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Bark (botany)

Bark is the outermost layers of stems and roots of woody plants. Plants with bark include trees, woody vines, and shrubs. Bark refers to all the tissues outside the vascular cambium and is a nontechnical term.[1] It overlays the wood and consists of the inner bark and the outer bark. The inner bark, which in older stems is living tissue, includes the innermost layer of the periderm. The outer bark on older stems includes the dead tissue on the surface of the stems, along with parts of the outermost periderm and all the tissues on the outer side of the periderm. The outer bark on trees which lies external to the living periderm is also called the rhytidome.

The bark of Pinus thunbergii is made up of countless shiny layers.

Products derived from bark include bark shingle siding and wall coverings, spices and other flavorings, tanbark for tannin, resin, latex, medicines, poisons, various hallucinogenic chemicals and cork. Bark has been used to make cloth, canoes, and ropes and used as a surface for paintings and map making.[2] A number of plants are also grown for their attractive or interesting bark colorations and surface textures or their bark is used as landscape mulch.[3][4]

The process of removing bark is decortication and a log or trunk from which bark has been removed is said to be decorticated.

Botanical description

Bark is present only on woody plants - herbaceous plants and stems of young plants lack bark.

 
Tree cross section diagram

From the outside to the inside of a mature woody stem, the layers include the following:[5]

  1. Bark
    1. Periderm
      1. Cork (phellem or suber), includes the rhytidome
      2. Cork cambium (phellogen)
      3. Phelloderm
    2. Cortex
    3. Phloem
  2. Vascular cambium
  3. Wood (xylem)
    1. Sapwood (alburnum)
    2. Heartwood (duramen)
  4. Pith (medulla)

In young stems, which lack what is commonly called bark, the tissues are, from the outside to the inside:

  1. Epidermis, which may be replaced by periderm
  2. Cortex
  3. Primary and secondary phloem
  4. Vascular cambium
  5. Secondary and primary xylem.

Cork cell walls contain suberin, a waxy substance which protects the stem against water loss, the invasion of insects into the stem, and prevents infections by bacteria and fungal spores.[6] The cambium tissues, i.e., the cork cambium and the vascular cambium, are the only parts of a woody stem where cell division occurs; undifferentiated cells in the vascular cambium divide rapidly to produce secondary xylem to the inside and secondary phloem to the outside. Phloem is a nutrient-conducting tissue composed of sieve tubes or sieve cells mixed with parenchyma and fibers. The cortex is the primary tissue of stems and roots. In stems the cortex is between the epidermis layer and the phloem, in roots the inner layer is not phloem but the pericycle.

As the stem ages and grows, changes occur that transform the surface of the stem into the bark. The epidermis is a layer of cells that cover the plant body, including the stems, leaves, flowers and fruits, that protects the plant from the outside world. In old stems the epidermal layer, cortex, and primary phloem become separated from the inner tissues by thicker formations of cork. Due to the thickening cork layer these cells die because they do not receive water and nutrients. This dead layer is the rough corky bark that forms around tree trunks and other stems.

Cork, sometimes confused with bark in colloquial speech, is the outermost layer of a woody stem, derived from the cork cambium. It serves as protection against damage from parasites, herbivorous animals and diseases, as well as dehydration and fire.

Periderm

 
Damaged bark of a cherry tree

Often a secondary covering called the periderm forms on small woody stems and many non-woody plants, which is composed of cork (phellem), the cork cambium (phellogen), and the phelloderm. The periderm forms from the phellogen which serves as a lateral meristem. The periderm replaces the epidermis, and acts as a protective covering like the epidermis. Mature phellem cells have suberin in their walls to protect the stem from desiccation and pathogen attack. Older phellem cells are dead, as is the case with woody stems. The skin on the potato tuber (which is an underground stem) constitutes the cork of the periderm.[7][8]

In woody plants, the epidermis of newly grown stems is replaced by the periderm later in the year. As the stems grow a layer of cells form under the epidermis, called the cork cambium, these cells produce cork cells that turn into cork. A limited number of cell layers may form interior to the cork cambium, called the phelloderm. As the stem grows, the cork cambium produces new layers of cork which are impermeable to gases and water and the cells outside the periderm, namely the epidermis, cortex and older secondary phloem die.[9]

Within the periderm are lenticels, which form during the production of the first periderm layer. Since there are living cells within the cambium layers that need to exchange gases during metabolism, these lenticels, because they have numerous intercellular spaces, allow gaseous exchange with the outside atmosphere. As the bark develops, new lenticels are formed within the cracks of the cork layers.

Rhytidome

The rhytidome is the most familiar part of bark, being the outer layer that covers the trunks of trees. It is composed mostly of dead cells and is produced by the formation of multiple layers of suberized periderm, cortical and phloem tissue.[10] The rhytidome is especially well developed in older stems and roots of trees. In shrubs, older bark is quickly exfoliated and thick rhytidome accumulates.[11] It is generally thickest and most distinctive at the trunk or bole (the area from the ground to where the main branching starts) of the tree.

Chemical composition

Bark tissues make up by weight between 10 and 20% of woody vascular plants and consists of various biopolymers, tannins, lignin, suberin and polysaccharides.[12] Up to 40% of the bark tissue is made of lignin, which forms an important part of a plant, providing structural support by crosslinking between different polysaccharides, such as cellulose.[12]

Condensed tannin, which is in fairly high concentration in bark tissue, is thought to inhibit decomposition.[12] It could be due to this factor that the degradation of lignin is far less pronounced in bark tissue than it is in wood. It has been proposed that, in the cork layer (the phellogen), suberin acts as a barrier to microbial degradation and so protects the internal structure of the plant.[12][13]

Analysis of the lignin in bark wall during decay by the white-rot fungi Lentinula edodes (Shiitake mushroom) using 13C NMR revealed that the lignin polymers contained more Guaiacyl lignin units than Syringyl units compared to the interior of the plant.[12] Guaiacyl units are less susceptible to degradation as, compared to syringyl, they contain fewer aryl-aryl bonds, can form a condensed lignin structure and have a lower redox potential.[14] This could mean that the concentration and type of lignin units could provide additional resistance to fungal decay for plants protected by bark.[12]

Damage and repair

Bark can sustain damage from environmental factors, such as frost crack and sun scald, as well as biological factors, such as woodpecker and boring beetle attack. Male deer and other male members of the Cervidae cause extensive bark damage during the rutting season by rubbing their antlers against the tree to remove their velvet.

 
Living tree bark enveloping barbed wire

Bark is often damaged by being bound to stakes or wrapped with wires. In the past, this damage was called bark-galling, and was treated by applying clay laid on the galled place and binding up with hay.[15] In modern usage, "galling" most typically refers to a type of abnormal growth on a plant caused by insects or pathogens.

Bark damage can have a number of detrimental effects on the plant. Bark serves as a physical barrier to disease pressure, especially from fungi, so its removal makes the plant more susceptible to disease. Damage or destruction of the phloem impedes the transport of photosynthetic products throughout the plant; in extreme cases, when a band of phloem all the way around the stem is removed, the plant will usually quickly die. Bark damage in horticultural applications, as in gardening and public landscaping, results in often unwanted aesthetic damage.

The degree to which woody plants are able to repair gross physical damage to their bark is quite variable across species and type of damage. Some are able to produce a callus growth which heals over the wound rapidly, but leaves a clear scar, whilst others such as oaks do not produce an extensive callus repair. Sap is sometimes produced to seal the damaged area against disease and insect intrusion.[citation needed]

A number of living organisms live in or on bark, including insects,[16] fungi and other plants like mosses, algae and other vascular plants. Many of these organisms are pathogens or parasites but some also have symbiotic relationships.

 
Bark of mature mango (Mangifera indica) showing lichen growth

Uses

The inner bark (phloem) of some trees is edible. In hunter-gatherer societies and in times of famine, it is harvested and used as a food source. In Scandinavia, bark bread is made from rye to which the toasted and ground innermost layer of bark of scots pine or birch is added. The Sami people of far northern Europe use large sheets of Pinus sylvestris bark that are removed in the spring, prepared and stored for use as a staple food resource. The inner bark is eaten fresh, dried or roasted.[17]

 
Bark of pine was used as emergency food in Finland during famine, last time during and after civil war in 1918.

Bark can be used as a construction material, and was used widel in pre-industrial societies. Some barks, particularly Birch bark, can be removed in long sheets and other mechanically cohesive structures, allowing the bark to be used in the construction of canoes, as the drainage layer in roofs, for shoes, backpacks, and other useful items.[18]

 
Backpack made of birch bark. Museum by Lake Baikal, Russia

In the cork oak (Quercus suber) the bark is thick enough to be harvested as a cork product without killing the tree;[19] in this species the bark may get very thick (e.g. more than 20 cm has been reported[20]).

Some stem barks have significantly different phytochemical content from other parts. Some of these phytochemicals have pesticidal, culinary, or medicinally and culturally important ethnopharmacological properties.[21]

Bark contains strong fibres known as bast, and there is a long tradition in northern Europe of using bark from coppiced young branches of the small-leaved lime (Tilia cordata) to produce cordage and rope, used for example in the rigging of Viking Age longships.[22]

Among the commercial products made from bark are cork, cinnamon, quinine[23] (from the bark of Cinchona)[24] and aspirin (from the bark of willow trees). The bark of some trees, notably oak (Quercus robur) is a source of tannic acid, which is used in tanning. Bark chips generated as a by-product of lumber production are often used in bark mulch. Bark is important to the horticultural industry since in shredded form it is used for plants that do not thrive in ordinary soil, such as epiphytes.[25]

Wood bark contains lignin which when pyrolyzed yields a liquid bio-oil product rich in natural phenol derivatives. These are used as a replacement for fossil-based phenols in phenol-formaldehyde (PF) resins used in Oriented Strand Board (OSB) and plywood.[26]

Gallery

See also

References

  1. ^ Raven, Peter H.; Evert, Ray F.; Curtis, Helena (1981), Biology of Plants, New York, N.Y.: Worth Publishers, p. 641, ISBN 0-87901-132-7, OCLC 222047616
  2. ^ Taylor, Luke. 1996. Seeing the Inside: Bark Painting in Western Arnhem Land. Oxford Studies in Social and Cultural Anthropology. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
  3. ^ Sandved, Kjell Bloch, Ghillean T. Prance, and Anne E. Prance. 1993. Bark: the Formation, Characteristics, and Uses of Bark around the World. Portland, Or: Timber Press.
  4. ^ Vaucher, Hugues, and James E. Eckenwalder. 2003. Tree Bark: a Color Guide. Portland: Timber
  5. ^ Pereira, Helena (2007), Cork, Amsterdam: Elsevier, p. 8, ISBN 978-0-444-52967-1, OCLC 162131397
  6. ^ "Botany Glossary "P"". .puc.edu. Retrieved 2 January 2012.
  7. ^ Artschwager, E (1924). "Studies on the potato tuber". J. Agr. Res. 27: 809–835.
  8. ^ Peterson, R.L.; Barker, W.G. (1979). "Early tuber development from explanted stolon nodes of Solanum tuberosum var. Kennebec". Botanical Gazette. 140 (4): 398–406. doi:10.1086/337104. S2CID 85217835.
  9. ^ Mauseth, James D. (2003), Botany: an Introduction to Plant Biology, p. 229, ISBN 0-7637-2134-4
  10. ^ Dickison, WC. 2000. Integrative Plant Anatomy, Academic Press, San Diego, 186–195.
  11. ^ Katherine Easu (1977). Anatomy of Seed Plants. Plant Anatomy (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 185. ISBN 0-471-24520-8.
  12. ^ a b c d e f Vane, C. H.; et al. (2006). "Bark decay by the white-rot fungus Lentinula edodes: Polysaccharide loss, lignin resistance and the unmasking of suberin". International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation. 57 (1): 14–23. doi:10.1016/j.ibiod.2005.10.004.
  13. ^ Kolattukudy, P.E. (1984). "Biochemistry and function of cutin and suberin". Canadian Journal of Botany. 62 (12): 2918–2933. doi:10.1139/b84-391.
  14. ^ Vane, C. H.; et al. (2001). "Degradation of Lignin in Wheat Straw during Growth of the Oyster Mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus) Using Off-line Thermochemolysis with Tetramethylammonium Hydroxide and Solid-State 13C NMR". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 49 (6): 2709–2716. doi:10.1021/jf001409a. PMID 11409955.
  15. ^ Tegg, Thomas (1829). The London encyclopaedia: or Universal dictionary of science, art, literature, and practical mechanics, comprising a popular view of the present state of knowledge (Volume 3 ed.). Retrieved 13 February 2014.
  16. ^ Lieutier, François. 2004. Bark and Wood Boring Insects in Living Trees in Europe, a Synthesis. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
  17. ^ Zackrisson, O.; Östlund, L.; Korhonen, O.; Bergman, I. (200), "The ancient use of Pinus sylvestris L. (scots pine) inner bark by Sami people in northern Sweden, related to cultural and ecological factors = Ancienne usage d'écorce de Pinus sylvestris L. (Pin écossais) par les peuples Sami du nord de la Suède en relation avec les facteurs écologiques et culturels", Vegetation History and Archaeobotany, 9 (2): 99–109, doi:10.1007/bf01300060, S2CID 129174312
  18. ^ Adney, Tappan, and Howard Irving Chapelle. 1964. The Bark Canoes and Skin Boats of North America. Washington: Smithsonian Institution.
  19. ^ Aronson J.; Pereira J.S.; Pausas J.G., eds. (2009). Cork Oak Woodlands on the Edge: conservation, adaptive management, and restoration. Washington DC: Island Press.
  20. ^ Paulo Fernandes (3 January 2011). "j.g. pausas' blog " Bark thickness: a world record?". Jgpausas.blogs.uv.es. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2010.07.010. hdl:10261/32660. Retrieved 2 January 2012. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  21. ^ Ibrahim, Mohammed Auwal; Mohammed, Aminu; Isah, Murtala Bindawa; Aliyu, Abubakar Babando (2014). "Anti-trypanosomal activity of African medicinal plants: A review update". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. International Society of Ethnopharmacology (ISE). 154 (1): 26–54. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2014.04.012. ISSN 0378-8741. PMID 24742753.
  22. ^ Myking, T.; Hertzberg, A.; Skrøppa, T. (2005). "History, manufacture and properties of lime bast cordage in northern Europe". Forestry. 78 (1): 65–71. doi:10.1093/forestry/cpi006.
  23. ^ Duran-Reynals, Marie Louise de Ayala. 1946. The Fever Bark Tree; the Pageant of Quinine. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday.
  24. ^ Markham, Clements R. 1880. Peruvian Bark. A Popular Account of the Introduction of Chinchona Cultivation into British India. London: J. Murray.
  25. ^ Harkin, John M. (1971). Bark and Its Possible Uses. Forest Products Laboratory, U.S. Forest Service.
  26. ^ (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 April 2008. Retrieved 30 January 2008.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)

Other references

  • Cédric Pollet, Bark: An Intimate Look at the World's Trees. London, Frances Lincoln, 2010. (Translated by Susan Berry) ISBN 978-0-7112-3137-5

bark, botany, this, article, needs, additional, citations, verification, please, help, improve, this, article, adding, citations, reliable, sources, unsourced, material, challenged, removed, find, sources, bark, botany, news, newspapers, books, scholar, jstor,. This article needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Bark botany news newspapers books scholar JSTOR September 2022 Learn how and when to remove this template message Bark is the outermost layers of stems and roots of woody plants Plants with bark include trees woody vines and shrubs Bark refers to all the tissues outside the vascular cambium and is a nontechnical term 1 It overlays the wood and consists of the inner bark and the outer bark The inner bark which in older stems is living tissue includes the innermost layer of the periderm The outer bark on older stems includes the dead tissue on the surface of the stems along with parts of the outermost periderm and all the tissues on the outer side of the periderm The outer bark on trees which lies external to the living periderm is also called the rhytidome The bark of Pinus thunbergii is made up of countless shiny layers Products derived from bark include bark shingle siding and wall coverings spices and other flavorings tanbark for tannin resin latex medicines poisons various hallucinogenic chemicals and cork Bark has been used to make cloth canoes and ropes and used as a surface for paintings and map making 2 A number of plants are also grown for their attractive or interesting bark colorations and surface textures or their bark is used as landscape mulch 3 4 The process of removing bark is decortication and a log or trunk from which bark has been removed is said to be decorticated Contents 1 Botanical description 1 1 Periderm 1 2 Rhytidome 2 Chemical composition 3 Damage and repair 4 Uses 5 Gallery 6 See also 7 References 8 Other referencesBotanical description EditBark is present only on woody plants herbaceous plants and stems of young plants lack bark Tree cross section diagram From the outside to the inside of a mature woody stem the layers include the following 5 Bark Periderm Cork phellem or suber includes the rhytidome Cork cambium phellogen Phelloderm Cortex Phloem Vascular cambium Wood xylem Sapwood alburnum Heartwood duramen Pith medulla In young stems which lack what is commonly called bark the tissues are from the outside to the inside Epidermis which may be replaced by periderm Cortex Primary and secondary phloem Vascular cambium Secondary and primary xylem Cork cell walls contain suberin a waxy substance which protects the stem against water loss the invasion of insects into the stem and prevents infections by bacteria and fungal spores 6 The cambium tissues i e the cork cambium and the vascular cambium are the only parts of a woody stem where cell division occurs undifferentiated cells in the vascular cambium divide rapidly to produce secondary xylem to the inside and secondary phloem to the outside Phloem is a nutrient conducting tissue composed of sieve tubes or sieve cells mixed with parenchyma and fibers The cortex is the primary tissue of stems and roots In stems the cortex is between the epidermis layer and the phloem in roots the inner layer is not phloem but the pericycle As the stem ages and grows changes occur that transform the surface of the stem into the bark The epidermis is a layer of cells that cover the plant body including the stems leaves flowers and fruits that protects the plant from the outside world In old stems the epidermal layer cortex and primary phloem become separated from the inner tissues by thicker formations of cork Due to the thickening cork layer these cells die because they do not receive water and nutrients This dead layer is the rough corky bark that forms around tree trunks and other stems Cork sometimes confused with bark in colloquial speech is the outermost layer of a woody stem derived from the cork cambium It serves as protection against damage from parasites herbivorous animals and diseases as well as dehydration and fire Periderm Edit Damaged bark of a cherry tree Often a secondary covering called the periderm forms on small woody stems and many non woody plants which is composed of cork phellem the cork cambium phellogen and the phelloderm The periderm forms from the phellogen which serves as a lateral meristem The periderm replaces the epidermis and acts as a protective covering like the epidermis Mature phellem cells have suberin in their walls to protect the stem from desiccation and pathogen attack Older phellem cells are dead as is the case with woody stems The skin on the potato tuber which is an underground stem constitutes the cork of the periderm 7 8 In woody plants the epidermis of newly grown stems is replaced by the periderm later in the year As the stems grow a layer of cells form under the epidermis called the cork cambium these cells produce cork cells that turn into cork A limited number of cell layers may form interior to the cork cambium called the phelloderm As the stem grows the cork cambium produces new layers of cork which are impermeable to gases and water and the cells outside the periderm namely the epidermis cortex and older secondary phloem die 9 Within the periderm are lenticels which form during the production of the first periderm layer Since there are living cells within the cambium layers that need to exchange gases during metabolism these lenticels because they have numerous intercellular spaces allow gaseous exchange with the outside atmosphere As the bark develops new lenticels are formed within the cracks of the cork layers Rhytidome Edit The rhytidome is the most familiar part of bark being the outer layer that covers the trunks of trees It is composed mostly of dead cells and is produced by the formation of multiple layers of suberized periderm cortical and phloem tissue 10 The rhytidome is especially well developed in older stems and roots of trees In shrubs older bark is quickly exfoliated and thick rhytidome accumulates 11 It is generally thickest and most distinctive at the trunk or bole the area from the ground to where the main branching starts of the tree Chemical composition EditBark tissues make up by weight between 10 and 20 of woody vascular plants and consists of various biopolymers tannins lignin suberin and polysaccharides 12 Up to 40 of the bark tissue is made of lignin which forms an important part of a plant providing structural support by crosslinking between different polysaccharides such as cellulose 12 Condensed tannin which is in fairly high concentration in bark tissue is thought to inhibit decomposition 12 It could be due to this factor that the degradation of lignin is far less pronounced in bark tissue than it is in wood It has been proposed that in the cork layer the phellogen suberin acts as a barrier to microbial degradation and so protects the internal structure of the plant 12 13 Analysis of the lignin in bark wall during decay by the white rot fungi Lentinula edodes Shiitake mushroom using 13C NMR revealed that the lignin polymers contained more Guaiacyl lignin units than Syringyl units compared to the interior of the plant 12 Guaiacyl units are less susceptible to degradation as compared to syringyl they contain fewer aryl aryl bonds can form a condensed lignin structure and have a lower redox potential 14 This could mean that the concentration and type of lignin units could provide additional resistance to fungal decay for plants protected by bark 12 Damage and repair EditBark can sustain damage from environmental factors such as frost crack and sun scald as well as biological factors such as woodpecker and boring beetle attack Male deer and other male members of the Cervidae cause extensive bark damage during the rutting season by rubbing their antlers against the tree to remove their velvet Living tree bark enveloping barbed wire Bark is often damaged by being bound to stakes or wrapped with wires In the past this damage was called bark galling and was treated by applying clay laid on the galled place and binding up with hay 15 In modern usage galling most typically refers to a type of abnormal growth on a plant caused by insects or pathogens Bark damage can have a number of detrimental effects on the plant Bark serves as a physical barrier to disease pressure especially from fungi so its removal makes the plant more susceptible to disease Damage or destruction of the phloem impedes the transport of photosynthetic products throughout the plant in extreme cases when a band of phloem all the way around the stem is removed the plant will usually quickly die Bark damage in horticultural applications as in gardening and public landscaping results in often unwanted aesthetic damage The degree to which woody plants are able to repair gross physical damage to their bark is quite variable across species and type of damage Some are able to produce a callus growth which heals over the wound rapidly but leaves a clear scar whilst others such as oaks do not produce an extensive callus repair Sap is sometimes produced to seal the damaged area against disease and insect intrusion citation needed A number of living organisms live in or on bark including insects 16 fungi and other plants like mosses algae and other vascular plants Many of these organisms are pathogens or parasites but some also have symbiotic relationships Bark of mature mango Mangifera indica showing lichen growth The patterns left in the bark of a Chinese Evergreen Elm after repeated visits by a Yellow Bellied Sapsucker woodpecker in early 2012 The self repair of the Chinese Evergreen Elm showing new bark growth lenticels and other self repair of the holes made by a Yellow Bellied Sapsucker woodpecker about two years earlier Alder bark Alnus glutinosa with characteristic lenticels and abnormal lenticels on callused areas Sun scald damage on Sitka spruceUses EditThe inner bark phloem of some trees is edible In hunter gatherer societies and in times of famine it is harvested and used as a food source In Scandinavia bark bread is made from rye to which the toasted and ground innermost layer of bark of scots pine or birch is added The Sami people of far northern Europe use large sheets of Pinus sylvestris bark that are removed in the spring prepared and stored for use as a staple food resource The inner bark is eaten fresh dried or roasted 17 Bark of pine was used as emergency food in Finland during famine last time during and after civil war in 1918 Bark can be used as a construction material and was used widel in pre industrial societies Some barks particularly Birch bark can be removed in long sheets and other mechanically cohesive structures allowing the bark to be used in the construction of canoes as the drainage layer in roofs for shoes backpacks and other useful items 18 Backpack made of birch bark Museum by Lake Baikal Russia In the cork oak Quercus suber the bark is thick enough to be harvested as a cork product without killing the tree 19 in this species the bark may get very thick e g more than 20 cm has been reported 20 Some stem bark s have significantly different phytochemical content from other parts Some of these phytochemicals have pesticidal culinary or medicinally and culturally important ethnopharmacological properties 21 Bark contains strong fibres known as bast and there is a long tradition in northern Europe of using bark from coppiced young branches of the small leaved lime Tilia cordata to produce cordage and rope used for example in the rigging of Viking Age longships 22 Among the commercial products made from bark are cork cinnamon quinine 23 from the bark of Cinchona 24 and aspirin from the bark of willow trees The bark of some trees notably oak Quercus robur is a source of tannic acid which is used in tanning Bark chips generated as a by product of lumber production are often used in bark mulch Bark is important to the horticultural industry since in shredded form it is used for plants that do not thrive in ordinary soil such as epiphytes 25 Bark chips Wood bark contains lignin which when pyrolyzed yields a liquid bio oil product rich in natural phenol derivatives These are used as a replacement for fossil based phenols in phenol formaldehyde PF resins used in Oriented Strand Board OSB and plywood 26 Gallery Edit Eucalypt bark Close up of living bark on a tree in England Acer capillipes Red Snakebark Maple Monterey Pine bark A rare Black Poplar tree showing the bark and burls The typical appearance of Sycamore bark from an old tree Quercus robur bark with a large burl and lichen Kauri bark Beech bark with callus growth following fire heat damage Damaged bark Common oak bark Rainbow Eucalyptus bark on the Hawaiian island of Maui The old bark has a metallic luster In 2016 the height of the tree was 15 meters and the bust circumference was 5 7 meters Samanea samanSee also Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bark Bark beetle Bark painting Trunk botany Bark isolate Bark binding a diseased condition of tree barkReferences Edit Raven Peter H Evert Ray F Curtis Helena 1981 Biology of Plants New York N Y Worth Publishers p 641 ISBN 0 87901 132 7 OCLC 222047616 Taylor Luke 1996 Seeing the Inside Bark Painting in Western Arnhem Land Oxford Studies in Social and Cultural Anthropology Oxford Clarendon Press Sandved Kjell Bloch Ghillean T Prance and Anne E Prance 1993 Bark the Formation Characteristics and Uses of Bark around the World Portland Or Timber Press Vaucher Hugues and James E Eckenwalder 2003 Tree Bark a Color Guide Portland Timber Pereira Helena 2007 Cork Amsterdam Elsevier p 8 ISBN 978 0 444 52967 1 OCLC 162131397 Botany Glossary P puc edu Retrieved 2 January 2012 Artschwager E 1924 Studies on the potato tuber J Agr Res 27 809 835 Peterson R L Barker W G 1979 Early tuber development from explanted stolon nodes of Solanum tuberosum var Kennebec Botanical Gazette 140 4 398 406 doi 10 1086 337104 S2CID 85217835 Mauseth James D 2003 Botany an Introduction to Plant Biology p 229 ISBN 0 7637 2134 4 Dickison WC 2000 Integrative Plant Anatomy Academic Press San Diego 186 195 Katherine Easu 1977 Anatomy of Seed Plants Plant Anatomy 2nd ed John Wiley amp Sons p 185 ISBN 0 471 24520 8 a b c d e f Vane C H et al 2006 Bark decay by the white rot fungus Lentinula edodes Polysaccharide loss lignin resistance and the unmasking of suberin International Biodeterioration amp Biodegradation 57 1 14 23 doi 10 1016 j ibiod 2005 10 004 Kolattukudy P E 1984 Biochemistry and function of cutin and suberin Canadian Journal of Botany 62 12 2918 2933 doi 10 1139 b84 391 Vane C H et al 2001 Degradation of Lignin in Wheat Straw during Growth of the Oyster Mushroom Pleurotus ostreatus Using Off line Thermochemolysis with Tetramethylammonium Hydroxide and Solid State 13C NMR Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 49 6 2709 2716 doi 10 1021 jf001409a PMID 11409955 Tegg Thomas 1829 The London encyclopaedia or Universal dictionary of science art literature and practical mechanics comprising a popular view of the present state of knowledge Volume 3 ed Retrieved 13 February 2014 Lieutier Francois 2004 Bark and Wood Boring Insects in Living Trees in Europe a Synthesis Dordrecht Kluwer Academic Publishers Zackrisson O Ostlund L Korhonen O Bergman I 200 The ancient use of Pinus sylvestris L scots pine inner bark by Sami people in northern Sweden related to cultural and ecological factors Ancienne usage d ecorce de Pinus sylvestris L Pin ecossais par les peuples Sami du nord de la Suede en relation avec les facteurs ecologiques et culturels Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 9 2 99 109 doi 10 1007 bf01300060 S2CID 129174312 Adney Tappan and Howard Irving Chapelle 1964 The Bark Canoes and Skin Boats of North America Washington Smithsonian Institution Aronson J Pereira J S Pausas J G eds 2009 Cork Oak Woodlands on the Edge conservation adaptive management and restoration Washington DC Island Press Paulo Fernandes 3 January 2011 j g pausas blog Bark thickness a world record Jgpausas blogs uv es doi 10 1016 j foreco 2010 07 010 hdl 10261 32660 Retrieved 2 January 2012 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Ibrahim Mohammed Auwal Mohammed Aminu Isah Murtala Bindawa Aliyu Abubakar Babando 2014 Anti trypanosomal activity of African medicinal plants A review update Journal of Ethnopharmacology International Society of Ethnopharmacology ISE 154 1 26 54 doi 10 1016 j jep 2014 04 012 ISSN 0378 8741 PMID 24742753 Myking T Hertzberg A Skroppa T 2005 History manufacture and properties of lime bast cordage in northern Europe Forestry 78 1 65 71 doi 10 1093 forestry cpi006 Duran Reynals Marie Louise de Ayala 1946 The Fever Bark Tree the Pageant of Quinine Garden City N Y Doubleday Markham Clements R 1880 Peruvian Bark A Popular Account of the Introduction of Chinchona Cultivation into British India London J Murray Harkin John M 1971 Bark and Its Possible Uses Forest Products Laboratory U S Forest Service Archived copy PDF Archived from the original PDF on 11 April 2008 Retrieved 30 January 2008 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint archived copy as title link Other references EditCedric Pollet Bark An Intimate Look at the World s Trees London Frances Lincoln 2010 Translated by Susan Berry ISBN 978 0 7112 3137 5 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Bark botany amp oldid 1136250112, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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