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Wikipedia

Self-driving car

January 19, 2024

This article is about the road vehicle type. For the general concept, see Vehicular automation. For wider applications, see Unmanned ground vehicle.

A self-driving car, also known as an autonomous car (AC), driverless car, or robotic car (robo-car),[1][2][3] is a car that is capable of traveling without human input.[4][5] Self-driving cars are responsible for perceiving the environment, monitoring important systems, and control, including navigation.[6] Perception accepts visual and audio data from outside and inside the car and interpret the input to abstractly render the vehicle and its surroundings. The control system then takes actions to move the vehicle, considering the route, road conditions, traffic controls, and obstacles.[7][8][9][10][11]

They have the potential to impact the automotive industry, health, welfare, urban planning, traffic, insurance, labor market, and other domains. Appropriate regulations are necessary for deployment.

Autonomous ground vehicle capabilities can be categorized in six levels[12] defined by SAE International (SAE J3016).[13]

As of August 2023, no system had reached the highest level, although multiple vendors are pursuing autonomy. Waymo was the first to offer robo taxi rides to the general public, and offers services in various US cities, followed by Cruise, in San Francisco.[14] Honda was the first manufacturer to sell a Level 3 car,[15][16][17] followed by Mercedes-Benz,[18] BMW Group and Kia. Nuro offers autonomous commercial delivery operations in California.[19] DeepRoute.ai launched a robotaxi service in Shenzhen.[20] Palo Alto, California certified Nuro at Level 4.[21]

Waymo undergoing testing in the San Francisco Bay Area
Roborace autonomous racing car on display at the 2017 New York City ePrix

History edit

Main article: History of self-driving cars

Experiments have been conducted on automated driver assistance systems (ADAS) since at least the 1920s;[22] trials began in the 1950s. The first semi-autonomous car was developed in 1977, by Japan's Tsukuba Mechanical Engineering Laboratory.[23] It required specially marked streets that were interpreted by two cameras on the vehicle and an analog computer. The vehicle reached speeds of 30 km/h (19 mph) with the support of an elevated rail.[24][25]

Carnegie Mellon University's Navlab[26] and ALV[27][28] semi-autonomous projects appeared in the 1980s, funded by the United States' Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) starting in 1984 and Mercedes-Benz and Bundeswehr University Munich's EUREKA Prometheus Project in 1987.[29] By 1985, ALV had reached 31 km/h (19 mph), on two-lane roads. Obstacle avoidance came in 1986, and day and night off-road by 1987.[30] In 1995 Navlab 5 completed the first autonomous US coast-to-coast. Traveling from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and San Diego, California, 98.2% were autonomous, completed with an average speed of 63.8 mph (102.7 km/h).[31][32][33][34] Until the second DARPA Grand Challenge in 2005, automated vehicle research in the United States was primarily funded by DARPA, the US Army, and the US Navy, yielding incremental advances in speeds, driving competence, controls, and sensor systems.[35]

The US allocated US$650 million in 1991 for research on the National Automated Highway System,[36] which demonstrated automated driving through a combination of highway-embedded automation with vehicle technology, and cooperative networking between the vehicles and highway infrastructure. The programme concluded with a successful demonstration in 1997.[37] Partly funded by the National Automated Highway System and DARPA, Navlab drove 4,584 km (2,848 mi) across the US in 1995, 4,501 km (2,797 mi) or 98% autonomously.[38] In 2015, Delphi improved piloted a Delphi technology-based Audi, over 5,472 km (3,400 mi) through 15 states, 99% autonomously.[39] In 2015, Nevada, Florida, California, Virginia, Michigan, and Washington DC allowed autonomous car testing on public roads.[40]

From 2016 to 2018, the European Commission funded development for connected and automated driving through Coordination Actions CARTRE and SCOUT programs.[41] The Strategic Transport Research and Innovation Agenda (STRIA) Roadmap for Connected and Automated Transport was published in 2019.[42]

In November 2017, Waymo announced testing of autonomous cars without a safety driver.[43] However, an employee was in the car.[44] An October 2017 report by the Brookings Institution found that $80 billion had been reported as invested in autonomous technology.[45]

In December 2018, Waymo was the first to commercialize a robotaxi service, in Phoenix, Arizona.[46] In October 2020, Waymo launched a geo-fenced robotaxi service in Phoenix.[47][48] The cars were monitored in real-time, and remote engineers sometimes needed to intervene.[49][48]

In March 2019, ahead of Roborace, Robocar set the Guinness World Record as the world's fastest autonomous car. Robocar reached 282.42 km/h (175.49 mph).[50]

In March 2021, Honda began leasing in Japan a limited edition of 100 Legend Hybrid EX sedans equipped with the newly approved Level 3 automated driving equipment which had been granted the safety certification by Japanese government to their autonomous "Traffic Jam Pilot" driving technology, and legally allow drivers to take their eyes off the road.[15][16][51][17]

As of August 2023, vehicles operating at Level 3 and above are an insignificant market factor. In December 2020, Waymo became the first service provider to offer driverless taxi rides to the general public, in a part of Phoenix, Arizona. In March 2021, Honda was the first manufacturer to sell a legally approved Level 3 car.[15][16][17] Nuro began autonomous commercial delivery operations in California in 2021.[19] DeepRoute.ai launched robotaxi service in Shenzhen in July 2021.[20] Nuro was approved for Level 4 in Palo Alto in August, 2023.[21] In December 2021, Mercedes-Benz received approval for a Level 3 car.[18] In February 2022, Cruise became the second service provider to offer driverless taxi rides to the general public, in San Francisco.[14] In December 2022, several manufacturers had scaled back plans for self-driving technology, including Ford and Volkswagen.[52]

Definitions edit

Various organizations have proposed terminology.

In 2014, SAE J3016 stated that "some vernacular usages associate autonomous specifically with full driving automation (Level 5), while other usages apply it to all levels of driving automation, and some state legislation has defined it to correspond approximately to any ADS [automated driving system] at or above Level 3 (or to any vehicle equipped with such an ADS)."

Vendors do not consistently apply terminology, nor do products implement features in strict accord with definitions. Names such as AutonoDrive, PilotAssist, Full-Self Driving or DrivePilot are used even though the products offer an assortment of features that do not match the name.[53]

ADS vs ADAS edit

ADAS means advanced driver-assistance system considered as level 1 and level 2.

ADS means automated driving system considered as level 3 and upper.

Automated driver assistance system edit

Features such as keeping the car within its lane, speed controls, and emergency braking are termed driver assistance and known as ADAS, because while they handle some driving tasks, they require a human driver.

Organizations such as AAA provide standardized naming conventions for features such as automated lane keeping support (ALKS). The Association of British Insurers stated that the usage of the word autonomous in marketing to be dangerous because car ads make motorists think "autonomous" and "autopilot" imply that the driver can rely on the car to control itself, even though they rely on the driver to ensure safety.

Despite offering something called Full Self-Driving, Tesla stated that its offering is not completely autonomous.[54] In the United Kingdom, a fully self-driving car is defined as a car registered in a specific list, rather than a set of features.[55] Proposals to adopt aviation automation terminology for cars have not prevailed.[56]

According to SMMT, "There are two clear states – a vehicle is either assisted with a driver being supported by technology or automated where the technology is effectively and safely replacing the driver."[57]

Autonomous vs. automated edit

Many projects have automated (made automatic) some aspect of driving. Some required aids in the environment, such as magnetic strips in roadways. Autonomous control implies performance under environmental uncertainty, along with the ability to compensate for errors without external intervention.[58]

One approach is to pool information across multiple vehicles. This can be done locally, to e.g., form a convoy or more widely, e.g., to traffic-optimize a route.

Euro NCAP defined autonomous as "the system acts independently of the driver to avoid or mitigate the accident", which implies the autonomous system is not the driver.[59]

In Europe, the words automated and autonomous might be used together. For instance, Regulation (EU) 2019/2144 supplied:[60]

  • "automated vehicle" means a motor vehicle designed and constructed to move autonomously for certain periods of time without continuous driver supervision but in respect of which driver intervention is still expected or required;[60]
  • "fully automated vehicle" means a motor vehicle that has been designed and constructed to move autonomously without driver supervision;[60]

In British English, the word automated alone might have several meanings, such as in the sentence: "Thatcham also found that the automated lane keeping systems could only meet two out of the twelve principles required to guarantee safety, going on to say they cannot, therefore, be classed as 'automated driving', instead it claims the tech should be classed as "assisted driving".":[61] The first occurrence of the "automated" word refers to an Unece automated system, while the second refers to the British legal definition of an automated vehicle. British law interprets the meaning of "automated vehicle" based on the interpretation section related to a vehicle "driving itself" and an insured vehicle.[62]

On 8 November was introduced in the British Parliament a bill to "Regulate the use of automated vehicles on roads and in other public places; and to make other provision in relation to vehicle automation".[63] The word "automated" appears in this definition.

This introduced bill considers a vehicle travels “autonomously” if "it is being controlled not by an individual but by equipment of the vehicle, and neither the vehicle nor its surroundings are being monitored by an individual with a view to immediate intervention in the driving of the vehicle".[63] The word "autonomously" appears in this definition.

Autonomous versus cooperative edit

To enable a car to travel without a driver within the vehicle, some companies use a remote driver. A remote driver is a driver that is not physically inside the vehicle they are operating. Rather, they use a connection (typically an internet connection) to the vehicle to control it, and all its functions remotely.[64]

According to SAE J3016,

Some driving automation systems may indeed be autonomous if they perform all of their functions independently and self-sufficiently, but if they depend on communication and/or cooperation with outside entities, they should be considered cooperative rather than autonomous.

Self-driving car edit

PC Magazine defined a self-driving car as "a computer-controlled car that drives itself".[65] The Union of Concerned Scientists used "cars or trucks in which human drivers are never required to take control to safely operate the vehicle. Also known as autonomous or 'driverless' cars, they combine sensors and software to control, navigate, and drive the vehicle."[66]

The British Automated and Electric Vehicles Act 2018 law defines a vehicle as "driving itself" if the vehicle "is operating in a mode in which it is not being controlled, and does not need to be monitored, by an individual".[67]

Another British definition adopts "Self-driving vehicles are vehicles that can safely and lawfully drive themselves."[68]

British definitions edit

On 8 November was introduced in the British Parliament a bill to "Regulate the use of automated vehicles on roads and in other public places; and to make other provision in relation to vehicle automation".[63]

self-driving capability
Chapter 1 part1 of this automated vehicle bill starts by defining self-driving capability.[63] It states that "A vehicle “satisfies the self-driving test” if it is designed or adapted with the intention that a feature of the vehicle will allow it to travel autonomously, and it is capable of doing so, by means of that feature, safely and legally." Those words are also defined: travel autonomously, safely and legally:
travels “autonomously”
A vehicle travels “autonomously” if it is being controlled not by an individual but by equipment of the vehicle, and neither the vehicle nor its surroundings are being monitored by an individual with a view to immediate intervention in the driving of the vehicle.
control
References to “control” of a vehicle are to control of the motion of the vehicle.
“safely”
if it travels to an acceptably safe standard, and
“legally”
if it travels with an acceptably low risk of committing a traffic infraction.[63]

Terminology and communication offenses edit

On 8 November was introduced in the British Parliament a bill to "Regulate the use of automated vehicles on roads and in other public places; and to make other provision in relation to vehicle automation".[63]

This bill define offenses so that an offense under those sections can be committed anywhere in the world.[63]

For instance, a restricted term offense for a road vehicle or for a product may occur[63] when

  • (a) the person uses, or causes or permits the use of, a restricted term in connection with the promotion or supply of a road vehicle,
  • (b) the person is acting in the course of business,
  • (c) the use of the restricted term is directed at an end-user or potential end-user of the vehicle,
  • (d) it is reasonable to anticipate that the use of the term will come to the attention of an end-user or potential end-user of the vehicle in Great Britain, and
  • (e) the vehicle is not an appropriate vehicle.

or when[63]

  • (a) the person uses, or causes or permits the use of, a restricted term in connection with the promotion or supply of a product intended for use as equipment of a road vehicle,
  • (b) the person is acting in the course of business,
  • (c) the use of the restricted term is directed at an end-user or potential end-user of a road vehicle,
  • (d) it is reasonable to anticipate that the use of the term will come to the attention of an end-user or potential end-user of a road vehicle in Great Britain, and
  • (e) the restricted term is not used specifically in relation to the use of the product as equipment of an appropriate vehicle

For the purpose of communications likely to confuse as to autonomous capability, a person commits an offense when:[63]

  • (a) the person makes, or causes or permits the making of, a communication in connection with the promotion or supply of any product or service,
  • (b) the person is acting in the course of business,
  • (c) the communication is directed at an end-user or potential end-user of a road vehicle,
  • (d) it is reasonable to anticipate that the communication will come to the attention of an end-user or potential end-user of a road vehicle in Great Britain, and
  • (e) the communication would be likely to confuse end-users of road vehicles in Great Britain as to whether a vehicle that is not an authorized automated vehicle is capable of traveling autonomously, safely and legally on roads or other public places in Great Britain

SAE classification edit

 
Tesla Autopilot is classified as an SAE Level 2 system.[69][70]

A classification system with six levels – ranging from fully manual to fully automated systems – was published in 2014 by SAE International as J3016, Taxonomy and Definitions for Terms Related to On-Road Motor Vehicle Automated Driving Systems; the details are revised periodically.[13] This classification is based on the role of the driver, rather than the vehicle's capabilities, although these are loosely related. In the United States in 2013, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) released its original formal classification system. After SAE updated its classification in 2016, called J3016_201609,[71] NHTSA adopted the SAE standard.[72][73] The classification is a topic of debate, with various approaches proposed for its expansion.[74][75]

SAE levels edit

"Driving mode" is used as "a type of driving scenario with characteristic dynamic driving task requirements (e.g., expressway merging, high speed cruising, low speed traffic jam, closed-campus operations, etc.)"[1][76]

  • Level 0: The automated system issues warnings and may momentarily intervene, but has no sustained vehicle control.
  • Level 1 ("hands on"): The driver and the vehicle share control. Examples are systems where the driver controls steering and the automated system controls engine power to maintain a set speed (cruise control) or engine and brake power to maintain and vary speed (adaptive cruise control (ACC)). The driver must always be ready to retake control. Lane keeping (LK) Type II is a further example of Level 1 self-driving. Automatic emergency braking, which alerts the driver to a potential crash and applies the brakes is a Level 1 feature, according to Autopilot Review magazine.[77]
  • Level 2 ("hands off"): The automated system takes full control of the vehicle: accelerating, braking, and steering. The driver must monitor the driving and be prepared to intervene immediately at any time. The shorthand "hands off" is not literal – contact between hand and wheel is often mandatory during SAE 2 driving, to confirm that the driver is ready to intervene. The driver's eyes may be monitored to confirm that the driver is attentive. True hands off driving is sometimes unofficially termed level 2.5. A common example is ACC combined with LK, such as "Super-Cruise" in the Cadillac CT6 or the F-150's BlueCruise.[78]
  • Level 3 ("eyes off"): The driver can safely turn their attention from driving. The driver must still be prepared to intervene within a time interval specified by the manufacturer, when called upon by the vehicle. This level can be thought of as a co-driver that alerts the driver in an orderly fashion when handing off control. An example would be a Traffic Jam Chauffeur[79] (a car satisfying the Automated Lane Keeping Systems (ALKS) regulations).[80]
  • Level 4 ("mind off"): No driver attention is required for safety, allowing the driver to sleep or change seats. However, self-driving is supported only in specific areas (geofenced) or under specific circumstances. Outside of these areas/circumstances, the vehicle must be able to safely abort the trip, e.g. stop and park. An example would be a robotaxi or delivery service that covers specific locations, possibly also time-of-day-limited. Automated Valet Parking (AVP) is another example.
  • Level 5 ("steering wheel optional"): No human intervention is required under any circumstances, such as long-distance trucking.
SAE (J3016) Automation Levels[76]
SAE Level Name Narrative Direction and
speed control		 Monitoring driving environment Fallback responsibility Driving modes
Driver monitors the driving environment
0 No Automation Full-time performance by the driver of all aspects of driving, even when "enhanced by warning or intervention systems" Driver Driver Driver n/a
1 Driver Assistance Driving mode-specific control by an ADAS of either steering or speed Uses information about the driving environment and with the expectation that the driver performs all remaining aspects of the dynamic driving task Driver and system Some driving modes
2 Partial Automation Driving mode-specific execution by one or more driver assistance systems of both steering and speed System
ADAS monitors the driving environment
3 Conditional Automation Driving mode-specific control by an ADAS of all aspects of driving Driver must respond appropriately to a request to intervene System System Driver Some driving modes
4 High Automation If a driver does not respond appropriately to a request to intervene the car can stop safely System Many driving modes
5 Full Automation Control the vehicle under all conditions that can be managed by a driver All driving modes

Criticism of SAE edit

The SAE Automation Levels have been criticized for their technological focus. It has been argued that the structure of the levels suggests that automation increases linearly and that more automation is better, which may not always be the case.[81] The SAE Levels also do not account for changes that may be required to infrastructure[82] and road user behavior.[83][84]

Technology edit

General perspectives edit

Several classifications have been proposed to deal with ADAS technology. One such proposal is to adopt these categories: navigation, path planning, perception, and car control.[85]

Even video games have been used as a platform to test autonomous vehicles.[86]

Navigation edit

Main article: Hybrid navigation

Navigation involves the use of maps to define a path between origin and destination. Hybrid navigation is the use of multiple navigation systems.

Sensing edit

Sensor technologies including combinations of cameras, LiDAR, radar, audio, and ultrasound have been applied to the task of understanding the environment surrounding a vehicle,[87] GPS, and Inertial measurement.[88][89] Deep neural networks are shown to be effective in analysing the combined stream of inputs from these sensors to detect and identify objects.[90] Some systems use Bayesian simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) algorithms. Waymo at one point used SLAM, and added detection and tracking of other moving objects (DATMO), to handle potential obstacles.[91][92] Other systems use roadside real-time locating system (RTLS) technologies to aid localization. Tesla uses eight cameras to create a bird's-eye view of the surroundings and categorize the objects within it.[93]

Maps edit

Maps are necessary for navigation. Map sophistication varies from simple graphs that show which roads connect to each other, with details such as one-way vs two-way, to those that are highly detailed, with information about lanes, traffic controls, roadworks, and more.[87] Researchers at the MITComputer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CSAIL) developed a system called MapLite, which allowed self-driving cars to drive without using 3D maps. The system combines the GPS position of the vehicle, a "sparse topological map" such as OpenStreetMap (i.e. having 2D features of the roads only), and a series of sensors that observe road conditions.[94] One issue with highly-detailed maps is keeping them updated as the world changes. Vehicles that can operate with less-detailed maps to some extent require less-frequent updates.

Sensor fusion edit

Control systems typically combine data from multiple sensors.[95] Self-driving cars often combine cameras, LiDAR, and radar. Multiple sensors provide a more complete view of the surroundings and can be used to cross-check each other to correct errors.[96]

Path planning edit

Path planning finds a sequence of segments that a vehicle can follow from origin to destination. Two techniques used for path planning are graph-based search and variational-based optimization techniques. Graph-based techniques can make harder decisions such as how to pass another vehicle/obstacle. Variational-based optimization techniques require a higher level of planning in setting restrictions on the vehicle's driving corridor to prevent collisions.[97] The large scale path of the vehicle can be determined by using a voronoi diagram, an occupancy grid mapping, or with a driving corridors algorithm. The latter allows the vehicle to locate and drive within open space that is bounded by lanes or barriers.[98]

Drive by wire edit

Main article: Drive by wire

Drive by wire is the use of electrical or electro-mechanical systems for performing vehicle functions traditionally achieved by mechanical linkages.

Driver monitoring edit

Main article: Driver monitoring system

Driver monitoring is used to assess the driver's attention and alertness. Techniques in use include eye monitoring, and requiring the driver to maintain torque on the steering wheel.[99] Understand the driver's status and identify dangerous driving behaviors by using the driver monitoring system (DMS). Sounds an alert when the risk of an accident increases and allows the vehicle to take a calming approach to keep the driver safe.[100]

Vehicle communication edit

Main article: Vehicular communication systems

Vehicles can potentially benefit from communicating with others to share information about traffic, road obstacles, to receive map and software updates, etc.[101][102][87]

ISO/TC 22 specifies in-vehicle transport information and control systems,[103] while ISO/TC 204 specifies information, communication and control systems in surface transport.[104] International standards have been developed for ADAS functions, connectivity, human interaction, in-vehicle systems, management/engineering, dynamic map and positioning, privacy and security.[105]

Software update edit

See also: Over-the-air programming

Software controls the vehicle, and can provide entertainment and other services. Some vehicles can acquire updates to that software over the internet. In March 2021, UNECE regulation on software update and software update management systems was published.[106]

Safety model edit

Mobileye's mathematical model, "Responsibility-Sensitive Safety (RSS)",[107] is undergoing standardization as "IEEE P2846: A Formal Model for Safety Considerations in Automated Vehicle Decision Making".[108]

In 2022, a research group of National Institute of Informatics (NII, Japan) expanded RSS and developed "Goal-Aware RSS" to make RSS rules possible to deal with complex scenarios via program logic.[109]

Turquoise light edit

Turquoise light is authorized so that Mercedes vehicle inform viewer that vehicle is driving in autonomous mode, in California and Nevada[110][111][112]

In 2023, this Turquoise light has not been standardized by the US, China or the UN-ECE.[111]

Challenges edit

 
Autonomous delivery vehicles stuck in one place by attempting to avoid one another

Obstacles edit

The primary obstacle to ACs is the advanced software and mapping required to make them work safely across the wide variety of conditions that drivers experience.[113] In addition to handling day/night driving in good and bad weather[114] on roads of arbitrary quality, ACs must cope with other vehicles, road obstacles, poor/missing traffic controls, flawed maps, and handle endless edge cases, such as following the instructions of a police officer managing traffic at a crash site.

Other obstacles include cost, liability,[115][116] consumer reluctance,[117] potential ethical dilemmas,[118][119] security,[120][121][122][123] privacy,[114] and legal/regulatory framework.[124] Further, AVs could automate the work of professional drivers, eliminating many jobs, which could slow acceptance.[125]

Concerns edit

Deceptive marketing edit

Tesla calls its Level 2 ADAS "Full Self-Driving (FSD) Beta".[126] US Senators Richard Blumenthal and Edward Markey called on the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) to investigate this marketing in 2021.[127] In December 2021 in Japan, Mercedes-Benz was punished by the Consumer Affairs Agency for misleading product descriptions.[128]

Mercedes-Benz was criticized for a misleading US commercial advertising E-Class models.[129] At that time, Mercedes-Benz rejected the claims and stopped its "self-driving car" ad campaign that had been running.[130][131] In August 2022, the California Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) accused Tesla of deceptive marketing practices.[132]

With the Automated Vehicles Bill (AVB) self-driving car-makers could face prison for misleading adverts in the United-Kingdom.[133]

Security edit

In the 2020s, concerns over ACs vulnerability to cyberattacks and data theft emerged.[134]

In 2018 and 2019 former Apple engineers were charged with stealing information related to Apple's self-driving car project.[135][136][137] In 2021 the United States Department of Justice (DOJ) accused Chinese security officials of coordinating a hacking campaign to steal information from government entities, including research related to autonomous vehicles.[138][139] China has prepared "the Provisions on Management of Automotive Data Security (Trial) to protect its own data".[140][141]

Cellular Vehicle-to-Everything technologies are based on 5G wireless networks.[142] As of November 2022, the US Congress was considering the possibility that imported Chinese AC technology could facilitate espionage.[143]

Testing of Chinese automated cars in the US has raised concern over which US data are collected by Chinese vehicles to be stored in Chinese country and concern with any link with the Chinese communist party.[144]

Real-time prediction edit

While predicting the behavior of ACs that do not use traditional communications such as hand signals, is a major challenge for human drivers,[145] the real-time prediction of the behavior of other vehicles, pedestrians etc, some of which may be stationary when first noted, is even greater challenge for self-driving cars.[10] Modelling human and vehicle behaviours using machine learning, particularity deep neural networks, has enabled better understanding of human-driver interaction.[146] Raster-based methods have been replaced by vector-based methods in order to overcome the former's lossy rendering, limited receptive field, and prohibitively high cost. The remaining problem is high level of uncertainty that emerges in trajectory predictions as the prediction timeframe is extended. Also, if data re-normalization and re-encoding are used to update future trajectories each time a self-driving car changes its position, its action is often delayed by 8 milliseconds, potentially causing an accident. Several powerful trajectory prediction models have recently adopted Transformers with factorized attention as their encoders, but their scalability is still limited by the computational complexity of factorized attention. Most recently proposed QCNet model uses a query-centric instead of agent-centric modeling, taking advantage of both anchor-based and anchor-free solutions, with an anchor-free module generating adaptive anchors in a data-driven manner and an anchor-based module refining these anchors based on the scene context. The model injects the relative spatialtemporal positions into the key and value (both Transformer elements) when performing attention-based scene-context fusion.[147]

Handover edit

For ACs that have not achieved L5, the ADAS has to be able to safely accept control from and return it to the driver.[148]

Risk compensation edit

The second challenge is known as risk compensation: as a system is perceived to be safer, on average people engage in riskier behavior. (People who wear seat belts drive faster). ACs suffer from this problem: for example Tesla Autopilot users in some cases stop monitoring the vehicle while it is in control.

Trust edit

In order for people to buy self-driving cars and vote for the government to allow them on roads, the technology must be trusted as safe.[149][150] Automatic elevators were invented in 1900, but did not become common until operator strikes and trust was built with advertising and features such as an emergency stop button.[151][152]

Ethical issues edit

See also: Machine ethics

Rationale for liability edit

Standards for liability have yet to be adopted to address crashes and other incidents. Does liability rest with the manufacturer or the driver/passenger and does it vary with, e.g., automation level or merely the specific circumstances?[153]

Trolley Problem edit

The trolley problem is a thought experiment in ethics. Adapted for ACs, consider an AC carrying a passenger when suddenly a pedestrian steps in its way and the car has to choose between killing the pedestrian or swerving into a wall, killing the passenger.[154] Ethical researchers have suggested deontology (formal rules) and utilitarianism (harm reduction) as applicable.[10][155][156]

Public opinion has been reported to support harm reduction, except that they want the vehicle to prefer them when they are riding in it. However, utilitarian regulations are unpopular.[157]

Privacy edit

Privacy-related issues arise mainly from the fact that ACs are connected to the internet. Any connected device offers the potential to be penetrated. This information includes destinations, routes, cabin recordings, media preferences, behavioral patterns, and others.[158][159][160]

Road infrastructure edit

Whether existing road infrastructure can support higher levels of automation has not been finalized. The answer may vary across jurisdictions.[161] In March 2023, the Japanese government unveiled a plan to set up a dedicated highway lane for ACs.[162] In April 2023, JR East announced their challenge to raise their self-driving level of Kesennuma Line bus rapid transit (BRT) in rural area from the current Level 2 to Level 4 at 60 km/h.[163]

Testing edit

Approaches edit

The testing of vehicles with varying degrees of automation can be carried out either physically, in a closed environment[164] or, where permitted, on public roads (typically requiring a license or permit,[165] or adhering to a specific set of operating principles),[166] or in a virtual environment, i.e. using computer simulations.[167][168] When driven on public roads, automated vehicles require a person to monitor their proper operation and "take over" when needed. For example, New York has strict requirements for the test driver, such that the vehicle can be corrected at all times by a licensed operator; highlighted by Cardian Cube Company's application and discussions with New York State officials and the NYS DMV.[169]

Disengagements in the 2010s edit

 
A prototype of Waymo's self-driving car, navigating public streets in Mountain View, California in 2017

In California, self-driving car manufacturers are required to submit annual reports to share how often their vehicles disengaged from autonomous mode during tests.[170] It has been believed that we would learn how reliable the vehicles are becoming based on how often they needed "disengagements".[171]

In 2017, Waymo reported 63 disengagements over 352,545 mi (567,366 km) of testing, an average distance of 5,596 mi (9,006 km) between disengagements, the highest among companies reporting such figures. Waymo also traveled a greater total distance than any of the other companies. Their 2017 rate of 0.18 disengagements per 1,000 mi (1,600 km) was an improvement over the 0.2 disengagements per 1,000 mi (1,600 km) in 2016, and 0.8 in 2015. In March 2017, Uber reported an average of just 0.67 mi (1.08 km) per disengagement. In the final three months of 2017, Cruise (now owned by GM) averaged 5,224 mi (8,407 km) per disengagement over a total distance of 62,689 mi (100,888 km).[172] In July 2018, the first electric driverless racing car, "Robocar", completed a 1.8-kilometer track, using its navigation system and artificial intelligence.[173]

Distance between disengagement and total distance traveled autonomously in the 2010s
Car maker California, 2016[172] California, 2018[174] California, 2019[175]
Distance between
disengagements 		Total distance traveled Distance between
disengagements 		Total distance traveled Distance between
disengagements 		Total distance traveled
Waymo 5,128 mi (8,253 km) 635,868 mi (1,023,330 km) 11,154 mi (17,951 km) 1,271,587 mi (2,046,421 km) 11,017 mi (17,730 km) 1,450,000 mi (2,330,000 km)
BMW 638 mi (1,027 km) 638 mi (1,027 km)
Nissan 263 mi (423 km) 6,056 mi (9,746 km) 210 mi (340 km) 5,473 mi (8,808 km)
Ford 197 mi (317 km) 590 mi (950 km)
General Motors 55 mi (89 km) 8,156 mi (13,126 km) 5,205 mi (8,377 km) 447,621 mi (720,376 km) 12,221 mi (19,668 km) 831,040 mi (1,337,430 km)
Aptiv 15 mi (24 km) 2,658 mi (4,278 km)
Tesla 3 mi (4.8 km) 550 mi (890 km)
Mercedes-Benz 2 mi (3.2 km) 673 mi (1,083 km) 1.5 mi (2.4 km) 1,749 mi (2,815 km)
Bosch 7 mi (11 km) 983 mi (1,582 km)
Zoox 1,923 mi (3,095 km) 30,764 mi (49,510 km) 1,595 mi (2,567 km) 67,015 mi (107,850 km)
Nuro 1,028 mi (1,654 km) 24,680 mi (39,720 km) 2,022 mi (3,254 km) 68,762 mi (110,662 km)
Pony.ai 1,022 mi (1,645 km) 16,356 mi (26,322 km) 6,476 mi (10,422 km) 174,845 mi (281,386 km)
Baidu (Apolong) 206 mi (332 km) 18,093 mi (29,118 km) 18,050 mi (29,050 km) 108,300 mi (174,300 km)
Aurora 100 mi (160 km) 32,858 mi (52,880 km) 280 mi (450 km) 39,729 mi (63,938 km)
Apple 1.1 mi (1.8 km) 79,745 mi (128,337 km) 118 mi (190 km) 7,544 mi (12,141 km)
Uber 0.4 mi (0.64 km) 26,899 mi (43,290 km) 0 mi (0 km)

In the 2020s edit

Disengagements
As of 2022, "disengagements" are at the center of the controversy. The problem is that reporting companies have varying definitions of what qualifies as a disengagement, and that definition can change over time.[176][171] Executives of self-driving car companies have criticized disengagements as a deceptive metric, because it does not take into account the higher degree of difficulty navigating urban streets compared with interstates highway.[177]

Compliance
In April 2021, WP.29 GRVA issued the master document on "Test Method for Automated Driving (NATM)".[178]

In October 2021, the Europe's comprehensive pilot test of automated driving on public roads, L3Pilot, demonstrated automated systems for cars in Hamburg, Germany, in conjunction with ITS World Congress 2021. SAE Level 3 and 4 functions were tested on ordinary roads.[179][180] At the end of February 2022, the final results of the L3Pilot project were published.[181]

In November 2022, an International Standard ISO 34502 on "Scenario based safety evaluation framework" was published.[182][183]

Collision avoidance
In April 2022, collision avoidance testing was demonstrated by Nissan.[184][185] Also, Waymo published a document about collision avoidance testing in December 2022.[186]

Simulation and validation
In September 2022, Biprogy released a software system of "Driving Intelligence Validation Platform (DIVP)" as the achievement of Japanese national project "SIP-adus" led by Cabinet Office with the same name of its subproject which is interoperable with Open Simulation Interface (OSI) of ASAM.[187][188][189]

Topics
In November 2021, the California Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) notified Pony.ai that it was suspending its driverless testing permit following a reported collision in Fremont on 28 October. This incident stands out because the vehicle was in autonomous mode and didn't involve any other vehicle.[190] In May 2022, DMV revoked Pony.ai's permit for failing to monitor the driving records of the safety drivers on its testing permit.[191]

In April 2022, it is reported that Cruise's testing vehicle blocked fire engine on emergency call, and sparked questions about an autonomous vehicle's ability to handle unexpected roadway issues.[192][193]

In November 2022, Toyota gave a demonstration of one of its GR Yaris test car equipped with AI, which had been trained on the skills and knowledge of professional rally drivers to enhance the safety of self-driving cars.[194] Toyota has been using the learnings from the collaborative activities with Microsoft in FIA World Rally Championship since 2017 season.[195]

Pedestrian reaction
In 2023 David R. Large, senior research fellow with the Human Factors Research Group at the University of Nottingham, disguised himself as a car seat in a study to test people's reactions to driverless cars. He said, "We wanted to explore how pedestrians would interact with a driverless car and developed this unique methodology to explore their reactions." The study found that, in the absence of someone in the driving seat, pedestrians trust certain visual prompts more than others when deciding whether to cross the road.[196]

Incidents edit

Tesla Autopilot edit

See also: Tesla Autopilot § Notable crashes

As of November 2021, Tesla's advanced driver-assistance system (ADAS) Autopilot is classified as a Level 2.[197]

On 20 January 2016, the first of five known fatal crashes of a Tesla with Autopilot occurred in China's Hubei province.[198] According to China's 163.com news channel, this marked "China's first accidental death due to Tesla's automatic driving (system)". Initially, Tesla pointed out that the vehicle was so badly damaged from the impact that their recorder was not able to conclusively prove that the car had been on autopilot at the time; however, 163.com pointed out that other factors, such as the car's absolute failure to take any evasive actions prior to the high speed crash, and the driver's otherwise good driving record, seemed to indicate a strong likelihood that the car was on autopilot at the time. A similar fatal crash occurred four months later in Florida.[199][200] In 2018, in a subsequent civil suit between the father of the driver killed and Tesla, Tesla did not deny that the car had been on autopilot at the time of the accident, and sent evidence to the victim's father documenting that fact.[201]

The second known fatal accident involving a vehicle being driven by itself took place in Williston, Florida on 7 May 2016 while a Tesla Model S electric car was engaged in Autopilot mode. The occupant was killed in a crash with an 18-wheel tractor-trailer. On 28 June 2016 the US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) opened a formal investigation into the accident working with the Florida Highway Patrol. According to NHTSA, preliminary reports indicate the crash occurred when the tractor-trailer made a left turn in front of the Tesla at an intersection on a non-controlled access highway, and the car failed to apply the brakes. The car continued to travel after passing under the truck's trailer.[202][203] NHTSA's preliminary evaluation was opened to examine the design and performance of any automated driving systems in use at the time of the crash, which involved a population of an estimated 25,000 Model S cars.[204] On 8 July 2016, NHTSA requested Tesla Motors provide the agency detailed information about the design, operation and testing of its Autopilot technology. The agency also requested details of all design changes and updates to Autopilot since its introduction, and Tesla's planned updates schedule for the next four months.[205]

According to Tesla, "neither Autopilot nor the driver noticed the white side of the tractor-trailer against a brightly lit sky, so the brake was not applied." The car attempted to drive full speed under the trailer, "with the bottom of the trailer impacting the windshield of the Model S". Tesla also claimed that this was Tesla's first known autopilot death in over 130 million miles (210 million kilometers) driven by its customers with Autopilot engaged, however by this statement, Tesla was apparently refusing to acknowledge claims that the January 2016 fatality in Hubei China had also been the result of an autopilot system error. According to Tesla there is a fatality every 94 million miles (151 million kilometers) among all type of vehicles in the US.[202][203][206] However, this number also includes fatalities of the crashes, for instance, of motorcycle drivers with pedestrians.[207][208]

In July 2016, the US National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) opened a formal investigation into the fatal accident while the Autopilot was engaged. The NTSB is an investigative body that has the power to make only policy recommendations. An agency spokesman said "It's worth taking a look and seeing what we can learn from that event, so that as that automation is more widely introduced we can do it in the safest way possible."[209] In January 2017, the NTSB released the report that concluded Tesla was not at fault; the investigation revealed that for Tesla cars, the crash rate dropped by 40 percent after Autopilot was installed.[210]

In 2021, NTSB Chair called on Tesla to change the design of its Autopilot to ensure it cannot be misused by drivers, according to a letter sent to the company's CEO.[197]

Waymo edit

See also: Waymo § Crashes
 
Google's in-house automated car

Waymo originated as a self-driving car project within Google. In August 2012, Google announced that their vehicles had completed over 300,000 automated-driving miles (500,000 km) accident-free, typically involving about a dozen cars on the road at any given time, and that they were starting to test with single drivers instead of in pairs.[211] In late-May 2014, Google revealed a new prototype that had no steering wheel, gas pedal, or brake pedal, and was fully automated.[212] As of March 2016, Google had test-driven their fleet in automated mode a total of 1,500,000 mi (2,400,000 km).[213] In December 2016, Google Corporation announced that its technology would be spun off to a new company called Waymo, with both Google and Waymo becoming subsidiaries of a new parent company called Alphabet.[214][215]

According to Google's accident reports as of early 2016, their test cars had been involved in 14 collisions, of which other drivers were at fault 13 times, although in 2016 the car's software caused a crash.[216]

In June 2015, Brin confirmed that 12 vehicles had suffered collisions as of that date. Eight involved rear-end collisions at a stop sign or traffic light, two in which the vehicle was side-swiped by another driver, one in which another driver rolled through a stop sign, and one where a Google employee was controlling the car manually.[217] In July 2015, three Google employees suffered minor injuries when their vehicle was rear-ended by a car whose driver failed to brake at a traffic light. This was the first time that a collision resulted in injuries.[218] On 14 February 2016 a Google vehicle attempted to avoid sandbags blocking its path. During the maneuver it struck a bus. Google stated, "In this case, we clearly bear some responsibility, because if our car hadn't moved, there wouldn't have been a collision."[219][220] Google characterized the crash as a misunderstanding and a learning experience. No injuries were reported in the crash.[216]

Uber's Advanced Technologies Group (ATG) edit

In March 2018, Elaine Herzberg died after being hit by a self-driving car being tested by Uber's Advanced Technologies Group (ATG) in the US state of Arizona. There was a safety driver in the car. Herzberg was crossing the road about 400 feet from an intersection.[221] This marks the first time an individual is known to have been killed by an autonomous vehicle, and the incident raised questions about regulation of the self-driving car industry.[222] Some experts said a human driver could have avoided the fatal crash.[223] Arizona governor Doug Ducey suspended the company's ability to test and operate its automated cars on public roadways citing an "unquestionable failure" of the expectation that Uber make public safety its top priority.[224] Uber then stopped self-driving tests in California until it was issued a new permit in 2020.[225][226]

In May 2018, the US National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) issued a preliminary report.[227] The final report 18 months later determined that the immediate cause of the accident was the safety driver's failure to monitor the road because she was distracted by her phone. However, Uber ATG's "inadequate safety culture" contributed to the crash. The report noted from the post-mortem that the victim had "a very high level" of methamphetamine in her body.[228] The board also called on federal regulators to carry out a review before allowing automated test vehicles to operate on public roads.[229][230]

In September 2020, the backup driver, Rafaela Vasquez, was charged with negligent homicide, because she did not look at the road for several seconds while her phone was streaming The Voice broadcast by Hulu. She pleaded not guilty and was released to await trial. Uber does not face any criminal charge because in the USA there is no basis for criminal liability for the corporation. The safety driver is assumed to be responsible for the accident, because she was in the driving seat in a capacity to avoid an accident (like in a Level 3). The trial was originally planned for February 2021[231] but is now scheduled to begin in June 2023.[232]

Navya Arma driving system edit

On 9 November 2017, a Navya Arma automated self-driving bus with passengers was involved in a crash with a truck. The truck was found to be at fault of the crash, reversing into the stationary automated bus. The automated bus did not take evasive actions or apply defensive driving techniques such as flashing its headlights, or sounding the horn. As one passenger commented, "The shuttle didn't have the ability to move back. The shuttle just stayed still."[233]

NIO Navigate on Pilot edit

On 12 August 2021, a 31-year-old Chinese man was killed after his NIO ES8 collided with a construction vehicle.[citation needed] NIO's self-driving feature is still in beta and cannot yet deal with static obstacles.[234] Though the vehicle's manual clearly states that the driver must take over when nearing construction sites, the issue is whether the feature was improperly marketed and unsafe. Lawyers of the deceased's family have also called into question NIO's private access to the vehicle, which they argue may lead to the data ending up forged.[235]

Toyota e-Palette operation edit

On 26 August 2021, a Toyota e-Palette, a mobility vehicle used to support mobility within the Athletes' Village at the Olympic and Paralympic Games Tokyo 2020, collided with a visually impaired pedestrian about to cross a pedestrian crossing.[236] The Toyota bus service was suspended after the accident, and resumed on 31 August 2021 with improved safety measures.[237]

Public opinion surveys edit

In the 2010s edit

In a 2011 online survey of 2,006 US and UK consumers by Accenture, 49% said they would be comfortable using a "driverless car".[238]

A 2012 survey of 17,400 vehicle owners by J.D. Power and Associates found 37% initially said they would be interested in purchasing a "fully autonomous car". However, that figure dropped to 20% if told the technology would cost US$3,000 more.[239]

In a 2012 survey of about 1,000 German drivers by automotive researcher Puls, 22% of the respondents had a positive attitude towards these cars, 10% were undecided, 44% were skeptical and 24% were hostile.[240]

A 2013 survey of 1,500 consumers across 10 countries by Cisco Systems found 57% "stated they would be likely to ride in a car controlled entirely by technology that does not require a human driver", with Brazil, India and China the most willing to trust automated technology.[241]

In a 2014 US telephone survey by Insurance.com, over three-quarters of licensed drivers said they would at least consider buying a self-driving car, rising to 86% if car insurance were cheaper. 31.7% said they would not continue to drive once an automated car was available instead.[242]

In a February 2015 survey of top auto journalists, 46% predicted that either Tesla or Daimler would be the first to the market with a fully autonomous vehicle, while (at 38%) Daimler was predicted to be the most functional, safe, and in-demand autonomous vehicle.[243] In 2015, a questionnaire survey by Delft University of Technology explored the opinion of 5,000 people from 109 countries on automated driving. Results showed that respondents, on average, found manual driving the most enjoyable mode of driving. 22% of the respondents did not want to spend any money for a fully automated driving system. Respondents were found to be most concerned about software hacking/misuse, and were also concerned about legal issues and safety. Finally, respondents from more developed countries (in terms of lower accident statistics, higher education, and higher income) were less comfortable with their vehicle transmitting data.[244] The survey also gave results on potential consumer opinion on interest of purchasing an automated car, stating that 37% of surveyed current owners were either "definitely" or "probably" interested in purchasing an automated car.[244]

In 2016, a survey in Germany examined the opinion of 1,603 people, who were representative in terms of age, gender, and education for the German population, towards partially, highly, and fully automated cars. Results showed that men and women differ in their willingness to use them. Men felt less anxiety and more joy towards automated cars, whereas women showed the exact opposite. The gender difference towards anxiety was especially pronounced between young men and women but decreased with participants' age.[245]

In 2016, a PwC survey, in the United States, showing the opinion of 1,584 people, highlights that "66 percent of respondents said they think autonomous cars are probably smarter than the average human driver". People are still worried about safety and mostly the fact of having the car hacked. Nevertheless, only 13% of the interviewees see no advantages in this new kind of cars.[246]

In 2017, Pew Research Center surveyed 4,135 US adults from 1–15 May and found that many Americans anticipate significant impacts from various automation technologies in the course of their lifetimes—from the widespread adoption of automated vehicles to the replacement of entire job categories with robot workers.[247]

In 2019, results from two opinion surveys of 54 and 187 US adults respectively were published. A new standardized questionnaire, the autonomous vehicle acceptance model (AVAM) was developed, including additional description to help respondents better understand the implications of different automation levels. Results showed that users were less accepting of high autonomy levels and displayed significantly lower intention to use highly autonomous vehicles. Additionally, partial autonomy (regardless of level) was perceived as requiring uniformly higher driver engagement (usage of hands, feet and eyes) than full autonomy.[248]

In the 2020s edit

In 2022, research by safety charity Lloyd's Register Foundation uncovered that only a quarter (27%) of the world's population would feel safe in self-driving cars.[249]

Regulation edit

Main article: Regulation of self-driving cars
See also: Regulation of algorithms

Regulation of self-driving cars is an increasingly important issue which includes multiple subtopics. Among them are self-driving car liability, regulations regarding approval and international conventions.

In the 2010s, researchers openly worried about the potential of future regulation to delay deployment of automated cars on the road.[250] In 2020, international regulation in the form of UNECE WP.29 GRVA was established, regulating Level 3 automated driving. As of 2022, it is considered very challenging to be approved as Level 3.

Commercialization edit

See also: History of self-driving cars § The 2020s

Between manually driven vehicles (SAE Level 0) and fully autonomous vehicles (SAE Level 5), there are a variety of vehicle types that have some degree of automation. These are collectively known as semi-automated vehicles. As it could be a while before the technology and infrastructure are developed for full automation, it is likely that vehicles will have increasing levels of automation. These semi-automated vehicles could potentially harness many of the advantages of fully automated vehicles, while still keeping the driver in charge of the vehicle.[251]

As of 2023 nearly all commercially available vehicles with autonomous features are considered SAE Level 2. Development is ongoing at many car companies on further automation features that function at Level 2 and Level 3. Other companies offer services of autonomous Level 4 robotaxis in a few cities in the United States.[252]

Achieving full self-driving remains a true challenge.[253]

Level 2 commercialization edit

See also: Lane centering § Sample of level 2 automated cars, and List of self-driving system suppliers § Date of first public road driverless operation

SAE Level 2 features are available as part of the advanced driver-assistance system (ADAS) abilities in many commercially available vehicles. These systems often require a subscription to an ongoing service or paid upgrade with the car purchase.

Ford started offering the "BlueCruise" service on certain electric and gas-powered vehicles in 2022; it is named "ActiveGlide" in Lincoln vehicles. The system provides features such as lane centering, street sign recognition and hands-free highway driving on more than 130,000 miles of divided highways in the US. The version 1.2 update of the service was released in September 2022, and added features like hands-free lane changing, in-lane repositioning, and predictive speed assist.[254][255] In April 2023 BlueCruise technology was approved in the UK, for use on certain motorways. The technology will at first only be available for 2023 models of Ford's electric Mustang Mach-E SUV.[256]

Tesla vehicles are equipped with hardware that Tesla claims will allow full self-driving in the future. The Tesla Autopilot suite of ADAS features are included in all Tesla vehicle models. More advanced driving features are available at an extra cost, under the "Enhanced Autopilot" and "Full Self-Driving" names. The marketing names have been criticized as misleading, as all Tesla ADAS features provide only Level 2 capabilities.[257]

Level 2 development edit

General Motors is developing the "Ultra Cruise" ADAS system, that will be a dramatic improvement over their current "Super Cruise" system. Ultra Cruise will cover "95 percent" of driving scenarios on 2 million miles of roads in the US, according to the company. The system hardware in and around the car includes multiple cameras, short- and long-range radar, and a LiDAR sensor, and will be powered by the Qualcomm Snapdragon Ride Platform. The luxury Cadillac Celestiq electric vehicle will be one of the first vehicles to feature Ultra Cruise.[258]

Level 3 commercialization edit

Level 3 development edit

As of 2023, three car manufacturers have registered Level 3 conditionally automated cars: Honda in Japan, Mercedes in Germany, Nevada and California[259] and BMW in Germany.[260] Mass production is still not available.

Honda announced in December 2022, that it will enhance its Level 3 technology to function at any speed below legal limits on highways by 2029.[261][262] Only 80 vehicles with Level 3 Honda Sending elite have been sold in Japan.[263] Mass production start date for vehicles with the Level 3 driving system is not known as of 2022.[264]

Mercedes-Benz received in early 2023 authorization for its Level 3 Drive Pilot in Nevada,[265] and plans to apply for approval in California by mid-2023.[266] Drive Pilot is planned to be available in the US market as an option for some models in the second half of 2023. California also registered Drive Pilot conditionally automated driving technology in 2023.[267] Drive Pilot subscription service is introduces at a rate of $2500 per year in California and Nevada[268]

BMW had been trying to make 7 Series as an automated car in 2017, in public urban motorways of the United States, Germany and Israel before commercializing them in 2021.[269] Although it was not realized, BMW is still preparing 7 Series to become the next manufacturer to reach Level 3 in the second half of 2022.[270][271] In 2023 BMW states that its level-3 technology will be available in Germany in the spring 2024. It will be the second manufacturer to deliver both level-2 and level-3 technology, but the only one with a level 3 technology which works in the dark.[272]

In 2023, in China, three companies IM Motors, Mercedes and BMW have obtained authorization to test vehicles to be produced with level 3 conditional automated driving systems on Chinese motorways.[273][274]

Other manufacturers have not yet registered Level 3 conditionally automated cars, while some of them have plans to do so.

In September 2021, Stellantis has presented its findings from a pilot programme testing Level 3 autonomous vehicles on public Italian highways. Stellantis's Highway Chauffeur claims Level 3 capabilities, which was tested on the Maserati Ghibli and Fiat 500X prototypes.[275] Stellantis is going to roll out Level 3 capability within its cars in 2024.[276]

Polestar, a Volvo Cars' brand, indicated in January 2022 its plan to offer Level 3 autonomous driving system in the Polestar 3 SUV, Volvo XC90 successor, with technologies from Luminar Technologies, Nvidia, and Zenseact.[277] Polestar plan to make Level 3 Chauffeur available in Polestar 4, and Polestar 4 sold in China in 2023 and in 2024 in the rest of the world.[278]

In January 2022, Bosch and the Volkswagen Group subsidiary CARIAD released a collaboration for autonomous driving up to level 3. This Joint development targets to be explored and evalauted for Level 4.[279]

Hyundai Motor Company is As of February 2022, in the stage of enhancing cybersecurity of connected cars to put Level 3 self-driving Genesis G90 on Korean roads.[280] In 2023, Kia and Hyundai Korean car makers delayed their Level 3 plans, and will not deliver Level 3 vehicles in 2023.[281]

Level 4 commercialization edit

Cruise and Waymo offer limited robotaxi services in a handful of American cities, as fully autonomous vehicles without any human safety drivers in the vehicles.[282]

On 1 April 2023 in Japan, Level 4 legal scheme of the amended "Road Traffic Act" was nation-wide enforced, and one service level-upped to the Level 4 service.[283] The approved self-driving shuttle is "ZEN drive Pilot Level 4" custom-made by AIST.[284]

Level 4 development edit

In July 2020, Toyota started testing with public demonstration rides on Lexus LS (fifth generation) based TRI-P4 with Level 4 capability.[285] In August 2021, Toyota operated potentially Level 4 service using e-Palette around the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Village.[286]

In September 2020, Mercedes-Benz introduced world's first commercial Level 4 Automated Valet Parking (AVP) system named Intelligent Park Pilot for its new S-Class. The system can be pre-installed but is conditional on future national legal approval.[287][288]

In September 2021, Honda started testing programme toward launch of Level 4 mobility service business in Japan under collaboration with Cruise and General Motors, using Cruise AV.[289] In October 2021 at World Congress on Intelligent Transport Systems, Honda presented that they are already testing Level 4 technology on modified Legend Hybrid EX.[290] At the end of the month, Honda explained that they are conducting verification project on Level 4 technology on a test course in Tochigi prefecture. Honda plans to test on public roads in early 2022.[291]

In February 2022, General Motors and Cruise have petitioned NHTSA for permission to build and deploy a self-driving vehicle, the Cruise Origin, which is without human controls like steering wheels or brake pedals. The car was developed with GM and Cruise investor Honda, and its production is expected to begin in late 2022 in Detroit at GM's Factory Zero.[292][293] As of April 2022, the petition is pending.[294]

In April 2022, Honda unveiled its Level 4 mobility service partners to roll out in central Tokyo in the mid-2020s using the Cruise Origin.[295] By September 2022, Japan version prototype of Cruise Origin for Tokyo was completed and started testing.[296]

In January 2023, Holon, the new brand from the Benteler Group, unvield its self-driving shuttle autonomous during the Consumer Electronics Show (CES) 2023 in Las Vegas. The company claims the vehicle is the world's first Level 4 shuttle built to automotive standard. Production of the Holon mover is scheduled to start in the US at the end of 2025.[297]

Robotaxi edit

This section is an excerpt from Robotaxi.[edit]
A robotaxi, also known as robo-taxi, self-driving taxi or driverless taxi, is an autonomous car (SAE automation level 4 or 5) operated for a ridesharing company.

See also edit

Self-driving vehicles edit

Connected vehicles edit

Other vehicle technologies edit

References edit

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Further reading edit

  Media related to Self-driving cars at Wikimedia Commons

  • O'Toole, Randal (18 January 2010). Gridlock: Why We're Stuck in Traffic and What To Do About It. Cato Institute. ISBN 978-1-935308-24-9.
  • Macdonald, Iain David Graham (2011). A Simulated Autonomous Car (PDF) (thesis). The University of Edinburgh. Retrieved 17 April 2013.
  • Knight, Will (22 October 2013). "The Future of Self-driving Cars". MIT Technology Review. Retrieved 22 July 2016.
  • Taiebat, Morteza; Brown, Austin; Safford, Hannah; Qu, Shen; Xu, Ming (2019). "A Review on Energy, Environmental, and Sustainability Implications of Connected and Automated Vehicles". Environmental Science & Technology. 52 (20): 11449–11465. arXiv:1901.10581. Bibcode:2019arXiv190110581T. doi:10.1021/acs.est.8b00127. PMID 30192527. S2CID 52174043.
  • Glancy, Dorothy (2016). A Look at the Legal Environment for Driverless Vehicles (PDF) (Report). National Cooperative Highway Research Program Legal Research Digest. Vol. 69. Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board. ISBN 978-0-309-37501-6. Retrieved 22 July 2016.
  • Newbold, Richard (17 June 2015). "The driving forces behind what would be the next revolution in the haulage sector". The Loadstar. Retrieved 22 July 2016.
  • Bergen, Mark (27 October 2015). "Meet the Companies Building Self-Driving Cars for Google and Tesla (And Maybe Apple)". re/code.
  • John A. Volpe National Transportation Systems Center (March 2016). (PDF). National Transportation Library. US Department of Transportation. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 June 2017. Retrieved 6 April 2016.
  • Slone, Sean (August 2016). (PDF). Capitol Research – Transportation Policy. Council of State Governments. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 February 2021. Retrieved 28 September 2016.
  • Henn, Steve (31 July 2015). "Remembering When Driverless Elevators Drew Skepticism".
  • Anderson, James M.; et al. (2016). "Autonomous Vehicle Technology: A Guide for Policymakers" (PDF). RAND Corporation.
  • Gereon Meyer, Sven Beiker (Eds.), Road Vehicle Automation, Springer International Publishing 2014, ISBN 978-3-319-05990-7, and following issues: Road Vehicle Automation 2 (2015), Road Vehicle Automation 3 (2016), Road Vehicle Automation 4 (2017), Road Vehicle Automation 5 (2018), Road Vehicle Automation 6 (2019). These books are based on presentations and discussions at the Automated Vehicles Symposium organized annually by TRB and AUVSI.
  • Kemp, Roger (2018). "Autonomous vehicles – who will be liable for accidents?". [15 Digital Evidence and Electronic Signature Law Review (2018) 33 – 47].

January 19, 2024
self, driving, this, article, about, road, vehicle, type, general, concept, vehicular, automation, wider, applications, unmanned, ground, vehicle, self, driving, also, known, autonomous, driverless, robotic, robo, that, capable, traveling, without, human, inpu. This article is about the road vehicle type For the general concept see Vehicular automation For wider applications see Unmanned ground vehicle A self driving car also known as an autonomous car AC driverless car or robotic car robo car 1 2 3 is a car that is capable of traveling without human input 4 5 Self driving cars are responsible for perceiving the environment monitoring important systems and control including navigation 6 Perception accepts visual and audio data from outside and inside the car and interpret the input to abstractly render the vehicle and its surroundings The control system then takes actions to move the vehicle considering the route road conditions traffic controls and obstacles 7 8 9 10 11 They have the potential to impact the automotive industry health welfare urban planning traffic insurance labor market and other domains Appropriate regulations are necessary for deployment Autonomous ground vehicle capabilities can be categorized in six levels 12 defined by SAE International SAE J3016 13 As of August 2023 update no system had reached the highest level although multiple vendors are pursuing autonomy Waymo was the first to offer robo taxi rides to the general public and offers services in various US cities followed by Cruise in San Francisco 14 Honda was the first manufacturer to sell a Level 3 car 15 16 17 followed by Mercedes Benz 18 BMW Group and Kia Nuro offers autonomous commercial delivery operations in California 19 DeepRoute ai launched a robotaxi service in Shenzhen 20 Palo Alto California certified Nuro at Level 4 21 Waymo undergoing testing in the San Francisco Bay Area Roborace autonomous racing car on display at the 2017 New York City ePrixContents 1 History 2 Definitions 2 1 ADS vs ADAS 2 2 Automated driver assistance system 2 3 Autonomous vs automated 2 4 Autonomous versus cooperative 2 5 Self driving car 2 6 British definitions 2 7 Terminology and communication offenses 2 8 SAE classification 2 8 1 SAE levels 2 9 Criticism of SAE 3 Technology 3 1 General perspectives 3 2 Navigation 3 2 1 Sensing 3 2 2 Maps 3 2 3 Sensor fusion 3 2 4 Path planning 3 3 Drive by wire 3 4 Driver monitoring 3 5 Vehicle communication 3 6 Software update 3 7 Safety model 3 8 Turquoise light 4 Challenges 4 1 Obstacles 4 2 Concerns 4 2 1 Deceptive marketing 4 2 2 Security 4 2 3 Real time prediction 4 2 4 Handover 4 2 5 Risk compensation 4 2 6 Trust 4 3 Ethical issues 4 3 1 Rationale for liability 4 3 2 Trolley Problem 4 3 3 Privacy 4 4 Road infrastructure 5 Testing 5 1 Approaches 5 2 Disengagements in the 2010s 5 3 In the 2020s 6 Incidents 6 1 Tesla Autopilot 6 2 Waymo 6 3 Uber s Advanced Technologies Group ATG 6 4 Navya Arma driving system 6 5 NIO Navigate on Pilot 6 6 Toyota e Palette operation 7 Public opinion surveys 7 1 In the 2010s 7 2 In the 2020s 8 Regulation 9 Commercialization 9 1 Level 2 commercialization 9 1 1 Level 2 development 9 2 Level 3 commercialization 9 2 1 Level 3 development 9 3 Level 4 commercialization 9 3 1 Level 4 development 9 3 2 Robotaxi 10 See also 10 1 Self driving vehicles 10 2 Connected vehicles 10 3 Other vehicle technologies 11 References 12 Further readingHistory editMain article History of self driving cars Experiments have been conducted on automated driver assistance systems ADAS since at least the 1920s 22 trials began in the 1950s The first semi autonomous car was developed in 1977 by Japan s Tsukuba Mechanical Engineering Laboratory 23 It required specially marked streets that were interpreted by two cameras on the vehicle and an analog computer The vehicle reached speeds of 30 km h 19 mph with the support of an elevated rail 24 25 Carnegie Mellon University s Navlab 26 and ALV 27 28 semi autonomous projects appeared in the 1980s funded by the United States Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency DARPA starting in 1984 and Mercedes Benz and Bundeswehr University Munich s EUREKA Prometheus Project in 1987 29 By 1985 ALV had reached 31 km h 19 mph on two lane roads Obstacle avoidance came in 1986 and day and night off road by 1987 30 In 1995 Navlab 5 completed the first autonomous US coast to coast Traveling from Pittsburgh Pennsylvania and San Diego California 98 2 were autonomous completed with an average speed of 63 8 mph 102 7 km h 31 32 33 34 Until the second DARPA Grand Challenge in 2005 automated vehicle research in the United States was primarily funded by DARPA the US Army and the US Navy yielding incremental advances in speeds driving competence controls and sensor systems 35 The US allocated US 650 million in 1991 for research on the National Automated Highway System 36 which demonstrated automated driving through a combination of highway embedded automation with vehicle technology and cooperative networking between the vehicles and highway infrastructure The programme concluded with a successful demonstration in 1997 37 Partly funded by the National Automated Highway System and DARPA Navlab drove 4 584 km 2 848 mi across the US in 1995 4 501 km 2 797 mi or 98 autonomously 38 In 2015 Delphi improved piloted a Delphi technology based Audi over 5 472 km 3 400 mi through 15 states 99 autonomously 39 In 2015 Nevada Florida California Virginia Michigan and Washington DC allowed autonomous car testing on public roads 40 From 2016 to 2018 the European Commission funded development for connected and automated driving through Coordination Actions CARTRE and SCOUT programs 41 The Strategic Transport Research and Innovation Agenda STRIA Roadmap for Connected and Automated Transport was published in 2019 42 In November 2017 Waymo announced testing of autonomous cars without a safety driver 43 However an employee was in the car 44 An October 2017 report by the Brookings Institution found that 80 billion had been reported as invested in autonomous technology 45 In December 2018 Waymo was the first to commercialize a robotaxi service in Phoenix Arizona 46 In October 2020 Waymo launched a geo fenced robotaxi service in Phoenix 47 48 The cars were monitored in real time and remote engineers sometimes needed to intervene 49 48 In March 2019 ahead of Roborace Robocar set the Guinness World Record as the world s fastest autonomous car Robocar reached 282 42 km h 175 49 mph 50 In March 2021 Honda began leasing in Japan a limited edition of 100 Legend Hybrid EX sedans equipped with the newly approved Level 3 automated driving equipment which had been granted the safety certification by Japanese government to their autonomous Traffic Jam Pilot driving technology and legally allow drivers to take their eyes off the road 15 16 51 17 As of August 2023 update vehicles operating at Level 3 and above are an insignificant market factor In December 2020 Waymo became the first service provider to offer driverless taxi rides to the general public in a part of Phoenix Arizona In March 2021 Honda was the first manufacturer to sell a legally approved Level 3 car 15 16 17 Nuro began autonomous commercial delivery operations in California in 2021 19 DeepRoute ai launched robotaxi service in Shenzhen in July 2021 20 Nuro was approved for Level 4 in Palo Alto in August 2023 21 In December 2021 Mercedes Benz received approval for a Level 3 car 18 In February 2022 Cruise became the second service provider to offer driverless taxi rides to the general public in San Francisco 14 In December 2022 several manufacturers had scaled back plans for self driving technology including Ford and Volkswagen 52 Definitions editVarious organizations have proposed terminology In 2014 SAE J3016 stated that some vernacular usages associate autonomous specifically with full driving automation Level 5 while other usages apply it to all levels of driving automation and some state legislation has defined it to correspond approximately to any ADS automated driving system at or above Level 3 or to any vehicle equipped with such an ADS Vendors do not consistently apply terminology nor do products implement features in strict accord with definitions Names such as AutonoDrive PilotAssist Full Self Driving or DrivePilot are used even though the products offer an assortment of features that do not match the name 53 ADS vs ADAS edit ADAS means advanced driver assistance system considered as level 1 and level 2 ADS means automated driving system considered as level 3 and upper Automated driver assistance system edit Features such as keeping the car within its lane speed controls and emergency braking are termed driver assistance and known as ADAS because while they handle some driving tasks they require a human driver Organizations such as AAA provide standardized naming conventions for features such as automated lane keeping support ALKS The Association of British Insurers stated that the usage of the word autonomous in marketing to be dangerous because car ads make motorists think autonomous and autopilot imply that the driver can rely on the car to control itself even though they rely on the driver to ensure safety Despite offering something called Full Self Driving Tesla stated that its offering is not completely autonomous 54 In the United Kingdom a fully self driving car is defined as a car registered in a specific list rather than a set of features 55 Proposals to adopt aviation automation terminology for cars have not prevailed 56 According to SMMT There are two clear states a vehicle is either assisted with a driver being supported by technology or automated where the technology is effectively and safely replacing the driver 57 Autonomous vs automated edit Many projects have automated made automatic some aspect of driving Some required aids in the environment such as magnetic strips in roadways Autonomous control implies performance under environmental uncertainty along with the ability to compensate for errors without external intervention 58 One approach is to pool information across multiple vehicles This can be done locally to e g form a convoy or more widely e g to traffic optimize a route Euro NCAP defined autonomous as the system acts independently of the driver to avoid or mitigate the accident which implies the autonomous system is not the driver 59 In Europe the words automated and autonomous might be used together For instance Regulation EU 2019 2144 supplied 60 automated vehicle means a motor vehicle designed and constructed to move autonomously for certain periods of time without continuous driver supervision but in respect of which driver intervention is still expected or required 60 fully automated vehicle means a motor vehicle that has been designed and constructed to move autonomously without driver supervision 60 In British English the word automated alone might have several meanings such as in the sentence Thatcham also found that the automated lane keeping systems could only meet two out of the twelve principles required to guarantee safety going on to say they cannot therefore be classed as automated driving instead it claims the tech should be classed as assisted driving 61 The first occurrence of the automated word refers to an Unece automated system while the second refers to the British legal definition of an automated vehicle British law interprets the meaning of automated vehicle based on the interpretation section related to a vehicle driving itself and an insured vehicle 62 On 8 November was introduced in the British Parliament a bill to Regulate the use of automated vehicles on roads and in other public places and to make other provision in relation to vehicle automation 63 The word automated appears in this definition This introduced bill considers a vehicle travels autonomously if it is being controlled not by an individual but by equipment of the vehicle and neither the vehicle nor its surroundings are being monitored by an individual with a view to immediate intervention in the driving of the vehicle 63 The word autonomously appears in this definition Autonomous versus cooperative edit To enable a car to travel without a driver within the vehicle some companies use a remote driver A remote driver is a driver that is not physically inside the vehicle they are operating Rather they use a connection typically an internet connection to the vehicle to control it and all its functions remotely 64 According to SAE J3016 Some driving automation systems may indeed be autonomous if they perform all of their functions independently and self sufficiently but if they depend on communication and or cooperation with outside entities they should be considered cooperative rather than autonomous Self driving car edit PC Magazine defined a self driving car as a computer controlled car that drives itself 65 The Union of Concerned Scientists used cars or trucks in which human drivers are never required to take control to safely operate the vehicle Also known as autonomous or driverless cars they combine sensors and software to control navigate and drive the vehicle 66 The British Automated and Electric Vehicles Act 2018 law defines a vehicle as driving itself if the vehicle is operating in a mode in which it is not being controlled and does not need to be monitored by an individual 67 Another British definition adopts Self driving vehicles are vehicles that can safely and lawfully drive themselves 68 British definitions edit On 8 November was introduced in the British Parliament a bill to Regulate the use of automated vehicles on roads and in other public places and to make other provision in relation to vehicle automation 63 self driving capability Chapter 1 part1 of this automated vehicle bill starts by defining self driving capability 63 It states that A vehicle satisfies the self driving test if it is designed or adapted with the intention that a feature of the vehicle will allow it to travel autonomously and it is capable of doing so by means of that feature safely and legally Those words are also defined travel autonomously safely and legally travels autonomously A vehicle travels autonomously if it is being controlled not by an individual but by equipment of the vehicle and neither the vehicle nor its surroundings are being monitored by an individual with a view to immediate intervention in the driving of the vehicle control References to control of a vehicle are to control of the motion of the vehicle safely if it travels to an acceptably safe standard and legally if it travels with an acceptably low risk of committing a traffic infraction 63 Terminology and communication offenses edit On 8 November was introduced in the British Parliament a bill to Regulate the use of automated vehicles on roads and in other public places and to make other provision in relation to vehicle automation 63 This bill define offenses so that an offense under those sections can be committed anywhere in the world 63 For instance a restricted term offense for a road vehicle or for a product may occur 63 when a the person uses or causes or permits the use of a restricted term in connection with the promotion or supply of a road vehicle b the person is acting in the course of business c the use of the restricted term is directed at an end user or potential end user of the vehicle d it is reasonable to anticipate that the use of the term will come to the attention of an end user or potential end user of the vehicle in Great Britain and e the vehicle is not an appropriate vehicle or when 63 a the person uses or causes or permits the use of a restricted term in connection with the promotion or supply of a product intended for use as equipment of a road vehicle b the person is acting in the course of business c the use of the restricted term is directed at an end user or potential end user of a road vehicle d it is reasonable to anticipate that the use of the term will come to the attention of an end user or potential end user of a road vehicle in Great Britain and e the restricted term is not used specifically in relation to the use of the product as equipment of an appropriate vehicleFor the purpose of communications likely to confuse as to autonomous capability a person commits an offense when 63 a the person makes or causes or permits the making of a communication in connection with the promotion or supply of any product or service b the person is acting in the course of business c the communication is directed at an end user or potential end user of a road vehicle d it is reasonable to anticipate that the communication will come to the attention of an end user or potential end user of a road vehicle in Great Britain and e the communication would be likely to confuse end users of road vehicles in Great Britain as to whether a vehicle that is not an authorized automated vehicle is capable of traveling autonomously safely and legally on roads or other public places in Great BritainSAE classification edit nbsp Tesla Autopilot is classified as an SAE Level 2 system 69 70 A classification system with six levels ranging from fully manual to fully automated systems was published in 2014 by SAE International as J3016 Taxonomy and Definitions for Terms Related to On Road Motor Vehicle Automated Driving Systems the details are revised periodically 13 This classification is based on the role of the driver rather than the vehicle s capabilities although these are loosely related In the United States in 2013 the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration NHTSA released its original formal classification system After SAE updated its classification in 2016 called J3016 201609 71 NHTSA adopted the SAE standard 72 73 The classification is a topic of debate with various approaches proposed for its expansion 74 75 SAE levels edit Driving mode is used as a type of driving scenario with characteristic dynamic driving task requirements e g expressway merging high speed cruising low speed traffic jam closed campus operations etc 1 76 Level 0 The automated system issues warnings and may momentarily intervene but has no sustained vehicle control Level 1 hands on The driver and the vehicle share control Examples are systems where the driver controls steering and the automated system controls engine power to maintain a set speed cruise control or engine and brake power to maintain and vary speed adaptive cruise control ACC The driver must always be ready to retake control Lane keeping LK Type II is a further example of Level 1 self driving Automatic emergency braking which alerts the driver to a potential crash and applies the brakes is a Level 1 feature according to Autopilot Review magazine 77 Level 2 hands off The automated system takes full control of the vehicle accelerating braking and steering The driver must monitor the driving and be prepared to intervene immediately at any time The shorthand hands off is not literal contact between hand and wheel is often mandatory during SAE 2 driving to confirm that the driver is ready to intervene The driver s eyes may be monitored to confirm that the driver is attentive True hands off driving is sometimes unofficially termed level 2 5 A common example is ACC combined with LK such as Super Cruise in the Cadillac CT6 or the F 150 s BlueCruise 78 Level 3 eyes off The driver can safely turn their attention from driving The driver must still be prepared to intervene within a time interval specified by the manufacturer when called upon by the vehicle This level can be thought of as a co driver that alerts the driver in an orderly fashion when handing off control An example would be a Traffic Jam Chauffeur 79 a car satisfying the Automated Lane Keeping Systems ALKS regulations 80 Level 4 mind off No driver attention is required for safety allowing the driver to sleep or change seats However self driving is supported only in specific areas geofenced or under specific circumstances Outside of these areas circumstances the vehicle must be able to safely abort the trip e g stop and park An example would be a robotaxi or delivery service that covers specific locations possibly also time of day limited Automated Valet Parking AVP is another example Level 5 steering wheel optional No human intervention is required under any circumstances such as long distance trucking SAE J3016 Automation Levels 76 SAE Level Name Narrative Direction andspeed control Monitoring driving environment Fallback responsibility Driving modesDriver monitors the driving environment0 No Automation Full time performance by the driver of all aspects of driving even when enhanced by warning or intervention systems Driver Driver Driver n a1 Driver Assistance Driving mode specific control by an ADAS of either steering or speed Uses information about the driving environment and with the expectation that the driver performs all remaining aspects of the dynamic driving task Driver and system Some driving modes2 Partial Automation Driving mode specific execution by one or more driver assistance systems of both steering and speed SystemADAS monitors the driving environment3 Conditional Automation Driving mode specific control by an ADAS of all aspects of driving Driver must respond appropriately to a request to intervene System System Driver Some driving modes4 High Automation If a driver does not respond appropriately to a request to intervene the car can stop safely System Many driving modes5 Full Automation Control the vehicle under all conditions that can be managed by a driver All driving modesCriticism of SAE edit The SAE Automation Levels have been criticized for their technological focus It has been argued that the structure of the levels suggests that automation increases linearly and that more automation is better which may not always be the case 81 The SAE Levels also do not account for changes that may be required to infrastructure 82 and road user behavior 83 84 Technology editGeneral perspectives edit Several classifications have been proposed to deal with ADAS technology One such proposal is to adopt these categories navigation path planning perception and car control 85 Even video games have been used as a platform to test autonomous vehicles 86 Navigation edit Main article Hybrid navigation Navigation involves the use of maps to define a path between origin and destination Hybrid navigation is the use of multiple navigation systems Sensing edit Sensor technologies including combinations of cameras LiDAR radar audio and ultrasound have been applied to the task of understanding the environment surrounding a vehicle 87 GPS and Inertial measurement 88 89 Deep neural networks are shown to be effective in analysing the combined stream of inputs from these sensors to detect and identify objects 90 Some systems use Bayesian simultaneous localization and mapping SLAM algorithms Waymo at one point used SLAM and added detection and tracking of other moving objects DATMO to handle potential obstacles 91 92 Other systems use roadside real time locating system RTLS technologies to aid localization Tesla uses eight cameras to create a bird s eye view of the surroundings and categorize the objects within it 93 Maps edit Maps are necessary for navigation Map sophistication varies from simple graphs that show which roads connect to each other with details such as one way vs two way to those that are highly detailed with information about lanes traffic controls roadworks and more 87 Researchers at the MITComputer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory CSAIL developed a system called MapLite which allowed self driving cars to drive without using 3D maps The system combines the GPS position of the vehicle a sparse topological map such as OpenStreetMap i e having 2D features of the roads only and a series of sensors that observe road conditions 94 One issue with highly detailed maps is keeping them updated as the world changes Vehicles that can operate with less detailed maps to some extent require less frequent updates Sensor fusion edit Control systems typically combine data from multiple sensors 95 Self driving cars often combine cameras LiDAR and radar Multiple sensors provide a more complete view of the surroundings and can be used to cross check each other to correct errors 96 Path planning edit Path planning finds a sequence of segments that a vehicle can follow from origin to destination Two techniques used for path planning are graph based search and variational based optimization techniques Graph based techniques can make harder decisions such as how to pass another vehicle obstacle Variational based optimization techniques require a higher level of planning in setting restrictions on the vehicle s driving corridor to prevent collisions 97 The large scale path of the vehicle can be determined by using a voronoi diagram an occupancy grid mapping or with a driving corridors algorithm The latter allows the vehicle to locate and drive within open space that is bounded by lanes or barriers 98 Drive by wire edit Main article Drive by wire Drive by wire is the use of electrical or electro mechanical systems for performing vehicle functions traditionally achieved by mechanical linkages Driver monitoring edit Main article Driver monitoring system Driver monitoring is used to assess the driver s attention and alertness Techniques in use include eye monitoring and requiring the driver to maintain torque on the steering wheel 99 Understand the driver s status and identify dangerous driving behaviors by using the driver monitoring system DMS Sounds an alert when the risk of an accident increases and allows the vehicle to take a calming approach to keep the driver safe 100 Vehicle communication edit Main article Vehicular communication systems Vehicles can potentially benefit from communicating with others to share information about traffic road obstacles to receive map and software updates etc 101 102 87 ISO TC 22 specifies in vehicle transport information and control systems 103 while ISO TC 204 specifies information communication and control systems in surface transport 104 International standards have been developed for ADAS functions connectivity human interaction in vehicle systems management engineering dynamic map and positioning privacy and security 105 Software update edit See also Over the air programming Software controls the vehicle and can provide entertainment and other services Some vehicles can acquire updates to that software over the internet In March 2021 UNECE regulation on software update and software update management systems was published 106 Safety model edit Mobileye s mathematical model Responsibility Sensitive Safety RSS 107 is undergoing standardization as IEEE P2846 A Formal Model for Safety Considerations in Automated Vehicle Decision Making 108 In 2022 a research group of National Institute of Informatics NII Japan expanded RSS and developed Goal Aware RSS to make RSS rules possible to deal with complex scenarios via program logic 109 Turquoise light edit Turquoise light is authorized so that Mercedes vehicle inform viewer that vehicle is driving in autonomous mode in California and Nevada 110 111 112 In 2023 this Turquoise light has not been standardized by the US China or the UN ECE 111 Challenges edit nbsp Autonomous delivery vehicles stuck in one place by attempting to avoid one anotherObstacles edit The primary obstacle to ACs is the advanced software and mapping required to make them work safely across the wide variety of conditions that drivers experience 113 In addition to handling day night driving in good and bad weather 114 on roads of arbitrary quality ACs must cope with other vehicles road obstacles poor missing traffic controls flawed maps and handle endless edge cases such as following the instructions of a police officer managing traffic at a crash site Other obstacles include cost liability 115 116 consumer reluctance 117 potential ethical dilemmas 118 119 security 120 121 122 123 privacy 114 and legal regulatory framework 124 Further AVs could automate the work of professional drivers eliminating many jobs which could slow acceptance 125 Concerns edit Deceptive marketing edit Tesla calls its Level 2 ADAS Full Self Driving FSD Beta 126 US Senators Richard Blumenthal and Edward Markey called on the Federal Trade Commission FTC to investigate this marketing in 2021 127 In December 2021 in Japan Mercedes Benz was punished by the Consumer Affairs Agency for misleading product descriptions 128 Mercedes Benz was criticized for a misleading US commercial advertising E Class models 129 At that time Mercedes Benz rejected the claims and stopped its self driving car ad campaign that had been running 130 131 In August 2022 the California Department of Motor Vehicles DMV accused Tesla of deceptive marketing practices 132 With the Automated Vehicles Bill AVB self driving car makers could face prison for misleading adverts in the United Kingdom 133 Security edit In the 2020s concerns over ACs vulnerability to cyberattacks and data theft emerged 134 In 2018 and 2019 former Apple engineers were charged with stealing information related to Apple s self driving car project 135 136 137 In 2021 the United States Department of Justice DOJ accused Chinese security officials of coordinating a hacking campaign to steal information from government entities including research related to autonomous vehicles 138 139 China has prepared the Provisions on Management of Automotive Data Security Trial to protect its own data 140 141 Cellular Vehicle to Everything technologies are based on 5G wireless networks 142 As of November 2022 update the US Congress was considering the possibility that imported Chinese AC technology could facilitate espionage 143 Testing of Chinese automated cars in the US has raised concern over which US data are collected by Chinese vehicles to be stored in Chinese country and concern with any link with the Chinese communist party 144 Real time prediction edit While predicting the behavior of ACs that do not use traditional communications such as hand signals is a major challenge for human drivers 145 the real time prediction of the behavior of other vehicles pedestrians etc some of which may be stationary when first noted is even greater challenge for self driving cars 10 Modelling human and vehicle behaviours using machine learning particularity deep neural networks has enabled better understanding of human driver interaction 146 Raster based methods have been replaced by vector based methods in order to overcome the former s lossy rendering limited receptive field and prohibitively high cost The remaining problem is high level of uncertainty that emerges in trajectory predictions as the prediction timeframe is extended Also if data re normalization and re encoding are used to update future trajectories each time a self driving car changes its position its action is often delayed by 8 milliseconds potentially causing an accident Several powerful trajectory prediction models have recently adopted Transformers with factorized attention as their encoders but their scalability is still limited by the computational complexity of factorized attention Most recently proposed QCNet model uses a query centric instead of agent centric modeling taking advantage of both anchor based and anchor free solutions with an anchor free module generating adaptive anchors in a data driven manner and an anchor based module refining these anchors based on the scene context The model injects the relative spatialtemporal positions into the key and value both Transformer elements when performing attention based scene context fusion 147 Handover edit For ACs that have not achieved L5 the ADAS has to be able to safely accept control from and return it to the driver 148 Risk compensation edit The second challenge is known as risk compensation as a system is perceived to be safer on average people engage in riskier behavior People who wear seat belts drive faster ACs suffer from this problem for example Tesla Autopilot users in some cases stop monitoring the vehicle while it is in control Trust edit In order for people to buy self driving cars and vote for the government to allow them on roads the technology must be trusted as safe 149 150 Automatic elevators were invented in 1900 but did not become common until operator strikes and trust was built with advertising and features such as an emergency stop button 151 152 Ethical issues edit See also Machine ethics Rationale for liability edit Standards for liability have yet to be adopted to address crashes and other incidents Does liability rest with the manufacturer or the driver passenger and does it vary with e g automation level or merely the specific circumstances 153 Trolley Problem edit The trolley problem is a thought experiment in ethics Adapted for ACs consider an AC carrying a passenger when suddenly a pedestrian steps in its way and the car has to choose between killing the pedestrian or swerving into a wall killing the passenger 154 Ethical researchers have suggested deontology formal rules and utilitarianism harm reduction as applicable 10 155 156 Public opinion has been reported to support harm reduction except that they want the vehicle to prefer them when they are riding in it However utilitarian regulations are unpopular 157 Privacy edit Privacy related issues arise mainly from the fact that ACs are connected to the internet Any connected device offers the potential to be penetrated This information includes destinations routes cabin recordings media preferences behavioral patterns and others 158 159 160 Road infrastructure edit Whether existing road infrastructure can support higher levels of automation has not been finalized The answer may vary across jurisdictions 161 In March 2023 the Japanese government unveiled a plan to set up a dedicated highway lane for ACs 162 In April 2023 JR East announced their challenge to raise their self driving level of Kesennuma Line bus rapid transit BRT in rural area from the current Level 2 to Level 4 at 60 km h 163 Testing editApproaches edit The testing of vehicles with varying degrees of automation can be carried out either physically in a closed environment 164 or where permitted on public roads typically requiring a license or permit 165 or adhering to a specific set of operating principles 166 or in a virtual environment i e using computer simulations 167 168 When driven on public roads automated vehicles require a person to monitor their proper operation and take over when needed For example New York has strict requirements for the test driver such that the vehicle can be corrected at all times by a licensed operator highlighted by Cardian Cube Company s application and discussions with New York State officials and the NYS DMV 169 Disengagements in the 2010s edit nbsp A prototype of Waymo s self driving car navigating public streets in Mountain View California in 2017In California self driving car manufacturers are required to submit annual reports to share how often their vehicles disengaged from autonomous mode during tests 170 It has been believed that we would learn how reliable the vehicles are becoming based on how often they needed disengagements 171 In 2017 Waymo reported 63 disengagements over 352 545 mi 567 366 km of testing an average distance of 5 596 mi 9 006 km between disengagements the highest among companies reporting such figures Waymo also traveled a greater total distance than any of the other companies Their 2017 rate of 0 18 disengagements per 1 000 mi 1 600 km was an improvement over the 0 2 disengagements per 1 000 mi 1 600 km in 2016 and 0 8 in 2015 In March 2017 Uber reported an average of just 0 67 mi 1 08 km per disengagement In the final three months of 2017 Cruise now owned by GM averaged 5 224 mi 8 407 km per disengagement over a total distance of 62 689 mi 100 888 km 172 In July 2018 the first electric driverless racing car Robocar completed a 1 8 kilometer track using its navigation system and artificial intelligence 173 Distance between disengagement and total distance traveled autonomously in the 2010s Car maker California 2016 172 California 2018 174 California 2019 175 Distance betweendisengagements Total distance traveled Distance betweendisengagements Total distance traveled Distance betweendisengagements Total distance traveledWaymo 5 128 mi 8 253 km 635 868 mi 1 023 330 km 11 154 mi 17 951 km 1 271 587 mi 2 046 421 km 11 017 mi 17 730 km 1 450 000 mi 2 330 000 km BMW 638 mi 1 027 km 638 mi 1 027 km Nissan 263 mi 423 km 6 056 mi 9 746 km 210 mi 340 km 5 473 mi 8 808 km Ford 197 mi 317 km 590 mi 950 km General Motors 55 mi 89 km 8 156 mi 13 126 km 5 205 mi 8 377 km 447 621 mi 720 376 km 12 221 mi 19 668 km 831 040 mi 1 337 430 km Aptiv 15 mi 24 km 2 658 mi 4 278 km Tesla 3 mi 4 8 km 550 mi 890 km Mercedes Benz 2 mi 3 2 km 673 mi 1 083 km 1 5 mi 2 4 km 1 749 mi 2 815 km Bosch 7 mi 11 km 983 mi 1 582 km Zoox 1 923 mi 3 095 km 30 764 mi 49 510 km 1 595 mi 2 567 km 67 015 mi 107 850 km Nuro 1 028 mi 1 654 km 24 680 mi 39 720 km 2 022 mi 3 254 km 68 762 mi 110 662 km Pony ai 1 022 mi 1 645 km 16 356 mi 26 322 km 6 476 mi 10 422 km 174 845 mi 281 386 km Baidu Apolong 206 mi 332 km 18 093 mi 29 118 km 18 050 mi 29 050 km 108 300 mi 174 300 km Aurora 100 mi 160 km 32 858 mi 52 880 km 280 mi 450 km 39 729 mi 63 938 km Apple 1 1 mi 1 8 km 79 745 mi 128 337 km 118 mi 190 km 7 544 mi 12 141 km Uber 0 4 mi 0 64 km 26 899 mi 43 290 km 0 mi 0 km In the 2020s edit Disengagements As of 2022 update disengagements are at the center of the controversy The problem is that reporting companies have varying definitions of what qualifies as a disengagement and that definition can change over time 176 171 Executives of self driving car companies have criticized disengagements as a deceptive metric because it does not take into account the higher degree of difficulty navigating urban streets compared with interstates highway 177 Compliance In April 2021 WP 29 GRVA issued the master document on Test Method for Automated Driving NATM 178 In October 2021 the Europe s comprehensive pilot test of automated driving on public roads L3Pilot demonstrated automated systems for cars in Hamburg Germany in conjunction with ITS World Congress 2021 SAE Level 3 and 4 functions were tested on ordinary roads 179 180 At the end of February 2022 the final results of the L3Pilot project were published 181 In November 2022 an International Standard ISO 34502 on Scenario based safety evaluation framework was published 182 183 Collision avoidance In April 2022 collision avoidance testing was demonstrated by Nissan 184 185 Also Waymo published a document about collision avoidance testing in December 2022 186 Simulation and validation In September 2022 Biprogy released a software system of Driving Intelligence Validation Platform DIVP as the achievement of Japanese national project SIP adus led by Cabinet Office with the same name of its subproject which is interoperable with Open Simulation Interface OSI of ASAM 187 188 189 Topics In November 2021 the California Department of Motor Vehicles DMV notified Pony ai that it was suspending its driverless testing permit following a reported collision in Fremont on 28 October This incident stands out because the vehicle was in autonomous mode and didn t involve any other vehicle 190 In May 2022 DMV revoked Pony ai s permit for failing to monitor the driving records of the safety drivers on its testing permit 191 In April 2022 it is reported that Cruise s testing vehicle blocked fire engine on emergency call and sparked questions about an autonomous vehicle s ability to handle unexpected roadway issues 192 193 In November 2022 Toyota gave a demonstration of one of its GR Yaris test car equipped with AI which had been trained on the skills and knowledge of professional rally drivers to enhance the safety of self driving cars 194 Toyota has been using the learnings from the collaborative activities with Microsoft in FIA World Rally Championship since 2017 season 195 Pedestrian reaction In 2023 David R Large senior research fellow with the Human Factors Research Group at the University of Nottingham disguised himself as a car seat in a study to test people s reactions to driverless cars He said We wanted to explore how pedestrians would interact with a driverless car and developed this unique methodology to explore their reactions The study found that in the absence of someone in the driving seat pedestrians trust certain visual prompts more than others when deciding whether to cross the road 196 Incidents editTesla Autopilot edit See also Tesla Autopilot Notable crashes As of November 2021 update Tesla s advanced driver assistance system ADAS Autopilot is classified as a Level 2 197 On 20 January 2016 the first of five known fatal crashes of a Tesla with Autopilot occurred in China s Hubei province 198 According to China s 163 com news channel this marked China s first accidental death due to Tesla s automatic driving system Initially Tesla pointed out that the vehicle was so badly damaged from the impact that their recorder was not able to conclusively prove that the car had been on autopilot at the time however 163 com pointed out that other factors such as the car s absolute failure to take any evasive actions prior to the high speed crash and the driver s otherwise good driving record seemed to indicate a strong likelihood that the car was on autopilot at the time A similar fatal crash occurred four months later in Florida 199 200 In 2018 in a subsequent civil suit between the father of the driver killed and Tesla Tesla did not deny that the car had been on autopilot at the time of the accident and sent evidence to the victim s father documenting that fact 201 The second known fatal accident involving a vehicle being driven by itself took place in Williston Florida on 7 May 2016 while a Tesla Model S electric car was engaged in Autopilot mode The occupant was killed in a crash with an 18 wheel tractor trailer On 28 June 2016 the US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration NHTSA opened a formal investigation into the accident working with the Florida Highway Patrol According to NHTSA preliminary reports indicate the crash occurred when the tractor trailer made a left turn in front of the Tesla at an intersection on a non controlled access highway and the car failed to apply the brakes The car continued to travel after passing under the truck s trailer 202 203 NHTSA s preliminary evaluation was opened to examine the design and performance of any automated driving systems in use at the time of the crash which involved a population of an estimated 25 000 Model S cars 204 On 8 July 2016 NHTSA requested Tesla Motors provide the agency detailed information about the design operation and testing of its Autopilot technology The agency also requested details of all design changes and updates to Autopilot since its introduction and Tesla s planned updates schedule for the next four months 205 According to Tesla neither Autopilot nor the driver noticed the white side of the tractor trailer against a brightly lit sky so the brake was not applied The car attempted to drive full speed under the trailer with the bottom of the trailer impacting the windshield of the Model S Tesla also claimed that this was Tesla s first known autopilot death in over 130 million miles 210 million kilometers driven by its customers with Autopilot engaged however by this statement Tesla was apparently refusing to acknowledge claims that the January 2016 fatality in Hubei China had also been the result of an autopilot system error According to Tesla there is a fatality every 94 million miles 151 million kilometers among all type of vehicles in the US 202 203 206 However this number also includes fatalities of the crashes for instance of motorcycle drivers with pedestrians 207 208 In July 2016 the US National Transportation Safety Board NTSB opened a formal investigation into the fatal accident while the Autopilot was engaged The NTSB is an investigative body that has the power to make only policy recommendations An agency spokesman said It s worth taking a look and seeing what we can learn from that event so that as that automation is more widely introduced we can do it in the safest way possible 209 In January 2017 the NTSB released the report that concluded Tesla was not at fault the investigation revealed that for Tesla cars the crash rate dropped by 40 percent after Autopilot was installed 210 In 2021 NTSB Chair called on Tesla to change the design of its Autopilot to ensure it cannot be misused by drivers according to a letter sent to the company s CEO 197 Waymo edit See also Waymo Crashes nbsp Google s in house automated carWaymo originated as a self driving car project within Google In August 2012 Google announced that their vehicles had completed over 300 000 automated driving miles 500 000 km accident free typically involving about a dozen cars on the road at any given time and that they were starting to test with single drivers instead of in pairs 211 In late May 2014 Google revealed a new prototype that had no steering wheel gas pedal or brake pedal and was fully automated 212 As of March 2016 update Google had test driven their fleet in automated mode a total of 1 500 000 mi 2 400 000 km 213 In December 2016 Google Corporation announced that its technology would be spun off to a new company called Waymo with both Google and Waymo becoming subsidiaries of a new parent company called Alphabet 214 215 According to Google s accident reports as of early 2016 their test cars had been involved in 14 collisions of which other drivers were at fault 13 times although in 2016 the car s software caused a crash 216 In June 2015 Brin confirmed that 12 vehicles had suffered collisions as of that date Eight involved rear end collisions at a stop sign or traffic light two in which the vehicle was side swiped by another driver one in which another driver rolled through a stop sign and one where a Google employee was controlling the car manually 217 In July 2015 three Google employees suffered minor injuries when their vehicle was rear ended by a car whose driver failed to brake at a traffic light This was the first time that a collision resulted in injuries 218 On 14 February 2016 a Google vehicle attempted to avoid sandbags blocking its path During the maneuver it struck a bus Google stated In this case we clearly bear some responsibility because if our car hadn t moved there wouldn t have been a collision 219 220 Google characterized the crash as a misunderstanding and a learning experience No injuries were reported in the crash 216 Uber s Advanced Technologies Group ATG edit In March 2018 Elaine Herzberg died after being hit by a self driving car being tested by Uber s Advanced Technologies Group ATG in the US state of Arizona There was a safety driver in the car Herzberg was crossing the road about 400 feet from an intersection 221 This marks the first time an individual is known to have been killed by an autonomous vehicle and the incident raised questions about regulation of the self driving car industry 222 Some experts said a human driver could have avoided the fatal crash 223 Arizona governor Doug Ducey suspended the company s ability to test and operate its automated cars on public roadways citing an unquestionable failure of the expectation that Uber make public safety its top priority 224 Uber then stopped self driving tests in California until it was issued a new permit in 2020 225 226 In May 2018 the US National Transportation Safety Board NTSB issued a preliminary report 227 The final report 18 months later determined that the immediate cause of the accident was the safety driver s failure to monitor the road because she was distracted by her phone However Uber ATG s inadequate safety culture contributed to the crash The report noted from the post mortem that the victim had a very high level of methamphetamine in her body 228 The board also called on federal regulators to carry out a review before allowing automated test vehicles to operate on public roads 229 230 In September 2020 the backup driver Rafaela Vasquez was charged with negligent homicide because she did not look at the road for several seconds while her phone was streaming The Voice broadcast by Hulu She pleaded not guilty and was released to await trial Uber does not face any criminal charge because in the USA there is no basis for criminal liability for the corporation The safety driver is assumed to be responsible for the accident because she was in the driving seat in a capacity to avoid an accident like in a Level 3 The trial was originally planned for February 2021 231 but is now scheduled to begin in June 2023 232 Navya Arma driving system edit On 9 November 2017 a Navya Arma automated self driving bus with passengers was involved in a crash with a truck The truck was found to be at fault of the crash reversing into the stationary automated bus The automated bus did not take evasive actions or apply defensive driving techniques such as flashing its headlights or sounding the horn As one passenger commented The shuttle didn t have the ability to move back The shuttle just stayed still 233 NIO Navigate on Pilot edit On 12 August 2021 a 31 year old Chinese man was killed after his NIO ES8 collided with a construction vehicle citation needed NIO s self driving feature is still in beta and cannot yet deal with static obstacles 234 Though the vehicle s manual clearly states that the driver must take over when nearing construction sites the issue is whether the feature was improperly marketed and unsafe Lawyers of the deceased s family have also called into question NIO s private access to the vehicle which they argue may lead to the data ending up forged 235 Toyota e Palette operation edit On 26 August 2021 a Toyota e Palette a mobility vehicle used to support mobility within the Athletes Village at the Olympic and Paralympic Games Tokyo 2020 collided with a visually impaired pedestrian about to cross a pedestrian crossing 236 The Toyota bus service was suspended after the accident and resumed on 31 August 2021 with improved safety measures 237 Public opinion surveys editIn the 2010s edit In a 2011 online survey of 2 006 US and UK consumers by Accenture 49 said they would be comfortable using a driverless car 238 A 2012 survey of 17 400 vehicle owners by J D Power and Associates found 37 initially said they would be interested in purchasing a fully autonomous car However that figure dropped to 20 if told the technology would cost US 3 000 more 239 In a 2012 survey of about 1 000 German drivers by automotive researcher Puls 22 of the respondents had a positive attitude towards these cars 10 were undecided 44 were skeptical and 24 were hostile 240 A 2013 survey of 1 500 consumers across 10 countries by Cisco Systems found 57 stated they would be likely to ride in a car controlled entirely by technology that does not require a human driver with Brazil India and China the most willing to trust automated technology 241 In a 2014 US telephone survey by Insurance com over three quarters of licensed drivers said they would at least consider buying a self driving car rising to 86 if car insurance were cheaper 31 7 said they would not continue to drive once an automated car was available instead 242 In a February 2015 survey of top auto journalists 46 predicted that either Tesla or Daimler would be the first to the market with a fully autonomous vehicle while at 38 Daimler was predicted to be the most functional safe and in demand autonomous vehicle 243 In 2015 a questionnaire survey by Delft University of Technology explored the opinion of 5 000 people from 109 countries on automated driving Results showed that respondents on average found manual driving the most enjoyable mode of driving 22 of the respondents did not want to spend any money for a fully automated driving system Respondents were found to be most concerned about software hacking misuse and were also concerned about legal issues and safety Finally respondents from more developed countries in terms of lower accident statistics higher education and higher income were less comfortable with their vehicle transmitting data 244 The survey also gave results on potential consumer opinion on interest of purchasing an automated car stating that 37 of surveyed current owners were either definitely or probably interested in purchasing an automated car 244 In 2016 a survey in Germany examined the opinion of 1 603 people who were representative in terms of age gender and education for the German population towards partially highly and fully automated cars Results showed that men and women differ in their willingness to use them Men felt less anxiety and more joy towards automated cars whereas women showed the exact opposite The gender difference towards anxiety was especially pronounced between young men and women but decreased with participants age 245 In 2016 a PwC survey in the United States showing the opinion of 1 584 people highlights that 66 percent of respondents said they think autonomous cars are probably smarter than the average human driver People are still worried about safety and mostly the fact of having the car hacked Nevertheless only 13 of the interviewees see no advantages in this new kind of cars 246 In 2017 Pew Research Center surveyed 4 135 US adults from 1 15 May and found that many Americans anticipate significant impacts from various automation technologies in the course of their lifetimes from the widespread adoption of automated vehicles to the replacement of entire job categories with robot workers 247 In 2019 results from two opinion surveys of 54 and 187 US adults respectively were published A new standardized questionnaire the autonomous vehicle acceptance model AVAM was developed including additional description to help respondents better understand the implications of different automation levels Results showed that users were less accepting of high autonomy levels and displayed significantly lower intention to use highly autonomous vehicles Additionally partial autonomy regardless of level was perceived as requiring uniformly higher driver engagement usage of hands feet and eyes than full autonomy 248 In the 2020s edit In 2022 research by safety charity Lloyd s Register Foundation uncovered that only a quarter 27 of the world s population would feel safe in self driving cars 249 Regulation editMain article Regulation of self driving cars See also Regulation of algorithms Regulation of self driving cars is an increasingly important issue which includes multiple subtopics Among them are self driving car liability regulations regarding approval and international conventions In the 2010s researchers openly worried about the potential of future regulation to delay deployment of automated cars on the road 250 In 2020 international regulation in the form of UNECE WP 29 GRVA was established regulating Level 3 automated driving As of 2022 update it is considered very challenging to be approved as Level 3 Commercialization editSee also History of self driving cars The 2020s Between manually driven vehicles SAE Level 0 and fully autonomous vehicles SAE Level 5 there are a variety of vehicle types that have some degree of automation These are collectively known as semi automated vehicles As it could be a while before the technology and infrastructure are developed for full automation it is likely that vehicles will have increasing levels of automation These semi automated vehicles could potentially harness many of the advantages of fully automated vehicles while still keeping the driver in charge of the vehicle 251 As of 2023 update nearly all commercially available vehicles with autonomous features are considered SAE Level 2 Development is ongoing at many car companies on further automation features that function at Level 2 and Level 3 Other companies offer services of autonomous Level 4 robotaxis in a few cities in the United States 252 Achieving full self driving remains a true challenge 253 Level 2 commercialization edit See also Lane centering Sample of level 2 automated cars and List of self driving system suppliers Date of first public road driverless operation SAE Level 2 features are available as part of the advanced driver assistance system ADAS abilities in many commercially available vehicles These systems often require a subscription to an ongoing service or paid upgrade with the car purchase Ford started offering the BlueCruise service on certain electric and gas powered vehicles in 2022 it is named ActiveGlide in Lincoln vehicles The system provides features such as lane centering street sign recognition and hands free highway driving on more than 130 000 miles of divided highways in the US The version 1 2 update of the service was released in September 2022 and added features like hands free lane changing in lane repositioning and predictive speed assist 254 255 In April 2023 BlueCruise technology was approved in the UK for use on certain motorways The technology will at first only be available for 2023 models of Ford s electric Mustang Mach E SUV 256 Tesla vehicles are equipped with hardware that Tesla claims will allow full self driving in the future The Tesla Autopilot suite of ADAS features are included in all Tesla vehicle models More advanced driving features are available at an extra cost under the Enhanced Autopilot and Full Self Driving names The marketing names have been criticized as misleading as all Tesla ADAS features provide only Level 2 capabilities 257 Level 2 development edit General Motors is developing the Ultra Cruise ADAS system that will be a dramatic improvement over their current Super Cruise system Ultra Cruise will cover 95 percent of driving scenarios on 2 million miles of roads in the US according to the company The system hardware in and around the car includes multiple cameras short and long range radar and a LiDAR sensor and will be powered by the Qualcomm Snapdragon Ride Platform The luxury Cadillac Celestiq electric vehicle will be one of the first vehicles to feature Ultra Cruise 258 Level 3 commercialization edit Level 3 development edit As of 2023 three car manufacturers have registered Level 3 conditionally automated cars Honda in Japan Mercedes in Germany Nevada and California 259 and BMW in Germany 260 Mass production is still not available Honda announced in December 2022 that it will enhance its Level 3 technology to function at any speed below legal limits on highways by 2029 261 262 Only 80 vehicles with Level 3 Honda Sending elite have been sold in Japan 263 Mass production start date for vehicles with the Level 3 driving system is not known as of 2022 264 Mercedes Benz received in early 2023 authorization for its Level 3 Drive Pilot in Nevada 265 and plans to apply for approval in California by mid 2023 266 Drive Pilot is planned to be available in the US market as an option for some models in the second half of 2023 California also registered Drive Pilot conditionally automated driving technology in 2023 267 Drive Pilot subscription service is introduces at a rate of 2500 per year in California and Nevada 268 BMW had been trying to make 7 Series as an automated car in 2017 in public urban motorways of the United States Germany and Israel before commercializing them in 2021 269 Although it was not realized BMW is still preparing 7 Series to become the next manufacturer to reach Level 3 in the second half of 2022 270 271 In 2023 BMW states that its level 3 technology will be available in Germany in the spring 2024 It will be the second manufacturer to deliver both level 2 and level 3 technology but the only one with a level 3 technology which works in the dark 272 In 2023 in China three companies IM Motors Mercedes and BMW have obtained authorization to test vehicles to be produced with level 3 conditional automated driving systems on Chinese motorways 273 274 Other manufacturers have not yet registered Level 3 conditionally automated cars while some of them have plans to do so In September 2021 Stellantis has presented its findings from a pilot programme testing Level 3 autonomous vehicles on public Italian highways Stellantis s Highway Chauffeur claims Level 3 capabilities which was tested on the Maserati Ghibli and Fiat 500X prototypes 275 Stellantis is going to roll out Level 3 capability within its cars in 2024 276 Polestar a Volvo Cars brand indicated in January 2022 its plan to offer Level 3 autonomous driving system in the Polestar 3 SUV Volvo XC90 successor with technologies from Luminar Technologies Nvidia and Zenseact 277 Polestar plan to make Level 3 Chauffeur available in Polestar 4 and Polestar 4 sold in China in 2023 and in 2024 in the rest of the world 278 In January 2022 Bosch and the Volkswagen Group subsidiary CARIAD released a collaboration for autonomous driving up to level 3 This Joint development targets to be explored and evalauted for Level 4 279 Hyundai Motor Company is As of February 2022 update in the stage of enhancing cybersecurity of connected cars to put Level 3 self driving Genesis G90 on Korean roads 280 In 2023 Kia and Hyundai Korean car makers delayed their Level 3 plans and will not deliver Level 3 vehicles in 2023 281 Level 4 commercialization edit Cruise and Waymo offer limited robotaxi services in a handful of American cities as fully autonomous vehicles without any human safety drivers in the vehicles 282 On 1 April 2023 in Japan Level 4 legal scheme of the amended Road Traffic Act was nation wide enforced and one service level upped to the Level 4 service 283 The approved self driving shuttle is ZEN drive Pilot Level 4 custom made by AIST 284 Level 4 development edit In July 2020 Toyota started testing with public demonstration rides on Lexus LS fifth generation based TRI P4 with Level 4 capability 285 In August 2021 Toyota operated potentially Level 4 service using e Palette around the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Village 286 In September 2020 Mercedes Benz introduced world s first commercial Level 4 Automated Valet Parking AVP system named Intelligent Park Pilot for its new S Class The system can be pre installed but is conditional on future national legal approval 287 288 In September 2021 Honda started testing programme toward launch of Level 4 mobility service business in Japan under collaboration with Cruise and General Motors using Cruise AV 289 In October 2021 at World Congress on Intelligent Transport Systems Honda presented that they are already testing Level 4 technology on modified Legend Hybrid EX 290 At the end of the month Honda explained that they are conducting verification project on Level 4 technology on a test course in Tochigi prefecture Honda plans to test on public roads in early 2022 291 In February 2022 General Motors and Cruise have petitioned NHTSA for permission to build and deploy a self driving vehicle the Cruise Origin which is without human controls like steering wheels or brake pedals The car was developed with GM and Cruise investor Honda and its production is expected to begin in late 2022 in Detroit at GM s Factory Zero 292 293 As of April 2022 update the petition is pending 294 In April 2022 Honda unveiled its Level 4 mobility service partners to roll out in central Tokyo in the mid 2020s using the Cruise Origin 295 By September 2022 Japan version prototype of Cruise Origin for Tokyo was completed and started testing 296 In January 2023 Holon the new brand from the Benteler Group unvield its self driving shuttle autonomous during the Consumer Electronics Show CES 2023 in Las Vegas The company claims the vehicle is the world s first Level 4 shuttle built to automotive standard Production of the Holon mover is scheduled to start in the US at the end of 2025 297 Robotaxi edit This section is an excerpt from Robotaxi edit A robotaxi also known as robo taxi self driving taxi or driverless taxi is an autonomous car SAE automation level 4 or 5 operated for a ridesharing company See also editSelf driving vehicles edit History of self driving cars Self driving car liability Self driving truck Dutch Automated Vehicle Initiative Driverless tractor List of self driving system suppliers Mobility as a service Platoon automobile Unmanned ground vehicle Unmanned aerial vehicle Connected vehicles edit Connected car Intelligent transportation system Remote control vehicle Other vehicle technologies edit Automotive navigation system Advanced driver assistance system Computer vision Death by GPS Hybrid navigation Machine vision Personal rapid transit Retrofitting Smart camera Technological unemployment Vehicle infrastructure integration Vehicle safety technology Vision processing unit Lane centering Measurement of Assured Clear Distance Ahead Electronic stability 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9781450362726 S2CID 67773581 Majority of world s population feel self driving cars are unsafe Lloyd s Register Foundation 25 November 2022 Retrieved 4 December 2022 Brodsky Jessica 2016 Autonomous Vehicle Regulation How an Uncertain Legal Landscape May Hit the Brakes on Self Driving Cars Berkeley Technology Law Journal 31 Annual Review 2016 851 878 Retrieved 29 November 2017 Hancock P A Nourbakhsh Illah Stewart Jack 16 April 2019 On the future of transportation in an era of automated and autonomous vehicles Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 116 16 7684 7691 Bibcode 2019PNAS 116 7684H doi 10 1073 pnas 1805770115 ISSN 0027 8424 PMC 6475395 PMID 30642956 Self Driving Cars Everything You Need To Know Kelley Blue Book 3 March 2023 Retrieved 9 April 2023 Why self driving cars have stalled It s Complicated Josh Toussaint Strauss Ali Assaf Koseph Pierce Nick Hildred Ryan Baxter The Guardian News and Media Ltd 2021 https www youtube com watch v 4sCK 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Retrieved 25 April 2022 Jay Ramey 11 January 2022 Polestar 3 with Level 3 Autonomous Tech on the Way Autoweek Retrieved 31 May 2022 Polestar 4 Drivers Will Be Able To Read A Book On The Highway Thanks To New Partially Autonomous Tech Sebastien Bell August 26 2023 https www carscoops com 2023 08 polestar 4 drivers will be able to read a book on the highway thanks to new partially autonomous tech hannovermesse 26 January 2022 Bosch and CARIAD advance automated driving hannovermesse Retrieved 26 January 2022 Seo Jin woo Jung You jung Lee Ha yeon 16 February 2022 Korean firms enhance car cybersecurity before Level 3 autonomous car releases Pulse by Maeil Business Newspaper Retrieved 22 April 2022 Hyundai Motor Puts Level 3 Autonomous Driving Technology on Back Burner Editor Michael Herh 2023 12 01 https www businesskorea co kr news articleView html idxno 206898 No driver No problem Robotaxis eye San Francisco expansion AP NEWS 5 April 2023 Retrieved 9 April 2023 Level 4 Autonomous Driving Allowed in Japan Yomiuri Shimbun 1 April 2023 Retrieved 3 April 2023 国内初 自動運転車に対するレベル4の認可を取得しました Domestically the first Approved as Level 4 self driving car METI Japan 31 March 2023 Retrieved 3 April 2023 Toyota to Offer Rides in SAE Level 4 Automated Vehicles on Public Roads in Japan Next Summer Press release Toyota 24 October 2019 Retrieved 17 March 2022 River Davis 2 August 2021 Hyperdrive Daily The Driverless Shuttle Helping Toyota Win Gold Bloomberg News Retrieved 7 November 2021 Automotive luxury experienced in a completely new way The main points of the new Mercedes Benz S Class at a glance Mercedes me media 2 September 2020 Retrieved 21 May 2022 Bosch Stuttgart Airport Set to Welcome Fully Automated and Driverless Parking IoT Automotive News Retrieved 21 May 2022 Honda to Start Testing Program in September Toward Launch of Autonomous Vehicle Mobility Service Business in Japan Press release Honda 8 September 2021 Retrieved 16 March 2022 Martin Bigg 12 October 2021 Honda Is Beating Tesla in Driverless Car Race CarBuzz Retrieved 10 November 2021 Honda testing Level 4 autonomous driving technology NHK World 30 October 2021 Retrieved 24 November 2021 David Shepardson 19 February 2021 GM seeks U S approval to deploy self driving vehicles Reuters Retrieved 18 April 2022 Jon Brodkin 22 February 2021 GM seeks US approval to deploy self driving car without a steering wheel Ars Technica Retrieved 18 April 2022 David Shepardson 26 April 2022 U S Senate Democrats urge Buttigieg to develop autonomous vehicle rules Reuters Retrieved 29 April 2022 Honda Signs Memorandum of Understanding with Teito Motor Transportation and kokusai motorcars as Part of Aim to Launch Autonomous Vehicle Mobility Service in Central Tokyo Press release Honda Retrieved 21 April 2022 自動運転車両 クルーズ オリジン の試作車が完成 米国でテストを開始 Prototype of self driving car Cruise Origin completed started testing in the United States Honda in Japanese 29 September 2022 Retrieved 25 November 2022 Anthony James 5 January 2022 New Benteler brand Holon presents world s first autonomous mover built to automotive standards ADAS amp Autonomous Vehicle International Retrieved 21 January 2023 Further reading edit nbsp Media related to Self driving cars at Wikimedia Commons O Toole Randal 18 January 2010 Gridlock Why We re Stuck in Traffic and What To Do About It Cato Institute ISBN 978 1 935308 24 9 Macdonald Iain David Graham 2011 A Simulated Autonomous Car PDF thesis The University of Edinburgh Retrieved 17 April 2013 Knight Will 22 October 2013 The Future of Self driving Cars MIT Technology Review Retrieved 22 July 2016 Taiebat Morteza Brown Austin Safford Hannah Qu Shen Xu Ming 2019 A Review on Energy Environmental and Sustainability Implications of Connected and Automated Vehicles Environmental Science amp Technology 52 20 11449 11465 arXiv 1901 10581 Bibcode 2019arXiv190110581T doi 10 1021 acs est 8b00127 PMID 30192527 S2CID 52174043 Glancy Dorothy 2016 A Look at the Legal Environment for Driverless Vehicles PDF Report National Cooperative Highway Research Program Legal Research Digest Vol 69 Washington DC Transportation Research Board ISBN 978 0 309 37501 6 Retrieved 22 July 2016 Newbold Richard 17 June 2015 The driving forces behind what would be the next revolution in the haulage sector The Loadstar Retrieved 22 July 2016 Bergen Mark 27 October 2015 Meet the Companies Building Self Driving Cars for Google and Tesla And Maybe Apple re code John A Volpe National Transportation Systems Center March 2016 Review of Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards FMVSS for Automated Vehicles Identifying potential barriers and challenges for the certification of automated vehicles using existing FMVSS PDF National Transportation Library US Department of Transportation Archived from the original PDF on 16 June 2017 Retrieved 6 April 2016 Slone Sean August 2016 State Laws on Autonomous Vehicles PDF Capitol Research Transportation Policy Council of State Governments Archived from the original PDF on 28 February 2021 Retrieved 28 September 2016 Henn Steve 31 July 2015 Remembering When Driverless Elevators Drew Skepticism Anderson James M et al 2016 Autonomous Vehicle Technology A Guide for Policymakers PDF RAND Corporation Gereon Meyer Sven Beiker Eds Road Vehicle Automation Springer International Publishing 2014 ISBN 978 3 319 05990 7 and following issues Road Vehicle Automation 2 2015 Road Vehicle Automation 3 2016 Road Vehicle Automation 4 2017 Road Vehicle Automation 5 2018 Road Vehicle Automation 6 2019 These books are based on presentations and discussions at the Automated Vehicles Symposium organized annually by TRB and AUVSI Kemp Roger 2018 Autonomous vehicles who will be liable for accidents 15 Digital Evidence and Electronic Signature Law Review 2018 33 47 Portal nbsp Cars Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Self driving car amp oldid 1197134014, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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