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Thuja plicata

February 07, 2023

Thuja plicata is an evergreen coniferous tree in the cypress family Cupressaceae, native to western North America. Its common name is western redcedar in the U.S.[2] or western red cedar in the UK,[3] and it is also called pacific red cedar, giant arborvitae, western arborvitae, just cedar, giant cedar, or shinglewood.[4] It is not a true cedar of the genus Cedrus. T. plicata is the largest species in the genus Thuja, and generally grows in moist environments. The species is used for a wide variety of purposes by indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest, and is of great cultural importance to these peoples.

Thuja plicata
An old tree in Vancouver
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Gymnosperms
Division: Pinophyta
Class: Pinopsida
Order: Cupressales
Family: Cupressaceae
Genus: Thuja
Species:
T. plicata
Binomial name
Thuja plicata
Range of T. plicata in the Pacific Northwest

Description

Thuja plicata is a large to very large tree, ranging up to 45 to 70 metres (150 to 230 ft) tall and 2.4 to 7 m (8 to 23 ft) in trunk diameter,[5][6][7] larger than any other species in its genus.[8] Trees growing in the open may have a crown that reaches the ground, whereas trees densely spaced together will exhibit a crown only at the top, where light can reach the leaves.[9] The trunk swells at the base and has shallow roots.[5] The bark is thin, gray-brown and fissured into vertical bands.[5] As the tree ages, the top is damaged by wind and replaced by inferior branches.[5] The species is long-lived; some trees can live well over a thousand years, with the oldest verified aged 1,460.[6][7]

The foliage forms flat sprays with scale-like leaves in opposite pairs, with successive pairs at 90 degrees to each other. The foliage sprays are green above and green marked with whitish stomatal bands below; they are strongly aromatic, with a scent reminiscent of pineapple when crushed. The individual leaves are 1 to 4 millimetres (1⁄32 to 5⁄32 in) long and 1 to 2 mm (1⁄32 to 3⁄32 in) broad on most foliage sprays, but up to 12 mm (1⁄2 in) long on strong-growing lead shoots.[6][7] The foliage of individual branchlets turns orange-brown before falling off in autumn.[5]

The cones are slender, 10 to 18 mm (3⁄8 to 11⁄16 in) long, and 4 to 5 mm (5⁄32 to 3⁄16 in) broad, with 8 to 12 (rarely 14) thin, overlapping scales. They are green to yellow-green, ripening brown in fall about six months after pollination, and open at maturity to shed the seeds. The seeds are 4 to 5 mm (5⁄32 to 3⁄16 in) long and 1 mm (1⁄32 in) broad, with a narrow papery wing down each side. The pollen cones are 3 to 4 mm (1⁄8 to 5⁄32 in) long, red or purple at first, and shed yellow pollen in spring.[6][7]

Chemistry

The heartwood of western redcedar contains numerous chemical substances, such as plicatic acid, thujaplicatin methyl ether, hinokitiol and other thujaplicins, β-thujaplicinol, thujic acid, methyl thujate, 1,4-cineole and γ-eudesmol.[10] Plicatic acid is believed to be the main irritant and contact allergen responsible for provoking allergic reactions and asthma exaggeration and leading to occupational asthma in woodworkers that are exposed to Western Red Cedar wood dust.[11] Thujaplicins serve as natural fungicides,[12][13] and thereby prevent the wood from rotting. This effect lasts around a century even after the tree is felled. However, thujaplicins are only found in older trees. Saplings do not produce the chemical, causing them to often develop rot at an early stage, causing some trees to grow with a somewhat hollow trunk, as the tree moves to heal itself as it grows.[14] Due to their fungicidal and anti-browning properties, thujaplicins are used in agriculture for fungal diseases and to prevent post-harvest decay.[15][16] Thujaplicins, as other tropolones, are potent chelating agents and bind divalent metal ions.[17] Basic and animal studies have shown that thujaplicins may have other biological properties, including antibacterial, antiviral and antioxidant activities,[18] however reliable evidence on their effectiveness is still lacking.

Etymology

The species name plicata derives from the Latin word plicāre and means 'folded in plaits' or 'braided,' a reference to the pattern of its small leaves.[9]

Most authorities, both in Canada[19][20] and the United States[21][2][22][23] transliterate the English name in two words as 'western redcedar', or occasionally hyphenated as 'western red-cedar',[7] to indicate that it is not a true cedar (Cedrus), but it also appears as 'western red cedar' in some popular works. In the American horticultural trade, it is also known as the giant arborvitae, by comparison with arborvitae for its close relative Thuja occidentalis. Other names include Giant Red Cedar, Pacific Red Cedar, shinglewood, British Columbia cedar (being the province's official tree),[5] canoe cedar, and red cedar.[6][14] Arborvitae comes from the Latin for 'tree of life'; coincidentally, Native Americans of the West Coast also address the species as "long life maker".[14]

One endonymous name for the tree is the Halkomelem word xepá:y,[24] from the roots xíp, meaning 'scratch' or 'line', and á:y, 'bark';[25] the former root may be in reference to both the lined or "folded/braided" appearance of the bark and the tree's ubiquity in carving and other forms of woodwork.

Taxonomy and evolution

Thuja plicata is one of two Thuja species native to North America, the other being T. occidentalis, although nuclear genome analysis indicates that it is likely more closely related to T. koraiensis, which is native to the Korean Peninsula. The two species are hypothesized to have diverged in the Miocene.[26] A 2008 study found that western redcedar populations in Oregon and California exhibit higher genetic variability than populations in the Rocky Mountains and coastal British Columbia, indicating that the species most likely colonized much of its current range from a single southern refugium after the Last Glacial Maximum.[27] However, more recent studies support the existence of an inland refugium during the Last Glacial Maximum, likely in central Idaho.[28][29] Populations in both refugia would have undergone repeated population bottlenecks during the glacial maxima of the Pleistocene.[28]

Distribution and habitat

Thuja plicata is among the most widespread trees in the Pacific Northwest. It is associated with Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) in most places where it grows. It is found in moist areas, where precipitation exceeds 75 centimetres (30 in) annually, west of the Cascade Range crest  – from central South East Alaska (near the village of Kake) to northern California (growing closer to the coast at the north and south extremes) – and inland from central-southeast British Columbia through the Idaho Panhandle.[5] The easternmost extent of its distribution occurs in Glacier National Park in Montana, where it is a major component of forests surrounding Lake McDonald.[30] Some small populations also occur just east of the continental divide in the park.[31] It is usually found from sea level to elevations of 1,100 m (3,600 ft),[5] but grows at altitudes of up to 2,290 m (7,510 ft) at Crater Lake in Oregon[21] and 1,500 m (4,900 ft) in Idaho.[5] It In addition to growing in lush forests and mountainsides, western redcedar is also a riparian tree, growing in many forested swamps and stream banks in its range.[32] The tree is shade tolerant and able to reproduce under dense shade.[33]

It has been introduced to other temperate zones, including further north in Alaska, western Europe, Australia (at least as far north as Sydney), New Zealand,[34][35] the eastern United States (at least as far north as Central New York),[citation needed] and higher elevations of Hawaii.[36] The species was described as invasive in Great Britain by a 2004 survey,[37] although it is not listed as such by the United Kingdom Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 as of September 2022.[38] Its presence has also been recorded in Poland,[37] where it has been identified as a potentially problematic exotic species in Białowieża Forest.[39]

Ecology

Use by wildlife

Western redcedar provides cover for bears, raccoons, skunks, and other animals which nest inside trunk cavities. It is used as a nest tree by cavity-nesting bird species such as yellow-bellied sapsuckers, hairy woodpeckers, tree swallows, chestnut-backed chickadees, and Vaux's swifts.[40] Pileated woodpeckers on the Olympic Peninsula display a preference for very large western redcedars with heart rot when selecting roosting sites, but do not use them for nesting, relying on Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis) instead.[41] The foliage, especially that of saplings, is an important food source year-round for browsing ungulates such as Roosevelt elk and black-tailed deer, especially during the winter months when little else is available.[40] The seeds may be eaten by birds and rodents such as deer mice, but are apparently not the preferred food source for most species, possibly due to their small size or unpleasant odor.[42][43] A 1937 study conducted in western Cowlitz County, Washington demonstrated a strong preference among deer mice for Douglas-fir and western hemlock seeds over western redcedar seeds.[44] However, pine siskins have displayed a preference for western redcedar seeds over those of Douglas-fir and western hemlock.[45]

Thuja plicata is a host to several destructive insect species such as the western cedar borer, cedar bark beetle, gall midge, and conifer seedling weevils.[46][40]

Forest succession

Western redcedar appears in all stages of forest succession, but as one of the most shade-tolerant species in the Rocky Mountains and Pacific Northwest it is considered to be a climax species along with western hemlock.[47] It will readily establish and grow in the shade of other, less shade-tolerant species such as red alder (Alnus rubra), black cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa), or Douglas-fir, and prevent seedlings of those species from establishing themselves in its shade. However, western hemlock and Pacific silver fir are more tolerant of shade.[5] Western redcedar can also reproduce vegetatively via layering.[5]

Fire ecology

It is considered to have low to moderate fire resistance, as its thin bark, shallow roots, low dense branching habit and flammable foliage confer little protection. Smaller trees are commonly killed by fire, but larger specimens often survive due to their size if they are not completely girdled. The intervals between fires within western redcedar stands tend to be very long, from 50 up to 350 years or more.[48]

Pathology

Western redcedar shows susceptibility of varying degrees to the following soil pathogens: Armillaria ostoyae, Fomitopsis pinicola, Heterobasidion annosum, Phaeolus schweinitzii, Phellinus weirii, Rhizinia undulata, and Postia sericeomollis.[49]

While Western redcedar is a host to P. weirii, the fungus which causes the disease laminated root rot, Red Cedar is rated as resistant while other conifers are rated as highly susceptible or susceptible.[50] Instead of laminated root rot, P. weirii in Western redcedar expresses as a butt rot that can extend 2–3 m up the boles of living trees with the most extreme cases reaching 10 m. While the heart rot caused by the Red Cedar form of P. weirii does not kill the tree outright, it does severely weaken the lower portion of the bole which makes the tree highly susceptible to stem breakage.

P. sericeomollis is responsible for brown cubical butt and pocket rot of cedar. It is the second-most common cause of decay in Western redcedar following P. weirii. Rather than forming a single column of decay in the heartwood, though, P. sericeomollis tends to cause rings or pockets of decay in the lower bole.[51]

In addition to P. weirii, western redcedar is also less susceptible to H. annosum and A. ostoyae than other conifer species.[52] Studies have found that western redcedar produces a phytochemical called thujaplicin which has been credited with granting the species its natural resistance to fungal attacks.[13] Because of these natural defences, it has been suggested that western redcedar may serve as a suitable alternative to other conifers when regenerating a site affected by these pathogens.[53]

Cultivation

Like its relative Thuja occidentalis and many other conifer species, T. plicata is grown as an ornamental tree, and for screens and hedges, throughout the world in gardens and parks. A wide variety of forms, sizes, and colours is available.[54]

Cultivars

The following cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:

Uses

In indigenous societies

 
Klallam people and canoe, ca. 1914

Western redcedar is considered the Tree of Life by many of the First Nations of the Pacific Northwest, as the tree gave them everything that they needed for life - food, water (in the form of water tight woven cedar bark baskets), clothing, medicine, transportation (they made their canoes from the cedar tree), shelter (boards of wood from the cedar tree were used to build their long houses), and spirituality (in that the boughs were used in many ceremonies).[60][page needed] Some northwest coast tribes refer to themselves as "people of the Red Cedar" because of their extensive dependence on the tree for basic materials. The wood has been used for constructing housing and totem poles, and crafted into many objects, including masks, utensils, boxes, boards, instruments, canoes, vessels, houses, and ceremonial objects. Western redcedar is also associated with a long tradition of curing and cooking fish over the open fire. Roots and bark are used for baskets, bowls, ropes, clothing, blankets, and rings.[61][62]

A huge number of archaeological finds point to the continuous use of Red Cedar wood in native societies. Woodworking tools dating between 8,000 and 5,000 years ago, such as carved antlers, were discovered in shell middens at the Glenrose site, near Vancouver, British Columbia.[63] In Yuquot, on the west coast of Vancouver Island, tools dating 4,000 to 3,000 years old have been found.[63] The Musqueam site, also near Vancouver, yielded bark baskets woven in five different styles, along with ropes and ships dated to 3,000 years ago. At Pitt River, adzes and baskets were dated around 2,900 years ago. Wooden artefacts 1000 years old were unearthed on the east coast of Vancouver Island.[64]

Red cedar was used extensively wherever it was found along the northwest coast (British Columbia, Washington state, parts of Alaska). Evidence of this use is found in CMTs (Culturally Modified Trees) that are found throughout the coast. When First Nations people removed the bark from cedars, it left a scar – which is considered a CMT. Other types of harvest (for planks, tinder, and other uses) leave different types of evidence of cultural modification.

A legend amongst the Coast Salish peoples describes the origins of the western redcedar. In this legend, there was a generous man who gave the people whatever they needed. When the Great Spirit saw this, he declared that when the generous man died, a great Red Cedar tree will grow where he is buried, and that the cedar will be useful to all the people, providing its roots for baskets, bark for clothing, and wood for shelter.[63]

Tools

The wood was worked primarily with the adze, which was preferred over all other tools, even ones introduced by Europeans. Alexander Walker, an ensign on the fur trade ship Captain Cook, reported that the indigenous peoples used an elbow adze, which they valued over tools brought by the Europeans, such as the saw or the axe, going so far as to modify traded tools back into an adze. Tools were generally made from stone, bone, obsidian, or a harder wood such as hemlock. A variety of hand mauls, wedges, chisels, and knives are also used.

Excavations done at Ozette, Washington, turned up iron tools nearly 800 years old, far before European contact. When James Cook passed the area, he observed that almost all tools were made of iron.[65] There has been speculation on the origin of these iron tools. Some theories include shipwrecks from East Asia or possible contact with iron-using cultures from Siberia, as hinted in the more advanced woodworking found in northern tribes such as the Tlingit.[65][66][67][68]

Wood

 
A totem pole outside a six-post house at the University of British Columbia

Harvesting Red Cedar required some ceremony and included propitiation of the tree's spirits as well as those of the surrounding trees. In particular, many people specifically requested the tree and its brethren not to fall or drop heavy branches on the harvester,[69] a situation which is mentioned in a number of different stories of people who were not sufficiently careful. Some professional loggers of Native American descent have mentioned that they offer quiet or silent propitiations to trees which they fell, following in this tradition.

Felling of large trees such as Red Cedar before the introduction of steel tools was a complex and time-consuming art. Typically the bark was removed around the base of the tree above the buttresses. Then some amount of cutting and splitting with stone adzes and mauls would be done, creating a wide triangular cut. The area above and below the cut would be covered with a mixture of wet moss and clay as a firebreak. Then the cut would be packed with tinder and small kindling and slowly burned. The process of cutting and burning would alternate until the tree was mostly penetrated through, and then careful tending of the fire would fell the tree in the best direction for handling. This process could take many days. Constant rotation of workers was involved to keep the fires burning through night and day, often in a remote and forbidding location.[70]

Once the tree was felled, the work had only just begun, as it then had to be stripped and dragged down to shore. If the tree was to become canoes, then it would often be divided into sections and worked into rough canoe shapes before transport. If it were to be used for a totem pole or building materials, it would be towed in the round to the village.[71] Many trees are still felled in this traditional manner for use as totem poles and canoes, particularly by artists who feel that using modern tools is detrimental to the traditional spirit of the art. Non-traditionalists simply buy redcedar logs or lumber at mills or lumber yards, a practice that is commonly followed by most working in smaller sizes such as for masks and staves.

Because felling required such an extraordinary amount of work, if only planks for housing were needed, these would be split from the living tree. The bark was stripped and saved, and two cuts were made at the ends of the planking. Then wedges would be pounded in along the sides and the planks slowly split off the side of the tree.[72] Trees which have been so harvested are still visible in some places in the rainforest, with obvious chunks taken off of their sides. Such trees usually continue to grow perfectly well, since redcedar wood is resistant to decay. Planks are straightened by a variety of methods, including weighing them down with stones, lashing them together with rope, or forcing them between a line of stakes.[73]

 
Illustration of women pulling bark from a tree, from Indian Legends of Vancouver Island by Alfred Carmichael

Redcedar wood is used to make huge monoxyla canoes in which the men went out to high sea to harpoon whales and conduct trade.[74] One of those canoes, a 12-metre (38 ft) craft dug out about a century ago, was bought in 1901 by Captain John Voss, an adventurer. He gave her the name of Tilikum ('Relative' in Chinook jargon), rigged her, and led her in a hectic three-year voyage from British Columbia to London.[75]

Redcedar branches are very flexible and have good tensile strength. They were stripped and used as strong cords for fishing line, nets,[5] rope cores, twine, and other purposes where bark cord was not strong enough or might fray. Both the branches and bark rope have been replaced by modern fiber and nylon cordage among the aboriginal northwest coast peoples, though the bark is still in use for the other purposes mentioned above.

Bark

At the right time of year, the bark is easily removed from live trees in long strips. It is harvested for use in making mats, rope and cordage, basketry, rain hats, clothing, and other soft goods. The harvesting of bark must be done with care, as stripping too much bark will kill the tree. To prevent this, the harvester usually only harvests from trees which have not been stripped before.[76] After harvesting, the tree is not used for bark again, although it may later be felled for wood. Stripping bark is usually started with a series of cuts at the base of the tree above any buttresses, after which the bark is peeled upwards. To remove bark high up, a pair of platforms strung on rope around the tree are used and the harvester climbs by alternating between them for support. Since Red Cedar lose their lower branches as all tall trees do in the rainforest, the harvester may climb 10 m (33 ft) or more into the tree by this method. The harvested bark is folded and carried in backpacks.[77] It can be stored for quite some time as mold does not grow on it, and is moistened before unfolding and working. It is then split lengthwise into the required width and woven or twisted into shape. Bark harvesting was mostly done by women, despite the danger of climbing ten meters in the air, because they were the primary makers of bark goods.[78]

Today bark rope making is a lost art in many communities, although it is still practiced for decoration or art in a few places. Other uses of bark are still common for artistic or practical purposes. In recent years there has been a revival of cedar weaving in some communities, and along with it, new forms of cedar bark products. For example, in some recent weddings cedar roses are used to decorate the tables.

Timber

 
Canadian western redcedar cowl in the National Assembly for Wales

The soft red-brown timber has a tight, straight grain and few knots. It is valued for its distinct appearance, aroma, and its high natural resistance to decay, being extensively used for outdoor construction in the form of posts, decking, shingles, and siding.[79] It is commonly used for the framing and longwood in lightweight sail boats and kayaks. In larger boats it is often used in sandwich construction between two layers of epoxy resin and/or fibreglass or similar products. Due to its light weight – 390 to 400 kg/m3 (24 to 25 lb/cu ft) dried – it is about 30% lighter than common boat building woods, such as mahogany. For its weight it is quite strong but can be brittle. It glues well with epoxy resin or resorcinol adhesive.

Its light weight, strength, and dark, warm sound make it a popular choice for guitar soundboards, particularly among European guitar builders such as Lowden and Furch.

Western Red Cedar wood is export-restricted in the United States.[80] The tree is highly allergenic and woodworkers or loggers who work with it may have adverse reactions, including the development of occupational asthma, exacerbation of existing asthma, reduction of lung function, and eye irritation. Approximately 5% of workers are allergic to western Red Cedar. The US Occupational Safety and Health Administration has set a permissible exposure limit for red cedar dust of 2.5 mg/m3 as a time-weighted average over eight hours.[81]

Essential oil

The essential oil of western Red Cedar leaves contains natural compounds, such as α-thujone, β-thujone, fenchone, sabinene, terpinen-4-ol and beyerene,[82] which have also been isolated from different other essential oils. Some of these substances are aroma compounds and are used in perfumery.[83] Thujones are GABAA receptor competitive antagonists however because of their high toxicity and convulsive activity they do not have any pharmacological use.[84]

Other uses

It is also widely used throughout Europe and America for making beehive components.

Its bark has been studied for applications in polyurethane.[85]

Used in the construction of windows and doors (joinery grade timber).

Notable specimens

 
The Quinault Lake Red Cedar was the world's largest western redcedar.

The largest living specimen is the Cheewhat Giant, in Pacific Rim National Park Reserve on Vancouver Island, at 450 cubic metres (15,870 cu ft).[86] The tallest known individual is the Willaby Creek Tree south of Lake Quinault, 59 m (195 ft) in height.[87] The 'Quinault Lake Redcedar' was the largest known western redcedar in the world, with a wood volume of 500 m3 (17,650 cu ft). Located near the northwest shore of Lake Quinault north of Aberdeen, Washington, about 34 kilometres (21 mi) from the Pacific Ocean, it was one-third the volume of the largest known tree, a giant sequoia named 'General Sherman'. The Quinault Lake Red Cedar was 53 m (174 ft) tall with a diameter of 5.9 m (19.5 ft) at breast height. The Quinault Lake Red Cedar was destroyed by a series of storms in 2014 and 2016 and is now only a stump.[6][88] The fifth-largest known was the Kalaloch Cedar in Olympic National Park, at 350 m3 (12,370 cu ft),[89] until it was destroyed by a storm in March 2014.[90]

A redcedar over 71 m (233 ft) tall, 4.5 m (15 ft) in diameter, and over 700 years old stood in Cathedral Grove on Vancouver Island before it was set on fire and destroyed by vandals in 1972. That tree now lies in "Giant's Grave", a self-dug 'grave' created by the force of its own impact.[91] A specimen measuring 5.5 m (18 ft) diameter and 54 m (177 ft) tall on the Giant Red Cedar National Recreation Trail in the Idaho Panhandle National Forests is designated the "Champion Tree of Idaho".[92]

The Giant Cedar Stump is an ancient redcedar turned roadside attraction in Snohomish County, Washington.[93]

See also

References

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  38. ^ "Invasive non-native (alien) plant species: rules in England and Wales". www.gov.uk. 20 September 2022 [26 August 2020]. Retrieved 31 January 2023.
  39. ^ IUCN Evaluation of Bialowieza Forest: Request for Supplementary Information (PDF) (Report). February 2014. p. 39.
  40. ^ a b c Tesky 1992, Management Considerations.
  41. ^ Aubry, Keith B.; Raley, Catherine M. (April 2022). "Selection of Nest and Roost Trees by Pileated Woodpeckers in Coastal Forests of Washington". Journal of Wildlife Management. The Wildlife Society. 66 (2): 396–402. doi:10.2307/3803172 – via Wiley.
  42. ^ Gashwiler, Jay S. (May 1967). "Conifer Seed Survival in a Western Oregon Clearcut". Ecology. Ecological Society of North America. 48 (3): 431–438. doi:10.2307/1932678 – via Wiley.
  43. ^ Gashwiler, Jay S. (September 1970). "Further Study of Conifer Seed Survival in a Western Oregon Clearcut". Ecology. Ecological Society of North America. 51 (5): 849–854. doi:10.2307/1932678 – via Wiley.
  44. ^ Moore, A. W. (June 1940). Wild Animal Damage to Seed and Seedlings on Cut-over Douglas Fir Lands of Oregon and Washington. United States Department of Agriculture Technical Bulletins (Report). Vol. 709. p. 8. doi:10.22004/ag.econ.168487.
  45. ^ Gashwiler, Jay S.; Ward, A. Lorin (1966). "Western Redcedar Seed, a Food of Pine Siskins". The Murrelet. Society for Northwestern Vertebrate Biology. 47 (3): 73–75. doi:10.2307/3533673.
  46. ^ Patterson, Patricia A. (1985). Field Guide to the Forest Plants of Northern Idaho (PDF). United States Forest Service. p. 25.
  47. ^ Tesky 1992, Botanical and Ecological Characteristics.
  48. ^ Tesky 1992, Fire Ecology or Adaptations.
  49. ^ Allen, Eric Andrew, 1955- (1996). Common tree diseases of British Columbia. Morrison, D. J., Wallis, G. W., Pacific Forestry Centre. Victoria, B.C.: Pacific Forestry Centre. ISBN 0-662-24870-8. OCLC 35976392.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  50. ^ Thies, Walter G.; Sturrock, Rona N. (1995). "Laminated root rot in western North America". Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-349. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 32 P. In Cooperation with: Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Pacific Forestry Centre. 349. doi:10.2737/PNW-GTR-349. hdl:2027/umn.31951d02889118b.
  51. ^ Buckland, D. C. (1 October 1946). "Investigations of decay in western red cedar in british columbia". Canadian Journal of Research. 24c (5): 158–181. doi:10.1139/cjr46c-018. ISSN 1923-4287.
  52. ^ Wood, David L. (2003). Pests of the Native California Conifers. Koerber, Thomas W., Scharpf, Robert F., Storer, Andrew J. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-93637-9. OCLC 773564950.
  53. ^ Minore, D. (1990). Western redcedar. In Silvics of North America vol.1: Conifers. (1990). Burns, R.M. & Honkala, B.H. (tech. Coords). Agriculture Handbook 654. USDA Forest Service: Washington DC.
  54. ^ Bitner 2007, p. 424.
  55. ^ "RHS Plant Selector - Thuja plicata 'Atrovirens'". RHS. Retrieved 5 March 2021.
  56. ^ "RHS Plant Selector - Thuja plicata 'Aurea'". RHS. Retrieved 5 March 2021.
  57. ^ "RHS Plant Selector - Thuja plicata 'Stoneham Gold'". RHS. Retrieved 5 March 2021.
  58. ^ "RHS Plantfinder - Thuja plicata 'Whipcord'". Retrieved 23 December 2018.
  59. ^ "Thuja plicata 'Zebrina'". RHS. Retrieved 5 March 2021.
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  68. ^ DeCapua, pp. 16–20
  69. ^ Stewart 1984, p. 39.
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  83. ^ Fahlbusch, Karl-Georg; Hammerschmidt, Franz-Josef; Panten, Johannes; Pickenhagen, Wilhelm; Schatkowski, Dietmar; Bauer, Kurt; Garbe, Dorothea; Surburg, Horst (15 January 2003). "Flavors and Fragrances". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry: a11_141. doi:10.1002/14356007.a11_141. ISBN 3527306730.
  84. ^ Olsen, R. W. (25 April 2000). "Absinthe and gamma -aminobutyric acid receptors". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 97 (9): 4417–4418. Bibcode:2000PNAS...97.4417O. doi:10.1073/pnas.97.9.4417. PMC 34311. PMID 10781032.
  85. ^ Chen, Heyu. "The Utilization of Bark and Bark Components from Western Red Cedar (Thuja plicata) for Polyurethane Applications" (PDF).{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  86. ^ Van Pelt 2001, p. 34.
  87. ^ Van Pelt 2001, p. 36.
  88. ^ Van Pelt 2001, p. 32.
  89. ^ Van Pelt 2001, p. 37.
  90. ^ Exotic Hikes, "Olympic National Park’s Kalaloch Cedar Destroyed by Storm"
  91. ^ Picture of the Cathedral Grove stump.
  92. ^ "Idaho Giant Red Cedar - NRT Database".
  93. ^ Dorpat, Paul (27 October 2016). "This tunneled tree stump in Snohomish County was an early drive-through attraction". The Seattle Times. Retrieved 31 May 2022. Variously named the Giant Cedar Stump, the Arlington Stump or just The Stump, this Snohomish County roadside attraction began, of course, as a tree, which was killed by fire in 1893; reduced to stump size and tunneled in 1916; given a concrete base in 1922; and moved alongside the new Highway 99 in 1939, where it is shown here (in 1940). The stump moved in 1971 to its current home, at the Smokey Point Rest Area at milepost 207 off Interstate 5.

Works cited

  • Bitner, Richard L. (2007). Conifers for Gardens: an Illustrated Encyclopedia. United Kingdom: Timber Press. ISBN 978-0-88192-830-3.
  • Chedgy, Russell J.; Lim, Young Woon & Breuil, Colette (2009). "Effects of leaching on fungal growth and decay of western redcedar (Thuja plicata)". Canadian Journal of Microbiology. 55 (5): 578–586. doi:10.1139/W08-161. PMID 19483786.
  • DeCapua, Sarah (2010). The Tlingit. First Americans. Tarrytown, New York: Marshall Cavendish Benchmark. ISBN 978-0-7614-4135-9.
  • Dill, J. Gregory (2006). Myth, Fact, And Navigators' Secrets: Incredible Tales of the Sea And Sailors. Guilford, Connecticut: The Lyons Press. ISBN 1-59228-879-0.
  • Farjon, A. (2005). Monograph of Cupressaceae and Sciadopitys. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. ISBN 1-84246-068-4.
  • Chambers, Kenton L. (1993). "Thuja plicata". In Flora of North America Editorial Committee (ed.). Flora of North America North of Mexico (FNA). Vol. 2. New York and Oxford – via eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO & Harvard University Herbaria, Cambridge, MA.
  • Gardner, J. A. F. (1963). The Chemistry and Utilization of Western Red Cedar. Ottawa, Ontario: Department of Forestry. OCLC 65814710.
  • Hill, Anthony (1985). Antique Furniture in Australia. Victoria, British Columbia: Viking Press. ISBN 0-670-80319-7.
  • McNeese, Tim (2002). Early North America. St. Louis, Missouri: Milliken Publishing. ISBN 0-7877-0527-6.
  • Miller, Mike (2008). Alaska's Southeast: Touring the Inside Passage (11th ed.). Guilford, Connecticut: Globe Pequot Press. ISBN 978-0-7627-4535-7. ISSN 1545-1941.
  • Pritzker, Barry M. (1998). Native Americans: An Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Peoples. Vol. 1. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 0-87436-836-7.
  • Stewart, Hilary (1984). Cedar: Tree of Life to the Northwest Coast Indians. Vancouver, British Columbia: Douglas & McIntyre. ISBN 0-88894-437-3.
  • Tesky, Julie L. (1992). "Thuja plicata". Fire Effects Information System (FEIS). US Department of Agriculture (USDA), Forest Service (USFS), Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory.
  • Van Pelt, Robert (2001). Forest Giants of the Pacific Coast. Global Forest Society and University of Washington Press. ISBN 0-295-98140-7.
  • Zsolt Debreczy; Istvan Racz (2012). Kathy Musial (ed.). Conifers Around the World (1st ed.). DendroPress. p. 1089. ISBN 978-963-219-061-7.

External links

February 07, 2023
thuja, plicata, evergreen, coniferous, tree, cypress, family, cupressaceae, native, western, north, america, common, name, western, redcedar, western, cedar, also, called, pacific, cedar, giant, arborvitae, western, arborvitae, just, cedar, giant, cedar, shing. Thuja plicata is an evergreen coniferous tree in the cypress family Cupressaceae native to western North America Its common name is western redcedar in the U S 2 or western red cedar in the UK 3 and it is also called pacific red cedar giant arborvitae western arborvitae just cedar giant cedar or shinglewood 4 It is not a true cedar of the genus Cedrus T plicata is the largest species in the genus Thuja and generally grows in moist environments The species is used for a wide variety of purposes by indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest and is of great cultural importance to these peoples Thuja plicataAn old tree in VancouverConservation statusLeast Concern IUCN 3 1 1 Scientific classificationKingdom PlantaeClade TracheophytesClade GymnospermsDivision PinophytaClass PinopsidaOrder CupressalesFamily CupressaceaeGenus ThujaSpecies T plicataBinomial nameThuja plicataDonn ex D DonRange of T plicata in the Pacific Northwest Contents 1 Description 1 1 Chemistry 2 Etymology 3 Taxonomy and evolution 4 Distribution and habitat 5 Ecology 5 1 Use by wildlife 5 2 Forest succession 5 3 Fire ecology 5 4 Pathology 6 Cultivation 7 Uses 7 1 In indigenous societies 7 1 1 Tools 7 1 2 Wood 7 1 3 Bark 7 2 Timber 7 3 Essential oil 7 4 Other uses 8 Notable specimens 9 See also 10 References 11 Works cited 12 External linksDescription EditThuja plicata is a large to very large tree ranging up to 45 to 70 metres 150 to 230 ft tall and 2 4 to 7 m 8 to 23 ft in trunk diameter 5 6 7 larger than any other species in its genus 8 Trees growing in the open may have a crown that reaches the ground whereas trees densely spaced together will exhibit a crown only at the top where light can reach the leaves 9 The trunk swells at the base and has shallow roots 5 The bark is thin gray brown and fissured into vertical bands 5 As the tree ages the top is damaged by wind and replaced by inferior branches 5 The species is long lived some trees can live well over a thousand years with the oldest verified aged 1 460 6 7 The foliage forms flat sprays with scale like leaves in opposite pairs with successive pairs at 90 degrees to each other The foliage sprays are green above and green marked with whitish stomatal bands below they are strongly aromatic with a scent reminiscent of pineapple when crushed The individual leaves are 1 to 4 millimetres 1 32 to 5 32 in long and 1 to 2 mm 1 32 to 3 32 in broad on most foliage sprays but up to 12 mm 1 2 in long on strong growing lead shoots 6 7 The foliage of individual branchlets turns orange brown before falling off in autumn 5 The cones are slender 10 to 18 mm 3 8 to 11 16 in long and 4 to 5 mm 5 32 to 3 16 in broad with 8 to 12 rarely 14 thin overlapping scales They are green to yellow green ripening brown in fall about six months after pollination and open at maturity to shed the seeds The seeds are 4 to 5 mm 5 32 to 3 16 in long and 1 mm 1 32 in broad with a narrow papery wing down each side The pollen cones are 3 to 4 mm 1 8 to 5 32 in long red or purple at first and shed yellow pollen in spring 6 7 Chemistry Edit The heartwood of western redcedar contains numerous chemical substances such as plicatic acid thujaplicatin methyl ether hinokitiol and other thujaplicins b thujaplicinol thujic acid methyl thujate 1 4 cineole and g eudesmol 10 Plicatic acid is believed to be the main irritant and contact allergen responsible for provoking allergic reactions and asthma exaggeration and leading to occupational asthma in woodworkers that are exposed to Western Red Cedar wood dust 11 Thujaplicins serve as natural fungicides 12 13 and thereby prevent the wood from rotting This effect lasts around a century even after the tree is felled However thujaplicins are only found in older trees Saplings do not produce the chemical causing them to often develop rot at an early stage causing some trees to grow with a somewhat hollow trunk as the tree moves to heal itself as it grows 14 Due to their fungicidal and anti browning properties thujaplicins are used in agriculture for fungal diseases and to prevent post harvest decay 15 16 Thujaplicins as other tropolones are potent chelating agents and bind divalent metal ions 17 Basic and animal studies have shown that thujaplicins may have other biological properties including antibacterial antiviral and antioxidant activities 18 however reliable evidence on their effectiveness is still lacking Bark Leaves Shoot with pollen cones Shoot with mature seed cones Mount Baker Snoqualmie National Forest Keats IslandEtymology EditThe species name plicata derives from the Latin word plicare and means folded in plaits or braided a reference to the pattern of its small leaves 9 Most authorities both in Canada 19 20 and the United States 21 2 22 23 transliterate the English name in two words as western redcedar or occasionally hyphenated as western red cedar 7 to indicate that it is not a true cedar Cedrus but it also appears as western red cedar in some popular works In the American horticultural trade it is also known as the giant arborvitae by comparison with arborvitae for its close relative Thuja occidentalis Other names include Giant Red Cedar Pacific Red Cedar shinglewood British Columbia cedar being the province s official tree 5 canoe cedar and red cedar 6 14 Arborvitae comes from the Latin for tree of life coincidentally Native Americans of the West Coast also address the species as long life maker 14 One endonymous name for the tree is the Halkomelem word xepa y 24 from the roots xip meaning scratch or line and a y bark 25 the former root may be in reference to both the lined or folded braided appearance of the bark and the tree s ubiquity in carving and other forms of woodwork Taxonomy and evolution EditThuja plicata is one of two Thuja species native to North America the other being T occidentalis although nuclear genome analysis indicates that it is likely more closely related to T koraiensis which is native to the Korean Peninsula The two species are hypothesized to have diverged in the Miocene 26 A 2008 study found that western redcedar populations in Oregon and California exhibit higher genetic variability than populations in the Rocky Mountains and coastal British Columbia indicating that the species most likely colonized much of its current range from a single southern refugium after the Last Glacial Maximum 27 However more recent studies support the existence of an inland refugium during the Last Glacial Maximum likely in central Idaho 28 29 Populations in both refugia would have undergone repeated population bottlenecks during the glacial maxima of the Pleistocene 28 Distribution and habitat EditThuja plicata is among the most widespread trees in the Pacific Northwest It is associated with Douglas fir Pseudotsuga menziesii and western hemlock Tsuga heterophylla in most places where it grows It is found in moist areas where precipitation exceeds 75 centimetres 30 in annually west of the Cascade Range crest from central South East Alaska near the village of Kake to northern California growing closer to the coast at the north and south extremes and inland from central southeast British Columbia through the Idaho Panhandle 5 The easternmost extent of its distribution occurs in Glacier National Park in Montana where it is a major component of forests surrounding Lake McDonald 30 Some small populations also occur just east of the continental divide in the park 31 It is usually found from sea level to elevations of 1 100 m 3 600 ft 5 but grows at altitudes of up to 2 290 m 7 510 ft at Crater Lake in Oregon 21 and 1 500 m 4 900 ft in Idaho 5 It In addition to growing in lush forests and mountainsides western redcedar is also a riparian tree growing in many forested swamps and stream banks in its range 32 The tree is shade tolerant and able to reproduce under dense shade 33 It has been introduced to other temperate zones including further north in Alaska western Europe Australia at least as far north as Sydney New Zealand 34 35 the eastern United States at least as far north as Central New York citation needed and higher elevations of Hawaii 36 The species was described as invasive in Great Britain by a 2004 survey 37 although it is not listed as such by the United Kingdom Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 as of September 2022 38 Its presence has also been recorded in Poland 37 where it has been identified as a potentially problematic exotic species in Bialowieza Forest 39 Ecology EditUse by wildlife Edit Western redcedar provides cover for bears raccoons skunks and other animals which nest inside trunk cavities It is used as a nest tree by cavity nesting bird species such as yellow bellied sapsuckers hairy woodpeckers tree swallows chestnut backed chickadees and Vaux s swifts 40 Pileated woodpeckers on the Olympic Peninsula display a preference for very large western redcedars with heart rot when selecting roosting sites but do not use them for nesting relying on Pacific silver fir Abies amabilis instead 41 The foliage especially that of saplings is an important food source year round for browsing ungulates such as Roosevelt elk and black tailed deer especially during the winter months when little else is available 40 The seeds may be eaten by birds and rodents such as deer mice but are apparently not the preferred food source for most species possibly due to their small size or unpleasant odor 42 43 A 1937 study conducted in western Cowlitz County Washington demonstrated a strong preference among deer mice for Douglas fir and western hemlock seeds over western redcedar seeds 44 However pine siskins have displayed a preference for western redcedar seeds over those of Douglas fir and western hemlock 45 Thuja plicata is a host to several destructive insect species such as the western cedar borer cedar bark beetle gall midge and conifer seedling weevils 46 40 Forest succession Edit Western redcedar appears in all stages of forest succession but as one of the most shade tolerant species in the Rocky Mountains and Pacific Northwest it is considered to be a climax species along with western hemlock 47 It will readily establish and grow in the shade of other less shade tolerant species such as red alder Alnus rubra black cottonwood Populus trichocarpa or Douglas fir and prevent seedlings of those species from establishing themselves in its shade However western hemlock and Pacific silver fir are more tolerant of shade 5 Western redcedar can also reproduce vegetatively via layering 5 Fire ecology Edit It is considered to have low to moderate fire resistance as its thin bark shallow roots low dense branching habit and flammable foliage confer little protection Smaller trees are commonly killed by fire but larger specimens often survive due to their size if they are not completely girdled The intervals between fires within western redcedar stands tend to be very long from 50 up to 350 years or more 48 Pathology Edit Western redcedar shows susceptibility of varying degrees to the following soil pathogens Armillaria ostoyae Fomitopsis pinicola Heterobasidion annosum Phaeolus schweinitzii Phellinus weirii Rhizinia undulata and Postia sericeomollis 49 While Western redcedar is a host to P weirii the fungus which causes the disease laminated root rot Red Cedar is rated as resistant while other conifers are rated as highly susceptible or susceptible 50 Instead of laminated root rot P weirii in Western redcedar expresses as a butt rot that can extend 2 3 m up the boles of living trees with the most extreme cases reaching 10 m While the heart rot caused by the Red Cedar form of P weirii does not kill the tree outright it does severely weaken the lower portion of the bole which makes the tree highly susceptible to stem breakage P sericeomollis is responsible for brown cubical butt and pocket rot of cedar It is the second most common cause of decay in Western redcedar following P weirii Rather than forming a single column of decay in the heartwood though P sericeomollis tends to cause rings or pockets of decay in the lower bole 51 In addition to P weirii western redcedar is also less susceptible to H annosum and A ostoyae than other conifer species 52 Studies have found that western redcedar produces a phytochemical called thujaplicin which has been credited with granting the species its natural resistance to fungal attacks 13 Because of these natural defences it has been suggested that western redcedar may serve as a suitable alternative to other conifers when regenerating a site affected by these pathogens 53 Cultivation EditLike its relative Thuja occidentalis and many other conifer species T plicata is grown as an ornamental tree and for screens and hedges throughout the world in gardens and parks A wide variety of forms sizes and colours is available 54 CultivarsThe following cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society s Award of Garden Merit Atrovirens 55 Aurea 56 Stoneham Gold 57 Whipcord 58 Zebrina 59 Uses EditIn indigenous societies Edit Klallam people and canoe ca 1914 Western redcedar is considered the Tree of Life by many of the First Nations of the Pacific Northwest as the tree gave them everything that they needed for life food water in the form of water tight woven cedar bark baskets clothing medicine transportation they made their canoes from the cedar tree shelter boards of wood from the cedar tree were used to build their long houses and spirituality in that the boughs were used in many ceremonies 60 page needed Some northwest coast tribes refer to themselves as people of the Red Cedar because of their extensive dependence on the tree for basic materials The wood has been used for constructing housing and totem poles and crafted into many objects including masks utensils boxes boards instruments canoes vessels houses and ceremonial objects Western redcedar is also associated with a long tradition of curing and cooking fish over the open fire Roots and bark are used for baskets bowls ropes clothing blankets and rings 61 62 A huge number of archaeological finds point to the continuous use of Red Cedar wood in native societies Woodworking tools dating between 8 000 and 5 000 years ago such as carved antlers were discovered in shell middens at the Glenrose site near Vancouver British Columbia 63 In Yuquot on the west coast of Vancouver Island tools dating 4 000 to 3 000 years old have been found 63 The Musqueam site also near Vancouver yielded bark baskets woven in five different styles along with ropes and ships dated to 3 000 years ago At Pitt River adzes and baskets were dated around 2 900 years ago Wooden artefacts 1000 years old were unearthed on the east coast of Vancouver Island 64 Red cedar was used extensively wherever it was found along the northwest coast British Columbia Washington state parts of Alaska Evidence of this use is found in CMTs Culturally Modified Trees that are found throughout the coast When First Nations people removed the bark from cedars it left a scar which is considered a CMT Other types of harvest for planks tinder and other uses leave different types of evidence of cultural modification A legend amongst the Coast Salish peoples describes the origins of the western redcedar In this legend there was a generous man who gave the people whatever they needed When the Great Spirit saw this he declared that when the generous man died a great Red Cedar tree will grow where he is buried and that the cedar will be useful to all the people providing its roots for baskets bark for clothing and wood for shelter 63 Tools Edit The wood was worked primarily with the adze which was preferred over all other tools even ones introduced by Europeans Alexander Walker an ensign on the fur trade ship Captain Cook reported that the indigenous peoples used an elbow adze which they valued over tools brought by the Europeans such as the saw or the axe going so far as to modify traded tools back into an adze Tools were generally made from stone bone obsidian or a harder wood such as hemlock A variety of hand mauls wedges chisels and knives are also used Excavations done at Ozette Washington turned up iron tools nearly 800 years old far before European contact When James Cook passed the area he observed that almost all tools were made of iron 65 There has been speculation on the origin of these iron tools Some theories include shipwrecks from East Asia or possible contact with iron using cultures from Siberia as hinted in the more advanced woodworking found in northern tribes such as the Tlingit 65 66 67 68 Wood Edit A totem pole outside a six post house at the University of British Columbia Harvesting Red Cedar required some ceremony and included propitiation of the tree s spirits as well as those of the surrounding trees In particular many people specifically requested the tree and its brethren not to fall or drop heavy branches on the harvester 69 a situation which is mentioned in a number of different stories of people who were not sufficiently careful Some professional loggers of Native American descent have mentioned that they offer quiet or silent propitiations to trees which they fell following in this tradition Felling of large trees such as Red Cedar before the introduction of steel tools was a complex and time consuming art Typically the bark was removed around the base of the tree above the buttresses Then some amount of cutting and splitting with stone adzes and mauls would be done creating a wide triangular cut The area above and below the cut would be covered with a mixture of wet moss and clay as a firebreak Then the cut would be packed with tinder and small kindling and slowly burned The process of cutting and burning would alternate until the tree was mostly penetrated through and then careful tending of the fire would fell the tree in the best direction for handling This process could take many days Constant rotation of workers was involved to keep the fires burning through night and day often in a remote and forbidding location 70 Once the tree was felled the work had only just begun as it then had to be stripped and dragged down to shore If the tree was to become canoes then it would often be divided into sections and worked into rough canoe shapes before transport If it were to be used for a totem pole or building materials it would be towed in the round to the village 71 Many trees are still felled in this traditional manner for use as totem poles and canoes particularly by artists who feel that using modern tools is detrimental to the traditional spirit of the art Non traditionalists simply buy redcedar logs or lumber at mills or lumber yards a practice that is commonly followed by most working in smaller sizes such as for masks and staves Because felling required such an extraordinary amount of work if only planks for housing were needed these would be split from the living tree The bark was stripped and saved and two cuts were made at the ends of the planking Then wedges would be pounded in along the sides and the planks slowly split off the side of the tree 72 Trees which have been so harvested are still visible in some places in the rainforest with obvious chunks taken off of their sides Such trees usually continue to grow perfectly well since redcedar wood is resistant to decay Planks are straightened by a variety of methods including weighing them down with stones lashing them together with rope or forcing them between a line of stakes 73 Illustration of women pulling bark from a tree from Indian Legends of Vancouver Island by Alfred Carmichael Redcedar wood is used to make huge monoxyla canoes in which the men went out to high sea to harpoon whales and conduct trade 74 One of those canoes a 12 metre 38 ft craft dug out about a century ago was bought in 1901 by Captain John Voss an adventurer He gave her the name of Tilikum Relative in Chinook jargon rigged her and led her in a hectic three year voyage from British Columbia to London 75 Redcedar branches are very flexible and have good tensile strength They were stripped and used as strong cords for fishing line nets 5 rope cores twine and other purposes where bark cord was not strong enough or might fray Both the branches and bark rope have been replaced by modern fiber and nylon cordage among the aboriginal northwest coast peoples though the bark is still in use for the other purposes mentioned above Bark Edit At the right time of year the bark is easily removed from live trees in long strips It is harvested for use in making mats rope and cordage basketry rain hats clothing and other soft goods The harvesting of bark must be done with care as stripping too much bark will kill the tree To prevent this the harvester usually only harvests from trees which have not been stripped before 76 After harvesting the tree is not used for bark again although it may later be felled for wood Stripping bark is usually started with a series of cuts at the base of the tree above any buttresses after which the bark is peeled upwards To remove bark high up a pair of platforms strung on rope around the tree are used and the harvester climbs by alternating between them for support Since Red Cedar lose their lower branches as all tall trees do in the rainforest the harvester may climb 10 m 33 ft or more into the tree by this method The harvested bark is folded and carried in backpacks 77 It can be stored for quite some time as mold does not grow on it and is moistened before unfolding and working It is then split lengthwise into the required width and woven or twisted into shape Bark harvesting was mostly done by women despite the danger of climbing ten meters in the air because they were the primary makers of bark goods 78 Today bark rope making is a lost art in many communities although it is still practiced for decoration or art in a few places Other uses of bark are still common for artistic or practical purposes In recent years there has been a revival of cedar weaving in some communities and along with it new forms of cedar bark products For example in some recent weddings cedar roses are used to decorate the tables Timber Edit Canadian western redcedar cowl in the National Assembly for Wales The soft red brown timber has a tight straight grain and few knots It is valued for its distinct appearance aroma and its high natural resistance to decay being extensively used for outdoor construction in the form of posts decking shingles and siding 79 It is commonly used for the framing and longwood in lightweight sail boats and kayaks In larger boats it is often used in sandwich construction between two layers of epoxy resin and or fibreglass or similar products Due to its light weight 390 to 400 kg m3 24 to 25 lb cu ft dried it is about 30 lighter than common boat building woods such as mahogany For its weight it is quite strong but can be brittle It glues well with epoxy resin or resorcinol adhesive Its light weight strength and dark warm sound make it a popular choice for guitar soundboards particularly among European guitar builders such as Lowden and Furch Western Red Cedar wood is export restricted in the United States 80 The tree is highly allergenic and woodworkers or loggers who work with it may have adverse reactions including the development of occupational asthma exacerbation of existing asthma reduction of lung function and eye irritation Approximately 5 of workers are allergic to western Red Cedar The US Occupational Safety and Health Administration has set a permissible exposure limit for red cedar dust of 2 5 mg m3 as a time weighted average over eight hours 81 Essential oil Edit The essential oil of western Red Cedar leaves contains natural compounds such as a thujone b thujone fenchone sabinene terpinen 4 ol and beyerene 82 which have also been isolated from different other essential oils Some of these substances are aroma compounds and are used in perfumery 83 Thujones are GABAA receptor competitive antagonists however because of their high toxicity and convulsive activity they do not have any pharmacological use 84 Other uses Edit It is also widely used throughout Europe and America for making beehive components Its bark has been studied for applications in polyurethane 85 Used in the construction of windows and doors joinery grade timber Notable specimens Edit The Quinault Lake Red Cedar was the world s largest western redcedar The largest living specimen is the Cheewhat Giant in Pacific Rim National Park Reserve on Vancouver Island at 450 cubic metres 15 870 cu ft 86 The tallest known individual is the Willaby Creek Tree south of Lake Quinault 59 m 195 ft in height 87 The Quinault Lake Redcedar was the largest known western redcedar in the world with a wood volume of 500 m3 17 650 cu ft Located near the northwest shore of Lake Quinault north of Aberdeen Washington about 34 kilometres 21 mi from the Pacific Ocean it was one third the volume of the largest known tree a giant sequoia named General Sherman The Quinault Lake Red Cedar was 53 m 174 ft tall with a diameter of 5 9 m 19 5 ft at breast height The Quinault Lake Red Cedar was destroyed by a series of storms in 2014 and 2016 and is now only a stump 6 88 The fifth largest known was the Kalaloch Cedar in Olympic National Park at 350 m3 12 370 cu ft 89 until it was destroyed by a storm in March 2014 90 A redcedar over 71 m 233 ft tall 4 5 m 15 ft in diameter and over 700 years old stood in Cathedral Grove on Vancouver Island before it was set on fire and destroyed by vandals in 1972 That tree now lies in Giant s Grave a self dug grave created by the force of its own impact 91 A specimen measuring 5 5 m 18 ft diameter and 54 m 177 ft tall on the Giant Red Cedar National Recreation Trail in the Idaho Panhandle National Forests is designated the Champion Tree of Idaho 92 The Giant Cedar Stump is an ancient redcedar turned roadside attraction in Snohomish County Washington 93 See also EditCedar wood List of superlative treesReferences Edit Farjon A 2013 Thuja plicata IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2013 e T42263A2968155 doi 10 2305 IUCN UK 2013 1 RLTS T42263A2968155 en Retrieved 19 November 2021 a b USDA NRCS n d Thuja plicata The PLANTS Database plants usda gov Greensboro North Carolina National Plant Data Team Retrieved 10 December 2015 Thuja plicata Royal Horticultural Society RHS Retrieved 7 September 2021 Thuja plicata Germplasm Resources Information Network GRIN Agricultural Research Service ARS United States Department of Agriculture USDA Retrieved 11 December 2017 a b c d e f g h i j k l Arno Stephen F Hammerly Ramona P 2020 1977 Northwest Trees Identifying amp Understanding the Region s Native Trees field guide ed Seattle Mountaineers Books pp 155 162 ISBN 978 1 68051 329 5 OCLC 1141235469 a b c d e f Earle Christopher J ed 2018 Thuja plicata The Gymnosperm Database a b c d e Farjon 2005 Earle Christopher J ed 2018 Thuja The Gymnosperm Database a b Stewart 1984 p 24 Daniels C R Russell J H 1 May 2007 Analysis of Western Redcedar Thuja plicata Donn Heartwood Components by HPLC as a Possible Screening Tool for Trees with Enhanced Natural Durability Journal of Chromatographic Science 45 5 281 285 doi 10 1093 chromsci 45 5 281 PMID 17555638 Chan Yeung Moira January 1994 Mechanism of occupational asthma due to Western red cedar Thuja plicata American Journal of Industrial Medicine 25 1 13 18 doi 10 1002 ajim 4700250106 PMID 8116639 Gardner 1963 p 21 a b Chedgy Lim amp Breuil 2009 a b c Stewart 1984 p 22 Morita Yasuhiro Matsumura Eiko Okabe Toshihiro Fukui Toru Shibata Mitsunobu Sugiura Masaaki Ohe Tatsuhiko Tsujibo Hiroshi Ishida Nakao Inamori Yoshihiko 2004 Biological Activity of a Thujaplicin the Isomer of Hinokitiol Biological amp Pharmaceutical Bulletin 27 6 899 902 doi 10 1248 bpb 27 899 PMID 15187442 Vanitha Thiraviam Thammawong Manasikan Umehara Hitomi Nakamura Nobutaka Shiina Takeo December 2019 Effect of hinokitiol impregnated sheets on shelf life and quality of KEK 1 tomatoes during storage Packaging Technology and Science 32 12 641 648 doi 10 1002 pts 2479 S2CID 202995336 Pietra Francesco August 1973 Seven membered conjugated carbo and heterocyclic compounds and their homoconjugated analogs and metal complexes Synthesis biosynthesis structure and reactivity Chemical Reviews 73 4 293 364 doi 10 1021 cr60284a002 Saniewski Marian Horbowicz Marcin Kanlayanarat Sirichai 10 September 2014 The Biological Activities of Troponoids and Their Use in Agriculture A Review Journal of Horticultural Research 22 1 5 19 doi 10 2478 johr 2014 0001 S2CID 33834249 British Columbia Forests amp Range Tree Book Thuja plicata British Columbia Tree Species Compendium Western redcedar a b Minore Don 1990 Thuja plicata In Burns Russell M Honkala Barbara H eds Conifers Silvics of North America Washington D C United States Forest Service USFS United States Department of Agriculture USDA Vol 1 via Southern Research Station Tesky 1992 Introductory sfn error no target CITEREFTesky1992 help Flora of North America Dictionary of Upriver Halkomelem Volume II pp 1605 Galloway Brent Douglas Dictionary of Upriver Halkomelem Volume I pp 996 Galloway Brent Douglas Peng Dan Wang Xiao Quan June 2008 Reticulate evolution in Thuja inferred from multiple gene sequences Implications for the study of biogeographical disjunction between eastern Asia and North America Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution Elsevier 47 3 1190 1202 doi 10 1016 j ympev 2008 02 001 O Connell Lisa M Ritland Kermit Thompson Stacey Lee 1 February 2008 Patterns of post glacial colonization by western redcedar Thuja plicata Cupressaceae as revealed by microsatellite markers Botany Canadian Science Publishing 86 2 194 203 doi 10 1139 B07 124 a b Ruffley Megan Smith Megan L Espindola Anahi Turck Daniel F Mitchell Niels Carstens Brian Sullivan Jack Tank David C 24 March 2022 Sork Victoria ed Genomic evidence of an ancient inland temperate rainforest in the Pacific Northwest of North America Molecular Ecology Wiley Blackwell 31 10 2985 3001 doi 10 1111 mec 16431 Fernandez Matias Hu Feng Sheng Gavin Daniel G de Lafontaine Guillaume Heath Katy D 4 July 2021 A tale of two conifers Migration across a dispersal barrier outpaced regional expansion from refugia Journal of Biogeography Wiley Blackwell 48 9 2133 2143 doi 10 1111 jbi 14209 Aller Alvin R January 1960 The Composition of the Lake McDonald Forest Glacier National Park Ecology Ecological Society of America 41 1 29 33 doi 10 2307 1931936 via John Wiley amp Sons Ltd Mackenzie David A Tinker Daniel B 7 February 2013 A tree community level analysis of successional status and gap phase and postfire regeneration of range margin Thuja plicata western redcedar Canadian Journal of Forest Research Canadian Science Publishing 43 2 119 128 doi 10 1139 cjfr 2012 0333 Stewart 1984 p 21 Priestman Lauren Plant Description Thuja plicata Western Red Cedar Northern Rockies Natural History Guide University of Montana Missoula Retrieved 21 July 2013 Flora of North America p 411 Hill 1985 p 103 Skolmen Roger G 1974 Natural Durability of Some Woods Used in Hawaii Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station U S Forest Service Retrieved 21 July 2013 a b Richardson David M Rejmanek Marcel 6 September 2004 Conifers as invasive aliens a global survey and predictive framework Diversity and Distributions Wiley Blackwell 10 5 6 321 331 doi 10 1111 j 1366 9516 2004 00096 x Invasive non native alien plant species rules in England and Wales www gov uk 20 September 2022 26 August 2020 Retrieved 31 January 2023 IUCN Evaluation of Bialowieza Forest Request for Supplementary Information PDF Report February 2014 p 39 a b c Tesky 1992 Management Considerations sfn error no target CITEREFTesky1992 help Aubry Keith B Raley Catherine M April 2022 Selection of Nest and Roost Trees by Pileated Woodpeckers in Coastal Forests of Washington Journal of Wildlife Management The Wildlife Society 66 2 396 402 doi 10 2307 3803172 via Wiley Gashwiler Jay S May 1967 Conifer Seed Survival in a Western Oregon Clearcut Ecology Ecological Society of North America 48 3 431 438 doi 10 2307 1932678 via Wiley Gashwiler Jay S September 1970 Further Study of Conifer Seed Survival in a Western Oregon Clearcut Ecology Ecological Society of North America 51 5 849 854 doi 10 2307 1932678 via Wiley Moore A W June 1940 Wild Animal Damage to Seed and Seedlings on Cut over Douglas Fir Lands of Oregon and Washington United States Department of Agriculture Technical Bulletins Report Vol 709 p 8 doi 10 22004 ag econ 168487 Gashwiler Jay S Ward A Lorin 1966 Western Redcedar Seed a Food of Pine Siskins The Murrelet Society for Northwestern Vertebrate Biology 47 3 73 75 doi 10 2307 3533673 Patterson Patricia A 1985 Field Guide to the Forest Plants of Northern Idaho PDF United States Forest Service p 25 Tesky 1992 Botanical and Ecological Characteristics sfn error no target CITEREFTesky1992 help Tesky 1992 Fire Ecology or Adaptations sfn error no target CITEREFTesky1992 help Allen Eric Andrew 1955 1996 Common tree diseases of British Columbia Morrison D J Wallis G W Pacific Forestry Centre Victoria B C Pacific Forestry Centre ISBN 0 662 24870 8 OCLC 35976392 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Thies Walter G Sturrock Rona N 1995 Laminated root rot in western North America Gen Tech Rep PNW GTR 349 Portland OR U S Department of Agriculture Forest Service Pacific Northwest Research Station 32 P In Cooperation with Natural Resources Canada Canadian Forest Service Pacific Forestry Centre 349 doi 10 2737 PNW GTR 349 hdl 2027 umn 31951d02889118b Buckland D C 1 October 1946 Investigations of decay in western red cedar in british columbia Canadian Journal of Research 24c 5 158 181 doi 10 1139 cjr46c 018 ISSN 1923 4287 Wood David L 2003 Pests of the Native California Conifers Koerber Thomas W Scharpf Robert F Storer Andrew J Berkeley University of California Press ISBN 978 0 520 93637 9 OCLC 773564950 Minore D 1990 Western redcedar In Silvics of North America vol 1 Conifers 1990 Burns R M amp Honkala B H tech Coords Agriculture Handbook 654 USDA Forest Service Washington DC Bitner 2007 p 424 RHS Plant Selector Thuja plicata Atrovirens RHS Retrieved 5 March 2021 RHS Plant Selector Thuja plicata Aurea RHS Retrieved 5 March 2021 RHS Plant Selector Thuja plicata Stoneham Gold RHS Retrieved 5 March 2021 RHS Plantfinder Thuja plicata Whipcord Retrieved 23 December 2018 Thuja plicata Zebrina RHS Retrieved 5 March 2021 Stewart 1984 Stewart 1984 pp 17 19 Van Pelt 2001 p 30 a b c Stewart 1984 p 27 Stewart 1984 p 26 a b Stewart 1984 p 36 Pritzker 1998 p 292 Miller 2008 p 67 DeCapua pp 16 20 Stewart 1984 p 39 Stewart 1984 pp 37 38 Stewart 1984 p 40 Stewart 1984 p 42 Stewart 1984 p 43 McNeese 2002 p 43 Dill 2006 pp 127 128 Stewart 1984 p 116 Stewart 1984 p 115 Stewart 1984 p 113 Chase Jeri Fall 2008 Western Redcedar Tree of Life PDF Forests for Oregon Oregon Department of Forestry pp 18 19 Retrieved 18 September 2014 5 Things You Would Never Expect Need an Export License The Export Compliance Journal 6 June 2016 Retrieved 12 March 2022 Wood Dust OSHA NIOSH 28 September 2011 Lis Anna Swaczyna Agata Krajewska Agnieszka Mellor Karolina July 2019 Chemical Composition of the Essential Oils From Twigs Leaves and Cones of Thuja plicata and Its Cultivar Varieties Fastigiata Kornik and Zebrina Natural Product Communications 14 7 1934578X1986290 doi 10 1177 1934578X19862904 S2CID 202164043 Fahlbusch Karl Georg Hammerschmidt Franz Josef Panten Johannes Pickenhagen Wilhelm Schatkowski Dietmar Bauer Kurt Garbe Dorothea Surburg Horst 15 January 2003 Flavors and Fragrances Ullmann s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry a11 141 doi 10 1002 14356007 a11 141 ISBN 3527306730 Olsen R W 25 April 2000 Absinthe and gamma aminobutyric acid receptors Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 97 9 4417 4418 Bibcode 2000PNAS 97 4417O doi 10 1073 pnas 97 9 4417 PMC 34311 PMID 10781032 Chen Heyu The Utilization of Bark and Bark Components from Western Red Cedar Thuja plicata for Polyurethane Applications PDF a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint url status link Van Pelt 2001 p 34 Van Pelt 2001 p 36 Van Pelt 2001 p 32 Van Pelt 2001 p 37 Exotic Hikes Olympic National Park s Kalaloch Cedar Destroyed by Storm Picture of the Cathedral Grove stump Idaho Giant Red Cedar NRT Database Dorpat Paul 27 October 2016 This tunneled tree stump in Snohomish County was an early drive through attraction The Seattle Times Retrieved 31 May 2022 Variously named the Giant Cedar Stump the Arlington Stump or just The Stump this Snohomish County roadside attraction began of course as a tree which was killed by fire in 1893 reduced to stump size and tunneled in 1916 given a concrete base in 1922 and moved alongside the new Highway 99 in 1939 where it is shown here in 1940 The stump moved in 1971 to its current home at the Smokey Point Rest Area at milepost 207 off Interstate 5 Works cited EditBitner Richard L 2007 Conifers for Gardens an Illustrated Encyclopedia United Kingdom Timber Press ISBN 978 0 88192 830 3 Chedgy Russell J Lim Young Woon amp Breuil Colette 2009 Effects of leaching on fungal growth and decay of western redcedar Thuja plicata Canadian Journal of Microbiology 55 5 578 586 doi 10 1139 W08 161 PMID 19483786 DeCapua Sarah 2010 The Tlingit First Americans Tarrytown New York Marshall Cavendish Benchmark ISBN 978 0 7614 4135 9 Dill J Gregory 2006 Myth Fact And Navigators Secrets Incredible Tales of the Sea And Sailors Guilford Connecticut The Lyons Press ISBN 1 59228 879 0 Farjon A 2005 Monograph of Cupressaceae andSciadopitys Royal Botanic Gardens Kew ISBN 1 84246 068 4 Chambers Kenton L 1993 Thuja plicata In Flora of North America Editorial Committee ed Flora of North America North of Mexico FNA Vol 2 New York and Oxford via eFloras org Missouri Botanical Garden St Louis MO amp Harvard University Herbaria Cambridge MA Gardner J A F 1963 The Chemistry and Utilization of Western Red Cedar Ottawa Ontario Department of Forestry OCLC 65814710 Hill Anthony 1985 Antique Furniture in Australia Victoria British Columbia Viking Press ISBN 0 670 80319 7 McNeese Tim 2002 Early North America St Louis Missouri Milliken Publishing ISBN 0 7877 0527 6 Miller Mike 2008 Alaska s Southeast Touring the Inside Passage 11th ed Guilford Connecticut Globe Pequot Press ISBN 978 0 7627 4535 7 ISSN 1545 1941 Pritzker Barry M 1998 Native Americans An Encyclopedia of History Culture and Peoples Vol 1 Santa Barbara California ABC CLIO ISBN 0 87436 836 7 Stewart Hilary 1984 Cedar Tree of Life to the Northwest Coast Indians Vancouver British Columbia Douglas amp McIntyre ISBN 0 88894 437 3 Tesky Julie L 1992 Thuja plicata Fire Effects Information System FEIS US Department of Agriculture USDA Forest Service USFS Rocky Mountain Research Station Fire Sciences Laboratory Van Pelt Robert 2001 Forest Giants of the Pacific Coast Global Forest Society and University of Washington Press ISBN 0 295 98140 7 Zsolt Debreczy Istvan Racz 2012 Kathy Musial ed Conifers Around the World 1st ed DendroPress p 1089 ISBN 978 963 219 061 7 External links Edit Media related to Thuja plicata at Wikimedia Commons Thuja plicata Plants for a Future Thuja plicata Calflora Berkeley California The Calflora Database Thuja plicata in the CalPhotos photo database University of California Berkeley Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Thuja plicata amp oldid 1137911963, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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