forgo Nuclear Weapons McGill Queen s Press MQUP ISBN 9780773520875 Archived from the original on 10 October 2020 Retrieved 24 December 2016 Pakistan s Nuclear Weapons Program The Beginning nuclearweaponarchive org Retrieved 24 December 2016 125 Slain in Dacca Area Believed Elite of Bengal The New York Times New York 19 December 1971 p 1 Archived from the original on 28 March 2014 Retrieved 4 January 2008 At least 125 persons believed to be physicians professors writers and teachers were found murdered today in a field outside Dacca All the victims hands were tied behind their backs and they had been bayoneted garroted or shot These victims were among an estimated 300 Bengali intellectuals who had been seized by West Pakistani soldiers and locally recruited supporters Murshid Tazeen M 1997 State Nation Identity The Quest for Legitimacy in Bangladesh South Asia Journal of South Asian Studies 20 2 1 34 doi 10 1080 00856409708723294 ISSN 1479 0270 Khan Muazzam Hussain 2012 Killing of Intellectuals In Islam Sirajul Jamal Ahmed A eds Banglapedia National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh Second ed Asiatic Society of Bangladesh Archived from the original on 26 May 2019 Retrieved 4 July 2015 Shaiduzzaman Martyred intellectuals martyred history The New Age South Africa Archived from the original on 1 December 2010 Retrieved 20 October 2009 Bose Sarmila 2010 Dead reckoning memories of the 1971 Bangladesh war London C Hurst pp 164 165 176 181 ISBN 978 1 84904 049 5 Mikaberidze Alexander 2013 Atrocities Massacres and War Crimes An Encyclopedia 2 Volumes An Encyclopedia ABC CLIO pp 511 512 ISBN 978 1 59884 926 4 Archived from the original on 20 April 2020 Retrieved 7 February 2019 Staff correspondents 1 December 2015 Pakistan denies committing war crimes in 1971 The Daily Star The Daily Star 2015 Archived from the original on 5 December 2015 Retrieved 26 December 2016 Rummel Rudolph J Statistics of Democide Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900 Archived 21 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine ISBN 978 3 8258 4010 5 Chapter 8 table 8 1 Birth of Bangladesh When raped women and war babies paid the price of a new nation The Indian Express 19 December 2016 Archived from the original on 6 April 2019 Retrieved 17 December 2016 Bangladesh sets up war crimes court Al Jazeera 26 March 2010 Archived from the original on 5 June 2011 Retrieved 27 March 2010 Worcester Kenton Bermanzohn Sally Avery Ungar Mark 2013 Violence and Politics Globalization s Paradox Routledge p 111 ISBN 978 1 136 70125 2 Archived from the original on 20 April 2020 Retrieved 18 September 2018 Tripathi Salil 2016 The Colonel Who Would Not Repent The Bangladesh War and Its Unquiet Legacy Yale University Press ISBN 978 0 300 21818 3 Archived from the original on 20 April 2020 Retrieved 18 September 2018 Hossain Mokerrom 2010 From Protest to Freedom A Book for the New Generation the Birth of Bangladesh Mokerrom p 133 ISBN 978 0 615 48695 6 Archived from the original on 20 April 2020 Retrieved 18 September 2018 Gerlach Christian 2010 Extremely Violent Societies Mass Violence in the Twentieth Century World Cambridge University Press p 148 ISBN 978 1 139 49351 2 Archived from the original on 26 May 2019 Retrieved 18 September 2018 Bangladesh sets up 1971 war crimes tribunal BBC News 25 March 2010 Archived from the original on 28 March 2010 Retrieved 26 March 2010 Bangladesh to Hold Trials for 1971 War Crimes Voice of America 26 March 2010 Archived from the original on 29 March 2010 Retrieved 27 March 2010 Gill John H 1994 An Atlas of 1971 Indian Pakistan war the Creation of Bangladesh NESA p 66 Dhaka demonstrators protest Pakistan s reaction to Molla s execution The Express Tribune 18 December 2013 Archived from the original on 26 December 2016 Retrieved 18 December 2013 a b c Bose Sarmila 22 September 2007 Losing the Victims Problems of Using Women as Weapons in Recounting the Bangladesh War PDF Economic and Political Weekly 3865 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2016 Retrieved 30 March 2016 Kharal Raʼe Asad K h an 2000 Pakistan kaise ṭuṭa Intelligence Publishers Archived from the original on 9 October 2020 Retrieved 26 December 2016 Shah Aqil 2014 The Army and Democracy Harvard University Press p 127 ISBN 9780674419773 Archived from the original on 11 October 2020 Retrieved 26 December 2016 The Hamood ur Rahman Commission Report Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Pakistan Story of Pakistan 1 June 2003 Archived from the original on 28 December 2020 Retrieved 26 December 2016 a b c Halarnkar Sameer 21 August 2000 The Untold Story of 1971 Behind Pakistan s Defeat India Today Archived from the original on 13 January 2016 Retrieved 17 December 2011 a b Bangladesh requests war report BBC News 30 August 2000 Archived from the original on 28 October 2009 Retrieved 24 April 2011 Bhatt Arunkumar 2015 Psychological Warfare and India Lancer Publishers pp 288 289 ISBN 9788170621331 Archived from the original on 23 October 2020 Retrieved 22 August 2016 Halarnkar Sameer 21 August 2000 The Genesis of Defeat How many Hindus have you killed India Today Archived from the original on 25 October 2013 Retrieved 17 December 2011 Halarnkar Sameer 21 August 2000 The Loss of Character Lust for wine greed for houses India Today Archived from the original on 2 June 2016 Retrieved 17 December 2011 a b Halarnkar Sameer 21 August 2000 Bravado And Capitulation Further resistance is not humanly possible India Today Archived from the original on 2 June 2016 Retrieved 17 December 2011 a b D Costa Bina 2011 Nationbuilding Gender and War Crimes in South Asia Routledge p 76 ISBN 978 0 415 56566 0 Archived from the original on 20 April 2020 Retrieved 18 October 2016 Hamoodur Rehman Commission HRC Report of Inquiry into the 1971 War Vanguard Books Lahore 513 Hamoodur Rahman Commission Report Archived 16 August 2016 at the Wayback Machine chapter 2 Archived 12 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine paragraph 33 D Costa Bina 2011 Nationbuilding Gender and War Crimes in South Asia Routledge p 78 ISBN 978 0 415 56566 0 Archived from the original on 20 April 2020 Retrieved 18 October 2016 a b India Pakistan Timeline BBC News Archived from the original on 11 October 2017 Retrieved 27 November 2015 Simla Agreement Bilateral Multilateral Documents Ministry of External Affairs Government of India Archived from the original on 28 September 2021 Retrieved 27 September 2013 Turtuk a Promised Land Between Two Hostile Neighbours The Wire Archived from the original on 30 October 2020 Retrieved 27 October 2020 Rajrishi Singhal qz com An encounter with the king of Turtuk a border village near Gilgit Baltistan Scroll in Archived from the original on 24 October 2020 Retrieved 27 October 2020 A portrait of a village on the border 10 August 2017 Archived from the original on 26 August 2017 Retrieved 26 August 2017 Have you heard about this Indian Hero Rediff com 22 December 2011 Archived from the original on 14 June 2017 Retrieved 28 May 2015 span, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.