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Ali

January 01, 1970

This article is about the Islamic figure. For other uses, see Ali (disambiguation).

Ali ibn Abi Talib (Arabic: عَلِيُّ بْن أَبِي طَالِب, romanized: ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib; c. 600–661) was the cousin and son-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and was the fourth Rashidun caliph who ruled from 656 to 661, as well as the first Shia imam. Born to Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib and Fatima bint Asad, a young Ali was raised by his elder cousin Muhammad and was among the first to accept his teachings.

Ali
عَلِيّ
Calligraphic panel bearing Ali's name at the Hagia Sophia
4th caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate
ReignJune 656 – January 661
PredecessorUthman ibn Affan
SuccessorAbolished position
Hasan ibn Ali (as caliph)
1st Shia imam
TenureJune 632 – January 661
PredecessorEstablished position
SuccessorHasan ibn Ali
Bornc. 600 CE
Mecca, Hejaz, Arabia
Diedc. 28 January 661 CE
(c. 21 Ramadan 40 AH)
(aged c. 60)
Kufa, Rashidun Caliphate
Burial
Believed to be Imam Ali Shrine, Najaf, Iraq
31°59′46″N 44°18′51″E / 31.996111°N 44.314167°E / 31.996111; 44.314167
Spouse
Issue
TribeQuraysh (Banu Hashim)
FatherAbu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib
MotherFatima bint Asad
ReligionIslam

Ali played a pivotal role in the early years of Islam when Muslims were severely persecuted in Mecca. After immigration (hijra) to Medina in 622, Muhammad gave his daughter Fatima to Ali in marriage and swore a pact of brotherhood with him. Ali served as Muhammad's secretary and deputy in this period, and was the flag bearer of his army. Numerous sayings of Muhammad praise Ali, the most controversial of which was uttered in 632 at the Ghadir Khumm, "Whoever I am his mawla, this Ali is his mawla." The interpretation of the polysemous Arabic word mawla is disputed: For Shia Muslims, Muhammad thus invested Ali with his religious and political authority, while Sunni Muslims view this as a mere statement of friendship and rapport. When Muhammad died in the same year, a group of Muslims met in the absence of Ali and appointed Abu Bakr (r. 632–634) as their leader. Ali later relinquished his claims to leadership and resigned from public life during the reigns of Abu Bakr and his successor, Umar (r. 634–644). Even though his advice was occasionally sought, the conflicts between Ali and the first two caliphs are epitomized by his refusal to follow their practices. This refusal cost Ali the caliphate to the benefit of Uthman (r. 644–656), who was thus appointed to succeed Umar by the electoral council. Ali was also highly critical of Uthman, who was widely accused of nepotism and corruption. Yet Ali also repeatedly mediated between the caliph and the provincial dissidents angered by his policies.

Following Uthman's assassination in June 656, Ali was elected caliph in Medina. He immediately faced two separate rebellions, both ostensibly to avenge Uthman: The triumvirate of Talha, Zubayr, both companions of Muhammad, and his widow Aisha captured Basra in Iraq but were defeated by Ali in the Battle of the Camel in 656. Elsewhere, Mu'awiya, whom Ali had just removed from the governorship of Syria, fought against Ali the inconclusive Battle of Siffin in 657, which ended in a failed arbitration process that alienated some of Ali's supporters. These formed the Kharijites, who later terrorized the public and were crushed by Ali in the Battle of Nahrawan in 658. Ali was assassinated in 661 by the Kharijite dissident Ibn Muljam, which paved the way for Mu'awiya to seize power and found the dynastic Umayyad Caliphate.

Ali's place is said to be second only to Muhammad in Muslim culture. Ali is revered for his courage, honesty, unbending devotion to Islam, magnanimity, and equal treatment of all Muslims. For his admirers, he has thus become the archetype of uncorrupted Islam and pre-Islamic chivalry. Sunni Muslims regard him as the last of the rashidun (lit. 'rightly-guided') caliphs, while Shia Muslims venerate him as their first imam, that is, the rightful religious and political successor to Muhammad. The shrine of Ali in Najaf, Iraq, is a major destination for Shia pilgrimage. The legacy of Ali is collected and studied in numerous books, the most famous of which is Nahj al-balagha.

Birth and early life

See also: Birthplace of Ali ibn Abi Talib, Early Muslims, and Hadith of warning

Ali was born in Mecca to Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib and his wife Fatima bint Asad around 600 CE.[1] His date of birth is possibly 13 Rajab,[2][3] which is the occasion celebrated annually by Shia Muslims.[4] Ali may have been the only person born inside Ka'ba,[3][2][1] the holiest site of Islam, which is located in Mecca. However, this is disputed by Sunni sources, which state Hakim ibn Hizam was also born in the Ka'ba.[5] Furthermore, Sunni scholar Al-Nawawi regards the birth of Ali in the Ka'ba as weak.[6] Ali's father was a leading member of the Banu Hashim, a clan within the Meccan tribe of Quraysh.[2] Abu Talib also raised his nephew Muhammad after his parents died. Later when Abu Talib fell into poverty, Ali was taken in at the age of about five and raised by Muhammad and his wife Khadija.[3]

 
Ali in an illustrated copy of the Turkish epic Siyer-i nebi

Aged about eleven,[1] Ali was among the first to accept Muhammad's teachings and profess Islam. Ali did so either after Khadija or after Khadija and Muhammad's successor, Abu Bakr. While the precise order here is debated among Shia and Sunni scholars,[7] the earliest sources place Ali before Abu Bakr.[1] Muhammad's call to Islam in Mecca lasted from 610 to 622, during which Ali assiduously supported the small Muslim community, especially the poor.[3] Some three years after his first revelation,[8] Muhammad gathered his relatives for a feast, invited them to Islam, and asked for their assistance.[9] Aged about fourteen,[9][10] Ali was the only relative there who offered his support, after which Muhammad told his guests that Ali was his brother and his successor,[1][9] according to the Sunni historian al-Tabari (d. 923). The Shia interpretation of this episode is that Muhammad had already designated Ali as his successor.[9][11]

Companionship of Muhammad

See also: Laylat al-Mabit, Event of the mubahala, Military career of Ali, Hadith of the position, and Ghadir Khumm

When tipped off about an assassination plot in 622, Muhammad escaped to Yathrib, now known as Medina, but Ali stayed behind as his decoy.[3][12] That Ali risked his life for Muhammad is said to be the reason for the revelation of the Quranic passage, "But there is also a kind of man who gives his life away to please God."[13][14][2] This emigration marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar (AH). Ali too escaped Mecca after returning the goods entrusted to Muhammad there.[7] Later in Medina, Muhammad selected Ali as his brother when he paired Muslims for fraternity pacts.[15] Around 623–625, Muhammad gave his daughter Fatima to Ali in marriage,[16][17] aged about twenty-two at the time.[3] Muhammad had earlier turned down marriage proposals for Fatima by some of his companions, notably, Abu Bakr and Umar.[18][17][19]

Event of the mubahala

 
Muhammad and Ali, a folio from the fifteenth century Iranian epic Khavarannama

A Christian envoy from Najran, located in South Arabia, arrived in Medina circa 632 and negotiated a peace treaty with Muhammad.[20][21] The envoy also debated with Muhammad the nature of Jesus, human or divine.[22][23] Linked to this episode is verse 3:61 of the Quran,[24] which instructs Muhammad to challenge his opponents to mubahala (lit. 'mutual cursing'),[25] perhaps when their debate had reached a deadlock.[23] Even though the delegation ultimately withdrew from the challenge,[21] Muhammad appeared for the occasion of mubahala, accompanied by Ali, his wife Fatima, and their two sons, Hasan and Husayn.[26][15] The inclusion of these four by Muhammad in the mubahala ritual, as his witnesses and guarantors,[27][28] likely raised their religious rank within the community.[22][29] If the word 'ourselves' in the verse is a reference to Ali and Muhammad, as Shia authors argue, then the former naturally enjoys a similar religious authority in the Quran as the latter.[30][31]

 
The topmost Arabic text reads, "There is no brave youth except Ali and there is no sword except Zulfiqar"

Political career

In Medina, Ali acted as Muhammad's secretary and deputy.[32][7] He was also one of the scribes tasked with committing the Quran to writing.[3] In 628, Ali wrote down the terms of the Treaty of al-Hudaybiya, the peace treaty between Muslims and Meccan pagans. In 630, divine orders pushed Muhammad to replace Abu Bakr with Ali for a key Quranic announcement in Mecca,[33][34] according to the canonical Sunni source Sunan al-Nasa'i.[2] Ali also helped ensure that the Conquest of Mecca in 630 was bloodless and later destroyed the idols housed in Ka'ba.[3] In 631, Ali was sent to preach Islam in Yemen,[3] as a consequence of which the Hamdanids peacefully converted.[12][2] Ali also peacefully resolved a blood feud between Muslims and the Banu Jadhima.[2]

Military career

 
Zulfiqar with and without its shield, carved on Bab al-Nasr in Cairo, Egypt

Ali accompanied Muhammad in all of his military missions except the Expedition of Tabuk in 630, during which Ali was left behind in charge of Medina.[12] The hadith of the position is linked to this occasion, "Are you not content, Ali, to stand to me as Aaron stood to Moses, except that there will be no prophet after me?" This statement appears in the canonical Sunni sources Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim, among others.[35] For the Shia, this hadith signifies Ali's usurped right to succeed Muhammad.[36] In the absence of Muhammad, Ali commanded the expedition to Fadak in 628.[7][3]

 
Ali in the Battle of Khaybar

Ali was renowned for his bravery on the battlefield,[15][7] and for his magnanimity towards his defeated enemies.[37] He was the standard-bearer in the Battle of Badr (624) and the Battle of Khaybar (628).[32] He vigorously defended Muhammad in the Battle of Uhud (625) and the Battle of Hunayn (630),[15][3] and Muslims' victory in the Battle of Khaybar has been attributed to his courage,[7] where he is said to have torn off the iron gate of the enemy fort.[15] Ali also defeated the pagan champion Amr ibn Abd Wudd in the Battle of the Trench in 627.[2] According to al-Tabari,[2] Muhammad reported hearing a divine voice at Uhud, "[There is] no sword but Zulfiqar [Ali's sword], [there is] no chivalrous youth (fata) but Ali."[34][3] Ali and another companion, Zubayr, apparently oversaw the killing of the Banu Qurayza men for treachery in 626–627,[7] though the historicity of this account has been doubted.[38][39][40]

Ghadir Khumm

 
The Investiture of Ali at the Ghadir Khumm (MS Arab 161, fol. 162r, 1307–8 Ilkhanid manuscript illustration)

On his return trip from the Hajj pilgrimage in 632, Muhammad halted the large caravan of pilgrims at the Ghadir Khumm and addressed them after the congregational prayer.[41] After the prayer,[42] Muhammad delivered a sermon to a large number of Muslims in which he emphasized the importance of the Quran and his ahl al-bayt (lit. 'people of the house', his family).[43][44][45][46] Taking Ali by the hand, Muhammad then asked if he was not awla (lit. 'have more authority over' or 'closer to') the believers than themselves,[46][47] this is evidently a reference to verse 33:6 of the Quran.[48][49] When they affirmed,[46] Muhammad then declared, "He whose mawla I am, Ali is his mawla."[50][46] Musnad Ibn Hanbal, a canonical Sunni source, adds that Muhammad repeated this statement three or four more times and that Umar congratulated Ali after the sermon, "You have now become the mawla of every faithful man and woman."[51][45] Muhammad had earlier alerted Muslims about his impending death.[52][43][53] Shia sources describe the event in greater detail, linking the announcement to verses 5:3 and 5:67 of the Quran.[52]

The authenticity of the Ghadir Khumm is rarely contested,[46][54][55][43] as its "among the most extensively acknowledged and substantiated" reports in classical Islamic sources.[56] However, mawla is a polysemous Arabic word and its interpretation in the context of the Ghadir Khumm is split along sectarian lines. Shia sources interpret mawla as 'leader', 'master', and 'patron', [57] while Sunni sources interpret it as love or support for Ali.[3][58] Shias, therefore, view the Ghadir Khumm as the investiture of Ali with Muhammad's religious and political authority,[59][60][2] while Sunnis regard it as a statement about the rapport between the two men,[3][43][61] or that Ali should execute Muhammad's will.[3] Shias point to the extraordinary nature of the announcement,[58] give Quranic and textual evidence,[62][52][43] and argue to eliminate other meanings of mawla in the hadith except for authority,[63] while Sunnis minimize the importance of the Ghadir Khumm by casting it as a simple response to earlier complaints about Ali.[64] During his caliphate, Ali is known to have asked Muslims to come forward with their testimonies about the Ghadir Khumm,[65][66][67] presumably to counter challenges to his legitimacy.[68]

Life under Rashidun Caliphs

See also: Succession to Muhammad, Saqifa, Attack on Fatima's house, Fadak, Sermon of Fadak, Hadith of Muhammad's inheritance, Burial of Fatima, Sunni view of Ali § Political views, Election of Uthman, Siege of Uthman, and Assassination of Uthman

Succession to Muhammad

 
Ambigram depicting Muhammad (right) and Ali (left) written in a single word. The 180-degree inverted form shows both words.

Saqifa

Muhammad died in 632 when Ali was in his early thirties.[69] As he and other close relatives prepared for the burial,[70][71] a group of the Ansar (Medinan natives, lit. 'helpers') gathered at the Saqifa to discuss the future of Muslims or to retake control of their city, Medina. Abu Bakr and Umar were among the few representatives of the Muhajirun (Meccan converts, lit. 'migrants') at the Saqifa.[72] The case of Ali was unsuccessfully brought up at the Saqifa in his absence,[73][74] and, ultimately, those present there appointed Abu Bakr to leadership after a heated debate that is said to have become violent.[75] Clan rivalries at the Saqifa played a key role in favor of Abu Bakr,[70][76] and the outcome may have been different in a broad council (shura) with Ali as a candidate.[77][78] In particular, the Quraysh tradition of hereditary succession strongly favored Ali,[79][80][81] even though his youth weakened his case.[7][69] By contrast, the succession (caliphate) of Abu Bakr is often justified on the basis that he led some of the prayers in Muhammad's final days,[70][82] but the veracity and political significance of such reports have been questioned.[70][83][84]

Attack on Fatima's house

While the appointment of Abu Bakr was met with little resistance in Medina,[82] the Banu Hashim and some companions of Muhammad soon gathered in protest at Ali's house.[85][86] Among them were Zubayr and Muhammad's uncle Abbas.[86] These protestors held Ali to be the rightful successor to Muhammad,[17][87] probably in reference to the Ghadir Khumm.[43] Among others,[88] al-Tabari reports that Umar then led an armed mob to Ali's residence and threatened to set the house on fire if Ali and his supporters did not pledge their allegiance to Abu Bakr.[89][17][90][91] The scene soon grew violent,[88][92] but the mob retreated after Ali's wife, Fatima, pleaded with them.[89] Abu Bakr later placed a successful boycott on the Banu Hashim,[93] who eventually abandoned their support for Ali.[93][94] Most likely, Ali himself did not pledge his allegiance to Abu Bakr until Fatima died within six months of her father, Muhammad.[95] In Shia sources, the death (and miscarriage) of the young Fatima are attributed to an attack on her house to subdue Ali by the order of Abu Bakr.[96][17][87] Sunnis categorically reject these reports,[97] but there is evidence in their early sources that a mob entered Fatima's house by force and arrested Ali,[98][99][100] an incident that Abu Bakr regretted on his deathbed.[101][102] Likely a political move to weaken the Banu Hashim,[103][104][105][106] Abu Bakr had earlier confiscated from Fatima the rich lands of Fadak, which she considered her inheritance (or a gift) from her father.[107][108] The confiscation of Fadak is often justified in Sunni sources with a hadith about prophetic inheritance, the authenticity of which has been doubted partly because it contradicts Quranic injunctions.[107][109]

Caliphate of Abu Bakr (r. 632–634)

In the absence of popular support, Ali eventually accepted the temporal rule of Abu Bakr, probably for the sake of Muslim unity.[110][111][112] In particular, Ali turned down proposals to forcefully pursue the caliphate.[113][7] He nevertheless viewed himself as the most qualified candidate for leadership by virtue of his merits and his kinship with Muhammad.[114][115][116] Evidence suggests that Ali further considered himself as the designated successor of Muhammad.[117][66][118] Unlike Muhammad's lifetime,[119][120] Ali retired from public life during the caliphates of Abu Bakr and his successors, Umar and Uthman.[3][119][15] Ali did not participate in the Ridda wars and the early Muslim conquests,[15] though he remained an advisor to Abu Bakr and Umar on government and religious matters.,[3][15] However, their conflicts with Ali is also well-documented,[121][122][123] but largely ignored in Sunni sources.[124][125] These tensions were epitomized during the proceedings of the electoral council in 644 when Ali refused to be bound by the precedence of the first two caliphs.[120][119] In contrast, Shia sources view Ali's pledge to Abu Bakr as a (coerced) act of political expediency (taqiya).[126] The conflicts with Ali are probably magnified in Shia sources.[124]

Caliphate of Umar (r. 634–644)

Before his death in 634, Abu Bakr designated Umar as his successor.[127] Ali was not consulted about this appointment, which was initially resisted by some senior companions.[128] Ali himself did not press any claims this time and kept aloof from public affairs during the caliphate of Umar,[129] who nevertheless consulted Ali in certain matters.[3][130] For instance, Ali is credited with the idea of adopting the migration to Medina (hijra) as the beginning of the Islamic calendar.[12] Yet Ali's political advice was probably ignored.[7] For example, Umar devised a state register (diwan) to distribute excess state revenues according to Islamic precedence,[131] but Ali held that those revenues should be equally distributed among Muslims, following the practice of Muhammad and Abu Bakr.[132][7] Ali was also absent from the strategic meeting of notables near Damascus.[7] Ali did not participate in Umar's military expeditions,[133][1] although he does not seem to have publicly objected to them.[1] Umar likely opposed the combination of prophethood and caliphate in the Banu Hashim,[134][135] and he thus prevented Muhammad from dictating his will on his deathbed,[44][136][137] possibly fearing that he might expressly designate Ali as his successor.[138] Nevertheless, perhaps realizing the necessity of Ali's cooperation in his collaborative scheme of governance, Umar made some limited overtures to Ali and the Banu Hashim during his caliphate.[139] For instance, Umar returned Muhammad's estates in Medina to Ali, but kept Fadak and Khayber.[140] By some accounts, Umar also insisted on marrying Ali's daughter Umm Kulthum, to which Ali reluctantly agreed when the former enlisted public support for his demand.[141]

Election of Uthman (644)

 
The election of Uthman, a folio from Tarikhnama

Before his death in 644,[142] Umar tasked a small committee with choosing the next caliph among themselves.[143] Ali and Uthman were the strongest candidates in this committee,[144][145] whose members were all early companions of Muhammad from the Quraysh tribe.[143] Another member, Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf, was given the deciding vote either by the committee or by Umar.[146][147][148] After deliberations, Ibn Awf appointed his brother-in-law Uthman as the next caliph,[149][150] when the latter promised to follow the precedent of the first two caliphs.[149] By contrast, Ali rejected this condition,[149][148] or gave an evasive answer.[151] The Ansar were not represented in the committee,[152][147] which was evidently biased toward Uthman.[153][154][148] Both of these factors worked against Ali,[147][155][156] who could have not been simply excluded from the proceedings.[157]

Caliphate of Uthman (r. 644–656)

Uthman was widely accused of nepotism,[158] corruption,[159][160] and injustice.[161] Ali too criticized Uthman's conduct,[7][1][162] including his lavish gifts for his kinsmen.[163][164] Ali also protected outspoken companions, such as Abu Dharr and Ammar,[165][166] and overall acted as a restraining influence on Uthman.[165] Some supporters of Ali were part of the opposition movement,[167][168] joined in their efforts by Talha and Zubayr, both senior companions of Muhammad, and by his widow Aisha.[169][170][167] Among such supporters of Ali were Malik al-Ashtar and other religiously learned qurra (lit. 'Quran readers').[171][164] These supporters wanted to see Ali as the next caliph but there is no evidence that he coordinated with them.[172] Ali also rejected the requests to lead the rebels,[7][173] although he probably sympathized with their grievances.[174][173] He was therefore considered a natural focus for the opposition,[175] at least morally.[7]

Assassination of Uthman (656)

As their grievances mounted, provincial dissidents poured into Medina in 656.[15] The Egyptian opposition sought the advice of Ali, who urged them to negotiate with Uthman.[176][177] Ali similarly asked the Iraqi opposition to refrain from violence, which they heeded.[178] He also repeatedly mediated between Uthman and the dissidents,[15][179][180] to address their economical and political grievances.[181][15] In particular, Ali negotiated and guaranteed the agreement that ended the first siege.[182][15] He then convinced Uthman to publicly repent,[183] but the caliph soon retracted his statement, possibly pressed by his secretary Marwan ibn al-Hakam.[184] Egyptian rebels laid siege to Uthman's residence for a second time when they intercepted an official letter ordering their punishment. They demanded the caliph's abdication but he refused and maintained his innocence about the letter,[185] for which Marwan is often blamed in the early sources.[186][187] Ali also sided with Uthman,[185] but the caliph apparently accused him about the letter.[188] This is probably when Ali refused to further intercede for Uthman,[185][175] who was assassinated soon afterward by Egyptian rebels.[186][189][190] Ali played no role in the deadly attack,[7][191] and his son Hasan was injured while guarding Uthman's besieged residence at the request of Ali.[3][192][167] He also convinced the rebels to deliver water to Uthman's house during the siege.[185][165]

Caliphate

See also: Election of Ali to the caliphate, Administrative policies of Ali, Battle of the Camel, Battle of Siffin, Kharijites, Battle of Nahrawan, and Second Syria campaign of Ali

Election (656)

 
Ali receiving pledges of allegiance, from a manuscript of Maktel-i Ali resul, dated late sixteenth or early seventeenth century.

When Uthman was assassinated in 656 by Egyptian rebels,[186] the potential candidates for caliphate were Ali and Talha. The Umayyads had fled Medina, leaving the provincial rebels and the Ansar in control of the city. Among the Egyptians, Talha enjoyed some support, but the Iraqis and most of the Ansar supported Ali.[110] The majority of the Muhajirun,[15][173][193] and key tribal figures also favored Ali at this time.[194] The caliphate was offered by these groups to Ali, who, after some hesitation,[173][15][1] publicly took the oath of office.[195][196][197] Malik al-Ashtar might have been the first to pledge his allegiance to Ali.[197] Talha and Zubayr, who both aspired to the caliphate,[198][199] also gave their pledges to Ali, most likely willingly,[1][200][192] but later broke their oaths.[201][1][202] Ali probably did not force anyone to pledge,[195] and there is little evidence of any violence, even though many broke with Ali later, claiming that they had pledged under duress.[203] At the same time, the supporters, who were in majority in Medina, might have intimidated others.[204]

Legitimacy

 
Ali receiving pledges of allegiance, same source

Ali thus filled the power vacuum created by the regicide.[205][179][206] His election, irregular and without a council,[110] faced little public opposition in Medina,[191][207][205] but the rebels' support for him left him exposed to accusations of complicity in Uthman's assassination.[7] Even though underprivileged groups readily rallied around Ali,[208][198] he had limited support among the powerful Quraysh, some of whom aspired to caliphate.[209][110] Within the Quraysh, two camps opposed Ali: the Umayyads, who believed that the caliphate was their right after Uthman, and those who wished to restore the caliphate of Quraysh on the same principles laid by Abu Bakr and Umar. This second group was likely the majority within the Quraysh.[201][191] Ali was indeed vocal about the divine prerogative of Muhammad's kin to leadership,[210][211] which would have jeopardized the political ambitions of the rest of the Quraysh.[212]

Administrative policies

 
Arab–Sasanian coinage minted in Bishapur during the caliphate of Ali contains both Arabic and Sasanian symbols (image of the crowned Khosrow II, holy fire center, and crescent-star, bismillah in Arabic on margin).[213]

Justice

The caliphate of Ali was characterized by his strict justice.[214][215][15] He implemented radical policies to restore his vision of prophetic governance,[216][217][218] and dismissed nearly all of Uthman's governors,[209] whom he considered corrupt.[219] Ali also distributed the treasury funds equally among Muslims, following the practice of Muhammad,[220] and is said to have shown zero tolerance for corruption.[221][222] Some of those affected by Ali's egalitarian policies soon revolted against him under the pretext of revenge for Uthman.[223] Among them was Mu'awiya, the incumbent governor of Syria.[168] Ali has therefore been criticized by some for political naivety and excessive rigorism,[7][224] and praised by others for righteousness and lack of political expediency.[223][218] His supporters identify similar decisions of Muhammad,[225][226] and argue that Islam never allows for compromising on a just cause, citing verse 68:9 of the Quran,[226] "They wish that thou might compromise and that they might compromise."[227][228] Some instead suggest that Ali's decisions were actually justified on a practical level.[196][229][15] For instance, the removal of unpopular governors was perhaps the only option available to Ali because injustice was the main grievance of the rebels.[196]

Religious authority

As evident from his public speeches,[230] Ali viewed himself not only as the temporal leader of the Muslim community but also as its exclusive religious authority.[231][232] He thus laid claim to the religious authority to interpret the Quran and Sunna.[233][234] Some supporters of Ali indeed held him as their divinely-guided leader who deserved the same type of loyalty that Muhammad did.[235] They felt an absolute and all-encompassing bond of spiritual loyalty (walaya) to Ali that transcended politics.[236] For instance, many of them publicly offered Ali their unconditional support circa 658.[237][238] They justified their absolute loyalty to Ali on the basis of his merits, precedent in Islam,[239] his kinship with Muhammad,[240] and also the announcement by the latter at the Ghadir Khumm.[236] Many of these supporters also viewed Ali as the rightful successor to Muhammad after his death,[241] as evidenced in the poetry from that period, for instance.[242][243]

Fiscal policies

Ali opposed centralized control over provincial revenues.[194] He equally distributed excess taxes and booty among Muslims,[194][7] following the precedent of Muhammad and Abu Bakr.[244][220] In comparison, Umar had distributed the state revenues according to perceived Islamic merit,[245][246] and Uthman was widely accused of nepotism and corruption.[158][247][159] The strictly egalitarian policies of Ali earned him the support of underprivileged groups, including the Ansar, the qurra, and the late immigrants to Iraq.[208] By contrast, Talha and Zubayr were both Qurayshite companions of Muhammad who had amassed immense wealth under Uthman.[248] They both revolted against Ali when he refused to grant them favors.[249][220] Some other figures among the Quraysh similarly turned against Ali,[250][251] who even withheld public funds from his relatives,[252][253] whereas his archenemy Mu'awiya readily offered bribes.[251][254] Ali instructed his officials to collect tax payments on a voluntary basis and without harassment, and to prioritize the poor when distributing public funds.[255] A letter attributed to Ali directs his governor to pay more attention to land development than taxation.[256][257]

Rules of war

During the Muslim civil war, Ali forbade his soldiers from looting,[258][259] and instead paid them from tax revenues.[258] He also pardoned his enemies in victory.[259][260] Both of these practices were later enshrined in Islamic law.[259] Ali also advised his commander al-Ashtar not to reject any calls to peace, not to violate any agreements,[261] and ordered him not to commence hostilities.[262] Ali similarly barred his troops from disturbing civilians,[263] killing the wounded and those who fled, mutilating the dead, entering homes without permission, looting, and harming women.[264] He prevented the enslavement of women in victory, even though some protested.[7] Before the Battle of Siffin with Mu'awiya, Ali did not retaliate and allowed his enemies to access drinking water when he gained the upper hand.[265][266]

Battle of the Camel

 
Battle of the Camel, from a manuscript of Siyer-i nebi

Aisha publicly campaigned against Ali immediately after his accession.[267][209] She was joined in Mecca by her close relatives, Talha and Zubayr,[268] who thus broke their earlier oaths of allegiance to Ali.[201][1][202] This opposition demanded the punishment of Uthman's assassins,[269][179] and accused Ali of complicity in the assassination.[179][201][15] They also called for the removal of Ali from office and for a Qurayshite council to appoint his successor.[209][270] Their primary goal was likely the removal of Ali, rather than vengeance for Uthman,[270][271][272] against whom the triumvirate had stirred up public opinion.[192][273][274] The opposition failed to gain enough traction in Hejaz,[15][7] and instead captured Basra in Iraq,[1][15] killing many there. Ali raised an army from nearby Kufa,[192][275] which formed the core of Ali's forces in the coming battles.[275] The two armies soon camped just outside of Basra,[276][15] both probably numbered around ten thousand men.[277] After three days of failed negotiations,[278] the two sides readied for battle.[278][15][1]

Account of the battle

The battle took place in December 656.[279][280] The rebels commenced hostilities,[192][281] and Aisha was present on the battlefield, riding in an armored palanquin atop a red camel, after which the battle is named.[282][283] Talha was soon killed by another rebel, Marwan, the secretary of Uthman.[284][285] Zubayr, an experienced fighter, deserted shortly after the battle had begun,[281][192] but was pursued and killed.[281][192] His desertion suggests he had serious moral misgivings about their cause.[286][192] Ali won the day,[192][287][196] and Aisha was respectfully escorted back to Hejaz.[288][192][279] Ali then announced a public pardon,[289] setting free all war prisoners, even Marwan,[290][288] and prohibiting the enslavement of their women. Their seized properties were also returned.[291] Ali then stationed himself in Kufa,[292] which thus became his de facto capital.[279][272]

Battle of Siffin

 
Map of the First Fitna; green territory under Ali's control; pink territory under Mu'awiya's control.
 
Combat between the forces of Ali and Mu'awiya during the Battle of Siffin, from the Tarikhnama

Mu'awiya, the incumbent governor of Syria, was deemed corrupt and unfit by Ali,[219] who wrote to and removed him from his post.[293][294][295] In turn, Mu'awiya, as Uthman's cousin, launched a propaganda campaign across Syria, blaming Ali for the regicide and calling for revenge.[296][297][298] Mu'awiya also joined forces with Amr ibn al-As,[299] a military strategist,[300] who pledged to back the Umayyads against Ali in return for life-long governorship of Egypt.[301] Yet Mu'awiya also secretly offered to recognize the caliphate of Ali in return for Syria and Egypt,[302] which Ali rejected.[303] Mu'awiya then formally declared war, charging Ali with regicide, demanding his removal, and a Syrian council thereafter to elect the next caliph.[304] Contemporary authors tend to view Mu'awiya's call for revenge as a pretext for power grab.[305][232][306][307][308][309]

Account of the battle

In the summer of 657, the armies of Ali and Mu'awiya camped at Siffin, west of the Euphrates River,[310] numbering perhaps at 100,000 and 130,000, respectively.[311] Many of Muhammad's companions were present in Ali's army, whereas Mu'awiya could only boast a handful.[215][311] The two sides negotiated for a while, to no avail,[179][312][15][313][314] after which the main battle took place from Wednesday, 26 July 657,[309][305] until Friday or Saturday morning.[315][312] Ali probably refrained from initiating hostilities,[196] and later fought alongside his men on the frontline, whereas Mu'awiya led from his pavilion,[316][317] and rejected a proposal to settle the matters in a personal duel with Ali.[318][309][319] Among those killed fighting for Ali was Ammar.[317] In canonical Sunni sources, a prophetic hadith predicts Ammar's death at the hands of al-fi'a al-baghiya (lit. 'rebellious aggressive group') who call to hellfire.[320][311][312]

Call to arbitration

Fighting stopped when some Syrians raised pages of the Quran on their lances, shouting, "Let the Book of God be the judge between us."[321][312] Since Mu'awiya had for long insisted on battle, this call for arbitration suggests that he now feared defeat.[321][179][322] By contrast, Ali exhorted his men to fight, telling them that raising Qurans was for deception, but to no avail.[321][309] Through their representatives, the qurra and the ridda tribesmen of Kufa,[323][313][312] the largest bloc in Ali's army,[15][313] both threatened Ali with mutiny if he did not answer the Syrians' call.[321][15][324][325] Facing strong peace sentiments in his army, Ali accepted the arbitration proposal,[326] most likely against his own judgment.[312][326]

Arbitration agreement

Mu'awiya now proposed that representatives from both sides should find a Quranic resolution.[15][327] Mu'awiya was represented by his ally Amr,[328] whereas, despite Ali's opposition, the majority in his camp pressed for the neutral Abu Musa, the erstwhile governor of Kufa.[329][312][330] The arbitration agreement was written and signed on 2 August 657,[331] stipulating that the two representatives should meet on neutral territory,[332] adhere to the Quran and Sunna, and restore peace.[331][305] Both armies left the battlefield after the agreement.[333] The arbitration agreement thus divided Ali's camp, as many did not support his negotiations with Mu'awiya, whose claims they considered fraudulent. By contrast, the agreement strengthened Mu'awiya's position, who was now an equal contender for the caliphate.[334]

Formation of the Kharijites

 
The Nahrawan Canal ran parallel to the east bank of the Tigris

Some of Ali's men left him in protest to the arbitration agreement.[333][196] Many of them eventually rejoined Ali,[335][336][337][7] while the rest gathered in the town of al-Nahrawan.[196] They became known as the Kharijites (lit. 'seceders'), who later took up arms against Ali in the Battle of Nahrawan.[338][339][15] The Kharijites, many of whom belonged to the qurra,[340] were likely disillusioned with the arbitration process.[341][15] Their slogan was, "No judgment but that of God,"[305] highlighting their rejection of arbitration (by men) in reference to the Quranic verse 49:9.[342] Ali called this slogan a word of truth by which the seceders sought falsehood because he viewed the ruler as indispensable in the conduct of religion.[343]

Arbitration proceedings

The two arbitrators met together in Dumat al-Jandal,[344] perhaps in February 658.[15] There they reached the verdict that Uthman had been killed wrongfully and that Mu'awiya had the right to seek revenge.[345][346][15] They could not agree on anything else.[347] Rather than a judicial ruling, this was a political concession by Abu Musa, who probably hoped that Amr would later reciprocate this gesture.[347] Ali denounced the conduct of the two arbitrators as contrary to the Quran and began organizing a second Syria campaign.[348][7] Solely an initiative of Mu'awiya,[345] there was also a second meeting in Udhruh.[345][196] The negotiations there also failed,[348] as the two arbitrators could not agree on the next caliph: Amr supported Mu'awiya,[15] while Abu Musa nominated his son-in-law Abd Allah ibn Umar,[15][134] who stood down.[15][349] At its closure, Abu Musa publicly deposed both Mu'awiya and Ali and called for a council to appoint his successor per earlier agreements with Amr. When Amr took the stage, however, he deposed Ali and appointed Mu'awiya as his successor.[134][350][15] The Kufan delegation reacted furiously to Abu Musa's concessions,[348] and the common view is that the arbitration failed,[345][329] or was inconclusive.[351][335][352] It nevertheless strengthened the Syrians' support for Mu'awiya and weakened the position of Ali.[345][353][215][15][354]

Battle of Nahrawan

 
Battle of Nahrawan, a folio from a manuscript of Maqtel-i Ali resul, late sixteenth or early seventeenth century

After the arbitration, Mu'awiya received the Syrians' pledge as caliph.[355] Ali then organized a new, much smaller,[15] Syria campaign.[337][134][356] But he postponed the expedition,[357] and instead marched to Nahrawan with his army,[357] when he learned that the Kharijites were interrogating and executing civilians.[358][359] They killed many, apparently not even sparing women.[338] Ali convinced many of the Kharijites to separate from their army, leaving about 1,500–1,800, or 2,800, out of about 4,000 fighters.[360][361] The rest of the Kharijites then attacked and were crushed by Ali's army of about 14,000 men.[362][361] The battle took place either on 17 July 658,[363][337] or in 657.[364][363] Ali has been criticized by some for killing his erstwhile allies,[365][366][367] many of whom were outwardly pious Muslims. For others, subduing the Kharijites was necessary, for they were violent and radicalized rebels who posed a danger to Ali's base in Kufa.[368][369][329][370]

Final years

Following the Battle of Nahrawan, Ali could not muster enough support for a second Syria campaign.[371][367] Perhaps his soldiers were demoralized, [366] or perhaps they were recalled by their tribal leaders,[372][373] many of whom had been bribed and swayed by Mu'awiya.[374][373][366] By contrast, Ali did not grant any financial favors to tribal chiefs as a matter of principle.[250][251] At any rate, the secession of so many of the qurra and the coolness of the tribal leaders weakened Ali.[372][179][375] Ali consequently lost Egypt to Mu'awiya in 658.[350][376] Mu'awiya also began dispatching military detachments,[350] which targeted civilians along the Euphrates river, near Kufa, and most successfully, in the Hejaz and Yemen.[377] Ali could not mount a timely response to these assaults.[7] He eventually found sufficient support for a second Syria offensive, set to commence in late winter 661. His success was in part due to the public outrage over Syrian raids.[378] However, plans for a second campaign were abandoned after the assassination of Ali.[379]

Assassination and burial

Main articles: Assassination of Ali, Imam Ali Shrine, and Mausoleum of Imam Ali
 
The Great Mosque of Kufa in Kufa, Iraq, where Ali was assassinated
 
Imam Ali Shrine in Najaf, near Kufa, where Ali is believed to be buried
 
Hazrat Ali Mazar, also called Rawz-e-Sharif, in Mazar-i Sharif, Afghanistan, where some claim Ali is buried.

Ali was assassinated during the morning prayer on 28 January 661 (19 Ramadan 40 AH) at the Great Mosque of Kufa. The other given dates are 26 and 30 January. He was struck over his head by the Kharijite dissident Ibn Muljam with a poison-coated sword,[380] in revenge for their defeat in the Battle of Nahrawan.[381] Ali died from his wounds about two days later, aged sixty-two or sixty-three. By some accounts, he had long known about his fate by premonition or through Muhammad.[380] Before his death, Ali requested either a meticulous application of lex talionis to Ibn Muljam or his pardon. At any rate, Ibn Muljam was later executed by Hasan, the eldest son of Ali.[380] Fearing that his body might be exhumed and profaned by his enemies, Ali's burial place was kept a secret and remains uncertain.[7] Several sites are mentioned as containing Ali's remains, including the shrine of Ali in Najaf and the shrine of Ali in Mazar.[382] The former site was identified during the reign of the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid (r. 786–809) and the town of Najaf developed around it, which has become a major destination for Shia pilgrimage.[7] The present shrine was built by the Safavid monarch Safi (r. 1629–1642),[383] near which lies an immense cemetery for Shias who wished to be buried next to their imam.[7] Najaf is also home to top religious colleges and prominent Shia scholars.[7][1] Other sites for Ali's burial are claimed to be Baghdad, Damascus, Medina, Ray while a minority of Shias believe it be somewhere in the city of Kufa.[382]

Succession

Main articles: Hasan ibn Ali and Hasan–Muawiya treaty
See also: Umayyad tradition of cursing Ali

When Ali died, his son Hasan was acknowledged as the next caliph in Kufa.[361][384] As Ali's legatee, Hasan was the obvious choice for the Kufans, especially because Ali was vocal about the exclusive right of Muhammad's kin to leadership.[385][384] Most surviving companions of Muhammad were in Ali's army, and they also pledged their allegiance to Hasan,[386][387] but overall the Kufans' support for Hasan was likely weak.[388][389] Hasan later abdicated in August 661 to Mu'awiya when the latter marched on Iraq with a large force.[388][389] Mu'awiya thus founded the dynastic Umayyad Caliphate. Throughout his reign, he persecuted the family and supporters of Ali,[390][391] and mandated regular public cursing of Ali.[390][392]

Descendants of Ali

Main article: Alids
See also: Muhsin ibn Ali, Hasanids, Husaynids, Twelvers, Isma'ilism, Kaysanites, and Zaydism

The first marriage of Ali was to Fatima, who bore him three sons, Hasan, Husayn, and Muhsin.[391] Muhsin either died in infancy,[17] or Fatima miscarried him when she was injured in a raid on her house during the succession crisis.[96] The descendants of Hasan and Husayn are known as the Hasanids and the Husaynids, respectively.[393] As the progeny of Muhammad, they are honored in Muslim communities by nobility titles such as sharif and sayyid.[3] Ali and Fatima also had two daughters, Zaynab and Umm Kulthum.[394] After Fatima's death in 632, Ali remarried multiple times and had more children, including Muhammad al-Awsat and Abbas ibn Ali.[394] In his life, Ali fathered seventeen daughters, and eleven, fourteen, or eighteen sons,[391] among whom, Hasan, Husayn, and Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya played a historical role.[7] Descendants of Ali are known as the Alids.[393]

Under the Umayyads (661–750)

Mu'awiya succeeded Ali in 661 and founded the dynastic Umayyad Caliphate,[395] during which Alids were severely persecuted.[394] After Ali, his followers (shi'a) recognized his eldest son Hasan as their imam. When he died in 670, likely poisoned at the instigation of Mu'awiya,[396][395][397] the Shia community followed Hasan's younger brother Husayn, who was killed by Umayyad forces in the Battle of Karbala in 680, alongside many of his relatives.[393] To revenge the Karbala massacre, soon followed in 685 the Shia uprising of al-Mukhtar, who claimed to represent Ibn al-Hanafiyya.[393] The main movements that followed this uprising were the now-extinct Kaysanites and the Imamites.[398] The Kaysanites mostly followed Abu Hashim, the son of Ibn al-Hanafiya. When Abu Hashim died around 716, this group largely aligned itself with the Abbasids, that is, the descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas.[393][399] On the other hand, the Imamites were led by quiescent descendants of Husayn, through his only surviving son, Ali Zayn al-Abidin (d. 713). An exception was Ali's son Zayd, who led a failed uprising against the Umayyads around 740.[393] For his followers, known as the Zaydites, any learned Hasanid or Husaynid who rose against tyranny qualified as imam.[400]

Under the Abbasids (750–1258)

Alids were also persecuted under the Abbasids, who toppled the Umayyads in 750.[393][401] Some of the Alids thus revolted,[391] while some established regional dynasties in remote areas.[393][402] In particular, through imprisonment or surveillance, the Abbasids removed the imams of the Imamites from public life,[403][404] and they are thought to be responsible for the imams' deaths.[405][406] Mainstream Imamites were the antecedents of the Twelvers,[407] who believe that their twelfth and final imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi, was born around 868,[408] but was hidden from the public in 874 for fear of persecution. He remains in occultation by divine will until his reappearance at the end of time to eradicate injustice and evil.[409][410] The only historic split among the Imamites happened when their sixth imam, Ja'far al-Sadiq, died in 765.[393][407] Some claimed that his designated successor was his son Isma'il, who had predeceased al-Sadiq. These were the antecedents of the Isma'ilites,[393] who found political success at the turn of the tenth century,[411] as the Fatimid Caliphate in Egypt and the Qarmatians in Bahrain.[412]

Works

Main articles: Nahj al-balagha, Principles of good governance in the letter of Ali to al-Ashtar, Ghurar al-hikam, Mushaf of Ali, and Kitab Ali
See also: Shaqshaqiya sermon, al-Jafr (book), and Du'a Kumayl
 
Folio from an old manuscript of Nahj al-balagha, circa 1150 CE

Most of the works attributed to Ali were first delivered as speeches and later committed to writing by others. There are also supplications, such as Du'a Kumayl, which he may have taught others.[1]

Nahj al-balagha

Nahj al-balagha (lit. 'the path of eloquence') is an eleventh-century collection of sermons, letters, and sayings, all attributed to Ali, compiled by Sharif al-Radi (d. 1015), a prominent Twelver scholar.[413][414] Because of its sometimes sensitive content, the authenticity of Nahj al-balagha has long been polemically debated. However, by tracking its content in earlier sources, recent academic research has attributed most of Nahj al-balagha to Ali.[415][416] The book, particularly its letter of instructions addressed at al-Ashtar,[1] has served as an ideological basis for Islamic governance.[414] The book also includes detailed discussions about social responsibilities, emphasizing that greater responsibilities result in greater rights.[414] Nahj al-balagha also contains sensitive material, such as sharp criticism of Ali's predecessors in its Shaqshaqiya sermon,[1] and disapproval of Aisha, Talha, and Zubayr, who had revolted against Ali.[413][417] Celebrated as an example of the most eloquent Arabic,[1] Nahj al-balagha has significantly influenced the Arabic literature and rhetoric.[415] Numerous commentaries have been written about the book, including the comprehensive work of the Mu'tazilite scholar Ibn Abil-Hadid (d. 1258).[1]

Ghurar al-hikam

 
Folio from an old manuscript of Ghurar al-hikam

Ghurar al-hikam wa durar al-kalim (lit. 'exalted aphorisms and pearls of speech') was compiled by Abd al-Wahid al-Amidi (d. 1116), who was either a Shafi'i jurist or a Twelver scholar. The book contains thousands of short sayings of Ali on piety and ethics.[418][1] These aphorisms and other works attributed to Ali have considerably influenced the Islamic mysticism.[419]

Mushaf of Ali

 
The first three verses of the Surah al-buruj (85:1–3) in what might be a folio from the Mushaf of Ali in the library of the Imam Ali shrine, Najaf, Iraq

Mushaf of Ali is a recension of the Quran compiled by Ali, who was one of its first scribes.[420] By some Shia accounts, this codex (mushaf) of Ali was rejected for official use during the succession crisis.[421] Some early Shia traditions also suggest differences with the standard Uthmanid codex,[422] although now the prevalent Shia view is that Ali's recension matches the Uthmanid codex, save for the order of its content.[423] Ali's codex is said to be in the possession of Muhammad al-Mahdi, who would reveal the codex (and its authoritative commentary by Ali) when he reappears.[424][409]

Kitab Ali

Kitab Ali (lit. 'book of Ali') is a non-extant collection of prophetic sayings gathered by Ali. The book may have concerned matters of lawfulness (halal) and unlawfulness (haram), including a detailed penal code. Kitab Ali is also often linked to al-Jafr, which is said to contain the esoteric teachings of Muhammad for his household.[425][426] Copies of Kitab Ali were likely available until the early eighth century, and parts of it have survived in later Shia and Sunni works.[427]

Other works

The Du'a' Kumayl is a popular Shia supplication attributed to Ali, transmitted by his companion, Kumayl ibn Ziyad.[1] Also attributed to Ali is Kitab al-Diyat on Islamic law, fully quoted in the Shia hadith collection Man la yahduruhu al-faqih.[428] The judicial decisions and executive orders of Ali during his caliphate have also been recorded.[429] Other extant works attributed to Ali are collected in Kitab al-Kafi and other Shia sources.[1]

Contributions to Islamic sciences

Main article: Ali and Islamic sciences

The standard recitation of the Quran has been traced back to Ali,[430][431][215] and his written legacy is dotted with Quranic commentaries.[427] Ibn Abbas, a leading early exegete, credited Ali with his interpretations of the Quran.[432] Ali also related several hundred prophetic hadiths.[427] He is further credited with the first systematic evaluations of hadiths, and is often considered a founding figure for hadith sciences.[427] Ali is also regarded by some as the founder of Islamic theology, and his sayings contain the first rational proofs of the unity of God (tawhid) in Islam.[433][34] In later Islamic philosophy, Ali's sayings and sermons were mined for metaphysical knowledge.[3] In particular, Nahj al-balagha is a vital source for Shia philosophical doctrines, after the Quran and Sunna.[434] As a Shia imam, statements and practices attributed to Ali are widely studied in Shia Islam, where they are viewed as the continuation of prophetic teachings.[427]

Names and titles

See also: Abu Turab
 
Mirror writing of "Ali is the vicegerent of God" (Ottoman, circa 1720–1730)

Ali is known by many honorifics in the Islamic tradition, some of which are especially used by Shias.[3] His main kunya (teknonym) was ʾAbū al-Ḥasan ("father of al-Hasan").[435][3] His titles include al-Murtaḍā (lit. 'one with whom [God] is pleased' or 'one who is chosen and contented'),[435][3] Asad Allāh (lit. 'lion of God'),[436] Ḥaydar (lit. 'lion', the name initially her mother gave him),[435] Amīr al-Muʾminīn (lit. 'commander of the faithful' or 'prince of the faithful'), and Imām al-Muttaqin (lit. 'leader of the God-fearing').[435][3] In particular, Twelvers consider the title of Amir al-Mu'minin to be unique to Ali.[437] He is also referred to as Abū Turāb (lit. 'father of dust'),[3] which might have initially been a pejorative by his enemies.[7]

Character

 
Ali's sword and shield carved on the Bab al-Nasr, Cairo

Often praised for his piety and courage,[215][438][7] Ali fought to uphold his beliefs,[7][439] but was also magnanimous in victory,[440][215] even risking the ire of some supporters to prevent the enslavement of women.[7] He also showed his grief, wept for the dead, and reportedly prayed over his enemies.[7] Yet Ali has also been criticized for his idealism and political inflexibility,[7][224] for his egalitarian policies and strict justice antagonized many.[441][223] Or perhaps these qualities were also present in Muhammad,[226][225] whom the Quran addresses as, "They wish that thou [Muhammad] might compromise and that they might compromise."[442] At any rate, these qualities of Ali, rooted in his religious beliefs, contributed to his image today for his followers as a paragon of Islamic virtues,[7][443][441] particularly justice.[2] Ali is also viewed as the model par excellence for Islamic chivalry (futuwwa).[444][445][446]

Historical accounts about Ali are often tendentious.[7] For instance, in person, Ali is described in some Sunni sources as bald, heavy-built, short-legged, with broad shoulders, hairy body, long white beard, and affected by eye inflammation.[7] Shia accounts about the appearance of Ali are markedly different. Those perhaps better match his reputation as a capable warrior.[447] Likewise, in manner, Ali is presented in some Sunni sources as rough, brusque, and unsociable.[7] By contrast, Shia sources describe him as generous, gentle, and cheerful,[445][2] to the point that the Syrian war propaganda accused him of frivolity.[221] Shia and Sufi sources are also replete with reports about his acts of kindness, especially to the poor.[448] The necessary qualities in a commander, described in a letter attributed to Ali, may have well been a portrait of himself: slow to anger, happy to pardon, kind to the weak, and severe with the strong.[449] His companion, Sa'sa'a ibn Suhan, described him similarly, "He [Ali] was amongst us as one of us, of gentle disposition, intense humility, leading with a light touch, even though we were in awe of him with the kind of awe that a bound prisoner has before one who holds a sword over his head."[2][449]

Assessment and legacy

Main articles: Ali in the Quran, Ali in hadith literature, Sunni view of Ali, and Shia view of Ali
See also: Administrative policies of Ali, Druze, and Yarsanism
Ali
 
Gouache illustration of Ali (centre) and his sons, Hasan and Husayn, 1838, by an unknown painter
  • Caliph
  • Imam
Venerated inIslam
Baháʼí Faith
Druze Faith
Yarsanism
Major shrineImam Ali Shrine, Najaf

In Islam

Ali's place is said to be second only to Muhammad in Muslim culture.[15] Ali is revered for his courage, honesty, unbending devotion to Islam, magnanimity, and equal treatment of all Muslims.[440] For his admirers, he has thus become the archetype of uncorrupted Islam and pre-Islamic chivalry.[443]

In the Quran

 
The verse of walaya, possibly the most controversial statement in the Quran linked to Ali, is engraved on the margins of this memorial stone, dating to the Seljuk era

Ali regularly represented Muhammad in missions which are commonly linked to Quranic injunctions.[450][451] For instance, the verse of walaya (5:55) is a reference to when Ali gave his ring to a beggar, while praying in the mosque, according to Shia and some Sunni accounts.[452] If so, then this verse gives Ali the same spiritual authority (walaya) as Muhammad.[453][454] In Shia sources, the verse of tabligh (5:67) spurred Muhammad to designate Ali as his successor at the Ghadir Khumm, while the verse of ikmal al-din (5:3) subsequently announced the perfection of Islam.[455] The verse of purification (33:33) concerns the status of purity of the Ahl al-Bayt (lit. 'people of the house'), which is limited to Ali, Fatima, and their two sons in Shia and some Sunni sources.[456][457][458] Another reference to the Ahl al-Bayt might be the verse of mawadda (42:23).[459][460][461] For Shias, this verse is a Quranic mandate to love and follow the Ahl al-Bayt.[462][459]

In hadith literature

Muhammad frequently praise the qualities of Ali. The most controversial such statement, "He whose mawla I am, Ali is his mawla," was delivered at the Ghadir Khumm. This gave Ali the same spiritual authority (walaya) as Muhammad, according to the Shia.[463] Elsewhere, the hadith of the position likens Muhammad and Ali to Moses and Aaron,[35] and thus supports the usurped right of Ali to succeed Muhammad in Shia Islam.[464] Other examples in standard Shia and Sunni collections of hadith include, "There is no youth braver than Ali," "No-one but a believer loves Ali, and no-one but a hypocrite (munafiq) hates Ali," "I am from Ali, and Ali is from me, and he is the wali (lit. 'patron' or 'guardian') of every believer after me," "The truth revolves around him [Ali] wherever he goes," "I am the city of knowledge and Ali is its gate (bab)," "Ali is with the Quran and the Quran is with Ali. They will not separate until they return to me at the [paradisal] pool."[465][34]

In Sufism

Ali is the common source of mystical and spiritual currents within both Sunni and Shia sects of Islam.[466][467] In particular, Ali is the spiritual head of some Sufi movements,[1] for Sufis believe that Ali inherited from Muhammad his esoteric knowledge and saintly authority,[3] which guide believers on their journey toward God.[1] Nearly all Sufi orders trace their lineage to Muhammad through Ali, an exception being the Naqshbandis, who reach Muhammad through Abu Bakr.[3]

In Sunni Islam

 
The word 'Ali' in Arabic calligraphy, inscribed in Hagia Sophia, Turkey

In Sunni Islam, Ali is venerated as a close companion of Muhammad,[468] a foremost authority on the Quran and Islamic law,[432][469] and the fountainhead of wisdom in Sunni spirituality.[466] When the prophet died in 632, Ali had his claims to leadership, perhaps in reference to the Ghadir Khumm,[111][43] but he eventually accepted the temporal rule of the first three caliphs in the interest of Muslim unity.[470] Ali is portrayed in Sunni sources as a trusted advisor of the first three caliphs,[3][15] while their conflicts with Ali are minimized,[124][125] in line with the Sunni tendency to show accord among companions.[125][471][472] As the fourth and final Rashidun caliph, Ali holds a particularly high status in Sunni Islam, although this doctrinal reverence for Ali is a recent development for which the prominent Sunni traditionist Ibn Hanbal (d. 855) is likely to be credited.[1] Sunni hierarchy of companions places Ali below his three predecessors and above those who fought against him.[1][473][468] This ordering has required Sunni reinterpretation of those prophetic sayings that explicitly elevate Ali above all companions.[1]

In Shia Islam

 
Ali with his sons, nineteenth century Iranian tapestry

Ali takes center stage in Shia Islam:[3] The Arabic word shi'a itself is short for 'shi'a of Ali' (lit. 'followers of Ali'),[474] his name is incorporated into the daily call to prayer (adhan),[3] and he is regarded as the foremost companion of Muhammad.[475][476] The defining doctrine of Shia Islam is that Ali was the rightful successor of Muhammad through divinely-ordained designation,[15][477] which is primarily a reference to the Ghadir Khumm.[478] Ali is thought to have inherited the political and religious authority of Muhammad, even before his ascension to the caliphate in 656.[479][480] In particular, Ali's predecessors are regarded as illegitimate rulers and usurpers of his rights.[15] The all-encompassing bond of loyalty between Shia Muslims and their imams (and Muhammad in his capacity as imam) is known as walaya.[236] Ali is also thought to be endowed with the privilege of intercession on the Judgment Day.[1] Early on, some Shias even attributed divinity to Ali,[15][475] but such extreme views were gradually rooted out of Shi'ism.[481]

In Shia belief, Ali also inherited the esoteric knowledge of Muhammad,[2][482] for instance, in view of the prophetic hadith, "I [Muhammad] am the city of knowledge, and Ali is its gate."[2] Ali is thus regarded, after Muhammad, as the interpreter, par excellence, of the Quran and the sole authoritative source of its (esoteric) teachings.[478] Unlike Muhammad, however, Ali is not thought to have received divine revelation (wahy), though he might have been guided by divine inspiration (ilham).[479][483] Verse 21:73 of the Quran is sometimes cited here, "We made them imams, guiding by Our command, and We revealed (awhayna') to them the performance of good deeds, the maintenance of prayers, and the giving of zakat (alms), and they used to worship Us."[484] Shia Muslims also believe in the infallibility of Ali, as with Muhammad, that is, their divine protection from sins.[1][485] Here, the verse of purification is sometimes cited.[486][487] Ali's words and deeds are therefore considered a model for the Shia community and a source for their religious injunctions.[488][489]

In Alawism

The Alawites venerate Ali, the first of the Twelve Imams, as the physical manifestation of God.[490][491] Even, the Alawite testimony of faith (shahada) translates as "there is no God but Ali".[492] The Alawite trinity envisions God as being composed of three distinct manifestations, Ma'na (meaning), Ism (Name) and Bab (Door); which together constitute an "indivisible trinity". Ma'na symbolises the "source and meaning of all things" in Alawite mythology. According to Alawite doctrines, Ma'na generated the Ism, which in turn built the Bab. These beliefs are closely tied to the Alawite doctrine of reincarnations of the trinity.[493][494] The final trinity of reincarnation in the Alawite trinity consists of Ali (Ma'na), Muhammad (Ism) and Salman the Persian (Bab). Alewites depict them as the sky, sun and moon respectively. Alawites deify Ali as the "last and supreme manifestation of God" who built the universe, attribute to him divine superiority, and believe that Ali created Muhammad and gave him the mission to spread Qur'anic teachings on earth.[495][496][493][497]

In other religions

In the Druze faith, Ali is considered a "minor prophet," like Plato and Socrates.[498] Even though the faith originally developed out of the Isma'ili branch of Shia Islam, the Druze are not Muslims,[499][500] and do not accept the five pillars of Islam.[500] In Yarsanism, a religion founded by the Kurdish mystic Sultan Sahak, Ali is thought to be an incarnation of God,[501] and superior to Muhammad,[501] but their image as a Ghulat (lit. 'exaggerators' or 'extremists') subsect of Shia Islam is incorrect.[501]

Historiography

See also: Historiography of early Islam

Much has been written about Ali in Islamic literature, second only to Muhammad.[3] However, much of this material is colored by a positive or negative bias towards Ali.[3] The primary sources about Ali are the Quran, hadiths, and other early Islamic works,[3] the most notable being The Book of Sulaym ibn Qays, attributed to a companion of Ali.[502] Such works were initially scarce, but this changed with the introduction of affordable paper in the Abbasid period. For instance, at least twenty-one monographs were composed on the Battle of Siffin between 750 and 950, thirteen of which were authored by the early historian Abu Mikhnaf (d. 773–774). Most of these monographs are not extant except through quotations in later collections, such as the tenth-century Tarikh al-Tabari.[503] In addition to numerous works authored by Muslims, the secondary sources about Ali include writings of Arab Christians, Hindus, and also works by Western scholars.[3] When writing about Ali, early Western scholars often dismissed as fabricated the reports gathered in later periods because their authors often advanced their own Sunni or Shia partisan views. For instance, L. Caetani (d. 1935) often rejected the historical reports attributed to the pro-Ali Ibn Abbas and anti-Ali Aisha. Caetani instead preferred accounts reported without isnad by early historians like Ibn Ishaq (d. 767). By contrast, W. Madelung (d. 2023) argued that the tendentiousness of a report alone does not imply its fabrication. Madelung instead advocated for the authentication of historical reports on the basis of their compatibility with other events and figures.[504]

Footnotes

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  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Shah-Kazemi 2015b.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai Afsaruddin & Nasr 2023.
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  5. ^ "Sahih Muslim 1532b - The Book of Transactions - كتاب البيوع - Sunnah.com - Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه و سلم)". sunnah.com. Retrieved 26 January 2024.
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  142. ^ Pellat 1983.
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  151. ^ Keaney 2021, §3.4.
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  187. ^ Levi Della Vida & Khoury 2012.
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  212. ^ Abbas 2021, p. 115.
  213. ^ It was only when Yazdegerd died (A.D. 651) that some mark of Arab authority was added to the coinage (Plate II, 1; Marv, 651-52). Most early drahms have only a short Arabic religious inscription in the margin (such as besm Allāh, "in the name of God"), with the name of Yazdegerd or his predecessor Ḵosrow II, but a few have the name of ʿAbdallāh b. ʿĀmer, conqueror and governor of southern and eastern Iran. The most common name in the first two decades of Arab rule is Ḵosrow II. https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/arab-sasanian-coins
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January 01, 1970
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This article is about the Islamic figure For other uses see Ali disambiguation Ali ibn Abi Talib Arabic ع ل ي ب ن أ ب ي ط ال ب romanized ʿAli ibn Abi Ṭalib c 600 661 was the cousin and son in law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and was the fourth Rashidun caliph who ruled from 656 to 661 as well as the first Shia imam Born to Abu Talib ibn Abd al Muttalib and Fatima bint Asad a young Ali was raised by his elder cousin Muhammad and was among the first to accept his teachings Aliع ل ي Amir al Mu minin Abu TurabCalligraphic panel bearing Ali s name at the Hagia Sophia4th caliph of the Rashidun CaliphateReignJune 656 January 661PredecessorUthman ibn AffanSuccessorAbolished position Hasan ibn Ali as caliph 1st Shia imamTenureJune 632 January 661PredecessorEstablished positionSuccessorHasan ibn AliBornc 600 CEMecca Hejaz ArabiaDiedc 28 January 661 CE c 21 Ramadan 40 AH aged c 60 Kufa Rashidun CaliphateBurialBelieved to be Imam Ali Shrine Najaf Iraq31 59 46 N 44 18 51 E 31 996111 N 44 314167 E 31 996111 44 314167SpouseFatima bint MuhammadUmama bint Abi al AsFatima bint HuzamAsma bint UmaisKhawla al HanafiyyaLayla bint Mas udAl Sahba bint Rabi aUmm Sa id bint UrwaMuhayya bint Imru al QaysIssueHasanHusaynZaynabUmm KulthumMuhsinMuhammadAbbasRuqayyaAbdullahJa farMuhammad al AwsatUthmanUmarAbu BakrMuhammad al AsgharTribeQuraysh Banu Hashim FatherAbu Talib ibn Abd al MuttalibMotherFatima bint AsadReligionIslam Ali played a pivotal role in the early years of Islam when Muslims were severely persecuted in Mecca After immigration hijra to Medina in 622 Muhammad gave his daughter Fatima to Ali in marriage and swore a pact of brotherhood with him Ali served as Muhammad s secretary and deputy in this period and was the flag bearer of his army Numerous sayings of Muhammad praise Ali the most controversial of which was uttered in 632 at the Ghadir Khumm Whoever I am his mawla this Ali is his mawla The interpretation of the polysemous Arabic word mawla is disputed For Shia Muslims Muhammad thus invested Ali with his religious and political authority while Sunni Muslims view this as a mere statement of friendship and rapport When Muhammad died in the same year a group of Muslims met in the absence of Ali and appointed Abu Bakr r 632 634 as their leader Ali later relinquished his claims to leadership and resigned from public life during the reigns of Abu Bakr and his successor Umar r 634 644 Even though his advice was occasionally sought the conflicts between Ali and the first two caliphs are epitomized by his refusal to follow their practices This refusal cost Ali the caliphate to the benefit of Uthman r 644 656 who was thus appointed to succeed Umar by the electoral council Ali was also highly critical of Uthman who was widely accused of nepotism and corruption Yet Ali also repeatedly mediated between the caliph and the provincial dissidents angered by his policies Following Uthman s assassination in June 656 Ali was elected caliph in Medina He immediately faced two separate rebellions both ostensibly to avenge Uthman The triumvirate of Talha Zubayr both companions of Muhammad and his widow Aisha captured Basra in Iraq but were defeated by Ali in the Battle of the Camel in 656 Elsewhere Mu awiya whom Ali had just removed from the governorship of Syria fought against Ali the inconclusive Battle of Siffin in 657 which ended in a failed arbitration process that alienated some of Ali s supporters These formed the Kharijites who later terrorized the public and were crushed by Ali in the Battle of Nahrawan in 658 Ali was assassinated in 661 by the Kharijite dissident Ibn Muljam which paved the way for Mu awiya to seize power and found the dynastic Umayyad Caliphate Ali s place is said to be second only to Muhammad in Muslim culture Ali is revered for his courage honesty unbending devotion to Islam magnanimity and equal treatment of all Muslims For his admirers he has thus become the archetype of uncorrupted Islam and pre Islamic chivalry Sunni Muslims regard him as the last of the rashidun lit rightly guided caliphs while Shia Muslims venerate him as their first imam that is the rightful religious and political successor to Muhammad The shrine of Ali in Najaf Iraq is a major destination for Shia pilgrimage The legacy of Ali is collected and studied in numerous books the most famous of which is Nahj al balagha Contents 1 Birth and early life 2 Companionship of Muhammad 2 1 Event of the mubahala 2 2 Political career 2 3 Military career 2 4 Ghadir Khumm 3 Life under Rashidun Caliphs 3 1 Succession to Muhammad 3 1 1 Saqifa 3 1 2 Attack on Fatima s house 3 2 Caliphate of Abu Bakr r 632 634 3 3 Caliphate of Umar r 634 644 3 3 1 Election of Uthman 644 3 4 Caliphate of Uthman r 644 656 3 4 1 Assassination of Uthman 656 4 Caliphate 4 1 Election 656 4 1 1 Legitimacy 4 2 Administrative policies 4 2 1 Justice 4 2 2 Religious authority 4 2 3 Fiscal policies 4 2 4 Rules of war 4 3 Battle of the Camel 4 3 1 Account of the battle 4 4 Battle of Siffin 4 4 1 Account of the battle 4 4 2 Call to arbitration 4 4 3 Arbitration agreement 4 4 4 Formation of the Kharijites 4 4 5 Arbitration proceedings 4 5 Battle of Nahrawan 4 6 Final years 5 Assassination and burial 6 Succession 7 Descendants of Ali 7 1 Under the Umayyads 661 750 7 2 Under the Abbasids 750 1258 8 Works 8 1 Nahj al balagha 8 2 Ghurar al hikam 8 3 Mushaf of Ali 8 4 Kitab Ali 8 5 Other works 9 Contributions to Islamic sciences 10 Names and titles 11 Character 12 Assessment and legacy 12 1 In Islam 12 1 1 In the Quran 12 1 2 In hadith literature 12 1 3 In Sufism 12 1 4 In Sunni Islam 12 1 5 In Shia Islam 12 1 6 In Alawism 12 2 In other religions 13 Historiography 14 Footnotes 15 References 15 1 Books 15 2 Encyclopedias 15 2 1 Encyclopaedia Iranica 15 2 2 Encyclopaedia of Islam 15 2 3 Encyclopaedia Islamica 15 2 4 Others 15 3 Journals and theses 15 4 Further readingBirth and early lifeSee also Birthplace of Ali ibn Abi Talib Early Muslims and Hadith of warning Ali was born in Mecca to Abu Talib ibn Abd al Muttalib and his wife Fatima bint Asad around 600 CE 1 His date of birth is possibly 13 Rajab 2 3 which is the occasion celebrated annually by Shia Muslims 4 Ali may have been the only person born inside Ka ba 3 2 1 the holiest site of Islam which is located in Mecca However this is disputed by Sunni sources which state Hakim ibn Hizam was also born in the Ka ba 5 Furthermore Sunni scholar Al Nawawi regards the birth of Ali in the Ka ba as weak 6 Ali s father was a leading member of the Banu Hashim a clan within the Meccan tribe of Quraysh 2 Abu Talib also raised his nephew Muhammad after his parents died Later when Abu Talib fell into poverty Ali was taken in at the age of about five and raised by Muhammad and his wife Khadija 3 nbsp Ali in an illustrated copy of the Turkish epic Siyer i nebi Aged about eleven 1 Ali was among the first to accept Muhammad s teachings and profess Islam Ali did so either after Khadija or after Khadija and Muhammad s successor Abu Bakr While the precise order here is debated among Shia and Sunni scholars 7 the earliest sources place Ali before Abu Bakr 1 Muhammad s call to Islam in Mecca lasted from 610 to 622 during which Ali assiduously supported the small Muslim community especially the poor 3 Some three years after his first revelation 8 Muhammad gathered his relatives for a feast invited them to Islam and asked for their assistance 9 Aged about fourteen 9 10 Ali was the only relative there who offered his support after which Muhammad told his guests that Ali was his brother and his successor 1 9 according to the Sunni historian al Tabari d 923 The Shia interpretation of this episode is that Muhammad had already designated Ali as his successor 9 11 Companionship of MuhammadSee also Laylat al Mabit Event of the mubahala Military career of Ali Hadith of the position and Ghadir Khumm When tipped off about an assassination plot in 622 Muhammad escaped to Yathrib now known as Medina but Ali stayed behind as his decoy 3 12 That Ali risked his life for Muhammad is said to be the reason for the revelation of the Quranic passage But there is also a kind of man who gives his life away to please God 13 14 2 This emigration marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar AH Ali too escaped Mecca after returning the goods entrusted to Muhammad there 7 Later in Medina Muhammad selected Ali as his brother when he paired Muslims for fraternity pacts 15 Around 623 625 Muhammad gave his daughter Fatima to Ali in marriage 16 17 aged about twenty two at the time 3 Muhammad had earlier turned down marriage proposals for Fatima by some of his companions notably Abu Bakr and Umar 18 17 19 Event of the mubahala nbsp Muhammad and Ali a folio from the fifteenth century Iranian epic KhavarannamaA Christian envoy from Najran located in South Arabia arrived in Medina circa 632 and negotiated a peace treaty with Muhammad 20 21 The envoy also debated with Muhammad the nature of Jesus human or divine 22 23 Linked to this episode is verse 3 61 of the Quran 24 which instructs Muhammad to challenge his opponents to mubahala lit mutual cursing 25 perhaps when their debate had reached a deadlock 23 Even though the delegation ultimately withdrew from the challenge 21 Muhammad appeared for the occasion of mubahala accompanied by Ali his wife Fatima and their two sons Hasan and Husayn 26 15 The inclusion of these four by Muhammad in the mubahala ritual as his witnesses and guarantors 27 28 likely raised their religious rank within the community 22 29 If the word ourselves in the verse is a reference to Ali and Muhammad as Shia authors argue then the former naturally enjoys a similar religious authority in the Quran as the latter 30 31 nbsp The topmost Arabic text reads There is no brave youth except Ali and there is no sword except Zulfiqar Political career In Medina Ali acted as Muhammad s secretary and deputy 32 7 He was also one of the scribes tasked with committing the Quran to writing 3 In 628 Ali wrote down the terms of the Treaty of al Hudaybiya the peace treaty between Muslims and Meccan pagans In 630 divine orders pushed Muhammad to replace Abu Bakr with Ali for a key Quranic announcement in Mecca 33 34 according to the canonical Sunni source Sunan al Nasa i 2 Ali also helped ensure that the Conquest of Mecca in 630 was bloodless and later destroyed the idols housed in Ka ba 3 In 631 Ali was sent to preach Islam in Yemen 3 as a consequence of which the Hamdanids peacefully converted 12 2 Ali also peacefully resolved a blood feud between Muslims and the Banu Jadhima 2 Military career nbsp Zulfiqar with and without its shield carved on Bab al Nasr in Cairo Egypt Ali accompanied Muhammad in all of his military missions except the Expedition of Tabuk in 630 during which Ali was left behind in charge of Medina 12 The hadith of the position is linked to this occasion Are you not content Ali to stand to me as Aaron stood to Moses except that there will be no prophet after me This statement appears in the canonical Sunni sources Sahih al Bukhari and Sahih Muslim among others 35 For the Shia this hadith signifies Ali s usurped right to succeed Muhammad 36 In the absence of Muhammad Ali commanded the expedition to Fadak in 628 7 3 nbsp Ali in the Battle of Khaybar Ali was renowned for his bravery on the battlefield 15 7 and for his magnanimity towards his defeated enemies 37 He was the standard bearer in the Battle of Badr 624 and the Battle of Khaybar 628 32 He vigorously defended Muhammad in the Battle of Uhud 625 and the Battle of Hunayn 630 15 3 and Muslims victory in the Battle of Khaybar has been attributed to his courage 7 where he is said to have torn off the iron gate of the enemy fort 15 Ali also defeated the pagan champion Amr ibn Abd Wudd in the Battle of the Trench in 627 2 According to al Tabari 2 Muhammad reported hearing a divine voice at Uhud There is no sword but Zulfiqar Ali s sword there is no chivalrous youth fata but Ali 34 3 Ali and another companion Zubayr apparently oversaw the killing of the Banu Qurayza men for treachery in 626 627 7 though the historicity of this account has been doubted 38 39 40 Ghadir Khumm nbsp The Investiture of Ali at the Ghadir Khumm MS Arab 161 fol 162r 1307 8 Ilkhanid manuscript illustration On his return trip from the Hajj pilgrimage in 632 Muhammad halted the large caravan of pilgrims at the Ghadir Khumm and addressed them after the congregational prayer 41 After the prayer 42 Muhammad delivered a sermon to a large number of Muslims in which he emphasized the importance of the Quran and his ahl al bayt lit people of the house his family 43 44 45 46 Taking Ali by the hand Muhammad then asked if he was not awla lit have more authority over or closer to the believers than themselves 46 47 this is evidently a reference to verse 33 6 of the Quran 48 49 When they affirmed 46 Muhammad then declared He whose mawla I am Ali is his mawla 50 46 Musnad Ibn Hanbal a canonical Sunni source adds that Muhammad repeated this statement three or four more times and that Umar congratulated Ali after the sermon You have now become the mawla of every faithful man and woman 51 45 Muhammad had earlier alerted Muslims about his impending death 52 43 53 Shia sources describe the event in greater detail linking the announcement to verses 5 3 and 5 67 of the Quran 52 The authenticity of the Ghadir Khumm is rarely contested 46 54 55 43 as its among the most extensively acknowledged and substantiated reports in classical Islamic sources 56 However mawla is a polysemous Arabic word and its interpretation in the context of the Ghadir Khumm is split along sectarian lines Shia sources interpret mawla as leader master and patron 57 while Sunni sources interpret it as love or support for Ali 3 58 Shias therefore view the Ghadir Khumm as the investiture of Ali with Muhammad s religious and political authority 59 60 2 while Sunnis regard it as a statement about the rapport between the two men 3 43 61 or that Ali should execute Muhammad s will 3 Shias point to the extraordinary nature of the announcement 58 give Quranic and textual evidence 62 52 43 and argue to eliminate other meanings of mawla in the hadith except for authority 63 while Sunnis minimize the importance of the Ghadir Khumm by casting it as a simple response to earlier complaints about Ali 64 During his caliphate Ali is known to have asked Muslims to come forward with their testimonies about the Ghadir Khumm 65 66 67 presumably to counter challenges to his legitimacy 68 Life under Rashidun CaliphsSee also Succession to Muhammad Saqifa Attack on Fatima s house Fadak Sermon of Fadak Hadith of Muhammad s inheritance Burial of Fatima Sunni view of Ali Political views Election of Uthman Siege of Uthman and Assassination of Uthman Succession to Muhammad nbsp Ambigram depicting Muhammad right and Ali left written in a single word The 180 degree inverted form shows both words Saqifa Muhammad died in 632 when Ali was in his early thirties 69 As he and other close relatives prepared for the burial 70 71 a group of the Ansar Medinan natives lit helpers gathered at the Saqifa to discuss the future of Muslims or to retake control of their city Medina Abu Bakr and Umar were among the few representatives of the Muhajirun Meccan converts lit migrants at the Saqifa 72 The case of Ali was unsuccessfully brought up at the Saqifa in his absence 73 74 and ultimately those present there appointed Abu Bakr to leadership after a heated debate that is said to have become violent 75 Clan rivalries at the Saqifa played a key role in favor of Abu Bakr 70 76 and the outcome may have been different in a broad council shura with Ali as a candidate 77 78 In particular the Quraysh tradition of hereditary succession strongly favored Ali 79 80 81 even though his youth weakened his case 7 69 By contrast the succession caliphate of Abu Bakr is often justified on the basis that he led some of the prayers in Muhammad s final days 70 82 but the veracity and political significance of such reports have been questioned 70 83 84 Attack on Fatima s house While the appointment of Abu Bakr was met with little resistance in Medina 82 the Banu Hashim and some companions of Muhammad soon gathered in protest at Ali s house 85 86 Among them were Zubayr and Muhammad s uncle Abbas 86 These protestors held Ali to be the rightful successor to Muhammad 17 87 probably in reference to the Ghadir Khumm 43 Among others 88 al Tabari reports that Umar then led an armed mob to Ali s residence and threatened to set the house on fire if Ali and his supporters did not pledge their allegiance to Abu Bakr 89 17 90 91 The scene soon grew violent 88 92 but the mob retreated after Ali s wife Fatima pleaded with them 89 Abu Bakr later placed a successful boycott on the Banu Hashim 93 who eventually abandoned their support for Ali 93 94 Most likely Ali himself did not pledge his allegiance to Abu Bakr until Fatima died within six months of her father Muhammad 95 In Shia sources the death and miscarriage of the young Fatima are attributed to an attack on her house to subdue Ali by the order of Abu Bakr 96 17 87 Sunnis categorically reject these reports 97 but there is evidence in their early sources that a mob entered Fatima s house by force and arrested Ali 98 99 100 an incident that Abu Bakr regretted on his deathbed 101 102 Likely a political move to weaken the Banu Hashim 103 104 105 106 Abu Bakr had earlier confiscated from Fatima the rich lands of Fadak which she considered her inheritance or a gift from her father 107 108 The confiscation of Fadak is often justified in Sunni sources with a hadith about prophetic inheritance the authenticity of which has been doubted partly because it contradicts Quranic injunctions 107 109 Caliphate of Abu Bakr r 632 634 In the absence of popular support Ali eventually accepted the temporal rule of Abu Bakr probably for the sake of Muslim unity 110 111 112 In particular Ali turned down proposals to forcefully pursue the caliphate 113 7 He nevertheless viewed himself as the most qualified candidate for leadership by virtue of his merits and his kinship with Muhammad 114 115 116 Evidence suggests that Ali further considered himself as the designated successor of Muhammad 117 66 118 Unlike Muhammad s lifetime 119 120 Ali retired from public life during the caliphates of Abu Bakr and his successors Umar and Uthman 3 119 15 Ali did not participate in the Ridda wars and the early Muslim conquests 15 though he remained an advisor to Abu Bakr and Umar on government and religious matters 3 15 However their conflicts with Ali is also well documented 121 122 123 but largely ignored in Sunni sources 124 125 These tensions were epitomized during the proceedings of the electoral council in 644 when Ali refused to be bound by the precedence of the first two caliphs 120 119 In contrast Shia sources view Ali s pledge to Abu Bakr as a coerced act of political expediency taqiya 126 The conflicts with Ali are probably magnified in Shia sources 124 Caliphate of Umar r 634 644 Before his death in 634 Abu Bakr designated Umar as his successor 127 Ali was not consulted about this appointment which was initially resisted by some senior companions 128 Ali himself did not press any claims this time and kept aloof from public affairs during the caliphate of Umar 129 who nevertheless consulted Ali in certain matters 3 130 For instance Ali is credited with the idea of adopting the migration to Medina hijra as the beginning of the Islamic calendar 12 Yet Ali s political advice was probably ignored 7 For example Umar devised a state register diwan to distribute excess state revenues according to Islamic precedence 131 but Ali held that those revenues should be equally distributed among Muslims following the practice of Muhammad and Abu Bakr 132 7 Ali was also absent from the strategic meeting of notables near Damascus 7 Ali did not participate in Umar s military expeditions 133 1 although he does not seem to have publicly objected to them 1 Umar likely opposed the combination of prophethood and caliphate in the Banu Hashim 134 135 and he thus prevented Muhammad from dictating his will on his deathbed 44 136 137 possibly fearing that he might expressly designate Ali as his successor 138 Nevertheless perhaps realizing the necessity of Ali s cooperation in his collaborative scheme of governance Umar made some limited overtures to Ali and the Banu Hashim during his caliphate 139 For instance Umar returned Muhammad s estates in Medina to Ali but kept Fadak and Khayber 140 By some accounts Umar also insisted on marrying Ali s daughter Umm Kulthum to which Ali reluctantly agreed when the former enlisted public support for his demand 141 Election of Uthman 644 nbsp The election of Uthman a folio from Tarikhnama Before his death in 644 142 Umar tasked a small committee with choosing the next caliph among themselves 143 Ali and Uthman were the strongest candidates in this committee 144 145 whose members were all early companions of Muhammad from the Quraysh tribe 143 Another member Abd al Rahman ibn Awf was given the deciding vote either by the committee or by Umar 146 147 148 After deliberations Ibn Awf appointed his brother in law Uthman as the next caliph 149 150 when the latter promised to follow the precedent of the first two caliphs 149 By contrast Ali rejected this condition 149 148 or gave an evasive answer 151 The Ansar were not represented in the committee 152 147 which was evidently biased toward Uthman 153 154 148 Both of these factors worked against Ali 147 155 156 who could have not been simply excluded from the proceedings 157 Caliphate of Uthman r 644 656 Uthman was widely accused of nepotism 158 corruption 159 160 and injustice 161 Ali too criticized Uthman s conduct 7 1 162 including his lavish gifts for his kinsmen 163 164 Ali also protected outspoken companions such as Abu Dharr and Ammar 165 166 and overall acted as a restraining influence on Uthman 165 Some supporters of Ali were part of the opposition movement 167 168 joined in their efforts by Talha and Zubayr both senior companions of Muhammad and by his widow Aisha 169 170 167 Among such supporters of Ali were Malik al Ashtar and other religiously learned qurra lit Quran readers 171 164 These supporters wanted to see Ali as the next caliph but there is no evidence that he coordinated with them 172 Ali also rejected the requests to lead the rebels 7 173 although he probably sympathized with their grievances 174 173 He was therefore considered a natural focus for the opposition 175 at least morally 7 Assassination of Uthman 656 As their grievances mounted provincial dissidents poured into Medina in 656 15 The Egyptian opposition sought the advice of Ali who urged them to negotiate with Uthman 176 177 Ali similarly asked the Iraqi opposition to refrain from violence which they heeded 178 He also repeatedly mediated between Uthman and the dissidents 15 179 180 to address their economical and political grievances 181 15 In particular Ali negotiated and guaranteed the agreement that ended the first siege 182 15 He then convinced Uthman to publicly repent 183 but the caliph soon retracted his statement possibly pressed by his secretary Marwan ibn al Hakam 184 Egyptian rebels laid siege to Uthman s residence for a second time when they intercepted an official letter ordering their punishment They demanded the caliph s abdication but he refused and maintained his innocence about the letter 185 for which Marwan is often blamed in the early sources 186 187 Ali also sided with Uthman 185 but the caliph apparently accused him about the letter 188 This is probably when Ali refused to further intercede for Uthman 185 175 who was assassinated soon afterward by Egyptian rebels 186 189 190 Ali played no role in the deadly attack 7 191 and his son Hasan was injured while guarding Uthman s besieged residence at the request of Ali 3 192 167 He also convinced the rebels to deliver water to Uthman s house during the siege 185 165 CaliphateSee also Election of Ali to the caliphate Administrative policies of Ali Battle of the Camel Battle of Siffin Kharijites Battle of Nahrawan and Second Syria campaign of Ali Election 656 nbsp Ali receiving pledges of allegiance from a manuscript of Maktel i Ali resul dated late sixteenth or early seventeenth century When Uthman was assassinated in 656 by Egyptian rebels 186 the potential candidates for caliphate were Ali and Talha The Umayyads had fled Medina leaving the provincial rebels and the Ansar in control of the city Among the Egyptians Talha enjoyed some support but the Iraqis and most of the Ansar supported Ali 110 The majority of the Muhajirun 15 173 193 and key tribal figures also favored Ali at this time 194 The caliphate was offered by these groups to Ali who after some hesitation 173 15 1 publicly took the oath of office 195 196 197 Malik al Ashtar might have been the first to pledge his allegiance to Ali 197 Talha and Zubayr who both aspired to the caliphate 198 199 also gave their pledges to Ali most likely willingly 1 200 192 but later broke their oaths 201 1 202 Ali probably did not force anyone to pledge 195 and there is little evidence of any violence even though many broke with Ali later claiming that they had pledged under duress 203 At the same time the supporters who were in majority in Medina might have intimidated others 204 Legitimacy nbsp Ali receiving pledges of allegiance same source Ali thus filled the power vacuum created by the regicide 205 179 206 His election irregular and without a council 110 faced little public opposition in Medina 191 207 205 but the rebels support for him left him exposed to accusations of complicity in Uthman s assassination 7 Even though underprivileged groups readily rallied around Ali 208 198 he had limited support among the powerful Quraysh some of whom aspired to caliphate 209 110 Within the Quraysh two camps opposed Ali the Umayyads who believed that the caliphate was their right after Uthman and those who wished to restore the caliphate of Quraysh on the same principles laid by Abu Bakr and Umar This second group was likely the majority within the Quraysh 201 191 Ali was indeed vocal about the divine prerogative of Muhammad s kin to leadership 210 211 which would have jeopardized the political ambitions of the rest of the Quraysh 212 Administrative policies nbsp Arab Sasanian coinage minted in Bishapur during the caliphate of Ali contains both Arabic and Sasanian symbols image of the crowned Khosrow II holy fire center and crescent star bismillah in Arabic on margin 213 Justice The caliphate of Ali was characterized by his strict justice 214 215 15 He implemented radical policies to restore his vision of prophetic governance 216 217 218 and dismissed nearly all of Uthman s governors 209 whom he considered corrupt 219 Ali also distributed the treasury funds equally among Muslims following the practice of Muhammad 220 and is said to have shown zero tolerance for corruption 221 222 Some of those affected by Ali s egalitarian policies soon revolted against him under the pretext of revenge for Uthman 223 Among them was Mu awiya the incumbent governor of Syria 168 Ali has therefore been criticized by some for political naivety and excessive rigorism 7 224 and praised by others for righteousness and lack of political expediency 223 218 His supporters identify similar decisions of Muhammad 225 226 and argue that Islam never allows for compromising on a just cause citing verse 68 9 of the Quran 226 They wish that thou might compromise and that they might compromise 227 228 Some instead suggest that Ali s decisions were actually justified on a practical level 196 229 15 For instance the removal of unpopular governors was perhaps the only option available to Ali because injustice was the main grievance of the rebels 196 Religious authority As evident from his public speeches 230 Ali viewed himself not only as the temporal leader of the Muslim community but also as its exclusive religious authority 231 232 He thus laid claim to the religious authority to interpret the Quran and Sunna 233 234 Some supporters of Ali indeed held him as their divinely guided leader who deserved the same type of loyalty that Muhammad did 235 They felt an absolute and all encompassing bond of spiritual loyalty walaya to Ali that transcended politics 236 For instance many of them publicly offered Ali their unconditional support circa 658 237 238 They justified their absolute loyalty to Ali on the basis of his merits precedent in Islam 239 his kinship with Muhammad 240 and also the announcement by the latter at the Ghadir Khumm 236 Many of these supporters also viewed Ali as the rightful successor to Muhammad after his death 241 as evidenced in the poetry from that period for instance 242 243 Fiscal policies Ali opposed centralized control over provincial revenues 194 He equally distributed excess taxes and booty among Muslims 194 7 following the precedent of Muhammad and Abu Bakr 244 220 In comparison Umar had distributed the state revenues according to perceived Islamic merit 245 246 and Uthman was widely accused of nepotism and corruption 158 247 159 The strictly egalitarian policies of Ali earned him the support of underprivileged groups including the Ansar the qurra and the late immigrants to Iraq 208 By contrast Talha and Zubayr were both Qurayshite companions of Muhammad who had amassed immense wealth under Uthman 248 They both revolted against Ali when he refused to grant them favors 249 220 Some other figures among the Quraysh similarly turned against Ali 250 251 who even withheld public funds from his relatives 252 253 whereas his archenemy Mu awiya readily offered bribes 251 254 Ali instructed his officials to collect tax payments on a voluntary basis and without harassment and to prioritize the poor when distributing public funds 255 A letter attributed to Ali directs his governor to pay more attention to land development than taxation 256 257 Rules of war During the Muslim civil war Ali forbade his soldiers from looting 258 259 and instead paid them from tax revenues 258 He also pardoned his enemies in victory 259 260 Both of these practices were later enshrined in Islamic law 259 Ali also advised his commander al Ashtar not to reject any calls to peace not to violate any agreements 261 and ordered him not to commence hostilities 262 Ali similarly barred his troops from disturbing civilians 263 killing the wounded and those who fled mutilating the dead entering homes without permission looting and harming women 264 He prevented the enslavement of women in victory even though some protested 7 Before the Battle of Siffin with Mu awiya Ali did not retaliate and allowed his enemies to access drinking water when he gained the upper hand 265 266 Battle of the Camel nbsp Battle of the Camel from a manuscript of Siyer i nebi Aisha publicly campaigned against Ali immediately after his accession 267 209 She was joined in Mecca by her close relatives Talha and Zubayr 268 who thus broke their earlier oaths of allegiance to Ali 201 1 202 This opposition demanded the punishment of Uthman s assassins 269 179 and accused Ali of complicity in the assassination 179 201 15 They also called for the removal of Ali from office and for a Qurayshite council to appoint his successor 209 270 Their primary goal was likely the removal of Ali rather than vengeance for Uthman 270 271 272 against whom the triumvirate had stirred up public opinion 192 273 274 The opposition failed to gain enough traction in Hejaz 15 7 and instead captured Basra in Iraq 1 15 killing many there Ali raised an army from nearby Kufa 192 275 which formed the core of Ali s forces in the coming battles 275 The two armies soon camped just outside of Basra 276 15 both probably numbered around ten thousand men 277 After three days of failed negotiations 278 the two sides readied for battle 278 15 1 Account of the battle The battle took place in December 656 279 280 The rebels commenced hostilities 192 281 and Aisha was present on the battlefield riding in an armored palanquin atop a red camel after which the battle is named 282 283 Talha was soon killed by another rebel Marwan the secretary of Uthman 284 285 Zubayr an experienced fighter deserted shortly after the battle had begun 281 192 but was pursued and killed 281 192 His desertion suggests he had serious moral misgivings about their cause 286 192 Ali won the day 192 287 196 and Aisha was respectfully escorted back to Hejaz 288 192 279 Ali then announced a public pardon 289 setting free all war prisoners even Marwan 290 288 and prohibiting the enslavement of their women Their seized properties were also returned 291 Ali then stationed himself in Kufa 292 which thus became his de facto capital 279 272 Battle of Siffin nbsp Map of the First Fitna green territory under Ali s control pink territory under Mu awiya s control nbsp Combat between the forces of Ali and Mu awiya during the Battle of Siffin from the Tarikhnama Mu awiya the incumbent governor of Syria was deemed corrupt and unfit by Ali 219 who wrote to and removed him from his post 293 294 295 In turn Mu awiya as Uthman s cousin launched a propaganda campaign across Syria blaming Ali for the regicide and calling for revenge 296 297 298 Mu awiya also joined forces with Amr ibn al As 299 a military strategist 300 who pledged to back the Umayyads against Ali in return for life long governorship of Egypt 301 Yet Mu awiya also secretly offered to recognize the caliphate of Ali in return for Syria and Egypt 302 which Ali rejected 303 Mu awiya then formally declared war charging Ali with regicide demanding his removal and a Syrian council thereafter to elect the next caliph 304 Contemporary authors tend to view Mu awiya s call for revenge as a pretext for power grab 305 232 306 307 308 309 Account of the battle In the summer of 657 the armies of Ali and Mu awiya camped at Siffin west of the Euphrates River 310 numbering perhaps at 100 000 and 130 000 respectively 311 Many of Muhammad s companions were present in Ali s army whereas Mu awiya could only boast a handful 215 311 The two sides negotiated for a while to no avail 179 312 15 313 314 after which the main battle took place from Wednesday 26 July 657 309 305 until Friday or Saturday morning 315 312 Ali probably refrained from initiating hostilities 196 and later fought alongside his men on the frontline whereas Mu awiya led from his pavilion 316 317 and rejected a proposal to settle the matters in a personal duel with Ali 318 309 319 Among those killed fighting for Ali was Ammar 317 In canonical Sunni sources a prophetic hadith predicts Ammar s death at the hands of al fi a al baghiya lit rebellious aggressive group who call to hellfire 320 311 312 Call to arbitration Fighting stopped when some Syrians raised pages of the Quran on their lances shouting Let the Book of God be the judge between us 321 312 Since Mu awiya had for long insisted on battle this call for arbitration suggests that he now feared defeat 321 179 322 By contrast Ali exhorted his men to fight telling them that raising Qurans was for deception but to no avail 321 309 Through their representatives the qurra and the ridda tribesmen of Kufa 323 313 312 the largest bloc in Ali s army 15 313 both threatened Ali with mutiny if he did not answer the Syrians call 321 15 324 325 Facing strong peace sentiments in his army Ali accepted the arbitration proposal 326 most likely against his own judgment 312 326 Arbitration agreement Mu awiya now proposed that representatives from both sides should find a Quranic resolution 15 327 Mu awiya was represented by his ally Amr 328 whereas despite Ali s opposition the majority in his camp pressed for the neutral Abu Musa the erstwhile governor of Kufa 329 312 330 The arbitration agreement was written and signed on 2 August 657 331 stipulating that the two representatives should meet on neutral territory 332 adhere to the Quran and Sunna and restore peace 331 305 Both armies left the battlefield after the agreement 333 The arbitration agreement thus divided Ali s camp as many did not support his negotiations with Mu awiya whose claims they considered fraudulent By contrast the agreement strengthened Mu awiya s position who was now an equal contender for the caliphate 334 Formation of the Kharijites nbsp The Nahrawan Canal ran parallel to the east bank of the Tigris Some of Ali s men left him in protest to the arbitration agreement 333 196 Many of them eventually rejoined Ali 335 336 337 7 while the rest gathered in the town of al Nahrawan 196 They became known as the Kharijites lit seceders who later took up arms against Ali in the Battle of Nahrawan 338 339 15 The Kharijites many of whom belonged to the qurra 340 were likely disillusioned with the arbitration process 341 15 Their slogan was No judgment but that of God 305 highlighting their rejection of arbitration by men in reference to the Quranic verse 49 9 342 Ali called this slogan a word of truth by which the seceders sought falsehood because he viewed the ruler as indispensable in the conduct of religion 343 Arbitration proceedings The two arbitrators met together in Dumat al Jandal 344 perhaps in February 658 15 There they reached the verdict that Uthman had been killed wrongfully and that Mu awiya had the right to seek revenge 345 346 15 They could not agree on anything else 347 Rather than a judicial ruling this was a political concession by Abu Musa who probably hoped that Amr would later reciprocate this gesture 347 Ali denounced the conduct of the two arbitrators as contrary to the Quran and began organizing a second Syria campaign 348 7 Solely an initiative of Mu awiya 345 there was also a second meeting in Udhruh 345 196 The negotiations there also failed 348 as the two arbitrators could not agree on the next caliph Amr supported Mu awiya 15 while Abu Musa nominated his son in law Abd Allah ibn Umar 15 134 who stood down 15 349 At its closure Abu Musa publicly deposed both Mu awiya and Ali and called for a council to appoint his successor per earlier agreements with Amr When Amr took the stage however he deposed Ali and appointed Mu awiya as his successor 134 350 15 The Kufan delegation reacted furiously to Abu Musa s concessions 348 and the common view is that the arbitration failed 345 329 or was inconclusive 351 335 352 It nevertheless strengthened the Syrians support for Mu awiya and weakened the position of Ali 345 353 215 15 354 Battle of Nahrawan nbsp Battle of Nahrawan a folio from a manuscript of Maqtel i Ali resul late sixteenth or early seventeenth century After the arbitration Mu awiya received the Syrians pledge as caliph 355 Ali then organized a new much smaller 15 Syria campaign 337 134 356 But he postponed the expedition 357 and instead marched to Nahrawan with his army 357 when he learned that the Kharijites were interrogating and executing civilians 358 359 They killed many apparently not even sparing women 338 Ali convinced many of the Kharijites to separate from their army leaving about 1 500 1 800 or 2 800 out of about 4 000 fighters 360 361 The rest of the Kharijites then attacked and were crushed by Ali s army of about 14 000 men 362 361 The battle took place either on 17 July 658 363 337 or in 657 364 363 Ali has been criticized by some for killing his erstwhile allies 365 366 367 many of whom were outwardly pious Muslims For others subduing the Kharijites was necessary for they were violent and radicalized rebels who posed a danger to Ali s base in Kufa 368 369 329 370 Final years Following the Battle of Nahrawan Ali could not muster enough support for a second Syria campaign 371 367 Perhaps his soldiers were demoralized 366 or perhaps they were recalled by their tribal leaders 372 373 many of whom had been bribed and swayed by Mu awiya 374 373 366 By contrast Ali did not grant any financial favors to tribal chiefs as a matter of principle 250 251 At any rate the secession of so many of the qurra and the coolness of the tribal leaders weakened Ali 372 179 375 Ali consequently lost Egypt to Mu awiya in 658 350 376 Mu awiya also began dispatching military detachments 350 which targeted civilians along the Euphrates river near Kufa and most successfully in the Hejaz and Yemen 377 Ali could not mount a timely response to these assaults 7 He eventually found sufficient support for a second Syria offensive set to commence in late winter 661 His success was in part due to the public outrage over Syrian raids 378 However plans for a second campaign were abandoned after the assassination of Ali 379 Assassination and burialMain articles Assassination of Ali Imam Ali Shrine and Mausoleum of Imam Ali nbsp The Great Mosque of Kufa in Kufa Iraq where Ali was assassinated nbsp Imam Ali Shrine in Najaf near Kufa where Ali is believed to be buried nbsp Hazrat Ali Mazar also called Rawz e Sharif in Mazar i Sharif Afghanistan where some claim Ali is buried Ali was assassinated during the morning prayer on 28 January 661 19 Ramadan 40 AH at the Great Mosque of Kufa The other given dates are 26 and 30 January He was struck over his head by the Kharijite dissident Ibn Muljam with a poison coated sword 380 in revenge for their defeat in the Battle of Nahrawan 381 Ali died from his wounds about two days later aged sixty two or sixty three By some accounts he had long known about his fate by premonition or through Muhammad 380 Before his death Ali requested either a meticulous application of lex talionis to Ibn Muljam or his pardon At any rate Ibn Muljam was later executed by Hasan the eldest son of Ali 380 Fearing that his body might be exhumed and profaned by his enemies Ali s burial place was kept a secret and remains uncertain 7 Several sites are mentioned as containing Ali s remains including the shrine of Ali in Najaf and the shrine of Ali in Mazar 382 The former site was identified during the reign of the Abbasid caliph Harun al Rashid r 786 809 and the town of Najaf developed around it which has become a major destination for Shia pilgrimage 7 The present shrine was built by the Safavid monarch Safi r 1629 1642 383 near which lies an immense cemetery for Shias who wished to be buried next to their imam 7 Najaf is also home to top religious colleges and prominent Shia scholars 7 1 Other sites for Ali s burial are claimed to be Baghdad Damascus Medina Ray while a minority of Shias believe it be somewhere in the city of Kufa 382 SuccessionMain articles Hasan ibn Ali and Hasan Muawiya treaty See also Umayyad tradition of cursing Ali When Ali died his son Hasan was acknowledged as the next caliph in Kufa 361 384 As Ali s legatee Hasan was the obvious choice for the Kufans especially because Ali was vocal about the exclusive right of Muhammad s kin to leadership 385 384 Most surviving companions of Muhammad were in Ali s army and they also pledged their allegiance to Hasan 386 387 but overall the Kufans support for Hasan was likely weak 388 389 Hasan later abdicated in August 661 to Mu awiya when the latter marched on Iraq with a large force 388 389 Mu awiya thus founded the dynastic Umayyad Caliphate Throughout his reign he persecuted the family and supporters of Ali 390 391 and mandated regular public cursing of Ali 390 392 Descendants of AliMain article AlidsSee also Muhsin ibn Ali Hasanids Husaynids Twelvers Isma ilism Kaysanites and Zaydism The first marriage of Ali was to Fatima who bore him three sons Hasan Husayn and Muhsin 391 Muhsin either died in infancy 17 or Fatima miscarried him when she was injured in a raid on her house during the succession crisis 96 The descendants of Hasan and Husayn are known as the Hasanids and the Husaynids respectively 393 As the progeny of Muhammad they are honored in Muslim communities by nobility titles such as sharif and sayyid 3 Ali and Fatima also had two daughters Zaynab and Umm Kulthum 394 After Fatima s death in 632 Ali remarried multiple times and had more children including Muhammad al Awsat and Abbas ibn Ali 394 In his life Ali fathered seventeen daughters and eleven fourteen or eighteen sons 391 among whom Hasan Husayn and Muhammad ibn al Hanafiyya played a historical role 7 Descendants of Ali are known as the Alids 393 Under the Umayyads 661 750 Mu awiya succeeded Ali in 661 and founded the dynastic Umayyad Caliphate 395 during which Alids were severely persecuted 394 After Ali his followers shi a recognized his eldest son Hasan as their imam When he died in 670 likely poisoned at the instigation of Mu awiya 396 395 397 the Shia community followed Hasan s younger brother Husayn who was killed by Umayyad forces in the Battle of Karbala in 680 alongside many of his relatives 393 To revenge the Karbala massacre soon followed in 685 the Shia uprising of al Mukhtar who claimed to represent Ibn al Hanafiyya 393 The main movements that followed this uprising were the now extinct Kaysanites and the Imamites 398 The Kaysanites mostly followed Abu Hashim the son of Ibn al Hanafiya When Abu Hashim died around 716 this group largely aligned itself with the Abbasids that is the descendants of Muhammad s uncle Abbas 393 399 On the other hand the Imamites were led by quiescent descendants of Husayn through his only surviving son Ali Zayn al Abidin d 713 An exception was Ali s son Zayd who led a failed uprising against the Umayyads around 740 393 For his followers known as the Zaydites any learned Hasanid or Husaynid who rose against tyranny qualified as imam 400 Under the Abbasids 750 1258 Alids were also persecuted under the Abbasids who toppled the Umayyads in 750 393 401 Some of the Alids thus revolted 391 while some established regional dynasties in remote areas 393 402 In particular through imprisonment or surveillance the Abbasids removed the imams of the Imamites from public life 403 404 and they are thought to be responsible for the imams deaths 405 406 Mainstream Imamites were the antecedents of the Twelvers 407 who believe that their twelfth and final imam Muhammad al Mahdi was born around 868 408 but was hidden from the public in 874 for fear of persecution He remains in occultation by divine will until his reappearance at the end of time to eradicate injustice and evil 409 410 The only historic split among the Imamites happened when their sixth imam Ja far al Sadiq died in 765 393 407 Some claimed that his designated successor was his son Isma il who had predeceased al Sadiq These were the antecedents of the Isma ilites 393 who found political success at the turn of the tenth century 411 as the Fatimid Caliphate in Egypt and the Qarmatians in Bahrain 412 WorksMain articles Nahj al balagha Principles of good governance in the letter of Ali to al Ashtar Ghurar al hikam Mushaf of Ali and Kitab Ali See also Shaqshaqiya sermon al Jafr book and Du a Kumayl nbsp Folio from an old manuscript of Nahj al balagha circa 1150 CE Most of the works attributed to Ali were first delivered as speeches and later committed to writing by others There are also supplications such as Du a Kumayl which he may have taught others 1 Nahj al balagha Nahj al balagha lit the path of eloquence is an eleventh century collection of sermons letters and sayings all attributed to Ali compiled by Sharif al Radi d 1015 a prominent Twelver scholar 413 414 Because of its sometimes sensitive content the authenticity of Nahj al balagha has long been polemically debated However by tracking its content in earlier sources recent academic research has attributed most of Nahj al balagha to Ali 415 416 The book particularly its letter of instructions addressed at al Ashtar 1 has served as an ideological basis for Islamic governance 414 The book also includes detailed discussions about social responsibilities emphasizing that greater responsibilities result in greater rights 414 Nahj al balagha also contains sensitive material such as sharp criticism of Ali s predecessors in its Shaqshaqiya sermon 1 and disapproval of Aisha Talha and Zubayr who had revolted against Ali 413 417 Celebrated as an example of the most eloquent Arabic 1 Nahj al balagha has significantly influenced the Arabic literature and rhetoric 415 Numerous commentaries have been written about the book including the comprehensive work of the Mu tazilite scholar Ibn Abil Hadid d 1258 1 Ghurar al hikam nbsp Folio from an old manuscript of Ghurar al hikam Ghurar al hikam wa durar al kalim lit exalted aphorisms and pearls of speech was compiled by Abd al Wahid al Amidi d 1116 who was either a Shafi i jurist or a Twelver scholar The book contains thousands of short sayings of Ali on piety and ethics 418 1 These aphorisms and other works attributed to Ali have considerably influenced the Islamic mysticism 419 Mushaf of Ali nbsp The first three verses of the Surah al buruj 85 1 3 in what might be a folio from the Mushaf of Ali in the library of the Imam Ali shrine Najaf Iraq Mushaf of Ali is a recension of the Quran compiled by Ali who was one of its first scribes 420 By some Shia accounts this codex mushaf of Ali was rejected for official use during the succession crisis 421 Some early Shia traditions also suggest differences with the standard Uthmanid codex 422 although now the prevalent Shia view is that Ali s recension matches the Uthmanid codex save for the order of its content 423 Ali s codex is said to be in the possession of Muhammad al Mahdi who would reveal the codex and its authoritative commentary by Ali when he reappears 424 409 Kitab Ali Kitab Ali lit book of Ali is a non extant collection of prophetic sayings gathered by Ali The book may have concerned matters of lawfulness halal and unlawfulness haram including a detailed penal code Kitab Ali is also often linked to al Jafr which is said to contain the esoteric teachings of Muhammad for his household 425 426 Copies of Kitab Ali were likely available until the early eighth century and parts of it have survived in later Shia and Sunni works 427 Other works The Du a Kumayl is a popular Shia supplication attributed to Ali transmitted by his companion Kumayl ibn Ziyad 1 Also attributed to Ali is Kitab al Diyat on Islamic law fully quoted in the Shia hadith collection Man la yahduruhu al faqih 428 The judicial decisions and executive orders of Ali during his caliphate have also been recorded 429 Other extant works attributed to Ali are collected in Kitab al Kafi and other Shia sources 1 Contributions to Islamic sciencesMain article Ali and Islamic sciences The standard recitation of the Quran has been traced back to Ali 430 431 215 and his written legacy is dotted with Quranic commentaries 427 Ibn Abbas a leading early exegete credited Ali with his interpretations of the Quran 432 Ali also related several hundred prophetic hadiths 427 He is further credited with the first systematic evaluations of hadiths and is often considered a founding figure for hadith sciences 427 Ali is also regarded by some as the founder of Islamic theology and his sayings contain the first rational proofs of the unity of God tawhid in Islam 433 34 In later Islamic philosophy Ali s sayings and sermons were mined for metaphysical knowledge 3 In particular Nahj al balagha is a vital source for Shia philosophical doctrines after the Quran and Sunna 434 As a Shia imam statements and practices attributed to Ali are widely studied in Shia Islam where they are viewed as the continuation of prophetic teachings 427 Names and titlesSee also Abu Turab nbsp Mirror writing of Ali is the vicegerent of God Ottoman circa 1720 1730 Ali is known by many honorifics in the Islamic tradition some of which are especially used by Shias 3 His main kunya teknonym was ʾAbu al Ḥasan father of al Hasan 435 3 His titles include al Murtaḍa lit one with whom God is pleased or one who is chosen and contented 435 3 Asad Allah lit lion of God 436 Ḥaydar lit lion the name initially her mother gave him 435 Amir al Muʾminin lit commander of the faithful or prince of the faithful and Imam al Muttaqin lit leader of the God fearing 435 3 In particular Twelvers consider the title of Amir al Mu minin to be unique to Ali 437 He is also referred to as Abu Turab lit father of dust 3 which might have initially been a pejorative by his enemies 7 Character nbsp Ali s sword and shield carved on the Bab al Nasr Cairo Often praised for his piety and courage 215 438 7 Ali fought to uphold his beliefs 7 439 but was also magnanimous in victory 440 215 even risking the ire of some supporters to prevent the enslavement of women 7 He also showed his grief wept for the dead and reportedly prayed over his enemies 7 Yet Ali has also been criticized for his idealism and political inflexibility 7 224 for his egalitarian policies and strict justice antagonized many 441 223 Or perhaps these qualities were also present in Muhammad 226 225 whom the Quran addresses as They wish that thou Muhammad might compromise and that they might compromise 442 At any rate these qualities of Ali rooted in his religious beliefs contributed to his image today for his followers as a paragon of Islamic virtues 7 443 441 particularly justice 2 Ali is also viewed as the model par excellence for Islamic chivalry futuwwa 444 445 446 Historical accounts about Ali are often tendentious 7 For instance in person Ali is described in some Sunni sources as bald heavy built short legged with broad shoulders hairy body long white beard and affected by eye inflammation 7 Shia accounts about the appearance of Ali are markedly different Those perhaps better match his reputation as a capable warrior 447 Likewise in manner Ali is presented in some Sunni sources as rough brusque and unsociable 7 By contrast Shia sources describe him as generous gentle and cheerful 445 2 to the point that the Syrian war propaganda accused him of frivolity 221 Shia and Sufi sources are also replete with reports about his acts of kindness especially to the poor 448 The necessary qualities in a commander described in a letter attributed to Ali may have well been a portrait of himself slow to anger happy to pardon kind to the weak and severe with the strong 449 His companion Sa sa a ibn Suhan described him similarly He Ali was amongst us as one of us of gentle disposition intense humility leading with a light touch even though we were in awe of him with the kind of awe that a bound prisoner has before one who holds a sword over his head 2 449 Assessment and legacyMain articles Ali in the Quran Ali in hadith literature Sunni view of Ali and Shia view of Ali See also Administrative policies of Ali Druze and Yarsanism Ali nbsp Gouache illustration of Ali centre and his sons Hasan and Husayn 1838 by an unknown painterCaliphImamVenerated inIslamBahaʼi FaithDruze FaithYarsanismMajor shrineImam Ali Shrine Najaf In Islam Ali s place is said to be second only to Muhammad in Muslim culture 15 Ali is revered for his courage honesty unbending devotion to Islam magnanimity and equal treatment of all Muslims 440 For his admirers he has thus become the archetype of uncorrupted Islam and pre Islamic chivalry 443 In the Quran nbsp The verse of walaya possibly the most controversial statement in the Quran linked to Ali is engraved on the margins of this memorial stone dating to the Seljuk era Ali regularly represented Muhammad in missions which are commonly linked to Quranic injunctions 450 451 For instance the verse of walaya 5 55 is a reference to when Ali gave his ring to a beggar while praying in the mosque according to Shia and some Sunni accounts 452 If so then this verse gives Ali the same spiritual authority walaya as Muhammad 453 454 In Shia sources the verse of tabligh 5 67 spurred Muhammad to designate Ali as his successor at the Ghadir Khumm while the verse of ikmal al din 5 3 subsequently announced the perfection of Islam 455 The verse of purification 33 33 concerns the status of purity of the Ahl al Bayt lit people of the house which is limited to Ali Fatima and their two sons in Shia and some Sunni sources 456 457 458 Another reference to the Ahl al Bayt might be the verse of mawadda 42 23 459 460 461 For Shias this verse is a Quranic mandate to love and follow the Ahl al Bayt 462 459 In hadith literature Muhammad frequently praise the qualities of Ali The most controversial such statement He whose mawla I am Ali is his mawla was delivered at the Ghadir Khumm This gave Ali the same spiritual authority walaya as Muhammad according to the Shia 463 Elsewhere the hadith of the position likens Muhammad and Ali to Moses and Aaron 35 and thus supports the usurped right of Ali to succeed Muhammad in Shia Islam 464 Other examples in standard Shia and Sunni collections of hadith include There is no youth braver than Ali No one but a believer loves Ali and no one but a hypocrite munafiq hates Ali I am from Ali and Ali is from me and he is the wali lit patron or guardian of every believer after me The truth revolves around him Ali wherever he goes I am the city of knowledge and Ali is its gate bab Ali is with the Quran and the Quran is with Ali They will not separate until they return to me at the paradisal pool 465 34 In Sufism Ali is the common source of mystical and spiritual currents within both Sunni and Shia sects of Islam 466 467 In particular Ali is the spiritual head of some Sufi movements 1 for Sufis believe that Ali inherited from Muhammad his esoteric knowledge and saintly authority 3 which guide believers on their journey toward God 1 Nearly all Sufi orders trace their lineage to Muhammad through Ali an exception being the Naqshbandis who reach Muhammad through Abu Bakr 3 In Sunni Islam nbsp The word Ali in Arabic calligraphy inscribed in Hagia Sophia Turkey In Sunni Islam Ali is venerated as a close companion of Muhammad 468 a foremost authority on the Quran and Islamic law 432 469 and the fountainhead of wisdom in Sunni spirituality 466 When the prophet died in 632 Ali had his claims to leadership perhaps in reference to the Ghadir Khumm 111 43 but he eventually accepted the temporal rule of the first three caliphs in the interest of Muslim unity 470 Ali is portrayed in Sunni sources as a trusted advisor of the first three caliphs 3 15 while their conflicts with Ali are minimized 124 125 in line with the Sunni tendency to show accord among companions 125 471 472 As the fourth and final Rashidun caliph Ali holds a particularly high status in Sunni Islam although this doctrinal reverence for Ali is a recent development for which the prominent Sunni traditionist Ibn Hanbal d 855 is likely to be credited 1 Sunni hierarchy of companions places Ali below his three predecessors and above those who fought against him 1 473 468 This ordering has required Sunni reinterpretation of those prophetic sayings that explicitly elevate Ali above all companions 1 In Shia Islam nbsp Ali with his sons nineteenth century Iranian tapestry Ali takes center stage in Shia Islam 3 The Arabic word shi a itself is short for shi a of Ali lit followers of Ali 474 his name is incorporated into the daily call to prayer adhan 3 and he is regarded as the foremost companion of Muhammad 475 476 The defining doctrine of Shia Islam is that Ali was the rightful successor of Muhammad through divinely ordained designation 15 477 which is primarily a reference to the Ghadir Khumm 478 Ali is thought to have inherited the political and religious authority of Muhammad even before his ascension to the caliphate in 656 479 480 In particular Ali s predecessors are regarded as illegitimate rulers and usurpers of his rights 15 The all encompassing bond of loyalty between Shia Muslims and their imams and Muhammad in his capacity as imam is known as walaya 236 Ali is also thought to be endowed with the privilege of intercession on the Judgment Day 1 Early on some Shias even attributed divinity to Ali 15 475 but such extreme views were gradually rooted out of Shi ism 481 In Shia belief Ali also inherited the esoteric knowledge of Muhammad 2 482 for instance in view of the prophetic hadith I Muhammad am the city of knowledge and Ali is its gate 2 Ali is thus regarded after Muhammad as the interpreter par excellence of the Quran and the sole authoritative source of its esoteric teachings 478 Unlike Muhammad however Ali is not thought to have received divine revelation wahy though he might have been guided by divine inspiration ilham 479 483 Verse 21 73 of the Quran is sometimes cited here We made them imams guiding by Our command and We revealed awhayna to them the performance of good deeds the maintenance of prayers and the giving of zakat alms and they used to worship Us 484 Shia Muslims also believe in the infallibility of Ali as with Muhammad that is their divine protection from sins 1 485 Here the verse of purification is sometimes cited 486 487 Ali s words and deeds are therefore considered a model for the Shia community and a source for their religious injunctions 488 489 In Alawism The Alawites venerate Ali the first of the Twelve Imams as the physical manifestation of God 490 491 Even the Alawite testimony of faith shahada translates as there is no God but Ali 492 The Alawite trinity envisions God as being composed of three distinct manifestations Ma na meaning Ism Name and Bab Door which together constitute an indivisible trinity Ma na symbolises the source and meaning of all things in Alawite mythology According to Alawite doctrines Ma na generated the Ism which in turn built the Bab These beliefs are closely tied to the Alawite doctrine of reincarnations of the trinity 493 494 The final trinity of reincarnation in the Alawite trinity consists of Ali Ma na Muhammad Ism and Salman the Persian Bab Alewites depict them as the sky sun and moon respectively Alawites deify Ali as the last and supreme manifestation of God who built the universe attribute to him divine superiority and believe that Ali created Muhammad and gave him the mission to spread Qur anic teachings on earth 495 496 493 497 In other religions In the Druze faith Ali is considered a minor prophet like Plato and Socrates 498 Even though the faith originally developed out of the Isma ili branch of Shia Islam the Druze are not Muslims 499 500 and do not accept the five pillars of Islam 500 In Yarsanism a religion founded by the Kurdish mystic Sultan Sahak Ali is thought to be an incarnation of God 501 and superior to Muhammad 501 but their image as a Ghulat lit exaggerators or extremists subsect of Shia Islam is incorrect 501 HistoriographySee also Historiography of early Islam Much has been written about Ali in Islamic literature second only to Muhammad 3 However much of this material is colored by a positive or negative bias towards Ali 3 The primary sources about Ali are the Quran hadiths and other early Islamic works 3 the most notable being The Book of Sulaym ibn Qays attributed to a companion of Ali 502 Such works were initially scarce but this changed with the introduction of affordable paper in the Abbasid period For instance at least twenty one monographs were composed on the Battle of Siffin between 750 and 950 thirteen of which were authored by the early historian Abu Mikhnaf d 773 774 Most of these monographs are not extant except through quotations in later collections such as the tenth century Tarikh al Tabari 503 In addition to numerous works authored by Muslims the secondary sources about Ali include writings of Arab Christians Hindus and also works by Western scholars 3 When writing about Ali early Western scholars often dismissed as fabricated the reports gathered in later periods because their authors often advanced their own Sunni or Shia partisan views For instance L Caetani d 1935 often rejected the historical reports attributed to the pro Ali Ibn Abbas and anti Ali Aisha Caetani instead preferred accounts reported without isnad by early historians like Ibn Ishaq d 767 By contrast W Madelung d 2023 argued that the tendentiousness of a report alone does not imply its fabrication Madelung instead advocated for the authentication of historical reports on the basis of their compatibility with other events and figures 504 Footnotes a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad Gleave 2008 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Shah Kazemi 2015b a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai Afsaruddin amp Nasr 2023 Momen 1985 p 239 Sahih Muslim 1532b The Book of Transactions كتاب البيوع Sunnah com Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad صلى الله عليه و سلم sunnah com Retrieved 26 January 2024 Al Nawawi Yahya bin Sharaf Tahdhibul Asma Wal Lughat Rufoof pp vol 1 pg 409 ISBN 9786338026356 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am Veccia Vaglieri 2012a Rubin 1995 p 130 a b c d Momen 1985 p 12 Abbas 2021 p 34 Rubin 1995 pp 136 7 a b c d Huart 2012a Mavani 2013 p 71 98 Abbas 2021 pp 46 206 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an Poonawala 1982 Kassam amp Blomfield 2015 a b c d e f Buehler 2014 p 186 Klemm 2005 p 186 Qutbuddin 2006 p 248 Momen 1985 pp 13 14 a b Schmucker 2012 a b Madelung 1997 p 16 a b Osman 2015 p 110 Nasr et al 2015 p 379 Haider 2014 p 35 Haider 2014 p 36 McAuliffe 2023 Fedele 2018 p 56 Lalani 2006 p 29 Mavani 2013 p 72 Bill amp Williams 2002 p 29 a b Momen 1985 p 13 Momen 1985 p 14 a b c d Shah Kazemi 2014 a b Miskinzoda 2015 p 69 Miskinzoda 2015 pp 76 7 Shah Kazemi 2019 p 46 Faizer 2006 Donner 2010 pp 72 3 Arafat 1976 Dakake 2007 pp 34 9 Mavani 2013 p 79 a b c d e f g Amir Moezzi 2014 a b Momen 1985 p 16 a b Mavani 2013 p 80 a b c d e Veccia Vaglieri 2012b Lalani 2000 p 70 71 Dakake 2007 p 34 Lalani 2000 p 71 Dakake 2007 pp 34 7 Momen 1985 p 15 a b c Veccia Vaglieri 2012d Jones 2009 Mavani 2013 p 20 Dakake 2007 p 35 Lalani 2011 Jafri 1979 p 20 a b Dakake 2007 p 45 Mavani 2013 p 2 Dakake 2007 p 47 Jafri 1979 p 21 Mavani 2013 p 70 Dakake 2007 p 46 Dakake 2007 pp 44 5 Lalani 2006 p 590 a b Madelung 1997 p 253 McHugo 2017 2 IV Dakake 2007 p 41 a b Afsaruddin 2013 p 51 a b c d Jafri 1979 p 39 Momen 1985 p 18 Madelung 1997 pp 30 2 Jafri 1979 p 37 Madelung 1997 p 35 Madelung 1997 pp 31 33 Momen 1985 pp 18 9 Madelung 1997 pp 36 40 McHugo 2017 1 III Madelung 1997 p 5 Mavani 2013 p 34 Keaney 2021 3 1 a b Walker 2014 p 3 Lecomte 2012 Shaban 1971 p 16 Khetia 2013 pp 31 2 a b Madelung 1997 p 32 a b Fedele 2018 a b Madelung 1997 p 43 a b Jafri 1979 p 40 Qutbuddin 2006 p 249 Cortese amp Calderini 2006 p 8 Jafri 1979 p 41 a b Madelung 1997 pp 43 4 Jafri 1979 pp 40 1 Soufi 1997 p 86 a b Khetia 2013 p 78 Abbas 2021 p 98 Soufi 1997 pp 84 5 Ayoub 2014 pp 17 20 Khetia 2013 p 35 Soufi 1997 p 84 Khetia 2013 p 38 Jafri 1979 p 47 Madelung 1997 p 50 Mavani 2013 p 116 Soufi 1997 pp 104 105 a b Sajjadi 2018 Veccia Vaglieri 2012c Soufi 1997 p 100 a b c d Madelung 1997 p 141 a b Momen 1985 pp 19 20 McHugo 2017 p 40 Jafri 1979 p 44 Madelung 1997 pp 141 253 Mavani 2013 p 113 114 Momen 1985 p 62 Mavani 2013 pp 114 117 Shah Kazemi 2019 p 79 a b c Anthony 2013 a b Mavani 2013 p 117 Aslan 2005 p 122 Madelung 1997 pp 42 52 54 213 4 Abbas 2021 p 94 a b c Jafri 1979 p 45 a b c Shah Kazemi 2019 p 78 Shah Kazemi 2019 p 81 Dakake 2007 p 50 Jafri 1979 pp 47 8 Momen 1985 p 20 Veccia Vaglieri 2012a p 382 Afsaruddin 2013 p 32 Ayoub 2014 p 32 Jafri 1979 p 46 a b c d Glasse 2001 p 40 Tabatabai 1975 p 158 Abbas 2021 p 89 Madelung 1997 p 22 Madelung 1997 pp 66 7 Madelung 1997 pp 62 65 Madelung 1997 pp 62 64 Madelung 1997 p 67 Pellat 1983 a b Jafri 1979 p 50 Jafri 1979 p 52 Ayoub 2014 p 43 Madelung 1997 p 71 a b c Jafri 1979 p 51 a b c Momen 1985 p 21 a b c Jafri 1979 p 54 Kennedy 2016 p 60 Keaney 2021 3 4 Shaban 1971 pp 62 3 Madelung 1997 pp 71 2 Jafri 1979 pp 52 3 Abbas 2021 p 116 Madelung 1997 p 68 Jafri 1979 pp 52 53 55 a b Madelung 1997 p 87 a b Veccia Vaglieri 1970 p 67 Shah Kazemi 2019 p 84 Dakake 2007 p 52 Madelung 1997 pp 108 113 Jafri 1979 p 53 a b Madelung 1997 p 108 a b c Hinds 1972a p 467 Madelung 1997 p 109 a b c Jafri 1979 p 63 a b Daftary 2014 p 30 Madelung 1997 p 98 Madelung 1997 pp 100 2 Jafri 1979 p 59 Madelung 1997 pp 107 8 a b c d Momen 1985 p 22 Jafri 1979 p 62 a b McHugo 2017 p 49 Madelung 1997 p 121 Madelung 1997 pp 118 9 Madelung 1997 p 128 a b c d e f g Anthony 2013 p 31 Madelung 1997 p 111 Veccia Vaglieri 1970 p 68 Madelung 1997 pp 111 119 Madelung 1997 p 122 Madelung 1997 p 123 a b c d Madelung 1997 p 112 a b c Madelung 1997 p 127 Levi Della Vida amp Khoury 2012 Madelung 1997 p 126 Hinds 1972a Donner 2010 p 152 a b c Kennedy 2016 p 65 a b c d e f g h i j Veccia Vaglieri 2012f Donner 2010 p 157 a b c Lapidus 2002 p 56 a b Ayoub 2014 p 81 a b c d e f g h Bahramian 2015 a b Madelung 1997 pp 142 3 a b Momen 1985 p 24 Ayoub 2014 p 70 Madelung 1997 p 143 a b c d Madelung 1997 p 147 a b Jafri 1979 p 64 Madelung 1997 pp 144 5 Madelung 1997 p 144 a b Shaban 1971 p 71 Ayoub 2014 p 85 Veccia Vaglieri 1970 p 69 a b Shaban 1971 p 72 a b c d Donner 2010 p 158 Keaney 2021 3 5 Madelung 1997 p 72 Abbas 2021 p 115 It was only when Yazdegerd died A D 651 that some mark of Arab authority was added to the coinage Plate II 1 Marv 651 52 Most early drahms have only a short Arabic religious inscription in the margin such as besm Allah in the name of God with the name of Yazdegerd or his predecessor Ḵosrow II but a few have the name of ʿAbdallah b ʿAmer conqueror and governor of southern and eastern Iran The most common name in the first two decades of Arab rule is Ḵosrow II https www iranicaonline org articles arab sasanian coins Madelung 1997 pp 309 10 a b c d e f Momen 1985 p 25 Tabatabai 1975 p 43 McHugo 2017 p 53 a b Ayoub 2014 p 91 a b Madelung 1997 p 148 a b c Tabatabai 1975 p 45 a b Shah Kazemi 2019 p 105 Madelung 1997 p 272 a b c Tabatabai 1975 p 44 a b Madelung 1997 pp 149 50 a b Shah Kazemi 2019 p 89 a b c Tabatabai 1975 p 46 Tabatabai 1975 p 64 Nasr et al 2015 p 3203 Shah Kazemi 2019 pp 89 90 Madelung 1997 p 150 Shah Kazemi 2019 p 77 a b Shaban 1971 p 73 Shaban 1971 pp 72 73 Mavani 2013 pp 67 68 Dakake 2007 p 57 a b c Haider 2014 p 34 Dakake 2007 p 60 Madelung 1997 pp 251 252 Dakake 2007 p 59 Jafri 1979 p 71 Dakake 2007 pp 58 59 Dakake 2007 p 262n30 Jafri 1979 p 67 Abbas 2021 p 133 Shah Kazemi 2019 p 90 Ayoub 2014 p 83 Shah Kazemi 2019 pp 84 90 Jafri 1979 pp 55 6 Ayoub 2014 p 94 a b Ayoub 2014 p 95 a b c McHugo 2017 p 64 Madelung 1997 p 264 Shah Kazemi 2019 pp 105 6 Madelung 1997 p 276 Abbas 2021 p 153 Lambton 1991 pp xix xx Abbas 2021 p 156 a b Heck 2023 a b c Shah Kazemi 2019 p 94 Ayoub 2014 p 84 Shah Kazemi 2019 p 115 Ayoub 2014 p 109 Ayoub 2014 p 108 Ayoub 2014 pp 109 10 Madelung 1997 p 227 Ayoub 2014 pp 111 2 Ayoub 2014 p 89 Madelung 1997 p 133 Cappucci 2014 p 19 a b Madelung 1997 p 157 Aslan 2005 p 132 a b McHugo 2017 2 II Madelung 1997 pp 98 101 107 Ayoub 2014 p 88 a b Hinds 1971 p 361 Madelung 1997 p 166 Hazleton 2009 p 107 a b Madelung 1997 p 169 a b c Donner 2010 p 159 Madelung 1997 pp 169 70 a b c Madelung 1997 p 170 Hazleton 2009 p 113 Abbas 2021 p 139 Madelung 1997 pp 171 2 Abbas 2021 p 140 Madelung 1997 p 171 Madelung 1997 p 172 a b Abbas 2021 p 141 Hazleton 2009 p 121 Madelung 1997 p 180 1 Hazleton 2009 p 122 Madelung 1997 p 182 Madelung 1997 p 194 Petersen 1958 p 165 Ayoub 2014 p 97 Madelung 1997 p 190 Abbas 2021 p 144 Rahman 1995 p 58 Donner 2010 p 160 Ayoub 2014 p 99 Madelung 1997 p 196 Madelung 1997 p 203 Madelung 1997 p 204 Madelung 1997 pp 204 205 a b c d Shah Kazemi 2014 p 23 Shah Kazemi 2019 pp 95 6 Madelung 1997 p 186 Kennedy 2016 p 66 a b c d McHugo 2017 2 III Madelung 1997 p 226 a b c Lecker 2012 a b c d e f g Donner 2010 p 161 a b c Shaban 1971 p 75 Kennedy 2016 p 67 Madelung 1997 p 232 Hazleton 2009 p 198 a b Madelung 1997 p 234 Madelung 1997 p 235 Ayoub 2014 p 119 Abbas 2021 p 149 a b c d Madelung 1997 p 238 Adamec 2017 p 406 Veccia Vaglieri 1970 p 70 Ayoub 2014 pp 123 4 Hinds 1972b p 97 a b Madelung 1997 p 241 Hinds 1972b p 98 Madelung 1997 pp 241 2 a b c Afsaruddin 2013 p 53 Dakake 2007 pp 1 2 a b Madelung 1997 p 243 Dakake 2007 p 1 a b Madelung 1997 p 247 Madelung 1997 p 245 a b Rauf 2007 p 191 Madelung 1997 p 248 249 a b c Donner 2010 p 163 a b Levi Della Vida 2012 Donner 2010 p 162 Hinds 1972b p 100 Hinds 1972b p 101 Rauf 2007 pp 190 191 Madelung 1997 pp 249 50 Ayoub 2014 p 129 a b c d e Madelung 1997 p 255 Aslan 2005 p 137 a b Madelung 1997 p 256 a b c Madelung 1997 p 257 Madelung 1997 p 286 a b c Donner 2010 p 165 Fadel 2013 p 43 Hinds 1972b p 102 Jafri 1979 p 65 Daftary 2013 p 31 Madelung 1997 pp 257 8 Madelung 1997 pp 255 257 a b Madelung 1997 pp 259 60 Wellhausen 1901 pp 17 18 Madelung 1997 p 254 Madelung 1997 p 260 a b c Wellhausen 1901 p 18 Madelung 1997 pp 259 261 a b Madelung 1997 pp 260 1 Wellhausen 1927 p 85 Ayoub 2014 pp 141 171 a b c Donner 2010 p 164 a b Madelung 1997 p 262 Madelung 1997 p 261 Kelsay 1993 p 87 Shah Kazemi 2019 pp 97 8 Ayoub 2014 p 141 a b Shaban 1971 p 77 a b Jafri 1979 p 123 Kennedy 2016 p 68 Kennedy 2016 p 69 Madelung 1997 pp 268 9 Madelung 1997 pp 262 288 291 293 Madelung 1997 p 307 Donner 2010 p 166 a b c Veccia Vaglieri 2012g Madelung 1997 p 308 a b Kohlberg 1982 Momen 1985 p 26 a b Veccia Vaglieri 2012e Madelung 1997 p 311 Momen 1985 pp 26 7 Jafri 1979 p 91 a b Momen 1985 p 27 a b Jafri 1979 pp 109 10 a b Madelung 1997 p 334 a b c d Lewis 2012 Dakake 2007 pp 67 78 a b c d e f g h i j Daftary 2014 a b c Huart 2012b a b Madelung 2003 Momen 1985 p 28 Anthony 2013 p 216 McHugo 2017 p 104 Momen 1985 p 69 Momen 1985 pp 49 50 Momen 1985 p 71 Donner 1999 p 26 Sachedina 1981 p 25 Dakake 2007 p 211 Pierce 2016 p 44 Momen 1985 p 44 a b McHugo 2017 p 107 Momen 1985 p 161 a b Amir Moezzi 1998 McHugo 2017 p 108 Haider 2014 p 92 Daftary 2007 pp 2 110 128 a b Thomas 2008 a b c Esposito 2003 p 227 a b Shah Kazemi 2006 Djebli 2012 Dakake 2007 p 225 Shah Kazemi 2007 p 4 Jozi amp Shah Kazemi 2015 Modarressi 2003 p 2 Modarressi 1993 p 13 Amir Moezzi 2009 p 24 Momen 1985 pp 77 81 Amir Moezzi 1994 p 89 Esposito 2003 pp 175 176 Modarressi 2003 p 5 a b c d e Pakatchi 2015 Modarressi 2003 pp 12 13 Modarressi 2003 p 17 Modarressi 2003 p 3 Hulmes 2008 p 45 a b Lalani 2006 p 28 Nasr 2006 pp 2 120 Corbin 2006 pp 35 36 a b c d Haj Manouchehri 2015 Alizadeh 2015 Gibb 2012 Shah Kazemi 2019 p 72 Steigerwald 2004 a b Madelung 1997 pp 309 310 a b Ayoub 2014 p 134 Tabatabai 1975 pp 46 64 a b Madelung 1997 p 310 Shah Kazemi 2007 p 189n1 a b Glasse 2001 p 41 Momen 1985 p 90 Abbas 2021 p 63 Shah Kazemi 2019 pp 35 36 a b Shah Kazemi 2019 p 104 Lalani 2006 Momen 1985 pp 11 12 Nasr et al 2015 p 706 Nasr et al 2015 p 706 7 Mavani 2013 p 46 Mavani 2013 pp 70 71 Momen 1985 pp 16 17 Leaman 2006 Momen 1985 pp 16 7 325 a b Lalani 2000 p 66 Momen 1985 p 152 Mavani 2013 pp 41 60 Mavani 2013 p 41 Tabatabai 1975 p 35 Miskinzoda 2015 p 76 Momen 1985 pp 14 15 a b Shah Kazemi 2007 p 134 Louer 2020 p 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