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Wikipedia

White Mexicans

October 21, 2023

White Mexicans (Spanish: Mexicanos blancos) are individuals in Mexico who identify as white, often due to their physical appearance or their recognition of European ancestry[8][dead link]. The Mexican government conducts ethnic censuses that allow individuals to identify as "White,"[9] but the specific results of these censuses are not made public. Instead, the government releases data on the percentage of "light-skinned Mexicans" in the country, which was 47% in 2010[4] and increased to 49% in 2017.[10] The term "Light-skinned Mexican" is preferred by both the government and media to describe individuals in Mexico who possess European physical traits when discussing ethno-racial dynamics.[11] However, "White Mexican" is still used at times[12][13][14][15][16]

White Mexicans
Mexicanos blancos
Total population
Mexico
Estimates range 18 million to 59 million[1][2][3][4]
9–47% of Mexican population[2]
United States
16,794,111[5]
Regions with significant populations
Plurality population in Sonora, Sinaloa, Baja California Sur, Baja California, Durango, Jalisco, Zacatecas, Coahuila, Chihuahua, Nuevo León, Mexico City
Languages
Spanish,
Venetian (Chipilo Venetian),
Plautdietsch[6]
Religion
Christianity (predominantly Roman Catholicism, minority Protestantism), Judaism, Mormonism
Related ethnic groups
Other White Latin Americans · Spaniards · Italians · French · Germans[7] · Mestizos

Estimates of Mexico's white population vary significantly due to different methodologies and percentages. Unofficial sources like the World Factbook and Encyclopædia Britannica, which base their estimates on the 1921 census results, suggest a white Mexican population ranging from 9%[1] to 20%-30%.[2] However, the accuracy of the 1921 census results has been contested by historians.[17] Recent research also suggests that Mexicans may not identify in the way these sources indicate.[18]

Surveys that consider phenotypical traits and field research yield higher percentages of white Mexicans. For instance, one study using blond hair as a reference found that 23% of the Metropolitan Autonomous University of Mexico population could be classified as white.[19] The American Sociological Association obtained a nationwide percentage of 18.8% using a similar method.[20] Another study conducted by the University College London in collaboration with National Institute of Anthropology and History found that 18% of Mexicans had blond hair, and 28% had light eyes.[21] Nationwide surveys from the National Council to Prevent Discrimination using skin color as a reference report percentages of 47%[3] and 49%[10][9] respectively.

The presence of Europeans in Mexico dates back to the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, and during the colonial period, most European immigration was Spanish. However, in the 19th and 20th centuries, significant waves of European and European-derived populations from North and South America immigrated to Mexico. This intermixing between European immigrants and Indigenous peoples resulted in the emergence of the Mestizo group, which became the majority of Mexico's population by the time of the Mexican Revolution.[8]

Some scholars challenge this narrative, citing church and census records that indicate interracial unions in Mexico were rare among all groups.[22][23] These records also dispute other academic narratives, such as the idea that European immigrants were predominantly male or that "pure Spanish" individuals formed a small elite. In fact, Spaniards were often the most numerous ethnic group in colonial cities[24][25] and there were menial workers and people in poverty who were of full Spanish origin.[23], and there were impoverished individuals of full Spanish origin.

In addition to White Mexicans and Indigenous populations, there is a group known as Mestizos. Mestizos have varying degrees of European and Indigenous ancestry, with some having European genetic ancestry exceeding 90%. Genetic evidence suggests[26] While genetic evidence suggests that most European immigrants to Mexico were male, and that the modern population of Mexico was primarily formed through the mixing of Spanish males and Native American females,[27][28][29][30] how pronounced said gender asymmetry was varies considerably depending on the study. The Native American maternal contribution figures range from 90% to 59%,[31] while research on the X chromosome shows less variation, with the reported Native American female contribution oscillating between 50%[26] and 54%.[32] The criteria for defining what constitutes a Mestizo varies from study to study, as in Mexico a large number of European-descended people have been historically classified as Mestizos. After the Mexican Revolution the Mexican government began defining ethnicity on cultural standards (mainly the language spoken) rather than racial ones.[33]

Distribution and estimates Edit

 
White Mexican women wearing the mantilla, painting by Carl Nebel, 1836.

Contrary to popular belief, Mexico's government does conduct ethnic censuses on which a Mexican has the choice of identify as "White",[9] the results, however, remain unpublished. Instead the Mexican government does publish results regarding the frequencies of different phenotypical traits in Mexicans such as skin color, and in discourses and investigations regarding problematics such as racism has opted for splitting Mexicans on "light skinned Mexicans" and "dark skinned Mexicans" rather than on "White Mexicans" and "Mestizo Mexicans". Other studies made by independent institutions often use the presence of light hair colors (particularly blond) to calculate Mexico's white population, however to use such features to delineate said ethnic group results in an underestimation of its numbers as not all of Europe's native populations have those traits, similarly, not only people with those phenotypical features are considered to be white by the majority of Mexican society.[15][16]

Mexico's northern and western regions have the highest percentages of white population.[34] In the north and west of Mexico, the indigenous tribes were substantially smaller and less urbanized than those found in central and southern Mexico, thus they remained isolated from colonial population centers and were often hostile towards Mexican colonists. The northeast region, in which the indigenous population was eliminated by early European settlers, became the region with the highest proportion of whites during the Spanish colonial period. However, recent immigrants from southern Mexico have been changing, to some degree.[2]

 
Results of the survey conducted by the CONAPRED in 2010.[35]

In 2010, the CONAPRED (Mexico's National Council for the Prevention of Discrimination) conducted the ENADIS 2010 (National Survey About Discrimination)[4] with the purpose of addressing the problems of racism that Mexicans of mainly Indigenous or African ancestry suffer at hands of a society that favors light-skinned, European-looking Mexicans.[11] In the press release of said report, the CONAPRED stated that 47% of Mexicans (54% of women and 40% of men) identified with the lightest skin colors used in the census questionnaire. The council makes the supposition that the high difference reported between males and females is due to the "frequently racist publicity in media and due racial prejudices in Mexico's society which shuns dark skin in favor of light skin, thus making women think that white is beautiful," stating that men are more likely to recognize their real skin color.[36] Notably, a subsequent question in the same survey asks Mexicans to evaluate, from 0 to 10, how comfortable they are with their skin color, with the average score being 9.4 out of 10.[37] Furthermore, scientific research proving that human females tend to have lighter skin than their male counterparts exists.[38][39]

Besides the visual identification of skin color, the same survey included a question on which it asked Mexicans "what would they call their skin color?" while the press report by the CONAPRED remarks that six out of ten people considered themselves to be "moreno" (brunette in English) and only one out of ten considered their skin to be "blanco" (white).[40] The questionnaire included as choices other words that are colloquially used to refer to white people in Mexico such as "güero" (informal for white), "claro" (clear), "aperlado" (pearly) and other words that may or not refer to a white person depending on the case, such as "quemadito" (burnt), "bronceado" (tanned), "apiñonado" (spiced), "amarillo" (yellow) and "canela" (cinnamon). Further complicating the situation, several words used specifically for brown skin also appear as choices such as "café" (brown), "negro" (black), "chocolate" (translation unnecessary), "oscuro" (dark), "prieto" (very dark) and "trigueño" (other word for brown).[41] The word "moreno" itself has a very wide definition in Spanish and has no specific racial connotations, being used equally to define light-skinned people with dark hair as to define people of African ancestry.[42]

Skin Type Percentage (inegi 2017)
 A  0.2%
 B  0.5%
 C  1.0%
 D  3.0%
 E  2.7%
 F  13.0%
 G  30.0%
 H  37.4%
 I  5.2%
 J  4.9%
 K  2.1%

In 2017, Mexico's National Institute of Statistics and Geography published the Intergenerational Social Mobility Module (MMSI),[9] composed of a series of nationwide surveys focused on education, generational economic mobility and ethnicity. It is particularly notorious for giving Mexicans the possibility to identify with a race (the available choices being "Indigenous", "Mestizo", "White", “Black” or "Other"). While the results of questions directly related to race were published, the percentage of Mexicans who identified with each race was not. Also included in the survey was a color palette (the same as the one used in the PERLA project: composed of 11 different tones with "A" being the darkest and "K" being the lightest) so a person could choose what color the skin of his/her face was. The percentage of Mexicans that identified with each skin color was not included in the main MMSI document but unlike racial composition it was made public through other official publications.[10] The study's results received significant media coverage, which led to discussions about concepts including systemic racism, white privilege and colonialism.[12][43] The study concluded that Mexicans with medium ("F" tone) and darker skin tones have in average lower profile occupations than Mexicans with lighter skin tones. Also stated is that Mexicans with lighter skin tones (lighter than "F") have higher levels of academic achievement.[9] The study also points out that out of the 4 racial categories used in the study, that of Indigenous Mexicans is the one that shows the highest percentage of positive social mobility (meaning that a person is better off than his/her parents were) while White Mexicans are the ones who have the lowest positive social mobility.[9]

 
Nailea Norvind, Mexican actress

In 2018, the new edition of the ENADIS was published, this time being a joint effort by the CONAPRED and the INEGI with collaboration of the UNAM, the CONACyT and the CNDH.[44] Like its 2010 antecessor, it surveyed Mexican citizens about topics related to discrimination and collected data related to phenotype and ethnic self-identification. It concluded that Mexico is still a fairly conservative country regarding minority groups such as religious minorities, ethnic minorities, foreigners and members of the LGBT community. Albeit there's pronounced regional differences, with states in the south-center regions of Mexico having in general notoriously higher discrimination rates towards the aforementioned social groups than the ones states in the western-north regions have.[44] For the collecting of data related to skin color the palette used was again the PERLA one. This time 11% of Mexicans were reported to have "dark skin tones (A-E)" 59% to have "medium skin tones (F-G)" and 29% to have "light skin tones (H-K)".[44] The reason for the huge difference regarding the reported percentages of Mexicans with light skin (around 18% lower) and medium skin (around 16% higher) in the relation to previous nationwide surveys lies in the fact that the ENADIS 2017 prioritized the surveying of Mexicans from "vulnerable groups" which among other measures meant that states with known high numbers of people from said groups surveyed more people.[45]

Independent field studies have been made in attempt to quantify the number of European Mexicans living in modern Mexico, using blond hair as reference to classify a Mexican as white, the Metropolitan Autonomous University of Mexico calculated their percentage at 23%, the study explicitly states that red-haired people were not classified as white but as "other."[19] A study made by the University College London which included multiple Latin American countries and was made with collaboration of each country's anthropology and genetics institutes reported that the frequency of blond hair and light eyes in Mexicans was of 18.5% and 28.5% respectively,[21] making Mexico the country with the second-highest frequency of blond hair in the study. Despite this, the European ancestry estimated for Mexicans is also the second-lowest of all countries included, the reason behind such discrepancy may lie in the fact that the samples used in Mexico's case were highly disproportional, as the northern and western regions of Mexico contain 45% of Mexico's population, but no more than 10% of the samples used in the study came from the states located in these regions. For the most part, the rest of the samples hailed from Mexico City and southern Mexican states.[46]

In 2010 a study published by the American Sociological Association explored social inequalities between Mexicans of different skin colors. The field research consisted of three waves of interviews on different Mexican states during the timespan of a year, people surveyed where split on 3 different groups: "White," "Light brown" and "Dark brown," with the classification being up to the criteria of the interviewers who is claimed, were trained for the task. It is stated that, in order to obtain stable results and prevent inconsistencies regarding who belongs to a given category, additional phenotypical traits besides the respondents' skin color were considered, such as the presence of blond hair in the case of individuals that were to be classified in the "White" category, because "unlike skin color, hair color does not darken with exposure to sunlight." It is indeed claimed within the study that out of the three color categories used, the percentages obtained for the "White" one through the three waves of interviews were the most consistent. According to the results of the study, the average percentage of Mexicans who were classified as "White" per the presence of blond hair was 18.8%, with the Northeast and Northwest regions having the highest frequencies at 23.9% and 22.3% respectively, followed by the Center region with 21.3%, the Center-West region with 18.4% and finally the South region with 11.9%. The study makes the clarification that Mexico City (Center region) as well as rural areas of the states of Oaxaca, Chiapas (both from the south region) and Jalisco (Center-West region) were oversampled.[20]

The following tables (the first from a study published in 2002[47] and the second from a study published in 2018[48]) show the frequencies of different blood types in various Mexican cities and states, as Mexico's Amerindian/Indigenous population exclusively exhibits the "O" blood type, the presence of other blood groups can give an approximate idea of the amount of foreign influence there is in each state that has been analyzed. The results of this studies however, shouldn't be taken as exact, literal estimations for the percentages of different ethnic groups that there may be in Mexico (I.E. A+B blood groups = percentage of White Mexicans) for reasons such as the fact that a Mestizo Mexican can have "A", "B" etc. blood types or the fact that the "O" blood type does exist in Europe, with it having a frequency of 44% in Spain for example.[49]

City State O (%) A (%) B (%) AB (%)
La Paz Baja California Sur 58.49% 31.4% 8.40% 1.71%
Guadalajara Jalisco 57.2% 31.2% 9.7% 1.9%
Gómez Palacio Durango 57.99% 29.17% 10.76% 2.08%
Ciudad Victoria Tamaulipas 63.6% 27.3% 7.4% 1.7%
Monterrey Nuevo Leon 63.1% 26.5% 9.0% 1.4%
Veracruz Veracruz 64.2% 25.7% 8.1% 2.0%
Saltillo Coahuila 64.2% 24.9% 9.7% 1.2%
Saladero Veracruz 60.5% 28.6% 10.9% 0.0%
Torreón Coahuila 66.35% 24.47% 8.3% 0.88%
Mexico City Mexico City 67.7% 23.4% 7.2% 1.7%
Durango Durango 55.1% 38.6% 6.3% 0.0%
Ciudad del Carmen Campeche 69.7% 22.0% 6.4% 1.8%
Mérida Yucatan 67.5% 21.1% 10.5% 0.9%
Leon Guanajuato 65.3% 24.7% 6.0% 4.0%
Zacatecas Zacatecas 61.9% 22.2% 13.5% 2.4%
Tlaxcala Tlaxcala 71.7% 19.6% 6.5% 2.2%
Puebla Puebla 72.3% 19.5% 7.4% 0.8%
Oaxaca Oaxaca 71.8% 20.5% 7.7% 0.0%
Paraiso Tabasco 75.8% 14.9% 9.3% 0.0%
Total ~~ 65.0% 25.0% 8.6% 1.4%
State O (%) A (%) B (%) AB (%)
Baja California 60.25% 28.79% 9.03% 1.92%
Sonora 58.58% 30.48% 9.11% 1.84%
Sinaloa 56.46% 32.93% 8.56% 2.05%
Durango 59.29% 26.89% 11.33% 2.50%
Coahuila 66.17% 23.49% 9.01% 1.33%
Nuevo Leon 62.43% 25.62% 10.10% 1.85%
Nayarit 59.20% 29.62% 9.32% 1.85%
Jalisco 57.85% 29.95% 9.78% 2.42%
Michoacan 60.25% 29.51% 9.04% 2.44%
Puebla 74.36% 18.73% 6.05% 0.87%
Veracruz 67.82% 21.90% 8.94% 1.34%
San Luis Potosi 67.47% 24.27% 7.28% 0.97%
Aguascalientes 61.42% 26.25% 10.28% 2.05%
Guanajuato 61.98% 26.83% 9.33% 1.85%
Queretaro 65.71% 23.60% 9.40% 1.29%
State of Mexico 70.68% 21.11% 7.18% 1.04%
Mexico City 66.72% 23.70% 8.04% 1.54%
Total 61.82% 27.43% 8.93% 1.81%

Both studies find similar trends regarding the distribution of different blood groups, with foreign blood groups being more common in the North and Western regions of Mexico, which is congruent with the findings of genetic studies that have been made in the country through the years. It is also observed that "A" and "B" blood groups are more common among younger volunteers whereas "AB" and "O" are more common in older ones. The total number of analyzed samples in the 2018 study was 271,164.

A study performed in hospitals of Mexico City reported that in average 51.8% of Mexican newborns presented the congenital skin birthmark known as the Mongolian spot whilst it was absent in 48.2% of the analyzed babies.[50] The Mongolian spot appears with a very high frequency (85-95%) in Asian, Native American and African children.[51] The skin lesion reportedly almost always appears on South American[52] and Mexican children who are racially Mestizos[53] while having a very low frequency (5-10%) in Caucasian children.[54] According to the Mexican Social Security Institute (shortened as IMSS) nationwide, around half of Mexican babies have the Mongolian spot.[55]

According to the 2010 US Census, 52.8% of Mexican Americans (approximately 16,794,111 people) self-identified as being White.[56]

Genetic research Edit

 
European Genetic Admixture in the Mexican Population
 
Mexican girls[citation needed] of European ancestry in Zapopan, Jalisco.

The numerous studies of the genetic makeup Mexican population have yielded a myriad of different results; it is not unusual that different genetic studies done in the same location vary greatly. Clear examples of such variations are seen in the city of Monterrey, in the state of Nuevo León, which, depending on the study, presents an average European ancestry ranging from 38%[57] to 78%,[58] and in Mexico City, whose European admixture ranges from as little as 21%[59] to as high as 70%.[60] The reasons behind such variation may include the socioeconomic background of the analyzed samples,[60] as well as the criteria for recruiting volunteers: some studies only analyze Mexicans who self-identify as Mestizos,[61] others may classify the entire Mexican population as "mestizo",[62] other studies may do both, such as the 2009 genetic study published by the INMEGEN (Mexico's National Institute of Genomic Medicine), which states that 93% of the Mexican population is Mestizo with the remaining population being Amerindian, this particular statement having received considerable media exposure through the years[63][64] to the dismay of scientists from the aforementioned institute, who have complained about the study being misinterpreted by the press as it wasn't meant to represent Mexico's population as a whole.[65] According to the methodology of the aforementioned study, the institute only recruited people who explicitly self-identified as Mestizos.[66] Finally, there are studies which avoid using any racial classification whatsoever, including in them any person who self-identifies as Mexican; these studies are the ones that usually report the highest European admixture for a given location.[67]

The Mestizaje ideology, which has blurred the lines of race at an institutional level has also had a significant influence in genetic studies done in Mexico.[65] As the criteria used in studies to determine if a Mexican is Mestizo or indigenous often lies in cultural traits such as the language spoken instead of racial self-identification or a phenotype-based selection there are studies on which populations who are considered to be Indigenous per virtue of the language spoken show a higher degree of European genetic admixture than the one populations considered to be Mestizo report in other studies.[68] The opposite also happens, as there instances on which populations considered to be Mestizo show genetic frequencies very similar to continental European peoples in the case of Mestizos from the state of Durango[69] or to European derived Americans in the case of Mestizos from the state of Jalisco.[70]

Regardless of the criteria used, all the autosomal DNA studies made coincide on there being a significant genetic variation depending on the region analyzed, with southern Mexico having prevalent Amerindian and small but higher than average African genetic contributions, the central region of Mexico shows a balance between Amerindian and European components,[71] with the later gradually increasing as one travels northwards and westwards, where European ancestry becomes the majority of the genetic contribution[72] up until cities located in the Mexico–United States border, where studies suggest there is a significant resurgence of Amerindian and African admixture.[73]

To date, no genetic research focusing on Mexicans of complete or predominant European ancestry has been made.

A 2014 publication summarizing population genetics research in Mexico, including three nationwide surveys and several region-specific surveys, found that in the studies done to date, counting only studies that looked at the ancestry of both parents (autosomal ancestry): "Amerindian ancestry is most prevalent (51% to 56%) in the three general estimates (initially published by the INMEGEN in 2009), followed by European ancestry (40% to 45%); the African share represents only 2% to 5%. In Mexico City, the European contribution was estimated as 21% to 32% in six of the seven reports, with the anomalous value of 57% obtained in a single sample of 19 subjects, albeit said percentage can't really be called anomalous, as autosomal studies that obtain percentages of European ancestry of 51%,[74] 52%,[67] 70%[60] and 52%,[75] exists, (with the last one being for Mexico's central region as a whole) but were not included on this publication for unspecified reasons. According to the studies that were included, European ancestry is most prevalent in the north (Chihuahua, 50%; Sonora, 62%; Nuevo León, 55%), but in a recent sample from Nuevo León and elsewhere in the country, Amerindian ancestry is dominant."[76]

A 2006 nationwide autosomal study, the first ever conducted by Mexico's National Institute of Genomic Medicine (INMEGEN), which included the states of Guerrero, Oaxaca, Veracruz, Yucatan, Zacatecas and Sonora reported that self-identified Mestizo Mexicans are 58.96% European, 35.05% Amerindian, and 5.03% Other.[61]

A 2007 study that included Mexicans from Mexico City reported that the autosomal ancestry of Mexicans was 52% European, while the Native American ancestry was 44%. However, the authors noted that Native American ancestry on the X chromosome was 54%. The authors stated that this is consistent with the genetic formation of Latinos, a process which involved primarily European males and Native American females.[32]

Establishment of Europeans in Mexico Edit

 
El Hacendero y su Mayordomo (The Hacendero and his Butler). Painting by Carl Nebel, c. 1836.
 
Portrait of the family Fagoga Arozqueta. An upper class colonial Mexican family of Spanish ancestry (referred to as Criollos) in Mexico City, New Spain, ca. 1730.

The presence of Europeans in what is nowadays known as Mexico dates back to the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in the early 16th century[77][78] by Hernán Cortés, his troops and a number of indigenous city states who were tributaries and rivals of the Aztecs, such as the Totonacs, the Tlaxcaltecas and Texcocans among others. After years of war the coalition led by Cortés finally managed to conquer the Aztec Empire which would result on the foundation of the Viceroyalty of New Spain and while this new state granted a series of privileges to the members of the allied indigenous tribes such as nobiliary titles and swathes of land, the Spanish held the most political and economic power.[79][77][80] The small number of Spaniards who inhabited the new kingdom would soon be complemented by a steady migration flow of Spanish people,[80] as it was the interest of the Spanish crown to Hispanicize and Christianize the region given that Indigenous peoples and their customs were considered uncivilized, thus the Spanish language and culture were imposed and indigenous ones suppressed.[77][81]

The Mexican experience mirrors much of that of the rest of Latin America, as attitudes towards race, including identification, were set by the conquistadors and Spanish who came soon after.[80] Through the colonial period, the Spanish and their descendants, called "criollos" remained outnumbered by the indigenous and "mestizos" or those of mixed Spanish and indigenous parents[77][81] (albeit a person of 7/8 Spanish ancestry and 1/8 or less indigenous ancestry could be considered to be "criollo").[82] To keep power, the Spanish enforced a hierarchical class system in New Spain's society, with those born in Spain (known as Peninsulares) being the most privileged, followed by criollos, then Mestizos, then the indigenous and finally the Africans. Nonetheless, the system was not completely rigid and elements such as social class, social relations and who a person descended from did figure into it. However, the notion of "Spanishness" would remain at the top and "Indianness" would be at the bottom, with those mixed being somewhere in the middle. This idea remained officially in force through the rest of the colonial period.[77]

 
Nena von Schlebrügge (Thurman), a former international fashion model and the mother of popular actress Uma Thurman.

Criollo resentment of the privileges afforded to the Peninsulares was the main reason behind the Mexican War of Independence. When the war ended in 1821, the new Mexican government expelled the peninsulares (approximately 10,000 – 20,000 people) in the 1820s and 1830s which, to a degree, kept the European ethnicity from growing as a percentage;[81] this expulsion, however, did not lead to any permanent ban on European immigrants, even from Spain.[78] Independence did not do away with economic and social privilege based on race, as the Criollos took over from those of Spanish birth. A division between "Spanish" and "indigenous" remained, with Criollos distinguishing themselves from the rest of society as the guardians of Spanish culture as well as the Catholic religion.[83] However, due to the abolition of the caste system, the division became more about money and social class and less about biological differences, which increased the possibilities of social mobility for Mestizo and Indigenous Mexicans. For this reason, many of the political and cultural struggles of the latter 19th and early 20th centuries would be between the Criollos and the Mestizos.[81]

According to Mexico's first ever racial census published in 1793, the Eurodescendant population was between 18%-22% of the population (with Mestizos being 21%-25% and Amerindians being 51%-61%);[84] but by 1921, when the second nationwide census that considered a person's race took place, only 9% of the population self-identified as being of European descent, with 59% being Mestizo and 29% being Amerindian.[8] While for a long time the 1921 census' results were taken as fact, with international publications such as The World Factbook and Encyclopædia Britannica using them as a reference to estimate Mexico's racial composition up to this day,[1][2] more recently, Mexican academics have subjected them to scrutiny, claiming that such a drastic alteration of demographic trends is not possible and cite, among other statistics, the relatively low frequency of marriages between people of different continental ancestries.[85][17] In the early 1890s, Northern Italian immigrants were brought from the Veneto area to Mexico to whiten the population.[86]

In today's society Edit

 
Emilio Azcárraga is the owner of Televisa and one of the richest people in Latin America.[87]

The lack of a clear dividing line between white and mixed race Mexicans has made the concept of race relatively fluid, with descent being more of a determining factor than biological traits.[8][78] Even though there is a large variation in phenotypes among Mexicans, European looks are still strongly preferred in Mexican society, with lighter skin receiving more positive attention, as it is associated with higher social class, power, money, and modernity.[78][80] In contrast, Indigenous ancestry is often associated with having an inferior social class, as well as lower levels of education.[8][77] These distinctions are strongest in Mexico City, where the most powerful of the country's elite are located.[78]

Since the end of the Mexican Revolution, the official identity promoted by the government for non-indigenous Mexicans has been the Mestizo one (a mix of European and indigenous culture and heritage).[8] Established with the original intent of eliminating divisions and creating a unified identity that would allow Mexico to modernize and integrate with the international community,[78] this policy has not been able to achieve its goal. It is speculated that this is due to the identity's own internal contradictions,[8] as it includes in the same theoretical race people who, in daily interactions, do not consider each other to be of the same race and have little in common biologically,[88] with some of them being entirely Indigenous, others entirely European, and including also Africans and Asians.[33] Today, there is no definitive census that quantifies Mexico's white population, with estimates from different publications varying greatly, ranging from just 9% of the total[1][89] to 47%,[3][4] with this figure being based on phenotypical traits instead of self-identification of ancestry.

 
Marion Reimers a Mexican journalist, sports commentator and television presenter

Despite what the mestizaje discourse asserts, Mexico is a country where Eurodescendants are not a minority; neither are they a clear majority but rather exist in equal numbers in relation to Mestizos.[90] Because of this, even though the Mexican government didn't use racial terms related to European or white people officially for almost a century (resuming using such terms after 2010), the concepts of "white people" (known as güeros or blancos in Mexican Spanish) and of "being white" didn't disappear [91] and are still present in everyday Mexican culture: different idioms of race are used in Mexico's society that serve as mediating terms between racial groups. It is not strange to see street vendors calling a potential costumer Güero or güerito, sometimes even when the person is not light-skinned. In this instance it is used to initiate a kind of familiarity, but in cases where social/racial tensions are relatively high, it can have the opposite effect.[78]

This widespread preference that Mexicans, even those who are of predominant indigenous ancestry, have for European cultures and values, over Indigenous ones, has come to be known as malinchismo, which means to identify or favor a North American or European culture over the native one. It derives from La Malinche, the native interpreter who served with Hernán Cortés during the Conquest, whose story still is a Mexican fable. Examples of practices considered as malinchismo in modern Mexico include Mexican parents choosing English given names for their kids, due to the desire to be associated with the United States.[77]

European immigration to Mexico Edit

Mexico's European heritage is strongly associated with Spanish settlement during the colonial period, Mexico not having witnessed the same scale of mass recent-immigration as other New World countries such as the United States, Brazil, and Argentina.[78] However, this ruling is less blanket fact and more of a consequence due to Mexico's enormous population. Regardless, Mexico ranks 3rd behind Brazil and Argentina for European immigration in Latin America with its culture owing a great deal to the significant German, Italian, Irish, British, Polish, and French populations. White Mexicans rather, descend of a considerably ethnocentrist group of Spanish people who, beginning with the arrival and establishment of the conquistadors to then be supplemented with clerics, workers, academics etc. immigrated to what today is Mexico. The criollos (as people born in the colonies to Spanish parents were called until the beginning of the 20th century)[80] would favor for marriage other Spanish immigrants even if they were of a less privileged economic class than them, as to preserve the Spanish lineage and customs was seen as the top priority. Once Mexico achieved its independence and immigration from European countries other than Spain became accepted, the criollos did the same, and sought to assimilate the new European immigrants into the overwhelmingly Spanish-origin white Mexican population, as the yearly immigration rate of Europeans to Mexico never exceeded 2% in relation to the country's total population, assimilation of the new immigrants was easy and Mexican hyphenated identities never appeared.[83]

 
Maximilian receiving a Mexican delegation at Miramare Castle in Trieste. Painting by Cesare dell'Acqua (1821-1905).

Another way on which European immigration to Mexico differed from that of other New World countries was on the profile of the needed immigrant. As New Spain's main economic activities were not related to agriculture (and the manpower for it was already supplied by the converted indigenous population)the country didn't enforce any sort of programs that would make it an attractive destination for European farmers. Much more important to the economy was mining and miners came from Europe, in particular from Cornwall, U.K. and even today parts of Mineral del Monte and Pachuca maintain strong links to both their British heritage and with the United Kingdom. There was also strong demand for people with specialized skills in fields such as geology, metallurgy, commerce, law, medicine etc. As stories of professional immigrants amassing huge wealth in a pair of years were commonly heard, New Spain became very attractive only for Europeans who filled these profiles and their families, which in the end resulted on the country getting relatively less European immigration,[81][83] is also because of the aforementioned reasons that the majority of Spanish immigrants who arrived to the country were from the northern regions of Spain, mainly Cantabria, Navarra, Galicia and the Basque Country.[92] After the war of independence, the country's almost completely European elite would associate civilization with European characteristics, blaming the country's indigenous heritage for its inability to keep up with the economic development of the rest of the world. This led to active efforts to encourage the arrival of additional European immigrants.[78]

One of these efforts was the dispossession of large tracts of land from the Catholic Church with the aim of selling them to immigrants and others who would develop them. However, this did not have the desired effect mostly because of political instability. The Porfirio Díaz regime of the decades before the Mexican Revolution tried again, and expressly desired European immigration to promote modernization, instill Protestant work ethics and buttress what remained of Mexico's North from further U.S. expansionism. Díaz also expressed a desire to "whiten" Mexico's heavily racially mixed population, although this had more to do with culture than with biological traits. However, the Díaz regime knew it had to be cautious, as previously large concentrations of Americans in Texas, would eventually lead to the secession of that territory.[81][83] This precautions meant that the government had more success luring investors than permanent residents, even in rural areas despite government programs. No more than forty foreign farming colonies were ever formed during this time and of these only a few Italian and German ones survived.[83]

By the mid-19th century, between Europeans and ethnically European Americans and Canadians, there were only 30,000 to 40,000 European immigrants in Mexico, compared to an overall population of over eight million, but their impact was strongly felt as they came to dominate the textile industry and various areas of commerce and industry. Many were not immigrants, but rather "trade conquistadors" who remained in Mexico only long enough to make their fortunes to return to their home countries to retire. This led Diaz to nationalize industries dominated by foreigners such as trains, which caused many trade conquistadors to leave.[83] In January 1883, the government signed a law to promote the Irish, German and French immigration to Mexico, this time with fewer restrictions, resulting in the arrival of relatively more conventional immigrants and their families.[93] Up to 1914, 10,000 French settled in Mexico,[94] alongside other 100,000 Europeans.[94] Despite being the most violent conflict in Mexico's history, the Mexican Revolution did not discourage European immigration nor scared away white Mexicans, who, for concentrating in urban areas were largely unaffected by it and thought of it as a conflict pertinent only to rural people.[83] Later on, bellic conflicts in Europe during the 1930s and 1940s such as the Spanish Civil War and the Second World War caused additional waves of European immigration to the country.[95]

 
A photo of Italian immigrants in Monterrey in 1905.

By the end of the Second World War, Americans, British, French, Germans and Spanish were the most conspicuous Europeans in Mexico but their presence was limited to urban areas, especially Mexico City, living in enclaves and involved in business. These European immigrants would quickly adapt to the Mexican attitude that "whiter was better" and keep themselves separate from the non-European population of the host country. This and their status as foreigners offered them considerable social and economic advantages, blunting any inclination to assimilate. There was little incentive to integrate with the general Mexican population and when they did, it was limited to the criollo and mestizo upper class, failing to produce the "whitening" effect desired. For this reason, one can find non–Spanish surnames, especially in Mexico City and Guadalajara.[81][83]

However, even in the cases when generalized mixing did occur, such as with the Cornish miners in Hidalgo state around Pachuca and Real de Monte, their cultural influence remains strong. In these areas, English style houses can be found, the signature dish is the "paste" a variation of the Cornish pasty[96] and they ended up introducing football (soccer) to Mexico.[97] In the early 20th century, a group of about 100 Russian immigrants, mostly Pryguny and some Molokane and Cossacks came to live in area near Ensenada, Baja California. The main colony is in the Valle de Guadalupe and locally known as the Colonia Rusa near the town of Francisco Zarco. Other smaller colonies include San Antonio, Mision del Orno and Punta Banda. There are an estimated 1,000 descendants of these immigrants in Mexico, nearly all of whom have intermarried. The original settlements are now under the preservation of the Mexican government and have become tourist attractions.[98]

Legal vestiges of attempts to "whiten" the population ended with the 1947 "Ley General de Población" along with the blurring of the lines between most of Mexico immigrant colonies and the general population. This blurring was hastened by the rise of a Mexican middle class, who enrolled their children in schools for foreigners and foreign organizations such as the German Club having a majority of Mexican members. However, this assimilation still has been mostly limited to Mexico's white peoples. Mass culture promoted the Spanish language and most other European languages have declined and almost disappeared. Restrictive immigration policies since the 1970s have further pushed the assimilation process. Despite all of the aforementioned pressure, as of 2013 Mexico is the country with most international immigrants in the world.[99] Since 2000, Mexico's economic growth has increased international migration to the country, including people of European descent who leave their countries (particularly France and Spain) in the search of better work opportunities. People from the United States have moved too, now making up more than three-quarters of Mexico's roughly one million documented foreigners, up from around two-thirds in 2000. Nowadays, more people originally from United States have been added to the population of Mexico than Mexicans have been added to the population of the United States, according to government data in both nations.[100]

Examples of white ethnic groups in Mexico Edit

 
A Mennonite girl in Cuauhtémoc, Chihuahua

European immigration to Mexico is not uncommon with many European or European derived ethnic groups responsible for shaping modern Mexican culture. Besides colonial Iberian influences, many other European and/or white communities thrived in Mexico's history such as the Spanish, Polish and French, with the German Mexican community especially dominant on modern culture, once named as “la tercera raza” or “the third race”.[101] Mexico's northwest-pacific region (particularly Sinaloa, Sonora, and the Baja California Peninsula) experienced major surges of Northern Spanish immigration in the late 19th and early 20th century, specifically from Asturias and Galicia (Spain). Most of Latin America's colonial and industrial era Spanish immigration originates from Southern Spain and the Canary Islands, thus this regional enclave of Northern Spaniards is exceptional and remains the biggest diaspora of Asturias and Galicians by heritage in the Americas.[102] This region also experienced concentrated waves of modern European immigration during the 20th century such as Italian and French, and the culture of the region reflects its lack of indigenous admixture. European rooted holidays like Saints days, Carnival as well as gastronomy such as bread, cheese, and wine production remain unique to the region.[103]

One of the few Porfirian-era European settlements to survive to this day is centered on the small town of Chipilo in the state of Puebla. They are the descendants of about 500 Venetian refugee immigrants which came over in the 1880s, keeping their Venetian-derived dialect and distinct ethnic identity, even though many have intermarried with other Mexicans. Many still farm and raise livestock but economic changes have pushed many into industry.[104] During the Mexican Revolution, Álvaro Obregón invited a group of German-speaking Mennonites in Canada to resettle in Chihuahua state. By the late 1920s, almost 10,000 had arrived from both Canada and Europe.[83][105] Today, Mexico accounts for about 42% of all Mennonites in Latin America with 115,000 practicing Mennonites accounted for.[80] Mennonites in the country especially stand out within their rural surroundings because of their traditional clothing, Plautdietsch language, light skin, hair and eyes. They own their own businesses in various communities in Chihuahua, and account for about half of the state's farm economy, standing out in cheese production.[105]

Immigration was restricted by governments after Diaz's but never stopped entirely during the 20th century. Between 1937 and 1948, more than 18,000 Spanish Republicans arrived as refugees from the Nationalists and Francoist Spain. Their reception by the Mexican criollo elite was mixed but they manage to experience success as most of these newcomers were educated as scholars and artists. This group founded the Colegio de Mexico, one of the country's top academic institutions. Despite attempts to assimilate these immigrant groups, especially the country's already existing German population during World War II, they remain mostly separate to this day.[83]

 
Santiago Creel descendant of the Creel-Terrazas family, son of René Creel Luján, one of the founders of the National Action Party.

Due to the 2008 Financial Crisis and the resulting economic decline and high unemployment in Spain, many Spaniards have been emigrating to Mexico to seek new opportunities.[106] For example, during the last quarter of 2012, a number of 7,630 work permits were granted to Spaniards.[107] Other Southern Europeans joined the Spaniards in the 2010s by finding better work opportunities in Mexico with thousands of Italians, Portuguese, French and Greeks finding professional opportunities along with the Spaniards in Mexico.

Sixty-seven percent of Latin America's English-speaking population lives in Mexico.[80] Most of these are American nationals, with an influx of people from the U.S. coming to live in Mexico since the 1930s, becoming the largest group of foreigners in the country since then. However, most Americans in Mexico are not immigrants in the traditional sense, as they are there living as retirees or otherwise do not consider themselves permanent residents.[83][108]

Official censuses Edit

Historically, population studies and censuses have never been up to the standards that a population as diverse and numerous such as Mexico's require: the first racial census was made in 1793, being also Mexico's (then known as New Spain) first ever nationwide population census, of it, only part of the original datasets survive, thus most of what is known of it comes from essays made by researchers who back in the day used the census' findings as reference for their own works. More than a century would pass until the Mexican government conducted a new racial census in 1921 (some sources assert that the census of 1895 included a comprehensive racial classification,[8] however according to the historic archives of Mexico's National Institute of Statistics that was not the case).[109] While the 1921 census was the last time the Mexican government conducted a census that included a comprehensive racial classification, in recent time it has conducted nationwide surveys to quantify most of the ethnic groups who inhabit the country as well as the social dynamics and inequalities between them.

1793 census Edit

 
New Spain in 1819 with the boundaries established at the Adams-Onís Treaty

Also known as the "Revillagigedo census" due to its creation being ordered by the Count of the same name, this census was Mexico's (then known as the Viceroyalty of New Spain) first ever nationwide population census. Most of its original datasets have reportedly been lost; thus most of what is known about it nowadays comes from essays and field investigations made by academics who had access to the census data and used it as reference for their works such as Prussian geographer Alexander von Humboldt. Each author gives different estimations for each racial group in the country, although they don't vary much, with Europeans ranging from 18% to 22% of New Spain's population, Mestizos ranging from 21% to 25%, Indians ranging from 51% to 61% and Africans being between 6,000 and 10,000, The estimations given for the total population range from 3,799,561 to 6,122,354. It is concluded then, that across nearly three centuries of colonization, the population growth trends of whites and mestizos were even, while the total percentage of the indigenous population decreased at a rate of 13%-17% per century. The authors assert that rather than whites and mestizos having higher birthrates, the reason for the indigenous population's numbers decreasing lies on them suffering of higher mortality rates, due living in remote locations rather than on cities and towns founded by the Spanish colonists or being at war with them. It is also for these reasons that the number of Indigenous Mexicans presents the greater variation range between publications, as in cases their numbers in a given location were estimated rather than counted, leading to possible overestimations in some provinces and possible underestimations in others.[84]

Intendecy/territory European population (%) Indigenous population (%) Mestizo population (%)
Mexico 16.9% 66.1% 16.7%
Puebla 10.1% 74.3% 15.3%
Oaxaca 06.3% 88.2% 05.2%
Guanajuato 25.8% 44.0% 29.9%
San Luis Potosi 13.0% 51.2% 35.7%
Zacatecas 15.8% 29.0% 55.1%
Durango 20.2% 36.0% 43.5%
Sonora 28.5% 44.9% 26.4%
Yucatan 14.8% 72.6% 12.3%
Guadalajara 31.7% 33.3% 34.7%
Veracruz 10.4% 74.0% 15.2%
Valladolid 27.6% 42.5% 29.6%
Nuevo Mexico ~ 30.8% 69.0%
Vieja California ~ 51.7% 47.9%
Nueva California ~ 89.9% 09.8%
Coahuila 30.9% 28.9% 40.0%
Nuevo Leon 62.6% 05.5% 31.6%
Nuevo Santander 25.8% 23.3% 50.8%
Texas 39.7% 27.3% 32.4%
Tlaxcala 13.6% 72.4% 13.8%

~Europeans are included within the Mestizo category.

Regardless of the possible imprecisions related to the counting of Indigenous peoples living outside of the colonized areas, the effort that New Spain's authorities put on considering them as subjects is worth mentioning, as censuses made by other colonial or post-colonial countries did not consider American Indians to be citizens/subjects, as example the censuses made by the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata would only count the inhabitants of the colonized settlements.[110] Other example would be the censuses made by the United States, that did not include Indigenous peoples living among the general population until 1860, and indigenous peoples as a whole until 1900.[111]

1921 census Edit

 
Enrique Creel was a businessman and politician.

Made right after the consummation of the Mexican revolution, the social context on which this census was made makes it particularly unique, as the government of the time was in the process of rebuilding the country and was looking forward to unite all Mexicans under a single national identity. The 1921 census' final results in regards to race, which assert that 59.3% of the Mexican population self-identified as Mestizo, 29.1% as Indigenous and only 9.8% as White were then essential to cement the "mestizaje" ideology (that asserts that the Mexican population as a whole is product of the admixture of all races) which shaped Mexican identity and culture through the 20th century and remain prominent nowadays, with extraofficial international publications such as The World Factbook and Encyclopædia Britannica using them as a reference to estimate Mexico's racial composition up to this day.[1][2]

Nonetheless, in recent time the census' results have been subjected to scrutiny by historians, academics and social activists alike, who assert that such drastic alterations on demographic trends with respect to the 1793 census are not possible and cite, among other statistics the relatively low frequency of marriages between people of different continental ancestries in colonial and early independent Mexico.[85][17] It is claimed that the "mestizaje" process sponsored by the state was more "cultural than biological" which resulted on the numbers of the Mestizo Mexican group being inflated at the expense of the identity of other races.[112] Controversies aside, this census constituted the last time the Mexican Government conducted a comprehensive racial census with the breakdown by states being the following (foreigners and people who answered "other" not included):[113]

Federative Units Mestizo Population (%) Amerindian Population (%) White Population (%)
Aguascalientes 66.12% 16.70% 16.77%
Baja California
(Distrito Norte) 		72.50% 07.72% 00.35%
Baja California
(Distrito Sur) 		59.61% 06.06% 33.40%
Campeche 41.45% 43.41% 14.17%
Coahuila 77.88% 11.38% 10.13%
Colima 68.54% 26.00% 04.50%
Chiapas 36.27% 47.64% 11.82%
Chihuahua 50.09% 12.76% 36.33%
Durango 89.85% 09.99% 00.01%
Guanajuato 96.33% 02.96% 00.54%
Guerrero 54.05% 43.84% 02.07%
Hidalgo 51.47% 39.49% 08.83%
Jalisco 75.83% 16.76% 07.31%
Mexico City 54.78% 18.75% 22.79%
State of Mexico 47.71% 42.13% 10.02%
Michoacan 70.95% 21.04% 06.94%
Morelos 61.24% 34.93% 03.59%
Nayarit 73.45% 20.38% 05.83%
Nuevo Leon 75.47% 05.14% 19.23%
Oaxaca 28.15% 69.17% 01.43%
Puebla 39.34% 54.73% 05.66%
Querétaro 80.15% 19.40% 00.30%
Quintana Roo 42.35% 20.59% 15.16%
San Luis Potosí 61.88% 30.60% 05.41%
Sinaloa 98.30% 00.93% 00.19%
Sonora 41.04% 14.00% 42.54%
Tabasco 53.67% 18.50% 27.56%
Tamaulipas 69.77% 13.89% 13.62%
Tlaxcala 42.44% 54.70% 02.53%
Veracruz 50.09% 36.60% 10.28%
Yucatán 33.83% 43.31% 21.85%
Zacatecas 86.10% 08.54% 05.26%

When the 1921 census's results are compared with the results of Mexico's recent censuses[114] as well as with modern genetic research,[102] high consistence is found in regards to the distribution of Indigenous Mexicans across the country, with states located in south and south-eastern Mexico having both, the highest percentages of population that self-identifies as Indigenous and the highest percentages of Amerindian genetic ancestry. However this is not the case when it comes to European Mexicans, as there are instances on which states that have been shown to have a considerably high European ancestry per scientific research are reported to have very small white populations in the 1921 census, with the most extreme case being that of the state of Durango, where the aforementioned census asserts that only 0.01% of the state's population (33 persons) self-identified as "white" while modern scientific research shows that the population of Durango has similar genetic frequencies to those found on European peoples (with the state's Indigenous population showing almost no foreign admixture either).[69] Various authors theorize that the reason for these inconsistencies may lie in the Mestizo identity promoted by the Mexican government, which reportedly led to people who are not biologically Mestizos to identify as such.[33][115]

Present day Edit

 
Mariana Bayón Mexican model, best known for winning the first cycle of Mexico's Next Top Model.

The following table is a compilation of (when possible) official nationwide surveys conducted by the Mexican government who have attempted to quantify different Mexican ethnic groups. Given that for the most part each ethnic group was estimated by different surveys, with different methodologies and years apart rather than on a single comprehensive racial census, some groups could overlap with others and be overestimated or underestimated.

Race or ethnicity Population (est.) Percentage (est.) Year
Indigenous 26,000,000 21.5% 2015[114]
Black 2,576,213 2.4% 2020[116]
White 56,000,000 47.0% 2010[3][4][11]
Foreigners residing in Mexico (of any race) 1,010,000 <1.0% 2015[117]
East Asian 1,000,000 <1.0% 2010[118]
Middle Eastern 400,000 <1.0% 2010[119]
Jewish 58,876 <1.0% 2020[116]
Muslim 7,982 <1.0% 2020[116]
Unclassified (most likely Mestizos) 37,300,000 30.0% -
Total 126,014,024 100% 2020[116]

Of all the ethnic groups that have been surveyed, Mestizos are notably absent, which is likely due to the label's fluid and subjective definition, which complicates its precise quantification. However, it can be safely assumed that Mestizos make up at least the remaining 30% unassessed percentage of Mexico's population with possibilities of increasing if the methodologies of the extant surveys are considered. As example the 2015 intercensal survey considered as Indigenous Mexicans and Afro-Mexicans altogether individuals who self-identified as "part Indigenous" or "part African" thus, said people technically would be Mestizos. Similarly, White Mexicans were quantified based on physical traits/appearance, thus technically a Mestizo with a percentage of Indigenous ancestry that was low enough to not affect his/her primarily European phenotype was considered to be white. Finally the remaining ethnicities, for being of a rather low number or being faiths have more permissive classification criteria, therefore a Mestizo could claim to belong to one of them by practicing the faith, or by having an ancestor who belonged to said ethnicities.

Nonetheless, contemporary sociologists and historians agree that, given that the concept of "race" has a psychological foundation rather than a biological one and to society's eyes a Mestizo with a high percentage of European ancestry is considered "white" and a Mestizo with a high percentage of Indigenous ancestry is considered "Indian," a person who identifies with a given ethnic group should be allowed to, even if biologically doesn't completely belong to that group.[88]

See also Edit

References Edit

  1. ^ a b c d e "The World Factbook: North America: Mexico: People and Society". The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). from the original on January 26, 2021. Retrieved August 23, 2017. mestizo (Amerindian-Spanish) 62%, predominantly Amerindian 21%, Amerindian 7%, other 10% (mostly European)
  2. ^ a b c d e f Ethnic composition (2010): 60.0% mestizo; 18.0% Mexican white; 10.5% detribalized Amerindian; 7.5% other Amerindian; 2% Arab; 1.5% Mexican black; 2.2% other."Mexico: Ethnic groups". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved March 6, 2022.
  3. ^ a b c d "21 de Marzo: Día Internacional de la Eliminación de la Discriminación Racial" [March 21: International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination] (PDF) (in Spanish). Mexico: CONAPRED. 2017. p. 7. (PDF) from the original on May 25, 2017. Retrieved August 23, 2017.
  4. ^ a b c d e Encuesta Nacional Sobre Discriminación en Mexico [National Survey on Discrimination in Mexico] (PDF) (in Spanish). Mexico: CONAPRED. June 2011. (PDF) from the original on November 8, 2012. Retrieved August 24, 2017.
  5. ^ Sharon R. Ennis, Merarys Ríos-Vargas, Nora G. Albert (May 2011). https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-04.pdf January 27, 2018, at the Wayback Machine U.S. Census Bureau, p. 14 (Table 6). Retrieved 2011-07-11.
  6. ^ (PDF). europeanpeoples.imb.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 6, 2014. Retrieved January 13, 2016.
  7. ^ Includes Poles: Wojciech Tyciński, Krzysztof Sawicki, Departament Współpracy z Polonią MSZ (Warsaw, 2009). "Raport o sytuacji Polonii i Polaków za granicą (The official report on the situation of Poles and Polonia abroad)" (PDF file, direct download 1.44 MB). Ministerstwo Spraw Zagranicznych (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Poland), pp. 1–466. Retrieved June 14, 2013 (Internet Archive).
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h Navarrete, Federico. [Mixed race and cultures]. México Multicultural (in Spanish). Mexico: UNAM. Archived from the original on August 23, 2013. Retrieved July 19, 2011.
  9. ^ a b c d e f "Resultados del Modulo de Movilidad Social Intergeneracional" July 9, 2018, at the Wayback Machine, INEGI, 16 June 2017, Retrieved on 30 April 2018.
  10. ^ a b c "Visión INEGI 2021 Dr. Julio Santaella Castell" January 21, 2019, at the Wayback Machine, INEGI, 03 July 2017, Retrieved on 30 April 2018.
  11. ^ a b c "Documento Informativo Sobre Discriminación Racial En México" May 25, 2017, at the Wayback Machine, CONAPRED, Mexico, 21 March 2011, retrieved on 28 April 2017.
  12. ^ a b "Por estas razones el color de piel determina las oportunidades de los mexicanos" June 22, 2018, at the Wayback Machine, Huffington post, 26 July 2017, Retrieved on 30 April 2018.
  13. ^ "Ser Blanco" June 19, 2018, at the Wayback Machine, El Universal, 06 July 2017, Retrieved on 19 June 2018.
  14. ^ "Comprobado con datos: en México te va mejor si eres blanco" November 5, 2018, at the Wayback Machine, forbes, 07 August 2018, Retrieved on 04 November 2018.
  15. ^ a b "¿Sears racista? Causa polémica su nueva campaña de publicidad" July 21, 2020, at the Wayback Machine, Economiahoy.mx, 05 March 2020, Retrieved on 21 July 2020.
  16. ^ a b "Critican series mexicanas de Netflix por sólo tener personajes blancos" April 19, 2021, at the Wayback Machine, Tomatazos.com, 23 mayo 2020, consultado el 19 de diciembre de 2020.
  17. ^ a b c Federico Navarrete (2016). Mexico Racista. Penguin Random house Grupo Editorial Mexico. p. 86. ISBN 9786073143646. Retrieved February 23, 2018.
  18. ^ R. Martínez & C. De La Torre (2008): "Racial Appearance And Income In Contemporary Mexico, pag 9 note 1" August 6, 2021, at the Wayback Machine, Journal of Diversity Management, 2008, Retrieved 01 April 2021.
  19. ^ a b Ortiz-Hernández, Luis; Compeán-Dardón, Sandra; Verde-Flota, Elizabeth; Flores-Martínez, Maricela Nanet (April 2011). "Racism and mental health among university students in Mexico City". Salud Pública de México. 53 (2): 125–133. doi:10.1590/s0036-36342011000200005. PMID 21537803.
  20. ^ a b Villarreal, Andrés (2010). "Stratification by Skin Color in Contemporary Mexico". American Sociological Review. 75 (5): 652–678. doi:10.1177/0003122410378232. JSTOR 20799484. S2CID 145295212.
  21. ^ a b "Admixture in Latin America: Geographic Structure, Phenotypic Diversity and Self-Perception of Ancestry Based on 7,342 Individuals" table 1 May 25, 2017, at the Wayback Machine, Plosgenetics, 25 September 2014. Retrieved on 9 May 2017.
  22. ^ Federico Navarrete 2016, pp. 109–110"To make matters worse, the few Germans, Italians and other Europeans who did reach our shores also did not mix in large numbers with the Mexican population, and even less so with the indigenous people, whom they were supposed to make disappear with the superior powers of Mexico: its race. In fact, they founded regional enclaves where they married preferentially among themselves, as the Creoles and the indigenous had traditionally done. The historian Moisés González Navarro studied the population censuses of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, which allow us to know more accurately the behavior of the population than in previous periods. Contrary to what the mestizaje legend would have us believe, he found that informal marriages and unions between white men and indigenous women, or any other combination, hardly existed.2"
  23. ^ a b San Miguel, G. (November 2000). "Ser mestizo en la nueva España a fines del siglo XVIII: Acatzingo, 1792" [To be 'mestizo' in New Spain at the end of the XVIII th century. Acatzingo, 1792]. Cuadernos de la Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias Sociales. Universidad Nacional de Jujuy (in Spanish) (13): 325–342. from the original on October 23, 2020. Retrieved July 1, 2017.
  24. ^ Sherburne Friend Cook; Woodrow Borah (1998). Ensayos sobre historia de la población. México y el Caribe 2. Siglo XXI. p. 223. ISBN 9789682301063. Retrieved September 12, 2017.
  25. ^ "Household Mobility and Persistence in Guadalajara, Mexico: 1811–1842, page 62" December 10, 2018, at the Wayback Machine, fsu org, 8 December 2016. Retrieved on 9 December 2018.
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October 21, 2023
white, mexicans, spanish, mexicanos, blancos, individuals, mexico, identify, white, often, their, physical, appearance, their, recognition, european, ancestry, dead, link, mexican, government, conducts, ethnic, censuses, that, allow, individuals, identify, whi. White Mexicans Spanish Mexicanos blancos are individuals in Mexico who identify as white often due to their physical appearance or their recognition of European ancestry 8 dead link The Mexican government conducts ethnic censuses that allow individuals to identify as White 9 but the specific results of these censuses are not made public Instead the government releases data on the percentage of light skinned Mexicans in the country which was 47 in 2010 4 and increased to 49 in 2017 10 The term Light skinned Mexican is preferred by both the government and media to describe individuals in Mexico who possess European physical traits when discussing ethno racial dynamics 11 However White Mexican is still used at times 12 13 14 15 16 White MexicansMexicanos blancosTotal populationMexicoEstimates range 18 million to 59 million 1 2 3 4 9 47 of Mexican population 2 United States 16 794 111 5 Regions with significant populationsPlurality population in Sonora Sinaloa Baja California Sur Baja California Durango Jalisco Zacatecas Coahuila Chihuahua Nuevo Leon Mexico CityLanguagesSpanish Venetian Chipilo Venetian Plautdietsch 6 ReligionChristianity predominantly Roman Catholicism minority Protestantism Judaism MormonismRelated ethnic groupsOther White Latin Americans Spaniards Italians French Germans 7 MestizosEstimates of Mexico s white population vary significantly due to different methodologies and percentages Unofficial sources like the World Factbook and Encyclopaedia Britannica which base their estimates on the 1921 census results suggest a white Mexican population ranging from 9 1 to 20 30 2 However the accuracy of the 1921 census results has been contested by historians 17 Recent research also suggests that Mexicans may not identify in the way these sources indicate 18 Surveys that consider phenotypical traits and field research yield higher percentages of white Mexicans For instance one study using blond hair as a reference found that 23 of the Metropolitan Autonomous University of Mexico population could be classified as white 19 The American Sociological Association obtained a nationwide percentage of 18 8 using a similar method 20 Another study conducted by the University College London in collaboration with National Institute of Anthropology and History found that 18 of Mexicans had blond hair and 28 had light eyes 21 Nationwide surveys from the National Council to Prevent Discrimination using skin color as a reference report percentages of 47 3 and 49 10 9 respectively The presence of Europeans in Mexico dates back to the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire and during the colonial period most European immigration was Spanish However in the 19th and 20th centuries significant waves of European and European derived populations from North and South America immigrated to Mexico This intermixing between European immigrants and Indigenous peoples resulted in the emergence of the Mestizo group which became the majority of Mexico s population by the time of the Mexican Revolution 8 Some scholars challenge this narrative citing church and census records that indicate interracial unions in Mexico were rare among all groups 22 23 These records also dispute other academic narratives such as the idea that European immigrants were predominantly male or that pure Spanish individuals formed a small elite In fact Spaniards were often the most numerous ethnic group in colonial cities 24 25 and there were menial workers and people in poverty who were of full Spanish origin 23 and there were impoverished individuals of full Spanish origin In addition to White Mexicans and Indigenous populations there is a group known as Mestizos Mestizos have varying degrees of European and Indigenous ancestry with some having European genetic ancestry exceeding 90 Genetic evidence suggests 26 While genetic evidence suggests that most European immigrants to Mexico were male and that the modern population of Mexico was primarily formed through the mixing of Spanish males and Native American females 27 28 29 30 how pronounced said gender asymmetry was varies considerably depending on the study The Native American maternal contribution figures range from 90 to 59 31 while research on the X chromosome shows less variation with the reported Native American female contribution oscillating between 50 26 and 54 32 The criteria for defining what constitutes a Mestizo varies from study to study as in Mexico a large number of European descended people have been historically classified as Mestizos After the Mexican Revolution the Mexican government began defining ethnicity on cultural standards mainly the language spoken rather than racial ones 33 Contents 1 Distribution and estimates 2 Genetic research 3 Establishment of Europeans in Mexico 4 In today s society 5 European immigration to Mexico 6 Examples of white ethnic groups in Mexico 7 Official censuses 7 1 1793 census 7 2 1921 census 7 3 Present day 8 See also 9 ReferencesDistribution and estimates Edit nbsp White Mexican women wearing the mantilla painting by Carl Nebel 1836 Contrary to popular belief Mexico s government does conduct ethnic censuses on which a Mexican has the choice of identify as White 9 the results however remain unpublished Instead the Mexican government does publish results regarding the frequencies of different phenotypical traits in Mexicans such as skin color and in discourses and investigations regarding problematics such as racism has opted for splitting Mexicans on light skinned Mexicans and dark skinned Mexicans rather than on White Mexicans and Mestizo Mexicans Other studies made by independent institutions often use the presence of light hair colors particularly blond to calculate Mexico s white population however to use such features to delineate said ethnic group results in an underestimation of its numbers as not all of Europe s native populations have those traits similarly not only people with those phenotypical features are considered to be white by the majority of Mexican society 15 16 Mexico s northern and western regions have the highest percentages of white population 34 In the north and west of Mexico the indigenous tribes were substantially smaller and less urbanized than those found in central and southern Mexico thus they remained isolated from colonial population centers and were often hostile towards Mexican colonists The northeast region in which the indigenous population was eliminated by early European settlers became the region with the highest proportion of whites during the Spanish colonial period However recent immigrants from southern Mexico have been changing to some degree 2 nbsp Results of the survey conducted by the CONAPRED in 2010 35 In 2010 the CONAPRED Mexico s National Council for the Prevention of Discrimination conducted the ENADIS 2010 National Survey About Discrimination 4 with the purpose of addressing the problems of racism that Mexicans of mainly Indigenous or African ancestry suffer at hands of a society that favors light skinned European looking Mexicans 11 In the press release of said report the CONAPRED stated that 47 of Mexicans 54 of women and 40 of men identified with the lightest skin colors used in the census questionnaire The council makes the supposition that the high difference reported between males and females is due to the frequently racist publicity in media and due racial prejudices in Mexico s society which shuns dark skin in favor of light skin thus making women think that white is beautiful stating that men are more likely to recognize their real skin color 36 Notably a subsequent question in the same survey asks Mexicans to evaluate from 0 to 10 how comfortable they are with their skin color with the average score being 9 4 out of 10 37 Furthermore scientific research proving that human females tend to have lighter skin than their male counterparts exists 38 39 Besides the visual identification of skin color the same survey included a question on which it asked Mexicans what would they call their skin color while the press report by the CONAPRED remarks that six out of ten people considered themselves to be moreno brunette in English and only one out of ten considered their skin to be blanco white 40 The questionnaire included as choices other words that are colloquially used to refer to white people in Mexico such as guero informal for white claro clear aperlado pearly and other words that may or not refer to a white person depending on the case such as quemadito burnt bronceado tanned apinonado spiced amarillo yellow and canela cinnamon Further complicating the situation several words used specifically for brown skin also appear as choices such as cafe brown negro black chocolate translation unnecessary oscuro dark prieto very dark and trigueno other word for brown 41 The word moreno itself has a very wide definition in Spanish and has no specific racial connotations being used equally to define light skinned people with dark hair as to define people of African ancestry 42 Skin Type Percentage inegi 2017 A 0 2 B 0 5 C 1 0 D 3 0 E 2 7 F 13 0 G 30 0 H 37 4 I 5 2 J 4 9 K 2 1 In 2017 Mexico s National Institute of Statistics and Geography published the Intergenerational Social Mobility Module MMSI 9 composed of a series of nationwide surveys focused on education generational economic mobility and ethnicity It is particularly notorious for giving Mexicans the possibility to identify with a race the available choices being Indigenous Mestizo White Black or Other While the results of questions directly related to race were published the percentage of Mexicans who identified with each race was not Also included in the survey was a color palette the same as the one used in the PERLA project composed of 11 different tones with A being the darkest and K being the lightest so a person could choose what color the skin of his her face was The percentage of Mexicans that identified with each skin color was not included in the main MMSI document but unlike racial composition it was made public through other official publications 10 The study s results received significant media coverage which led to discussions about concepts including systemic racism white privilege and colonialism 12 43 The study concluded that Mexicans with medium F tone and darker skin tones have in average lower profile occupations than Mexicans with lighter skin tones Also stated is that Mexicans with lighter skin tones lighter than F have higher levels of academic achievement 9 The study also points out that out of the 4 racial categories used in the study that of Indigenous Mexicans is the one that shows the highest percentage of positive social mobility meaning that a person is better off than his her parents were while White Mexicans are the ones who have the lowest positive social mobility 9 nbsp Nailea Norvind Mexican actressIn 2018 the new edition of the ENADIS was published this time being a joint effort by the CONAPRED and the INEGI with collaboration of the UNAM the CONACyT and the CNDH 44 Like its 2010 antecessor it surveyed Mexican citizens about topics related to discrimination and collected data related to phenotype and ethnic self identification It concluded that Mexico is still a fairly conservative country regarding minority groups such as religious minorities ethnic minorities foreigners and members of the LGBT community Albeit there s pronounced regional differences with states in the south center regions of Mexico having in general notoriously higher discrimination rates towards the aforementioned social groups than the ones states in the western north regions have 44 For the collecting of data related to skin color the palette used was again the PERLA one This time 11 of Mexicans were reported to have dark skin tones A E 59 to have medium skin tones F G and 29 to have light skin tones H K 44 The reason for the huge difference regarding the reported percentages of Mexicans with light skin around 18 lower and medium skin around 16 higher in the relation to previous nationwide surveys lies in the fact that the ENADIS 2017 prioritized the surveying of Mexicans from vulnerable groups which among other measures meant that states with known high numbers of people from said groups surveyed more people 45 Independent field studies have been made in attempt to quantify the number of European Mexicans living in modern Mexico using blond hair as reference to classify a Mexican as white the Metropolitan Autonomous University of Mexico calculated their percentage at 23 the study explicitly states that red haired people were not classified as white but as other 19 A study made by the University College London which included multiple Latin American countries and was made with collaboration of each country s anthropology and genetics institutes reported that the frequency of blond hair and light eyes in Mexicans was of 18 5 and 28 5 respectively 21 making Mexico the country with the second highest frequency of blond hair in the study Despite this the European ancestry estimated for Mexicans is also the second lowest of all countries included the reason behind such discrepancy may lie in the fact that the samples used in Mexico s case were highly disproportional as the northern and western regions of Mexico contain 45 of Mexico s population but no more than 10 of the samples used in the study came from the states located in these regions For the most part the rest of the samples hailed from Mexico City and southern Mexican states 46 In 2010 a study published by the American Sociological Association explored social inequalities between Mexicans of different skin colors The field research consisted of three waves of interviews on different Mexican states during the timespan of a year people surveyed where split on 3 different groups White Light brown and Dark brown with the classification being up to the criteria of the interviewers who is claimed were trained for the task It is stated that in order to obtain stable results and prevent inconsistencies regarding who belongs to a given category additional phenotypical traits besides the respondents skin color were considered such as the presence of blond hair in the case of individuals that were to be classified in the White category because unlike skin color hair color does not darken with exposure to sunlight It is indeed claimed within the study that out of the three color categories used the percentages obtained for the White one through the three waves of interviews were the most consistent According to the results of the study the average percentage of Mexicans who were classified as White per the presence of blond hair was 18 8 with the Northeast and Northwest regions having the highest frequencies at 23 9 and 22 3 respectively followed by the Center region with 21 3 the Center West region with 18 4 and finally the South region with 11 9 The study makes the clarification that Mexico City Center region as well as rural areas of the states of Oaxaca Chiapas both from the south region and Jalisco Center West region were oversampled 20 The following tables the first from a study published in 2002 47 and the second from a study published in 2018 48 show the frequencies of different blood types in various Mexican cities and states as Mexico s Amerindian Indigenous population exclusively exhibits the O blood type the presence of other blood groups can give an approximate idea of the amount of foreign influence there is in each state that has been analyzed The results of this studies however shouldn t be taken as exact literal estimations for the percentages of different ethnic groups that there may be in Mexico I E A B blood groups percentage of White Mexicans for reasons such as the fact that a Mestizo Mexican can have A B etc blood types or the fact that the O blood type does exist in Europe with it having a frequency of 44 in Spain for example 49 City State O A B AB La Paz Baja California Sur 58 49 31 4 8 40 1 71 Guadalajara Jalisco 57 2 31 2 9 7 1 9 Gomez Palacio Durango 57 99 29 17 10 76 2 08 Ciudad Victoria Tamaulipas 63 6 27 3 7 4 1 7 Monterrey Nuevo Leon 63 1 26 5 9 0 1 4 Veracruz Veracruz 64 2 25 7 8 1 2 0 Saltillo Coahuila 64 2 24 9 9 7 1 2 Saladero Veracruz 60 5 28 6 10 9 0 0 Torreon Coahuila 66 35 24 47 8 3 0 88 Mexico City Mexico City 67 7 23 4 7 2 1 7 Durango Durango 55 1 38 6 6 3 0 0 Ciudad del Carmen Campeche 69 7 22 0 6 4 1 8 Merida Yucatan 67 5 21 1 10 5 0 9 Leon Guanajuato 65 3 24 7 6 0 4 0 Zacatecas Zacatecas 61 9 22 2 13 5 2 4 Tlaxcala Tlaxcala 71 7 19 6 6 5 2 2 Puebla Puebla 72 3 19 5 7 4 0 8 Oaxaca Oaxaca 71 8 20 5 7 7 0 0 Paraiso Tabasco 75 8 14 9 9 3 0 0 Total 65 0 25 0 8 6 1 4 State O A B AB Baja California 60 25 28 79 9 03 1 92 Sonora 58 58 30 48 9 11 1 84 Sinaloa 56 46 32 93 8 56 2 05 Durango 59 29 26 89 11 33 2 50 Coahuila 66 17 23 49 9 01 1 33 Nuevo Leon 62 43 25 62 10 10 1 85 Nayarit 59 20 29 62 9 32 1 85 Jalisco 57 85 29 95 9 78 2 42 Michoacan 60 25 29 51 9 04 2 44 Puebla 74 36 18 73 6 05 0 87 Veracruz 67 82 21 90 8 94 1 34 San Luis Potosi 67 47 24 27 7 28 0 97 Aguascalientes 61 42 26 25 10 28 2 05 Guanajuato 61 98 26 83 9 33 1 85 Queretaro 65 71 23 60 9 40 1 29 State of Mexico 70 68 21 11 7 18 1 04 Mexico City 66 72 23 70 8 04 1 54 Total 61 82 27 43 8 93 1 81 Both studies find similar trends regarding the distribution of different blood groups with foreign blood groups being more common in the North and Western regions of Mexico which is congruent with the findings of genetic studies that have been made in the country through the years It is also observed that A and B blood groups are more common among younger volunteers whereas AB and O are more common in older ones The total number of analyzed samples in the 2018 study was 271 164 A study performed in hospitals of Mexico City reported that in average 51 8 of Mexican newborns presented the congenital skin birthmark known as the Mongolian spot whilst it was absent in 48 2 of the analyzed babies 50 The Mongolian spot appears with a very high frequency 85 95 in Asian Native American and African children 51 The skin lesion reportedly almost always appears on South American 52 and Mexican children who are racially Mestizos 53 while having a very low frequency 5 10 in Caucasian children 54 According to the Mexican Social Security Institute shortened as IMSS nationwide around half of Mexican babies have the Mongolian spot 55 According to the 2010 US Census 52 8 of Mexican Americans approximately 16 794 111 people self identified as being White 56 Genetic research Edit nbsp European Genetic Admixture in the Mexican Population nbsp Mexican girls citation needed of European ancestry in Zapopan Jalisco The numerous studies of the genetic makeup Mexican population have yielded a myriad of different results it is not unusual that different genetic studies done in the same location vary greatly Clear examples of such variations are seen in the city of Monterrey in the state of Nuevo Leon which depending on the study presents an average European ancestry ranging from 38 57 to 78 58 and in Mexico City whose European admixture ranges from as little as 21 59 to as high as 70 60 The reasons behind such variation may include the socioeconomic background of the analyzed samples 60 as well as the criteria for recruiting volunteers some studies only analyze Mexicans who self identify as Mestizos 61 others may classify the entire Mexican population as mestizo 62 other studies may do both such as the 2009 genetic study published by the INMEGEN Mexico s National Institute of Genomic Medicine which states that 93 of the Mexican population is Mestizo with the remaining population being Amerindian this particular statement having received considerable media exposure through the years 63 64 to the dismay of scientists from the aforementioned institute who have complained about the study being misinterpreted by the press as it wasn t meant to represent Mexico s population as a whole 65 According to the methodology of the aforementioned study the institute only recruited people who explicitly self identified as Mestizos 66 Finally there are studies which avoid using any racial classification whatsoever including in them any person who self identifies as Mexican these studies are the ones that usually report the highest European admixture for a given location 67 The Mestizaje ideology which has blurred the lines of race at an institutional level has also had a significant influence in genetic studies done in Mexico 65 As the criteria used in studies to determine if a Mexican is Mestizo or indigenous often lies in cultural traits such as the language spoken instead of racial self identification or a phenotype based selection there are studies on which populations who are considered to be Indigenous per virtue of the language spoken show a higher degree of European genetic admixture than the one populations considered to be Mestizo report in other studies 68 The opposite also happens as there instances on which populations considered to be Mestizo show genetic frequencies very similar to continental European peoples in the case of Mestizos from the state of Durango 69 or to European derived Americans in the case of Mestizos from the state of Jalisco 70 Regardless of the criteria used all the autosomal DNA studies made coincide on there being a significant genetic variation depending on the region analyzed with southern Mexico having prevalent Amerindian and small but higher than average African genetic contributions the central region of Mexico shows a balance between Amerindian and European components 71 with the later gradually increasing as one travels northwards and westwards where European ancestry becomes the majority of the genetic contribution 72 up until cities located in the Mexico United States border where studies suggest there is a significant resurgence of Amerindian and African admixture 73 To date no genetic research focusing on Mexicans of complete or predominant European ancestry has been made A 2014 publication summarizing population genetics research in Mexico including three nationwide surveys and several region specific surveys found that in the studies done to date counting only studies that looked at the ancestry of both parents autosomal ancestry Amerindian ancestry is most prevalent 51 to 56 in the three general estimates initially published by the INMEGEN in 2009 followed by European ancestry 40 to 45 the African share represents only 2 to 5 In Mexico City the European contribution was estimated as 21 to 32 in six of the seven reports with the anomalous value of 57 obtained in a single sample of 19 subjects albeit said percentage can t really be called anomalous as autosomal studies that obtain percentages of European ancestry of 51 74 52 67 70 60 and 52 75 exists with the last one being for Mexico s central region as a whole but were not included on this publication for unspecified reasons According to the studies that were included European ancestry is most prevalent in the north Chihuahua 50 Sonora 62 Nuevo Leon 55 but in a recent sample from Nuevo Leon and elsewhere in the country Amerindian ancestry is dominant 76 A 2006 nationwide autosomal study the first ever conducted by Mexico s National Institute of Genomic Medicine INMEGEN which included the states of Guerrero Oaxaca Veracruz Yucatan Zacatecas and Sonora reported that self identified Mestizo Mexicans are 58 96 European 35 05 Amerindian and 5 03 Other 61 A 2007 study that included Mexicans from Mexico City reported that the autosomal ancestry of Mexicans was 52 European while the Native American ancestry was 44 However the authors noted that Native American ancestry on the X chromosome was 54 The authors stated that this is consistent with the genetic formation of Latinos a process which involved primarily European males and Native American females 32 Establishment of Europeans in Mexico Edit nbsp El Hacendero y su Mayordomo The Hacendero and his Butler Painting by Carl Nebel c 1836 nbsp Portrait of the family Fagoga Arozqueta An upper class colonial Mexican family of Spanish ancestry referred to as Criollos in Mexico City New Spain ca 1730 The presence of Europeans in what is nowadays known as Mexico dates back to the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in the early 16th century 77 78 by Hernan Cortes his troops and a number of indigenous city states who were tributaries and rivals of the Aztecs such as the Totonacs the Tlaxcaltecas and Texcocans among others After years of war the coalition led by Cortes finally managed to conquer the Aztec Empire which would result on the foundation of the Viceroyalty of New Spain and while this new state granted a series of privileges to the members of the allied indigenous tribes such as nobiliary titles and swathes of land the Spanish held the most political and economic power 79 77 80 The small number of Spaniards who inhabited the new kingdom would soon be complemented by a steady migration flow of Spanish people 80 as it was the interest of the Spanish crown to Hispanicize and Christianize the region given that Indigenous peoples and their customs were considered uncivilized thus the Spanish language and culture were imposed and indigenous ones suppressed 77 81 The Mexican experience mirrors much of that of the rest of Latin America as attitudes towards race including identification were set by the conquistadors and Spanish who came soon after 80 Through the colonial period the Spanish and their descendants called criollos remained outnumbered by the indigenous and mestizos or those of mixed Spanish and indigenous parents 77 81 albeit a person of 7 8 Spanish ancestry and 1 8 or less indigenous ancestry could be considered to be criollo 82 To keep power the Spanish enforced a hierarchical class system in New Spain s society with those born in Spain known as Peninsulares being the most privileged followed by criollos then Mestizos then the indigenous and finally the Africans Nonetheless the system was not completely rigid and elements such as social class social relations and who a person descended from did figure into it However the notion of Spanishness would remain at the top and Indianness would be at the bottom with those mixed being somewhere in the middle This idea remained officially in force through the rest of the colonial period 77 nbsp Nena von Schlebrugge Thurman a former international fashion model and the mother of popular actress Uma Thurman Criollo resentment of the privileges afforded to the Peninsulares was the main reason behind the Mexican War of Independence When the war ended in 1821 the new Mexican government expelled the peninsulares approximately 10 000 20 000 people in the 1820s and 1830s which to a degree kept the European ethnicity from growing as a percentage 81 this expulsion however did not lead to any permanent ban on European immigrants even from Spain 78 Independence did not do away with economic and social privilege based on race as the Criollos took over from those of Spanish birth A division between Spanish and indigenous remained with Criollos distinguishing themselves from the rest of society as the guardians of Spanish culture as well as the Catholic religion 83 However due to the abolition of the caste system the division became more about money and social class and less about biological differences which increased the possibilities of social mobility for Mestizo and Indigenous Mexicans For this reason many of the political and cultural struggles of the latter 19th and early 20th centuries would be between the Criollos and the Mestizos 81 According to Mexico s first ever racial census published in 1793 the Eurodescendant population was between 18 22 of the population with Mestizos being 21 25 and Amerindians being 51 61 84 but by 1921 when the second nationwide census that considered a person s race took place only 9 of the population self identified as being of European descent with 59 being Mestizo and 29 being Amerindian 8 While for a long time the 1921 census results were taken as fact with international publications such as The World Factbook and Encyclopaedia Britannica using them as a reference to estimate Mexico s racial composition up to this day 1 2 more recently Mexican academics have subjected them to scrutiny claiming that such a drastic alteration of demographic trends is not possible and cite among other statistics the relatively low frequency of marriages between people of different continental ancestries 85 17 In the early 1890s Northern Italian immigrants were brought from the Veneto area to Mexico to whiten the population 86 In today s society Edit nbsp Emilio Azcarraga is the owner of Televisa and one of the richest people in Latin America 87 The lack of a clear dividing line between white and mixed race Mexicans has made the concept of race relatively fluid with descent being more of a determining factor than biological traits 8 78 Even though there is a large variation in phenotypes among Mexicans European looks are still strongly preferred in Mexican society with lighter skin receiving more positive attention as it is associated with higher social class power money and modernity 78 80 In contrast Indigenous ancestry is often associated with having an inferior social class as well as lower levels of education 8 77 These distinctions are strongest in Mexico City where the most powerful of the country s elite are located 78 Since the end of the Mexican Revolution the official identity promoted by the government for non indigenous Mexicans has been the Mestizo one a mix of European and indigenous culture and heritage 8 Established with the original intent of eliminating divisions and creating a unified identity that would allow Mexico to modernize and integrate with the international community 78 this policy has not been able to achieve its goal It is speculated that this is due to the identity s own internal contradictions 8 as it includes in the same theoretical race people who in daily interactions do not consider each other to be of the same race and have little in common biologically 88 with some of them being entirely Indigenous others entirely European and including also Africans and Asians 33 Today there is no definitive census that quantifies Mexico s white population with estimates from different publications varying greatly ranging from just 9 of the total 1 89 to 47 3 4 with this figure being based on phenotypical traits instead of self identification of ancestry nbsp Marion Reimers a Mexican journalist sports commentator and television presenterDespite what the mestizaje discourse asserts Mexico is a country where Eurodescendants are not a minority neither are they a clear majority but rather exist in equal numbers in relation to Mestizos 90 Because of this even though the Mexican government didn t use racial terms related to European or white people officially for almost a century resuming using such terms after 2010 the concepts of white people known as gueros or blancos in Mexican Spanish and of being white didn t disappear 91 and are still present in everyday Mexican culture different idioms of race are used in Mexico s society that serve as mediating terms between racial groups It is not strange to see street vendors calling a potential costumer Guero or guerito sometimes even when the person is not light skinned In this instance it is used to initiate a kind of familiarity but in cases where social racial tensions are relatively high it can have the opposite effect 78 This widespread preference that Mexicans even those who are of predominant indigenous ancestry have for European cultures and values over Indigenous ones has come to be known as malinchismo which means to identify or favor a North American or European culture over the native one It derives from La Malinche the native interpreter who served with Hernan Cortes during the Conquest whose story still is a Mexican fable Examples of practices considered as malinchismo in modern Mexico include Mexican parents choosing English given names for their kids due to the desire to be associated with the United States 77 European immigration to Mexico EditMexico s European heritage is strongly associated with Spanish settlement during the colonial period Mexico not having witnessed the same scale of mass recent immigration as other New World countries such as the United States Brazil and Argentina 78 However this ruling is less blanket fact and more of a consequence due to Mexico s enormous population Regardless Mexico ranks 3rd behind Brazil and Argentina for European immigration in Latin America with its culture owing a great deal to the significant German Italian Irish British Polish and French populations White Mexicans rather descend of a considerably ethnocentrist group of Spanish people who beginning with the arrival and establishment of the conquistadors to then be supplemented with clerics workers academics etc immigrated to what today is Mexico The criollos as people born in the colonies to Spanish parents were called until the beginning of the 20th century 80 would favor for marriage other Spanish immigrants even if they were of a less privileged economic class than them as to preserve the Spanish lineage and customs was seen as the top priority Once Mexico achieved its independence and immigration from European countries other than Spain became accepted the criollos did the same and sought to assimilate the new European immigrants into the overwhelmingly Spanish origin white Mexican population as the yearly immigration rate of Europeans to Mexico never exceeded 2 in relation to the country s total population assimilation of the new immigrants was easy and Mexican hyphenated identities never appeared 83 nbsp Maximilian receiving a Mexican delegation at Miramare Castle in Trieste Painting by Cesare dell Acqua 1821 1905 Another way on which European immigration to Mexico differed from that of other New World countries was on the profile of the needed immigrant As New Spain s main economic activities were not related to agriculture and the manpower for it was already supplied by the converted indigenous population the country didn t enforce any sort of programs that would make it an attractive destination for European farmers Much more important to the economy was mining and miners came from Europe in particular from Cornwall U K and even today parts of Mineral del Monte and Pachuca maintain strong links to both their British heritage and with the United Kingdom There was also strong demand for people with specialized skills in fields such as geology metallurgy commerce law medicine etc As stories of professional immigrants amassing huge wealth in a pair of years were commonly heard New Spain became very attractive only for Europeans who filled these profiles and their families which in the end resulted on the country getting relatively less European immigration 81 83 is also because of the aforementioned reasons that the majority of Spanish immigrants who arrived to the country were from the northern regions of Spain mainly Cantabria Navarra Galicia and the Basque Country 92 After the war of independence the country s almost completely European elite would associate civilization with European characteristics blaming the country s indigenous heritage for its inability to keep up with the economic development of the rest of the world This led to active efforts to encourage the arrival of additional European immigrants 78 One of these efforts was the dispossession of large tracts of land from the Catholic Church with the aim of selling them to immigrants and others who would develop them However this did not have the desired effect mostly because of political instability The Porfirio Diaz regime of the decades before the Mexican Revolution tried again and expressly desired European immigration to promote modernization instill Protestant work ethics and buttress what remained of Mexico s North from further U S expansionism Diaz also expressed a desire to whiten Mexico s heavily racially mixed population although this had more to do with culture than with biological traits However the Diaz regime knew it had to be cautious as previously large concentrations of Americans in Texas would eventually lead to the secession of that territory 81 83 This precautions meant that the government had more success luring investors than permanent residents even in rural areas despite government programs No more than forty foreign farming colonies were ever formed during this time and of these only a few Italian and German ones survived 83 By the mid 19th century between Europeans and ethnically European Americans and Canadians there were only 30 000 to 40 000 European immigrants in Mexico compared to an overall population of over eight million but their impact was strongly felt as they came to dominate the textile industry and various areas of commerce and industry Many were not immigrants but rather trade conquistadors who remained in Mexico only long enough to make their fortunes to return to their home countries to retire This led Diaz to nationalize industries dominated by foreigners such as trains which caused many trade conquistadors to leave 83 In January 1883 the government signed a law to promote the Irish German and French immigration to Mexico this time with fewer restrictions resulting in the arrival of relatively more conventional immigrants and their families 93 Up to 1914 10 000 French settled in Mexico 94 alongside other 100 000 Europeans 94 Despite being the most violent conflict in Mexico s history the Mexican Revolution did not discourage European immigration nor scared away white Mexicans who for concentrating in urban areas were largely unaffected by it and thought of it as a conflict pertinent only to rural people 83 Later on bellic conflicts in Europe during the 1930s and 1940s such as the Spanish Civil War and the Second World War caused additional waves of European immigration to the country 95 nbsp A photo of Italian immigrants in Monterrey in 1905 By the end of the Second World War Americans British French Germans and Spanish were the most conspicuous Europeans in Mexico but their presence was limited to urban areas especially Mexico City living in enclaves and involved in business These European immigrants would quickly adapt to the Mexican attitude that whiter was better and keep themselves separate from the non European population of the host country This and their status as foreigners offered them considerable social and economic advantages blunting any inclination to assimilate There was little incentive to integrate with the general Mexican population and when they did it was limited to the criollo and mestizo upper class failing to produce the whitening effect desired For this reason one can find non Spanish surnames especially in Mexico City and Guadalajara 81 83 However even in the cases when generalized mixing did occur such as with the Cornish miners in Hidalgo state around Pachuca and Real de Monte their cultural influence remains strong In these areas English style houses can be found the signature dish is the paste a variation of the Cornish pasty 96 and they ended up introducing football soccer to Mexico 97 In the early 20th century a group of about 100 Russian immigrants mostly Pryguny and some Molokane and Cossacks came to live in area near Ensenada Baja California The main colony is in the Valle de Guadalupe and locally known as the Colonia Rusa near the town of Francisco Zarco Other smaller colonies include San Antonio Mision del Orno and Punta Banda There are an estimated 1 000 descendants of these immigrants in Mexico nearly all of whom have intermarried The original settlements are now under the preservation of the Mexican government and have become tourist attractions 98 Legal vestiges of attempts to whiten the population ended with the 1947 Ley General de Poblacion along with the blurring of the lines between most of Mexico immigrant colonies and the general population This blurring was hastened by the rise of a Mexican middle class who enrolled their children in schools for foreigners and foreign organizations such as the German Club having a majority of Mexican members However this assimilation still has been mostly limited to Mexico s white peoples Mass culture promoted the Spanish language and most other European languages have declined and almost disappeared Restrictive immigration policies since the 1970s have further pushed the assimilation process Despite all of the aforementioned pressure as of 2013 Mexico is the country with most international immigrants in the world 99 Since 2000 Mexico s economic growth has increased international migration to the country including people of European descent who leave their countries particularly France and Spain in the search of better work opportunities People from the United States have moved too now making up more than three quarters of Mexico s roughly one million documented foreigners up from around two thirds in 2000 Nowadays more people originally from United States have been added to the population of Mexico than Mexicans have been added to the population of the United States according to government data in both nations 100 Examples of white ethnic groups in Mexico Edit nbsp A Mennonite girl in Cuauhtemoc ChihuahuaEuropean immigration to Mexico is not uncommon with many European or European derived ethnic groups responsible for shaping modern Mexican culture Besides colonial Iberian influences many other European and or white communities thrived in Mexico s history such as the Spanish Polish and French with the German Mexican community especially dominant on modern culture once named as la tercera raza or the third race 101 Mexico s northwest pacific region particularly Sinaloa Sonora and the Baja California Peninsula experienced major surges of Northern Spanish immigration in the late 19th and early 20th century specifically from Asturias and Galicia Spain Most of Latin America s colonial and industrial era Spanish immigration originates from Southern Spain and the Canary Islands thus this regional enclave of Northern Spaniards is exceptional and remains the biggest diaspora of Asturias and Galicians by heritage in the Americas 102 This region also experienced concentrated waves of modern European immigration during the 20th century such as Italian and French and the culture of the region reflects its lack of indigenous admixture European rooted holidays like Saints days Carnival as well as gastronomy such as bread cheese and wine production remain unique to the region 103 One of the few Porfirian era European settlements to survive to this day is centered on the small town of Chipilo in the state of Puebla They are the descendants of about 500 Venetian refugee immigrants which came over in the 1880s keeping their Venetian derived dialect and distinct ethnic identity even though many have intermarried with other Mexicans Many still farm and raise livestock but economic changes have pushed many into industry 104 During the Mexican Revolution Alvaro Obregon invited a group of German speaking Mennonites in Canada to resettle in Chihuahua state By the late 1920s almost 10 000 had arrived from both Canada and Europe 83 105 Today Mexico accounts for about 42 of all Mennonites in Latin America with 115 000 practicing Mennonites accounted for 80 Mennonites in the country especially stand out within their rural surroundings because of their traditional clothing Plautdietsch language light skin hair and eyes They own their own businesses in various communities in Chihuahua and account for about half of the state s farm economy standing out in cheese production 105 Immigration was restricted by governments after Diaz s but never stopped entirely during the 20th century Between 1937 and 1948 more than 18 000 Spanish Republicans arrived as refugees from the Nationalists and Francoist Spain Their reception by the Mexican criollo elite was mixed but they manage to experience success as most of these newcomers were educated as scholars and artists This group founded the Colegio de Mexico one of the country s top academic institutions Despite attempts to assimilate these immigrant groups especially the country s already existing German population during World War II they remain mostly separate to this day 83 nbsp Santiago Creel descendant of the Creel Terrazas family son of Rene Creel Lujan one of the founders of the National Action Party Due to the 2008 Financial Crisis and the resulting economic decline and high unemployment in Spain many Spaniards have been emigrating to Mexico to seek new opportunities 106 For example during the last quarter of 2012 a number of 7 630 work permits were granted to Spaniards 107 Other Southern Europeans joined the Spaniards in the 2010s by finding better work opportunities in Mexico with thousands of Italians Portuguese French and Greeks finding professional opportunities along with the Spaniards in Mexico Sixty seven percent of Latin America s English speaking population lives in Mexico 80 Most of these are American nationals with an influx of people from the U S coming to live in Mexico since the 1930s becoming the largest group of foreigners in the country since then However most Americans in Mexico are not immigrants in the traditional sense as they are there living as retirees or otherwise do not consider themselves permanent residents 83 108 Official censuses EditHistorically population studies and censuses have never been up to the standards that a population as diverse and numerous such as Mexico s require the first racial census was made in 1793 being also Mexico s then known as New Spain first ever nationwide population census of it only part of the original datasets survive thus most of what is known of it comes from essays made by researchers who back in the day used the census findings as reference for their own works More than a century would pass until the Mexican government conducted a new racial census in 1921 some sources assert that the census of 1895 included a comprehensive racial classification 8 however according to the historic archives of Mexico s National Institute of Statistics that was not the case 109 While the 1921 census was the last time the Mexican government conducted a census that included a comprehensive racial classification in recent time it has conducted nationwide surveys to quantify most of the ethnic groups who inhabit the country as well as the social dynamics and inequalities between them 1793 census Edit nbsp New Spain in 1819 with the boundaries established at the Adams Onis TreatyAlso known as the Revillagigedo census due to its creation being ordered by the Count of the same name this census was Mexico s then known as the Viceroyalty of New Spain first ever nationwide population census Most of its original datasets have reportedly been lost thus most of what is known about it nowadays comes from essays and field investigations made by academics who had access to the census data and used it as reference for their works such as Prussian geographer Alexander von Humboldt Each author gives different estimations for each racial group in the country although they don t vary much with Europeans ranging from 18 to 22 of New Spain s population Mestizos ranging from 21 to 25 Indians ranging from 51 to 61 and Africans being between 6 000 and 10 000 The estimations given for the total population range from 3 799 561 to 6 122 354 It is concluded then that across nearly three centuries of colonization the population growth trends of whites and mestizos were even while the total percentage of the indigenous population decreased at a rate of 13 17 per century The authors assert that rather than whites and mestizos having higher birthrates the reason for the indigenous population s numbers decreasing lies on them suffering of higher mortality rates due living in remote locations rather than on cities and towns founded by the Spanish colonists or being at war with them It is also for these reasons that the number of Indigenous Mexicans presents the greater variation range between publications as in cases their numbers in a given location were estimated rather than counted leading to possible overestimations in some provinces and possible underestimations in others 84 Intendecy territory European population Indigenous population Mestizo population Mexico 16 9 66 1 16 7 Puebla 10 1 74 3 15 3 Oaxaca 06 3 88 2 05 2 Guanajuato 25 8 44 0 29 9 San Luis Potosi 13 0 51 2 35 7 Zacatecas 15 8 29 0 55 1 Durango 20 2 36 0 43 5 Sonora 28 5 44 9 26 4 Yucatan 14 8 72 6 12 3 Guadalajara 31 7 33 3 34 7 Veracruz 10 4 74 0 15 2 Valladolid 27 6 42 5 29 6 Nuevo Mexico 30 8 69 0 Vieja California 51 7 47 9 Nueva California 89 9 09 8 Coahuila 30 9 28 9 40 0 Nuevo Leon 62 6 05 5 31 6 Nuevo Santander 25 8 23 3 50 8 Texas 39 7 27 3 32 4 Tlaxcala 13 6 72 4 13 8 Europeans are included within the Mestizo category Regardless of the possible imprecisions related to the counting of Indigenous peoples living outside of the colonized areas the effort that New Spain s authorities put on considering them as subjects is worth mentioning as censuses made by other colonial or post colonial countries did not consider American Indians to be citizens subjects as example the censuses made by the Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata would only count the inhabitants of the colonized settlements 110 Other example would be the censuses made by the United States that did not include Indigenous peoples living among the general population until 1860 and indigenous peoples as a whole until 1900 111 1921 census Edit nbsp Enrique Creel was a businessman and politician Made right after the consummation of the Mexican revolution the social context on which this census was made makes it particularly unique as the government of the time was in the process of rebuilding the country and was looking forward to unite all Mexicans under a single national identity The 1921 census final results in regards to race which assert that 59 3 of the Mexican population self identified as Mestizo 29 1 as Indigenous and only 9 8 as White were then essential to cement the mestizaje ideology that asserts that the Mexican population as a whole is product of the admixture of all races which shaped Mexican identity and culture through the 20th century and remain prominent nowadays with extraofficial international publications such as The World Factbook and Encyclopaedia Britannica using them as a reference to estimate Mexico s racial composition up to this day 1 2 Nonetheless in recent time the census results have been subjected to scrutiny by historians academics and social activists alike who assert that such drastic alterations on demographic trends with respect to the 1793 census are not possible and cite among other statistics the relatively low frequency of marriages between people of different continental ancestries in colonial and early independent Mexico 85 17 It is claimed that the mestizaje process sponsored by the state was more cultural than biological which resulted on the numbers of the Mestizo Mexican group being inflated at the expense of the identity of other races 112 Controversies aside this census constituted the last time the Mexican Government conducted a comprehensive racial census with the breakdown by states being the following foreigners and people who answered other not included 113 Federative Units Mestizo Population Amerindian Population White Population Aguascalientes 66 12 16 70 16 77 Baja California Distrito Norte 72 50 07 72 00 35 Baja California Distrito Sur 59 61 06 06 33 40 Campeche 41 45 43 41 14 17 Coahuila 77 88 11 38 10 13 Colima 68 54 26 00 04 50 Chiapas 36 27 47 64 11 82 Chihuahua 50 09 12 76 36 33 Durango 89 85 09 99 00 01 Guanajuato 96 33 02 96 00 54 Guerrero 54 05 43 84 02 07 Hidalgo 51 47 39 49 08 83 Jalisco 75 83 16 76 07 31 Mexico City 54 78 18 75 22 79 State of Mexico 47 71 42 13 10 02 Michoacan 70 95 21 04 06 94 Morelos 61 24 34 93 03 59 Nayarit 73 45 20 38 05 83 Nuevo Leon 75 47 05 14 19 23 Oaxaca 28 15 69 17 01 43 Puebla 39 34 54 73 05 66 Queretaro 80 15 19 40 00 30 Quintana Roo 42 35 20 59 15 16 San Luis Potosi 61 88 30 60 05 41 Sinaloa 98 30 00 93 00 19 Sonora 41 04 14 00 42 54 Tabasco 53 67 18 50 27 56 Tamaulipas 69 77 13 89 13 62 Tlaxcala 42 44 54 70 02 53 Veracruz 50 09 36 60 10 28 Yucatan 33 83 43 31 21 85 Zacatecas 86 10 08 54 05 26 When the 1921 census s results are compared with the results of Mexico s recent censuses 114 as well as with modern genetic research 102 high consistence is found in regards to the distribution of Indigenous Mexicans across the country with states located in south and south eastern Mexico having both the highest percentages of population that self identifies as Indigenous and the highest percentages of Amerindian genetic ancestry However this is not the case when it comes to European Mexicans as there are instances on which states that have been shown to have a considerably high European ancestry per scientific research are reported to have very small white populations in the 1921 census with the most extreme case being that of the state of Durango where the aforementioned census asserts that only 0 01 of the state s population 33 persons self identified as white while modern scientific research shows that the population of Durango has similar genetic frequencies to those found on European peoples with the state s Indigenous population showing almost no foreign admixture either 69 Various authors theorize that the reason for these inconsistencies may lie in the Mestizo identity promoted by the Mexican government which reportedly led to people who are not biologically Mestizos to identify as such 33 115 Present day Edit nbsp Mariana Bayon Mexican model best known for winning the first cycle of Mexico s Next Top Model The following table is a compilation of when possible official nationwide surveys conducted by the Mexican government who have attempted to quantify different Mexican ethnic groups Given that for the most part each ethnic group was estimated by different surveys with different methodologies and years apart rather than on a single comprehensive racial census some groups could overlap with others and be overestimated or underestimated Race or ethnicity Population est Percentage est YearIndigenous 26 000 000 21 5 2015 114 Black 2 576 213 2 4 2020 116 White 56 000 000 47 0 2010 3 4 11 Foreigners residing in Mexico of any race 1 010 000 lt 1 0 2015 117 East Asian 1 000 000 lt 1 0 2010 118 Middle Eastern 400 000 lt 1 0 2010 119 Jewish 58 876 lt 1 0 2020 116 Muslim 7 982 lt 1 0 2020 116 Unclassified most likely Mestizos 37 300 000 30 0 Total 126 014 024 100 2020 116 Of all the ethnic groups that have been surveyed Mestizos are notably absent which is likely due to the label s fluid and subjective definition which complicates its precise quantification However it can be safely assumed that Mestizos make up at least the remaining 30 unassessed percentage of Mexico s population with possibilities of increasing if the methodologies of the extant surveys are considered As example the 2015 intercensal survey considered as Indigenous Mexicans and Afro Mexicans altogether individuals who self identified as part Indigenous or part African thus said people technically would be Mestizos Similarly White Mexicans were quantified based on physical traits appearance thus technically a Mestizo with a percentage of Indigenous ancestry that was low enough to not affect his her primarily European phenotype was considered to be white Finally the remaining ethnicities for being of a rather low number or being faiths have more permissive classification criteria therefore a Mestizo could claim to belong to one of them by practicing the faith or by having an ancestor who belonged to said ethnicities Nonetheless contemporary sociologists and historians agree that given that the concept of race has a psychological foundation rather than a biological one and to society s eyes a Mestizo with a high percentage of European ancestry is considered white and a Mestizo with a high percentage of Indigenous ancestry is considered Indian a person who identifies with a given ethnic group should be allowed to even if biologically doesn t completely belong to that group 88 See also Edit nbsp Mexico portal nbsp Europe portalEuropeans White people White Latin Americans White Latino Americans White Colombians White Brazilians White Americans Indigenous Mexicans Afro Mexicans Asian Mexicans Criollo people Castizo Gringo Spaniards in Mexico Racism in MexicoReferences Edit a b c d e The World Factbook North America Mexico People and Society The World Factbook Central Intelligence Agency CIA Archived from the original on January 26 2021 Retrieved August 23 2017 mestizo Amerindian Spanish 62 predominantly Amerindian 21 Amerindian 7 other 10 mostly European a b c d e f Ethnic composition 2010 60 0 mestizo 18 0 Mexican white 10 5 detribalized Amerindian 7 5 other Amerindian 2 Arab 1 5 Mexican black 2 2 other Mexico Ethnic groups Encyclopaedia Britannica Retrieved March 6 2022 a b c d 21 de Marzo Dia Internacional de la Eliminacion de la Discriminacion Racial March 21 International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination PDF in Spanish Mexico CONAPRED 2017 p 7 Archived PDF from the original on May 25 2017 Retrieved August 23 2017 a b c d e Encuesta Nacional Sobre Discriminacion en Mexico National Survey on Discrimination in Mexico PDF in Spanish Mexico CONAPRED June 2011 Archived PDF from the original on November 8 2012 Retrieved August 24 2017 Sharon R Ennis Merarys Rios Vargas Nora G Albert May 2011 https www census gov prod cen2010 briefs c2010br 04 pdf Archived January 27 2018 at the Wayback Machine U S Census Bureau p 14 Table 6 Retrieved 2011 07 11 Plautdietsch in Mexico PDF europeanpeoples imb org Archived from the original PDF on October 6 2014 Retrieved January 13 2016 Includes Poles Wojciech Tycinski Krzysztof Sawicki Departament Wspolpracy z Polonia MSZ Warsaw 2009 Raport o sytuacji Polonii i Polakow za granica The official report on the situation of Poles and Polonia abroad PDF file direct download 1 44 MB Ministerstwo Spraw Zagranicznych Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Poland pp 1 466 Retrieved June 14 2013 Internet Archive a b c d e f g h Navarrete Federico El mestizaje y las culturas Mixed race and cultures Mexico Multicultural in Spanish Mexico UNAM Archived from the original on August 23 2013 Retrieved July 19 2011 a b c d e f Resultados del Modulo de Movilidad Social Intergeneracional Archived July 9 2018 at the Wayback Machine INEGI 16 June 2017 Retrieved on 30 April 2018 a b c Vision INEGI 2021 Dr Julio Santaella Castell Archived January 21 2019 at the Wayback Machine INEGI 03 July 2017 Retrieved on 30 April 2018 a b c Documento Informativo Sobre Discriminacion Racial En Mexico Archived May 25 2017 at the Wayback Machine CONAPRED Mexico 21 March 2011 retrieved on 28 April 2017 a b Por estas razones el color de piel determina las oportunidades de los mexicanos Archived June 22 2018 at the Wayback Machine Huffington post 26 July 2017 Retrieved on 30 April 2018 Ser Blanco Archived June 19 2018 at the Wayback Machine El Universal 06 July 2017 Retrieved on 19 June 2018 Comprobado con datos en Mexico te va mejor si eres blanco Archived November 5 2018 at the Wayback Machine forbes 07 August 2018 Retrieved on 04 November 2018 a b Sears racista Causa polemica su nueva campana de publicidad Archived July 21 2020 at the Wayback Machine Economiahoy mx 05 March 2020 Retrieved on 21 July 2020 a b Critican series mexicanas de Netflix por solo tener personajes blancos Archived April 19 2021 at the Wayback Machine Tomatazos com 23 mayo 2020 consultado el 19 de diciembre de 2020 a b c Federico Navarrete 2016 Mexico Racista Penguin Random house Grupo Editorial Mexico p 86 ISBN 9786073143646 Retrieved February 23 2018 R Martinez amp C De La Torre 2008 Racial Appearance And Income In Contemporary Mexico pag 9 note 1 Archived August 6 2021 at the Wayback Machine Journal of Diversity Management 2008 Retrieved 01 April 2021 a b Ortiz Hernandez Luis Compean Dardon Sandra Verde Flota Elizabeth Flores Martinez Maricela Nanet April 2011 Racism and mental health among university students in Mexico City Salud Publica de Mexico 53 2 125 133 doi 10 1590 s0036 36342011000200005 PMID 21537803 a b Villarreal Andres 2010 Stratification by Skin Color in Contemporary Mexico American Sociological Review 75 5 652 678 doi 10 1177 0003122410378232 JSTOR 20799484 S2CID 145295212 a b Admixture in Latin America Geographic Structure Phenotypic Diversity and Self Perception of Ancestry Based on 7 342 Individuals table 1 Archived May 25 2017 at the Wayback Machine Plosgenetics 25 September 2014 Retrieved on 9 May 2017 Federico Navarrete 2016 pp 109 110 To make matters worse the few Germans Italians and other Europeans who did reach our shores also did not mix in large numbers with the Mexican population and even less so with the indigenous people whom they were supposed to make disappear with the superior powers of Mexico its race In fact they founded regional enclaves where they married preferentially among themselves as the Creoles and the indigenous had traditionally done The historian Moises Gonzalez Navarro studied the population censuses of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries which allow us to know more accurately the behavior of the population than in previous periods Contrary to what the mestizaje legend would have us believe he found that informal marriages and unions between white men and indigenous women or any other combination hardly existed 2 a b San Miguel G November 2000 Ser mestizo en la nueva Espana a fines del siglo XVIII Acatzingo 1792 To be mestizo in New Spain at the end of the XVIII th century Acatzingo 1792 Cuadernos de la Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias Sociales Universidad Nacional de Jujuy in Spanish 13 325 342 Archived from the original on October 23 2020 Retrieved July 1 2017 Sherburne Friend Cook Woodrow Borah 1998 Ensayos sobre historia de la poblacion Mexico y el Caribe 2 Siglo XXI p 223 ISBN 9789682301063 Retrieved September 12 2017 Household Mobility and Persistence in Guadalajara Mexico 1811 1842 page 62 Archived December 10 2018 at the Wayback Machine fsu org 8 December 2016 Retrieved on 9 December 2018 a b Wang Sijia Ray Nicolas Rojas Winston Parra Maria V et al March 21 2008 Geographic Patterns of Genome Admixture in Latin American Mestizos PLOS Genetics 4 3 e1000037 doi 10 1371 journal pgen 1000037 PMC 2265669 PMID 18369456 Bonilla C Parra E J Pfaff C L Dios S Marshall J A Hamman R F Ferrell R E Hoggart C L McKeigue P M Shriver M D March 2004 Admixture in the Hispanics of the San Luis Valley Colorado and its implications for complex trait gene mapping Annals of Human Genetics 68 Pt 2 139 153 doi 10 1046 j 1529 8817 2003 00084 x hdl 2027 42 65937 ISSN 0003 4800 PMID 15008793 S2CID 13702953 Archived from the original on October 3 2022 Retrieved October 3 2022 Both studies have revealed a pattern of directional mating in this population an asymmetric interaction between Spanish males and Native American females much like in other Hispanic populations of Latin America Green et al 2000 Carvajal Carmona et al 2000 2003 Rodriguez Delfin et al 2001 During the conquest and colonization of America the immigration of women from the Iberian Peninsula was significantly lower than that of men so European males frequently took native women as wives or partners Morner 1967 After the initial directional contact between European and Native American populations it seems likely that the admixed group became mostly endogamic which would explain the high levels of Native American mtDNA Merriwether et al 1997 Wheelwright Jeff January 16 2012 The Wandering Gene and the Indian Princess Race Religion and DNA W W Norton amp Company p 96 ISBN 978 0 393 08342 2 The Hispanos generally resemble other Hispanic and Mexican American groups while having a somewhat higher proportion of European blood than the rest Genetics research has also confirmed the harshly one sided nature of the admixture By paying special attention to the Y chromosome and the mitochondrial DNA mtDNA scientists proved that the genetic exchange in the early years of New Mexico was almost entirely between Spanish males and Indian females The Y chromosome of Hispano men is hardly Native American at all while their mtDNA is about 85 percent Indian Again the former represents fatherhood the latter motherhood The skew between the two means that mating happened in one direction It means that Indian men and Spanish women were largely on the sidelines when the admixture between Spanish men and Indian women occurred Suarez Kurtz Dr G August 3 2007 Pharmacogenomics in Admixed Populations CRC Press p 39 ISBN 978 1 4987 1379 5 In Mexico approximately 90 of the maternal lineages are of Native American ancestry implying that there has been very little European female contribution throughout colonial and post colonial history Kumar Satish Bellis Claire Zlojutro Mark Melton Phillip E Blangero John Curran Joanne E October 7 2011 Large scale mitochondrial sequencing in Mexican Americans suggests a reappraisal of Native American origins BMC Evolutionary Biology 11 1 293 doi 10 1186 1471 2148 11 293 ISSN 1471 2148 PMC 3217880 PMID 21978175 Thus the observed frequency of Native American mtDNA in Mexican Mexican Americans is higher than was expected on the basis of autosomal estimates of Native American admixture for these populations i e 30 46 53 55 The difference is indicative of directional mating involving preferentially immigrant men and Native American women This type of genetic asymmetry has been observed in other populations including Brazilian individuals of African ancestry as the analysis of sex specific and autosomal markers has revealed evidence for substantial European admixture that was mediated mostly through men 56 Campos Sanchez et al 2006 Genetic structure analysis of three Hispanic populations from Costa Rica Mexico and the southwestern United States using Y chromosome STR markers and mtDNA sequences Archived October 4 2022 at the Wayback Machine Pubmed 2006 Retrieved 04 October 2022 a b Price Alkes L Patterson Nick Yu Fuli Cox David R et al June 2007 A Genomewide Admixture Map for Latino Populations The American Journal of Human Genetics 80 6 1024 1036 doi 10 1086 518313 PMC 1867092 PMID 17503322 Results are reported 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