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Vjekoslav Luburić

January 12, 2024

Vjekoslav Luburić (6 March 1914 – 20 April 1969) was a Croatian Ustaše official who headed the system of concentration camps in the Independent State of Croatia (NDH) during much of World War II. Luburić also personally oversaw and spearheaded the contemporaneous genocides of Serbs, Jews and Roma in the NDH.

Vjekoslav Luburić
Luburić in the 1940s
Nickname(s)Maks
Born(1914-03-06)6 March 1914
Humac, Condominium of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Austria-Hungary
Died20 April 1969(1969-04-20) (aged 55)
Carcagente, Spain
AllegianceIndependent State of Croatia
Service/branch
Years of service1929–1945
RankGeneral
Commands held
  • Ustaše Surveillance Service, Bureau III
  • 9th Infantry Regiment (Croatian Home Guard)
  • Croatian Armed Forces (May 1945)
Battles/warsWorld War II in Yugoslavia
Spouse(s)
Isabela Hernaiz
​
​
(m. 1953; div. 1957)​
Children5

Luburić joined Ante Pavelić's Ustaše movement in 1931, left Yugoslavia the following year and relocated to Hungary. Following the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia and the establishment of the NDH with Pavelić at its head, Luburić returned to the Balkans. In late June 1941, Luburić was dispatched to the Lika region, where he oversaw a series of massacres of Serbs, which served as the casus belli for the Srb uprising. Around this time, he was appointed head of Bureau III, a department of the Ustaše Surveillance Service tasked with overseeing the NDH's sprawling network of concentration camps. The largest of these was Jasenovac, where approximately 100,000 people were killed over the course of the war. In late 1942, Luburić was appointed commander of the Croatian Home Guard's 9th Infantry Regiment, but was stripped of his command after shooting and killing one of his subordinates. Under German pressure, he was placed under house arrest, but retained de facto control of the Ustaše concentration camps. In August 1944, he played a leading role in the disruption of the Lorković–Vokić plot, which sought to overthrow Pavelić and replace him with a pro-Allied government. In February 1945, Pavelić dispatched Luburić to Sarajevo, where over the next two months, he oversaw the torture and killing of hundreds of known and suspected communists. Luburić flew back to Zagreb in early April and was promoted to the rank of general.

The NDH collapsed in May 1945 and its territory was reintegrated into Yugoslavia. Luburić stayed behind to conduct a guerrilla warfare campaign against the communists, during which he was seriously wounded. In 1949, he emigrated to Spain and became active in Ustaše émigré circles. In 1955, Luburić broke with Pavelić over the latter's professed support for a future division of Bosnia and Herzegovina between Greater Croatia and Greater Serbia, and formed a rival Croatian nationalist organization known as the Croatian National Resistance. The disagreement resulted in great acrimony between the two men and, when Pavelić died in 1959, Luburić was forbidden from attending his funeral. In April 1969, Luburić was found murdered in his home, a victim of either the Yugoslav secret police or rivals in the Croatian émigré community.

Early life edit

Vjekoslav Luburić was born into a Herzegovinian Croat[1] family in the village of Humac, near Ljubuški, on 6 March 1914.[2] He was the third child of Ljubomir Luburić, a bank clerk, and Marija Soldo, a homemaker.[3] The couple had another son, Dragutin, and two daughters, Mira and Olga.[4] Luburić was a devout and practicing Roman Catholic.[5] In December 1918, his father was shot by a police officer while smuggling tobacco and died of blood loss.[3][a] Following his father's death, Luburić came to "detest and resent Serbs and the Serbian monarchy", the historian Cathie Carmichael writes.[7] Shortly thereafter, Luburić's sister Olga committed suicide by jumping into the Trebižat River after their mother forbade her from marrying a Muslim. Following the deaths of Luburić's father and sister, his mother found work in a tobacco factory to provide for her remaining children. She soon married a man named Jozo Tambić, with whom she had three more children.[3] Luburić's half-siblings, born of his mother's second marriage, were named Zora, Nada and Tomislav.[4]

Luburić completed his primary education in Ljubuški, before relocating to Mostar to attend secondary school. There, he began associating with Croatian nationalist youths. He became increasingly aggressive towards his teachers and peers, and often truanted. Luburić’s first encounter with law enforcement occurred on 7 September 1929, when he was arrested for vagrancy and sentenced to two days’ imprisonment by a Mostar court.[3] In his senior year, Luburić dropped out of high school to work in the Mostar public stock exchange. In 1931, he joined the Ustaše, a Croatian fascist and ultra-nationalist movement committed to the destruction of Yugoslavia and the establishment of Greater Croatia.[2] The same year, he was arrested for the embezzlement of funds belonging to the exchange.[3] On 5 December, Luburić was sentenced to five months in prison for embezzlement. Shortly thereafter, he escaped captivity and made it as far as the Albanian–Yugoslav border before being recaptured. Upon release, Luburić relocated to northern Croatia, and then to Subotica, where he surreptitiously crossed the Hungarian–Yugoslav border. Luburić first rendezvoused with the Croatian émigré community in Budapest before relocating to an Ustaše training camp called Janka-Puszta.[8] Situated close to the Yugoslav frontier, Janka-Puszta was one of several Ustaše training camps established in Hungary and Italy, whose governments were sympathetic to the Ustaše cause and had territorial aspirations in Yugoslavia. It housed several hundred Croat émigrés, mostly manual labourers returning from Western Europe and North America. The recruits swore an oath of loyalty to the leader of the Ustaše, Ante Pavelić, took part in pseudo-military exercises, and produced anti-Serb propaganda material.[9] It was at Janka-Puszta that Luburić earned the nickname Maks, which he was to use for the remainder of his life.[3]

In October 1934, King Alexander of Yugoslavia was assassinated while on a diplomatic visit to Marseille, in a joint conspiracy between the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization and the Ustaše. Following the assassination, most of the Ustaše residing in Hungary were evicted by the country's government, with the exception of Luburić and several others.[10] For a short time, Luburić resided in Nagykanizsa, where, after a brief love affair, a local woman bore him a son.[11]

World War II edit

Creation of the NDH edit

 
Map of the partition of Yugoslavia, 1941–1943

Following the 1938 Anschluss between Germany and Austria, Yugoslavia came to share its northwestern border with the Third Reich and fell under increasing pressure as its neighbours aligned themselves with the Axis powers. In April 1939, Italy opened a second frontier with Yugoslavia when it invaded and occupied neighbouring Albania.[12] Following the outbreak of World War II, the Yugoslav government declared its neutrality.[13] Between September and November 1940, Hungary and Romania joined the Tripartite Pact, aligning themselves with the Axis, and Italy invaded Greece. Yugoslavia was by then almost completely surrounded by the Axis powers and their satellites, and its neutral stance toward the war became strained.[12] In late February 1941, Bulgaria joined the Pact. The following day, German troops entered Bulgaria from Romania, closing the ring around Yugoslavia.[14] Intending to secure his southern flank for the impending attack on the Soviet Union, German dictator Adolf Hitler began placing heavy pressure on Yugoslavia to join the Axis. On 25 March 1941, after some delay, the Yugoslav government conditionally signed the Pact. Two days later, a group of pro-Western, Serbian nationalist Royal Yugoslav Air Force officers deposed the country's regent, Prince Paul, in a bloodless coup d'état. They placed his teenage nephew Peter on the throne and brought to power a "government of national unity" led by the head of the Royal Yugoslav Air Force, General Dušan Simović.[15] The coup enraged Hitler, who immediately ordered the country's invasion, which commenced on 6 April 1941.[16]

On 10 April, the creation of the Independent State of Croatia (Croatian: Nezavisna Država Hrvatska; NDH) was announced over the radio by Slavko Kvaternik, a former Austro-Hungarian Army officer who had been in contact with Croatian nationalists abroad.[17] Pavelić arrived in Zagreb on 15 April and proclaimed himself leader (Croatian: Poglavnik) of the NDH, having assured the Germans that the NDH would be loyal to the Axis cause.[18] Disenchanted with more than twenty years of Serb hegemony, the majority of Croats enthusiastically welcomed the NDH's creation. The Axis invasion of Yugoslavia had transformed the Ustaše from a small and relatively obscure Croatian nationalist organization into a popular movement almost overnight.[19][b] The Germans initially wanted to install Croatian Peasant Party leader Vladko Maček as the head of the Croatian puppet state, but Maček refused, citing his democratic convictions and his firm belief that the Axis powers would not win the war.[22] The NDH was divided into German and Italian areas of influence.[23] The Italian area of influence was divided into three operational zones. Zone I, which consisted of the coastal and island area surrounding the cities of Zadar, Šibenik, Trogir and Split, was directly annexed by Italy. Zone II was consigned to the NDH. It encompassed much of Dalmatia and the Dalmatian Hinterland. Zone III, also allotted to the NDH, extended as far as western and central Bosnia, a sliver of eastern Bosnia, and all of Herzegovina.[24]

On 17 April, the Ustaše instituted the Legal Provision for the Defence of the People and State, a law legitimizing the establishment of concentration camps and the mass shooting of hostages across the NDH.[25] The Jewish Question was only of secondary concern to the Ustaše. Their foremost goal was to rid the NDH of its 1.9 million Serbs, who made up about 30% of the fledgling puppet state's total population.[26] Senior Ustaše officials openly stated that they sought to kill one-third of Serbs living in the NDH, expel one-third and convert one-third to Roman Catholicism.[27] The Ustaše movement's grievances centred around the perceived injustices inflicted upon the Croats in Serb-dominated Yugoslavia during the interwar period. Senior Ustaše officials cited the shooting of five Croatian parliamentary deputies in June 1928, the murder of the Croatian nationalist anthropologist and historian Milan Šufflay in 1931, the suppression of the Velebit uprising in 1932, the murder of the Croatian Peasant Party vice-president Josip Predavec in 1933, and the arrest and incarceration of dozens of other Croatian political figures.[28]

Initial cleansing operations edit

 
A Serb family killed in their home by the Ustaše, 1941

In early April 1941, Luburić had illegally crossed the Yugoslav border near the town of Gola. By mid-April, he arrived in Zagreb and was appointed to the Economic Bureau of the Main Ustaša Headquarters (Croatian: Glavni ustaški stan; GUS), the Ustaše ruling body, serving as an adjutant to Vjekoslav Servatzy.[11] On 6 May, Luburić was dispatched to the village of Veljun, near Slunj, to lead the round-up of 400 Serb males from the village in retaliation for the murder of a Croat family in neighbouring Blagaj the night before. Although the identity of the perpetrators remained a mystery, the Ustaše announced that the Serbs of Veljun were responsible and decided that the village's male inhabitants were to be collectively punished.[29] Luburić had a total of fifty men at his disposal, many of them longtime Ustaše who had lived in exile in Italy in the 1930s.[30] On the evening of 9 May, the Serb males of Veljun were brought to Blagaj, and killed with knives and blunt objects in the backyard of a local elementary school. The murders lasted all night. The following morning, Luburić was seen emerging from the school covered in blood, washing his hands and sleeves by a water well.[29]

In late June, Ustaše officials driving through the villages of Gornja Suvaja and Donja Suvaja, in the Lika region, reported being shot at, prompting the regional authorities to order a "cleansing" action against the villages.[31] On the morning of 1 July, Luburić led a group of Ustaše into the two villages.[32][33] The historian Max Bergholz writes that up to 300 Ustaše took part in the operation.[34] According to the journalist and Holocaust survivor Slavko Goldstein, Luburić had about 150 members of the Ustaše Auxiliary Force at his disposal, in addition to 250 members of the Croatian Home Guard.[32] Many of Gornja Suvaja and Donja Suvaja's male inhabitants had fled into the wilderness before the Ustaše arrived. Their female relatives stayed behind and were subjected to rape and sexual mutilation.[35] The massacre lasted about two hours; the Ustaše relied primarily on knives and clubs to kill their victims.[32] At least 173 villagers were killed, mostly women, children and the elderly.[32][33]

On 2 July, 130–150 Ustaše attacked the nearby village of Osredci. Most of the village's inhabitants had fled in anticipation of a massacre, having heard of what happened in Gornja Suvaja and Donja Suvaja the day before. Over the course of the following two days, the Ustaše massacred about thirty of the village's inhabitants, mostly the elderly and infirm, who had been unable to flee along with the others.[36] Concurrently, Luburić and his followers massacred the inhabitants of the nearby village of Bubanj.[37] According to their own internal documents, the Ustaše killed 152 Serb civilians in Bubanj, and burned down twenty homes. In some households, not a single person was left alive. Survivor accounts suggest that the number of fatalities was about 270.[38] On 3 July, one of Luburić's units detained 53 inhabitants of the village of Nebljusi, including ten children under the age of 12. They were transported by horse-drawn cart to the nearby village of Boričevac, which contained a barracks and a karst pit. The residents of Nebljusi were detained inside the barracks until nightfall, alongside twelve adult males who had been arrested earlier. That evening, they were marched to the karst pit in groups of eight and pushed inside to their deaths. Two of the victims managed to survive the ordeal.[37] By the end of July, the Ustaše had killed at least 1,800 Serbs in and around Lika.[33]

The Ustaše atrocities against the NDH's Serb population prompted thousands of Serbs to join Josip Broz Tito's Partisans and Draža Mihailović's Chetniks.[26][c] The Lika massacres in particular served as the casus belli for the Srb uprising, which commenced on 27 July.[40] The revolt led to the Italian military occupations of Zone II and Zone III.[41] "Luburić and his superiors had wrongly calculated that the brutal killings of an innocent population would quash any embryonic resistance to their plan for the creation of an 'ethnically pure area'," Goldstein remarked. "Their actions ... provoked the completely opposite effect."[40] In mid-July 1941, Luburić was tasked with recapturing dozens of inmates who had escaped from the Kerestinec camp. Almost all the fugitives were captured or killed, and several Ustaše also lost their lives.[42]

Ustaše Surveillance Service, Bureau III edit

Jasenovac, I–III edit

 
The decaying corpses of a pair of Jasenovac victims.

The NDH's security sector was made up of two agencies, the Directorate for Security and Public Order (Croatian: Ravnateljstvo za javni red i sigurnost; RAVSIGUR) and the Ustaše Surveillance Service (Croatian: Ustaška nadzorna služba; UNS).[43] Both the RAVSIGUR and the UNS were led by Kvaternik's son, Dido.[44] The RAVSIGUR was established on 4 May 1941.[45] The UNS was established in August.[46][d][e] The latter was divided into three bureaus: Bureau I, Bureau III and Bureau IV. Bureau III, also known as the Ustaše Defense, was tasked with administering the NDH's concentration camps.[43] There were about 30 in total stretching across the NDH.[53] From April to August 1941, the RAVSIGUR had been responsible for the camps' administration.[54] For much of the war, Bureau III was headed by Luburić.[55] According to Siegfried Kasche, the German ambassador to the NDH, Luburić had envisaged creating a network of concentration camps during his time in exile.[42][56]

In May 1941, Kvaternik had ordered the construction of two detention centers in the villages of Krapje (Jasenovac I) and Bročice (Jasenovac II), the first two sub-camps of what was to become the Jasenovac concentration camp. Krapje and Bročice opened on 23 August.[57] The same day, faced with the Italian military occupation of Zone II, Bureau III ordered the dissolution of all concentration camps situated in the NDH's coastal areas.[54] In the first months of the Jasenovac concentration camp system's operation, Luburić rarely ordered mass executions without the consent of his superiors.[58] Ante Moškov, a leading Ustaše official, remarked: "He was more fond of the Poglavnik than he was even of his own mother and brothers, and loyalty and obedience to him was the meaning of his life."[59] Luburić's loyalty and dedication eventually paid off, and as the war progressed, he became a trusted member of Pavelić's inner circle.[60][f] In late September 1941, the government of the NDH dispatched Luburić to the Third Reich to study German methods of creating and maintaining concentration camps.[61] Luburić's tour of the camps lasted ten days.[62][63] Subsequent Ustaše camps were modelled on Oranienburg and Sachsenhausen.[61][g] The Jasenovac camp system was situated in a heavily Serb-populated area.[62] On Luburić's orders, between September and October 1941, all Serb villages in the vicinity of the two sub-camps were razed, their inhabitants rounded up and deported to Krapje and Bročice.[65] Between 14 and 16 November 1941, Krapje and Bročice were dissolved.[66] Able-bodied prisoners were forced to construct a third sub-camp, Jasenovac III, which came to be known as the Brickyard (Croatian: Ciglana).[67] The sick and infirm were either killed or left to die in the abandoned campgrounds. Of the 3,000–4,000 prisoners detained in Krapje and Bročice at the time of their dissolution, only 1,500 lived to see the Brickyard.[66]

Jasenovac, IV–V edit

 
Luburić sitting with a German officer at Stara Gradiška, June 1942

Armed with the information he had gathered in Germany, Luburić was able to organize the Brickyard more efficiently than Krapje and Bročice had been.[68] In January 1942, Bureau III ordered the establishment of Jasenovac IV, a sub-camp dedicated to leather production, which became known as the Tannery (Croatian: Kožara).[69] A fifth and final sub-camp, Jasenovac V, was established around the same time. Known as Stara Gradiška, after the village in which it was located, it was overseen by both male and female guards.[70] Among them were Luburić's half-sisters, Nada and Zora.[71] The former participated extensively in the tortures and executions that took place at Stara Gradiška.[72][73] She went on to marry Dinko Šakić.[74] During the war, Šakić served as the deputy commander of Stara Gradiška,[70] and later, as the commander of the Brickyard.[67] Luburić also recruited his cousin Ljubo Miloš.[71][75] Miloš served as the labour service commandant at the Brickyard.[67] Like Luburić, who was in his late twenties when he was appointed head of Bureau III, most of the Ustaše tasked with administering the Jasenovac camp system were extremely young. Šakić was 20 in 1941 and Miloš was 22.[76]

The Jasenovac camp system was guarded by more than 1,500 Ustaše.[62] The Brickyard, the Tannery and Stara Gradiška were capable of holding 7,000 inmates, although the number of inmates never exceeded 4,000 at any given time.[77] Luburić visited the Jasenovac camp system two or three times per month.[78] He insisted on personally killing at least one inmate on each of his visits.[79] Luburić enjoyed taunting prisoners as to the date and method of their execution.[80][81] He would "amuse himself by placing his revolver up against the heads of the prisoners," the Tito biographer Jasper Godwin Ridley writes. "Sometimes he pulled the trigger; sometimes he did not."[82] Luburić's cruelty also extended to the other Ustaše camps. In one instance, he deliberately dispatched hundreds of typhus-ridden inmates from Stara Gradiška to Đakovo so as to expedite the spread of the disease among its prisoners.[83] "Luburić created such an atmosphere," Miloš recalled, "that every Ustaša actually felt himself called upon to kill a prisoner, believing that this would be an act of patriotism."[58][h] After unsuccessfully experimenting with gas vans, Luburić ordered that a gas chamber be constructed at Stara Gradiška, which used a combination of sulfur dioxide and Zyklon B. The gas chamber was poorly constructed and this method of killing was abandoned after three months.[73] Over the course of the war, unlike in the German camps, most inmates were killed with knives or blunt objects.[73][84]

In early 1942, conditions at Jasenovac improved somewhat in anticipation of a visit by a Red Cross delegation. Healthier inmates, who were provided with new beds and bedclothes, were allowed to speak to the delegation, while sick and emaciated ones were killed. After the delegation left, camp conditions reverted to their prior state.[85] Whenever he was pressed for information by the families of those detained at Jasenovac, Luburić remained equivocal. When a Croatian Jewish civil servant named Dragutin Rosenberg attempted to persuade him to allow food and clothing to be delivered to Jasenovac on a name-by-name basis, Luburić only agreed to bulk consignments, so as not to reveal which detainees were still alive.[86] Luburić also proved impervious to bribes, as exemplified by the case of Julius Schmidlin, a Red Cross representative, who attempted to bribe Luburić into treating the inmates at Jasenovac more humanely, but was angrily rebuffed.[87] In addition, Luburić did not tolerate the mishandling of goods seized from camp inmates, as exemplified by his response to the so-called Gold Affair, in which camp guards were caught attempting to smuggle confiscated jewellery out of Jasenovac. Luburić ordered that the culprits be killed. Among those killed was the brother of Luburić's deputy Ivica Matković, who was beaten to death.[88]

Kozara Offensive edit

 
The deportation of Serbs and Roma from Kozara

On 21 December 1941, Ustaše units under the command of Luburić, Rukavina and Moškov marched into Prkosi, near Bosanski Petrovac.[89] Luburić declared: "We have to kill everyone, in Prkos [sic] and in all of their villages, to the last man, even children."[90] The Ustaše proceeded to round up more than 400 Serb civilians, mostly women, children and the elderly. Shortly thereafter, they were led to a nearby forest and killed.[89] On 14 January 1942, Luburić led a group of Ustaše into the village of Draksenić, in northern Bosnia, and ordered the killing of its inhabitants. More than 200 villagers were killed in the ensuing massacre, mostly women, children and the elderly.[91] In mid-1942, the State Intelligence and Propaganda Bureau (Croatian: Državni izvještajni i promičbeni ured; DIPU) issued a stern warning to all newspapers in the NDH, forbidding them from reporting on Luburić, Bureau III and the NDH's so-called "collection centers".[92] Despite the DIPU's warning, Luburić was featured in a 1942 propaganda short film titled Guard on the Drina (Croatian: Straža na Drini, German: Wacht an der Drina).[93]

In June 1942, the Wehrmacht, Home Guard and Ustaše Militia launched the Kozara Offensive, aimed at dislodging Partisan formations around Mount Kozara, in northwestern Bosnia, which threatened Germany's access to the Belgrade–Zagreb railway line.[94] Although the Partisans did suffer a humiliating defeat, the area's civilian population bore the brunt of the offensive. Between 10 June and 30 July 1942, 60,000 civilians living in the vicinity of Mount Kozara, mostly Serbs, were rounded up and taken to concentration camps.[65][95] "Kozara was cleared to the last man," Wehrmacht Plenipotentiary General Edmund Glaise-Horstenau wrote, "and likewise, the last woman and last child."[65]

Following Kozara's depopulation, Luburić envisaged creating an annual "tax", whereby Serb boys would be taken from their families, conditioned to renounce their Serb national identity, and inducted into the Ustaše fold. In late 1942, he "adopted" 450 boys who had been displaced during the fighting around Mount Kozara.[65] Dressed in black Ustaše robes, Luburić dubbed the boys his "little janissaries", an allusion to the Ottoman Empire's devşirme system, which saw tens of thousands of boys taken from Christian families across the Balkans and inducted into the Ottoman military. Each morning, Luburić's "janissaries" were forced to take part in military drills and say the Lord's Prayer.[96] The experiment failed and the majority of the boys refused to become Ustaše.[65] Most subsequently died of malnutrition, dysentery and other diseases.[96] Hundreds of other children abducted by the Ustaše in the aftermath of the Kozara Offensive were saved by a group of Red Cross volunteers from Zagreb, led by Diana Budisavljević.[97] In her diary, Budisavljević recalled an encounter she had with Luburić at Stara Gradiška, in which the latter chastised her and her colleagues for "caring only about Serb children", while there were Croat and Bosnian Muslim children across the NDH who were suffering as well. According to Budisavljević, Luburić threatened to have her and her colleagues detained, ominously warning that, "no one would know what had happened to them or their whereabouts."[98]

House arrest and disruption of the Lorković–Vokić plot edit

In August 1942, Luburić was promoted to the rank of Bojnik (Major).[11] Glaise-Horstenau complained to Pavelić that Luburić was interfering with German operations.[99] The Germans distrusted Luburić, with one of their internal memorandums describing him as "a neurotic, pathological personality".[65] Seeking to appease the Germans, Pavelić reassigned Luburić to Travnik.[99] He appointed him commander of the Croatian Home Guard's 9th Infantry Regiment (Croatian: Deveta pješačka pukovnija), whose purpose would be to secure the NDH's border with Italian-occupied Montenegro in East Herzegovina, which had a heavy Chetnik presence.[100]

As the 9th Infantry Regiment was preparing to leave for Herzegovina, Luburić shot and killed one of the Home Guards under his command.[i] The killing sparked an outcry among the Home Guards.[11] Luburić was immediately stripped of his command, which went to Colonel Franjo Šimić.[99] In late November, at the urging of the Germans, Luburić was placed under house arrest, which he spent in a Zagreb apartment together with his mother and half-sisters.[101] Stanko Šarc was appointed to oversee operations at Jasenovac in Luburić's absence. Luburić's deputy Ivica Matković was replaced by Ivica Brkljačić.[102] The terms of Luburić's house arrest were very lenient and he was allowed to leave his apartment for strolls.[101] Luburić exercised de facto control over the operations at Jasenovac, despite his officially having been replaced.[101][103] For example, in late 1942, he arranged for the release of Miroslav Filipović, who had been jailed for committing a series of atrocities against the Serb population of northern Bosnia. Filipović was subsequently appointed commander of Stara Gradiška.[104] For a period of two months, Maček and his wife lived alongside Luburić and his family. According to Maček, Luburić's mother tearfully told Maček's wife that she would regret having given birth to Luburić if her son had been responsible for the atrocities that he was rumoured to have committed.[105]

 
Mladen Lorković, Minister of the Interior
 
Ante Vokić, Minister of Defense

By late 1942, the growing unrest in the NDH was beginning to harm German interests in Southeast Europe. The Germans began placing pressure on Pavelić to bring stability to the NDH. To this end, they encouraged him to halt the Ustaše atrocities against the Serbs. In response, the Ustaše established the so-called Croatian Orthodox Church, whose purpose was to assimilate the NDH's Serb population, designating them as "Croats of the Orthodox faith".[106] Pavelić singled out Slavko and Dido Kvaternik as scapegoats for all the NDH's troubles. He blamed the former for the Home Guard and Ustaše Militia's inability to bring the Partisans and Chetniks to heel, and the latter for the massacres of Serbs, even though the atrocities had been committed with Pavelić's knowledge. In October 1942, the father-and-son duo were exiled to Slovakia.[107] On 21 January 1943, the UNS was dissolved and amalgamated into the Main Directorate for Security and Public Order (Croatian: Glavno ravnateljstvo za javni red i sigurnost; GRAVSIGUR), which had been established to replace the RAVSIGUR earlier that month. The GRAVSIGUR then assumed responsibility for the administration of the NDH's concentration camps.[102]

Still officially under house arrest, Luburić relocated to the village of Šumec, near Lepoglava, in mid-1943. Around this time, he also began planning guerrilla operations against the Partisans with Gestapo officer Kurt Koppel in the event of Germany's defeat.[108] The number of Partisans in the NDH continued to grow, from a mere 7,000 in 1941, to 25,000 in 1942, and 100,000 in late 1943. On 8 September 1943, the Italians capitulated to the Allies. Countless Italian units surrendered to the Partisans, who disarmed them and thus acquired a significant amount of modern weaponry.[109] Luburić remained sidelined for much of 1944, but his fortunes changed after the Lorković–Vokić plot came to light in August 1944. On 30 August, Luburić personally oversaw the arrests of government ministers Mladen Lorković and Ante Vokić.[110][111] Lorković, the Minister of Internal Affairs, and Vokić, the Minister of Defense, were accused of conspiring to overthrow Pavelić and install a pro-Allied government.[112][113] Following their arrests, Luburić was tasked with interrogating Lorković and Vokić, as well as other suspected conspirators. That October, Luburić was promoted to the rank of Pukovnik (Colonel).[11] In December 1944, the Croatian Home Guard and the Ustaše Militia were unified to create the Croatian Armed Forces.[114] On 7 December, Luburić forced more than thirty members of the collaborationist Serbian Volunteer Corps off a train passing through Zagreb's main railway station and ordered that they be shot. Destined for Slovenia, they had received Pavelić's approval to pass through Zagreb unmolested, but Luburić showed no regard.[115][116]

Terror in Sarajevo edit

 
German-occupied Sarajevo

In early 1945, Pavelić dispatched Luburić to Sarajevo to undermine the communist underground there.[117] Luburić arrived in the city on 15 February.[118] Five days later, Hitler declared Sarajevo a Festung (or "fortress"), insisting that it be defended at all costs. Hitler appointed General Heinz Kathner to organize the city's defenses in anticipation of a Partisan attack.[119] On 24 February,[120] Kathner organized a banquet in Luburić's honour.[118] At the banquet, Luburić announced his intention to destroy the communist resistance in Sarajevo.[120] Luburić soon appointed nine Ustaše officers to a special task force for carrying out executions of known and suspected communists. His headquarters was located inside a villa in downtown Sarajevo, which came to be known as the "house of terror" among the city's residents.[118]

On 1 March, the Partisans launched Operation Sarajevo, which aimed to wrest the city from the Germans and the Ustaše.[121] By early March, Sarajevo had been encircled and cut off from the rest of the NDH.[122] Luburić established a kangaroo court that he dubbed the Criminal War Court of Commander Luburić, which dealt with cases of alleged treason.[121] The court also dealt with more gratuitous charges such as price fixing.[118][123] The first batch of prisoners to be tried was a group of 17 Muslim refugees from Mostar.[124] Over the course of the month, dozens of suspected communists were executed.[125] The arrests and subsequent executions were of an alarmingly arbitrary nature, which only served to exacerbate the terror felt by Sarajevans.[124] According to survivors, the torture method most commonly used by Luburić's agents involved tying prisoners' hands behind their backs, pulling their hands between their legs, placing a rod between their knees, hanging them upside down and then beating them. These torture sessions, which the Ustaše euphemistically referred to as interrogations, were usually followed by the prisoner's execution or deportation to a concentration camp. Luburić is said to have revelled in inviting the family members of his victims to the villa and then describing in great detail how their loved ones had been tortured and killed. As the killings progressed, some Sarajevans took to bomb shelters in fear for their lives, though the city had not been bombed in weeks.[124]

 
The Partisans enter Sarajevo

On 16 March, Luburić convened a meeting of over 1,000 Ustaše political and military figures, and in the presence of senior German officials, issued a declaration denouncing Bolshevism, the Yalta Conference, and the new communist government in Belgrade.[122] On 21 March, the Ustaše uncovered a plot to assassinate Luburić. His would-be assassin was a communist youth named Halid Nazečić, who was betrayed by one of his accomplices.[125] Four Ustaše were subsequently killed in Partisan attacks within the city.[126] On the night of 27–28 March, the Ustaše hanged fifty-five Sarajevans from trees and street lamps in Sarajevo's Marindvor neighbourhood.[120][127] Signs bearing the phrase, "Long live the Poglavnik!" were placed around their necks.[120][128] Their bodies were left to hang as an example to others.[123] Those attempting to retrieve the bodies were fired upon.[127] On 4 April, Luburić and his entourage left Sarajevo. About 350 Ustaše policemen and 400 Ustaše soldiers stayed behind to defend the city.[129] Luburić's reign of terror in Sarajevo claimed 323 lives, according to a post-war war crimes commission.[120][127] Several hundred others were deported to concentration camps.[127] The Partisans entered Sarajevo on 6 April and proclaimed its liberation. The city's capture coincided with the fourth anniversary of the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia.[130] The exhumation of bodies from the backyard of Luburić's villa, many of which belonged to children, was documented by a Soviet film crew.[130] Another witness to the aftermath of Luburić's crimes was the American journalist Landrum Bolling, who recalled seeing a roomful of bodies "stacked like cordwood on top of one another."[131][132] Many of the cadavers showed signs of torture and mutilation. Among the corpses was that of Halid Nazečić, whose head had been mutilated, eyes gouged out and genitals burned with boiling water.[130]

Destruction of the NDH edit

Upon leaving Sarajevo, Luburić boarded a plane for Zagreb. While attempting to land at the Borongaj airfield, Luburić's plane crashed on a bomb-damaged runway. Luburić sustained a head injury and had to be hospitalized. Pavelić visited Luburić while he was convalescing and found his subordinate jaded and disillusioned, accusing the Germans of betraying Croatia.[133] Shortly thereafter, Luburić was promoted to the rank of General.[11] In early April, he ordered that Jasenovac's remaining prisoners be killed.[134] He also ordered that documents pertaining to the camp's operation be destroyed, and the corpses from surrounding mass graves exhumed and cremated. Several individuals who possessed incriminating information pertaining to Luburić's wartime activities, such as the Gestapo agent Koppel, were killed at his behest.[135] In late April, Luburić approved the executions of Lorković and Vokić, as well as others who had been implicated in the Lorković–Vokić plot.[136]

As the Partisans neared, Luburić suggested that the Ustaše make their last stand in Zagreb, but Pavelić refused.[137] The Ustaše were divided as to what to do. Some proposed retreating towards Austria as quickly as possible. Others, Luburić foremost among them, advocated establishing irregular formations in the countryside that would carry out guerrilla attacks following the NDH's demise.[138] On 24 April, forty-three Roma and Sinti were killed in Hrastina by Luburić's followers.[139] In early May, Luburić met with the Archbishop of Zagreb, Aloysius Stepinac, who implored him not to put up armed resistance against the Partisans. On 5 May, the government of the NDH left Zagreb, followed by Pavelić. By 15 May, the NDH had completely collapsed.[140] Tens of thousands of Ustaše surrendered to the British Army but were handed back to the Partisans. An untold number were killed in subsequent Partisan reprisal killings, together with several thousand Serbian and Slovenian collaborationists.[141]

Some Ustaše, who came to be known as Crusaders (Croatian: Križari), remained in Yugoslavia and carried out guerrilla attacks against the communists.[142] Among these was a small group of fighters led by Luburić, which remained in the forests of southern Slovenia and northern Slavonia, skirmishing with the newly formed Yugoslav People's Army (Serbo-Croatian: Jugoslovenska narodna armija; JNA).[143] Luburić evaded capture and probable execution by placing his identification papers next to the body of a dead soldier. Through Matković and Moškov, Luburić sent a letter to Pavelić, who had escaped to Austria, in which he signalled his intention to keep fighting. Three different accounts exist of Luburić's activities in post-war Yugoslavia. According to one, Luburić then headed south towards the Bilogora mountain range, where he rendezvoused with a group of more than fifty Crusaders under the leadership of Branko Bačić. They headed west, establishing a base at Fruška Gora. In November 1945, Luburić and about a dozen Crusaders crossed the Hungarian–Yugoslav border and escaped Yugoslavia. The second version holds that Luburić was wounded in a gunfight with the JNA, and carried across the Drava River to Hungary by General Rafael Boban, who subsequently returned to Yugoslavia and was never heard from again. The third version, espoused by Luburić himself, is that Luburić fought with the Crusaders until late 1947, when he was seriously wounded and forced to leave the country.[144]

Luburić's half-sister Nada and her husband Dinko Šakić escaped to Argentina.[145] Some of Luburić's remaining kin were not as fortunate. Miloš was captured by the Yugoslav authorities in July 1947, together with several other Crusaders, after sneaking back into the country as part of the Crusaders' insurgency efforts.[146] He was subsequently put on trial for the atrocities that he was alleged to have committed during the war. During his trial, he confessed in graphic detail to his role in the killings that took place at Jasenovac. He was convicted on all counts and executed in 1948.[75]

Later years edit

Exile edit

In 1949, Luburić relocated to Spain.[147] The country was viewed as a favourable destination by many Ustaše exiles, as it had been the only one outside the Axis to recognize the NDH.[148] Luburić entered Spain under the pseudonym Maximilian Soldo.[j] Upon arrival, Luburić was imprisoned by the Spanish authorities, but released shortly thereafter.[150] With support from Agustín Muñoz Grandes, the former commander of the Blue Division, he was able to settle in the country.[147] He took up residence in Benigànim.[150]

Pavelić, in the meantime, had settled in Buenos Aires with his family and started a construction business. He became the unofficial leader of the Croatian émigré community in South America.[151] Pavelić's exile in distant and remote Argentina rendered him virtually irrelevant in the eyes of increasing numbers of Croatian émigrés elsewhere, particularly in Europe. Faced with open rebellion, in July 1950, Pavelić dispatched Luburić to Rome as a warning to anyone wishing to challenge his authority in Western Europe's Croatian émigré communities. Given his wartime record, Luburić arrived "with a fearsome reputation," the historian Guy Walters writes. In August, Pavelić issued a declaration in a Chicago-based Croatian diaspora newspaper, warning Croats against joining foreign militaries. While Luburić is not thought to have killed any of Pavelić's political opponents in the post-war period, the mere invocation of his name drastically reduced the size of the anti-Pavelić faction among the émigrés. When the grumblings of discontent against Pavelić subsided, Luburić returned to Spain. In 1951, he appeared in Hamburg and set up a recruiting centre for the pro-Pavelić faction.[78] That same year, he established a newspaper called Drina.[152] In November 1953, Luburić married a Spanish woman named Isabela Hernaiz. The couple went on to have four children, two boys and two girls.[153]

Rift with Pavelić edit

 
Pavelić recovering from his wounds in a Buenos Aires hospital. After Pavelić's death in 1959, Luburić unsuccessfully attempted to take control of the Pavelić-founded Croatian Liberation Movement.

In 1955, Pavelić entered discussions with Chetnik émigrés over the future partition of Bosnia and Herzegovina between Greater Croatia and Greater Serbia in the event of Yugoslavia's collapse. Luburić was incensed.[154] In his writings, Luburić argued that Croatia, much like the NDH, should extend as far as the Drina River, but also include areas of Serbia, such as Sandžak, which had never been part of the wartime puppet state.[155] Luburić vehemently denounced Pavelić and his followers. Shortly thereafter, he founded the Friends of the Drina Society (Croatian: Društvo Prijatelja Drine) and the Croatian National Resistance (Croatian: Hrvatski narodni odpor; HNO).[156] In June 1956, Pavelić founded a rival organization, the Croatian Liberation Movement (Croatian: Hrvatski oslobodilački pokret; HOP).[157]

In 1957, Luburić's wife received an anonymous letter detailing her husband's wartime atrocities, with great emphasis placed on his role in the killing of children.[158] She filed for divorce shortly thereafter. During the divorce proceedings, Luburić was granted joint custody of the couple's children, as well as possession of their home. The same year, he sold the home and moved to the town of Carcaixent, near Valencia, where he opened a poultry farm. The farm quickly went out of business and Luburić soon became a traveling salesman.[158] Upon moving to Carcaixent, he founded Drina Press, an amateur publishing house, which was situated in his home.[159] Luburić's neighbours, who knew him by the name Vicente Pérez García, were apparently unaware of his wartime past.[160] He wrote articles under the pseudonyms General Drinjanin and Bojnik Dizdar (Colonel Dizdar).[159] In his writings, Luburić conceded that he had made certain mistakes during the war, but never admitted to or expressed remorse for the atrocities that had been attributed to him.[155] He advocated "national reconciliation" between the pro-Ustaše and pro-communist Croats.[155] Luburić also claimed to have made contact with the Soviet Union's intelligence services.[161] He argued that Croatia should become a neutral state in the event of Yugoslavia's disintegration, which was received particularly poorly in some fiercely anti-communist Croatian émigré circles.[155]

On 10 April 1957, while returning from a celebratory gathering marking the anniversary of the NDH's establishment in Buenos Aires, Pavelić was seriously wounded in an assassination attempt by the State Security Administration (Serbo-Croatian: Uprava državne bezbednosti; UDBA), the Yugoslav secret service.[162][163] He died in Madrid in December 1959 of complications related to his wounds. Owing to the mutual resentment between the two men, Luburić was barred from attending his funeral.[148] Following Pavelić's death, Luburić unsuccessfully attempted to take control of the HOP, citing his role as the last commander of the Croatian Armed Forces. After the HOP's senior leadership rebuffed him, Luburić went down an increasingly militarist path, establishing neo-Ustaše training camps in several European countries and publishing articles relating to military tactics and guerrilla techniques.[164] In 1963, he established a paper called Obrana ("Defense").[152]

Death edit

On the morning of 21 April 1969, Luburić's teenage son discovered his father's bloody corpse in one of the bedrooms in his home. Luburić had been killed the day before. Blood stains on the floor indicated that he had been dragged by his feet from the kitchen and crudely stuffed under a bed. He had been bludgeoned over the head multiple times with a blunt instrument. An autopsy determined that the blows to his head were not fatal; Luburić had choked on his own blood.[165] Luburić was buried in Carcagente. His funeral was attended by hundreds of Croatian nationalists in Ustaše uniform, who chanted Ustaše slogans and delivered fascist salutes.[148] Luburić's death spelt the end of Drina and Obrana.[155]

Luburić's murder came at a time when the UDBA was carrying out assassinations of leading Croatian nationalist figures across Europe and suspicion inevitably fell on them.[148] In 1967, Luburić had employed his godson, Ilija Stanić, to work at his publishing firm. Stanić's father, Vinko, had served alongside Luburić during the war. He was captured by the Yugoslav authorities while fighting with the Crusaders and died in captivity.[166] Stanić, who lived and worked in Luburić's home, returned to Yugoslavia in the immediate aftermath of Luburić's death.[148] Declassified Yugoslav intelligence documents show that Stanić was an UDBA agent, codenamed Mongoose. According to the minutes of his May 1969 debriefing, Stanić told his handlers that he first placed poison in Luburić's coffee, which had been given to him by another UDBA agent. After the poison failed to kill Luburić, Stanić began to panic, and went to his room to retrieve a hammer. When he returned to the kitchen, Luburić complained that he was not feeling well. As Luburić went to vomit in the sink, Stanić struck him over the head several times. Luburić fell to the floor, motionless. Stanić then left the kitchen to make sure the front door was locked. When he returned, he saw Luburić standing over the sink and wincing in pain. Stanić struck him over the head once again, fracturing his skull. He then wrapped Luburić's body in blankets and dragged it to a nearby bedroom. Stanić claimed that he initially wanted to hide the body in the print shop, but that Luburić was too heavy. Upon entering the bedroom, Stanić hid the body under the bed and calmly left the house.[167]

In a July 2009 interview with the Croatian weekly Globus, Stanić changed his story, claiming that Luburić had been killed by two HOP members. Aggrieved by a disparaging comment that Luburić had allegedly made about Stanić's father and his post-war guerrilla activities, Stanić claims that he sought out the two men, who assured him that they merely wished to administer a beating. The day that Luburić was murdered, Stanić alleged that he allowed the men inside Luburić's home, and the two proceeded to kill Luburić with a single blow to the head from a heavy metal bar.[168] In 2012, Stanić changed his story once more, this time accusing two different men of killing Luburić.[167]

Legacy edit

Influence on Croatian nationalism edit

Following Luburić's death, the leadership of the HNO went to several of his close associates, eventually splitting into rival leaderships in North America, Australia, Sweden and Argentina. Leadership of the HNO's Argentine faction was delegated to Luburić's brother-in-law Dinko Šakić.[169] In April 1971, two HNO affiliates entered the Yugoslav embassy in Stockholm and killed Yugoslavia's ambassador to Sweden, Vladimir Rolović. The two men were arrested, but set free the following year after a group of Croatian nationalists hijacked a Swedish domestic flight demanding their release.[170] One of Rolović's killers, Miro Barešić, underwent a baptism while in prison and adopted the Christian name Vjekoslav in Luburić's honour.[171] The HNO boasted several thousand members at its height. Notable members included Zvonko Bušić, Gojko Šušak and Mladen Naletilić, among others.[172] Bušić masterminded the hijacking of TWA Flight 355 in September 1976.[172] Šušak became Croatia's Minister of Defence in 1991.[173] Naletilić was convicted of committing war crimes against Bosniak civilians during the Bosnian War by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY). He was sentenced to 20 years in prison.[174]

During the Croatian War of Independence, open admiration for Luburić could be found in the Croatian Army's officer corps. Ante Luburić (no relation), who served as a senior officer during the Battle of Vukovar, was nicknamed Maks by his confederates because of his battlefield ferocity. Luburić "seemed please with his sobriquet", the journalist Robert Fox remarked.[175] In early 1992, General Mirko Norac expressed admiration for Luburić after being relieved of his duties on the orders of Croatian President Franjo Tuđman.[176] "Fuck all the Croatian generals with Tuđman at the top," Norac remarked. "The only general for me is ... Maks Luburić."[177] Luburić is referenced in the opening lines of the Croatian nationalist song "Jasenovac i Gradiška Stara", which read as follows:[178]

Jasenovac i Gradiška Stara
to je kuća Maksovih mesara ...

Jasenovac and Stara Gradiška
that's the house of Maks' butchers ...

Darko Hudelist, a journalist and Tuđman biographer, considers Luburić one of the three most important Croatian political figures of the post-war period, alongside Tito and Tuđman.[179] Hudelist argues that Tuđman was influenced by Luburić's writings, which called for the unification of the ideologically disparate factions that made up the Croatian diaspora. This became a key policy priority of Tuđman's Croatian Democratic Union during his presidency.[180] The historian Ivo Goldstein concurs with Hudelist's hypothesis and surmises that Luburić in turn was influenced by Francisco Franco's calls for reconciliation between Republicans and Nationalists in the aftermath of the Spanish Civil War.[181] Hudelist's hypothesis has been challenged by the journalist Ivan Bekavac, who accuses Hudelist of attempting to cast Tuđman in a pro-fascist light.[182]

In 2017, flyers containing excerpts from a speech delivered by Luburić appeared in Sarajevo's Dobrinja neighborhood.[183] In July 2018, Spain's ruling Socialist Workers' Party proposed a law against the memorization of fascist figures. It was speculated that if the law was passed, the Spanish authorities would be able to usurp Pavelić and Luburić's tombs, under the pretext that they had become places of pilgrimage for neo-fascists, and move them to less prominent locations or transfer them to Bosnia.[184] On 29 September 2018, the historian Vlado Vladić held an event at a Roman Catholic priory in Split promoting his book Hrvatski vitez Vjekoslav Maks Luburić ("The Croatian Knight Vjekoslav "Maks" Luburić"). The event was condemned by the Croatian left, who accused Vladić of glorifying Luburić and the Catholic Church of facilitating historical revisionism. Among those in attendance was Dario Kordić, who served as the vice-president of the Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia during the Bosnian War. Kordić was later found guilty of war crimes and crimes against humanity by the ICTY for his role in the Lašva Valley ethnic cleansing, and was sentenced to 25 years in prison.[185]

Assessment edit

 
A monument commemorating the 55 Sarajevans hanged on Luburić's orders on the night of 27–28 March 1945

Contemporary German accounts place the number of Serbs killed by the Ustaše at about 350,000.[186] According to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, between 320,000 and 340,000 Serbs were killed by the Ustaše over the course of the war.[187] Most modern historians agree that the Ustaše killed over 300,000 Serbs, or about 17 percent of all Serbs living in the NDH.[188] At the Nuremberg trials, these killings were judged to have constituted genocide.[186] The Ustaše were also responsible for the deaths of 26,000 Jews and 20,000 Roma.[189] The historian Emily Greble estimates that approximately 200,000 wartime deaths can be attributed to Luburić.[118] During the war, Luburić boasted that the Ustaše had killed more Serbs in Jasenovac, "than the Ottoman Empire was able to do during its occupation of Europe."[190] He also confided in Hermann Neubacher, the Reich Ministry of Foreign Affairs' Plenipotentiary for Southeastern Europe, that he believed about 225,000 Serbs had been killed at Jasenovac.[191] An incomplete list of victims compiled by the Jasenovac Memorial Site contains the names of 83,145 individuals, including 47,627 Serbs, 16,173 Roma and 13,116 Jews.[192] Most historians agree that around 100,000 people were killed at Jasenovac.[193]

In 1998, Šakić was arrested in Argentina. The following year, he was extradited to Croatia to face charges of war crimes and crimes against humanity. Šakić was convicted on all counts and sentenced to twenty years' imprisonment.[145] He died in July 2008.[194] Luburić's half-sister Nada was arrested around the same time as her husband but was released due to lack of evidence. She died in February 2011. In July 2011, the Government of Serbia issued a warrant for her arrest, apparently unaware that she had died earlier that year. When the Serbian authorities learned of her death, the warrant was revoked.[195] Šakić described his brother-in-law as a "humanitarian" and "a protector of the Jews".[196] Several of Luburić's contemporaries, as well as numerous scholars, have offered a starkly different assessment. Arthur Häffner, an Abwehr officer, denounced Luburić as one of Pavelić's "fiercest bloodhounds."[197] In academic literature, Luburić is frequently described as a sadist.[198] The Holocaust scholar Uki Goñi characterizes him as "a bloodthirsty madman."[199] "Of all the Poglavnik's thugs," Walters writes, "Luburić was the worst."[78] Jozo Tomasevich, a historian specializing in the Balkans, described Luburić as one of the "most brutal and bloodthirsty" members of the Ustaše movement.[200] Carmichael refers to Luburić as "one of the most notorious war criminals of the Second World War."[201] The historians Ladislaus Hory and Martin Broszat describe Luburić as "one of the most feared and most hated" Ustaše leaders.[202][k]

Footnotes edit

  1. ^ Some sources contend that Ljubomir Luburić died in police custody after being immersed in freezing water and left overnight in an unheated prison cell.[6]
  2. ^ The Ustaše likely did not have more than 12,000 members before 1941.[20] In comparison, the Communist Party of Yugoslavia had about 6,000 members in 1940.[21]
  3. ^ The communist-led, multi-ethnic Partisans and the royalist, Serbian nationalist Chetniks were the two primary resistance movements in occupied Yugoslavia. Tito was the General Secretary of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia, whereas Mihailović had been an officer in the interwar Royal Yugoslav Army. The two movements had widely divergent goals. Whereas the Partisans sought to turn Yugoslavia into a communist state under Tito's leadership, the Chetniks sought a return to the pre-war status quo.[39]
  4. ^ According to some accounts, Luburić was appointed to lead Bureau III following the death of its former head, Mijo Babić, indicating that the UNS was created prior to August 1941.[47][48] Babić had been killed while battling Chetniks in the vicinity of Berkovići on 3 July 1941.[49][50]
  5. ^ According to Tomasevich, the UNS was established on 16 August 1941.[51] The historian Nataša Mataušić writes that the UNS was established on 23 August.[52]
  6. ^ A member of Pavelić's inner circle was called a ras. The term was derived from the Italian fascist title ras, meaning "boss".[60]
  7. ^ The Ustaše replicated German approaches to prisoner arrival, registration, housing, roll calls, and forced labour. They based the inmates' colour codes on those devised by the German Concentration Camps Inspectorate (German: Inspektion der Konzentrationslager; IDL).[54] The Ustaše also appointed foremen and deputies from among the prisoners, roughly equivalent to the kapos in German concentration camps, to manage camp life.[64]
  8. ^ Luburić distributed gold and silver medals to the most efficient Ustaše killers. He sought to expedite the pace of the killings by encouraging competition among the camp guards. In August 1942, a guard named Petar Brzica killed 1,360 inmates over the course of a single night.[84] Brzica was rewarded with a gold watch, a bottle of wine, and a suckling pig.[7] Excess drinking and alcoholism were widespread among the camp personnel.[58][84]
  9. ^ Several conflicting accounts exist as to why Luburić killed the Home Guard. According to contemporary documents, Luburić accused the Home Guard of sedition.[99] The historian Nikica Barić states that Luburić killed him unprovoked.[100]
  10. ^ This pseudonym was evidently created using a variation of Luburić's nickname, Maks, and his mother's maiden name, Soldo.[149]
  11. ^ See Hory & Broszat 1964, p. 87: "Die Leitung der Lager lag in den Händen des Ustascha-Führers Vjeskoslav Luburic, der zu den meistgefürchteten und meistgehaßten Spitzenfiguren des Ustascha-Regimes gehörte."

Citations edit

  1. ^ Tomasevich 2001, pp. 378–379.
  2. ^ a b Dizdar 1997, p. 240.
  3. ^ a b c d e f Ličina 1985, p. 110.
  4. ^ a b Bitunjac 2013, p. 196.
  5. ^ Tomasevich 2001, pp. 370, 556.
  6. ^ Ličina 1985, p. 110, footnote.
  7. ^ a b Carmichael 2015, p. 81.
  8. ^ Ličina 1985, p. 111.
  9. ^ Lampe 2000, p. 175.
  10. ^ Tomasevich 2001, pp. 35–36.
  11. ^ a b c d e f Dizdar 1997, p. 241.
  12. ^ a b Roberts 1973, pp. 6–7.
  13. ^ Pavlowitch 2008, p. 8.
  14. ^ Roberts 1973, p. 12.
  15. ^ Pavlowitch 2008, pp. 10–13.
  16. ^ Roberts 1973, p. 15.
  17. ^ Goldstein 1999, p. 133; Ramet 2006, p. 155; Adriano & Cingolani 2018, p. 174.
  18. ^ Ramet 2006, p. 115.
  19. ^ Malcolm 1996, pp. 175–176.
  20. ^ Malcolm 1996, p. 175.
  21. ^ Malcolm 1996, p. 177.
  22. ^ Mataušić 2003, p. 11.
  23. ^ Singleton 1985, p. 176.
  24. ^ Tomasevich 2001, Map 4.
  25. ^ Goldstein 1999, p. 136.
  26. ^ a b Malcolm 1996, p. 176.
  27. ^ Goldstein 1999, p. 137.
  28. ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 406–407.
  29. ^ a b Goldstein 2012, pp. 115–121.
  30. ^ Erdeljac 2015, p. 74.
  31. ^ Bergholz 2016, p. 106.
  32. ^ a b c d Goldstein 2012, p. 155.
  33. ^ a b c Adriano & Cingolani 2018, p. 193.
  34. ^ Bergholz 2016, p. 107.
  35. ^ Bergholz 2016, p. 108.
  36. ^ Bergholz 2016, p. 110.
  37. ^ a b Goldstein 2012, p. 156.
  38. ^ Bergholz 2016, p. 115.
  39. ^ Pavlowitch 2008, pp. 59–60.
  40. ^ a b Goldstein 2012, pp. 156–157.
  41. ^ Redžić 2005, pp. 16, 18.
  42. ^ a b Mataušić 2003, p. 16.
  43. ^ a b Yeomans 2013, p. 10.
  44. ^ Goldstein 1999, p. 137; Dulić 2005, pp. 256–257; Goldstein 2007, p. 24.
  45. ^ Kovačić 2009, p. 315.
  46. ^ Tomasevich 2001, pp. 341, 399.
  47. ^ Ličina 1985, p. 119.
  48. ^ Dulić 2005, p. 82.
  49. ^ Cohen 1998, p. 29.
  50. ^ Dulić 2005, pp. 143–144.
  51. ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 341.
  52. ^ Mataušić 2003, p. 91, note 60.
  53. ^ Goldstein 1999, pp. 137–138.
  54. ^ a b c Lohse 2018, p. 48.
  55. ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 399.
  56. ^ Dulić 2005, p. 255, note 46.
  57. ^ Goldstein & Velagić 2018a, pp. 58–59.
  58. ^ a b c Dulić 2005, p. 271.
  59. ^ Dulić 2005, p. 351.
  60. ^ a b Biondich 2011, p. 128.
  61. ^ a b Dulić 2005, p. 255.
  62. ^ a b c Korb 2010, p. 297.
  63. ^ Mojzes 2011, p. 57.
  64. ^ Levy 2013, p. 70; p. 79, note 113.
  65. ^ a b c d e f Levy 2013, p. 67.
  66. ^ a b Goldstein & Velagić 2018a, p. 60.
  67. ^ a b c Goldstein & Velagić 2018b, p. 61.
  68. ^ Adriano & Cingolani 2018, pp. 212–213.
  69. ^ Goldstein & Velagić 2018c, pp. 62–63.
  70. ^ a b Goldstein et al. 2018, p. 64.
  71. ^ a b Ličina 1985, p. 124.
  72. ^ Cox 2007, p. 226.
  73. ^ a b c Levy 2013, p. 71.
  74. ^ Perica 2002, p. 195, note 39; Levy 2013, p. 71.
  75. ^ a b Carmichael 2015, p. 101.
  76. ^ Biondich 2011, pp. 128–129.
  77. ^ Adriano & Cingolani 2018, p. 215.
  78. ^ a b c Walters 2010, p. 257.
  79. ^ Okey 1999, p. 265.
  80. ^ Koshar 2000, p. 205.
  81. ^ Tanner 2001, p. 152.
  82. ^ Ridley 1994, p. 164.
  83. ^ Glenny 2012, p. 501.
  84. ^ a b c Levene 2013, p. 278.
  85. ^ Goldstein & Velagić 2018b, pp. 61–62.
  86. ^ Bauer 1981, p. 280.
  87. ^ Favez & Fletcher 1999, pp. 179–182.
  88. ^ Miletić 1986, p. 515.
  89. ^ a b Goldstein 2012, p. 395.
  90. ^ Goldstein 2012, p. 399.
  91. ^ Komarica & Odić 2005, p. 60.
  92. ^ Yeomans 2013, p. 253.
  93. ^ Carmichael 2015, pp. 74–76.
  94. ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 274.
  95. ^ Rubinstein 2014, p. 195.
  96. ^ a b Dulić 2005, p. 253.
  97. ^ Adriano & Cingolani 2018, p. 229.
  98. ^ Knezevic 22 July 2017.
  99. ^ a b c d Ličina 1985, p. 131.
  100. ^ a b Barić 2003, p. 159.
  101. ^ a b c Krizman 1986, p. 461.
  102. ^ a b Mataušić 2003, p. 77.
  103. ^ Mataušić 2003, p. 74.
  104. ^ Mataušić 2003, p. 111.
  105. ^ Miletić 1986, p. 617.
  106. ^ Goldstein 1999, p. 147.
  107. ^ Tomasevich 2001, pp. 439–440.
  108. ^ Ličina 1985, p. 138.
  109. ^ Goldstein 1999, p. 149.
  110. ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 452, note 80.
  111. ^ Kovačić 2009, p. 104.
  112. ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 328.
  113. ^ McCormick 2014, p. 112.
  114. ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 426.
  115. ^ Stefanović 1984, p. 306.
  116. ^ Krizman 1986, pp. 213–214.
  117. ^ Ličina 1985, p. 142.
  118. ^ a b c d e Greble 2011, p. 221.
  119. ^ Donia 2006, p. 198.
  120. ^ a b c d e Donia 2006, p. 197.
  121. ^ a b Greble 2011, p. 222.
  122. ^ a b Greble 2011, p. 224.
  123. ^ a b Yeomans 2015, p. 24.
  124. ^ a b c Greble 2011, p. 223.
  125. ^ a b Hoare 2013, p. 276.
  126. ^ Ličina 1985, p. 143.
  127. ^ a b c d Hoare 2013, p. 277.
  128. ^ Greble 2011, p. 227.
  129. ^ Greble 2011, p. 228.
  130. ^ a b c Greble 2011, p. 229.
  131. ^ Donia 2006, pp. 197–198.
  132. ^ Greble 2011, pp. 229–230.
  133. ^ Jareb 1995, p. 116.
  134. ^ Adriano & Cingolani 2018, p. 266.
  135. ^ Ličina 1985, pp. 143–145.
  136. ^ Yeomans 2013, p. 350.
  137. ^ Dizdar 1997, p. 242.
  138. ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 752.
  139. ^ Mihovilović & Šimunković 2021.
  140. ^ Pavlowitch 2008, p. 262.
  141. ^ Tomasevich 2001, pp. 751–768.
  142. ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 560.
  143. ^ Goldstein 2012, p. 501.
  144. ^ Radelić April 2002, pp. 44–45.
  145. ^ a b Perica 2002, p. 195, note 39.
  146. ^ Radelić April 2002, p. 67.
  147. ^ a b Bale 2017, note 77.
  148. ^ a b c d e Carmichael 2015, p. 104.
  149. ^ Ličina 1985, p. 105.
  150. ^ a b Ličina 1985, p. 154.
  151. ^ Adriano & Cingolani 2018, pp. 394–398.
  152. ^ a b Ličina 1985, p. 160.
  153. ^ Ličina 1985, pp. 155–158.
  154. ^ Cohen 1998, p. 67.
  155. ^ a b c d e Hockenos 2003, p. 70.
  156. ^ Adriano & Cingolani 2018, pp. 395–396.
  157. ^ McCormick 2014, p. 176.
  158. ^ a b Ličina 1985, p. 159.
  159. ^ a b Adriano & Cingolani 2018, p. 396.
  160. ^ Ličina 1985, p. 103.
  161. ^ Clissold 1975, p. 111.
  162. ^ McCormick 2014, p. 178.
  163. ^ Adriano & Cingolani 2018, pp. 400–401.
  164. ^ Adriano & Cingolani 2018, p. 419.
  165. ^ Ličina 1985, pp. 103–105.
  166. ^ Walters 2010, pp. 258–259.
  167. ^ a b Rašović 5 May 2012.
  168. ^ Jutarnji list 15 July 2009.
  169. ^ Hockenos 2003, pp. 71–72.
  170. ^ Hockenos 2003, p. 64.
  171. ^ Radoš 10 March 2010.
  172. ^ a b Hockenos 2003, p. 69.
  173. ^ Hockenos 2003, pp. 73–74.
  174. ^ International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia 3 May 2006.
  175. ^ Fox 1993, p. 538.
  176. ^ Majetić 14 March 2018.
  177. ^ Off 2004, p. 189.
  178. ^ Vuletic 2011, p. 2, note 15.
  179. ^ Hudelist 2004, p. 686.
  180. ^ Hudelist 2004, pp. 618–623.
  181. ^ Goldstein 2008, p. 772.
  182. ^ Bekavac 2007, pp. 9–12.
  183. ^ Knezevic 20 August 2018.
  184. ^ Milekic 25 July 2018.
  185. ^ Bajruši 1 October 2018.
  186. ^ a b Singleton 1985, p. 177.
  187. ^ United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, paragraph 7.
  188. ^ Cox 2007, p. 225.
  189. ^ Lohse 2018, p. 46.
  190. ^ Markusen & Kopf 1995, p. 114; Levene 2013, p. 278.
  191. ^ Israeli 2013, p. 142.
  192. ^ Jasenovac Memorial Site March 2013.
  193. ^ Pavlowitch 2008, p. 34, note 6.
  194. ^ Levy 2013, p. 72.
  195. ^ Bitunjac 2013, p. 205.
  196. ^ Wittes 7 May 1998.
  197. ^ Dulić 2005, p. 291; Dulić 2015, pp. 155–156.
  198. ^ Bauer 1981, p. 280; Tanner 2001, p. 152; Donia 2006, p. 197; Cox 2007, p. 226.
  199. ^ Goñi 2002, p. 218.
  200. ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 422.
  201. ^ Carmichael 2013, p. 135; Carmichael 2015, p. 81.
  202. ^ Hory & Broszat 1964, p. 87.

References edit

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Journals
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  • Vuletic, Dean (2011). "The Silent Republic: Popular Music and Nationalism in Socialist Croatia" (PDF). Max Weber Programme. Florence, Italy: European University Institute. ISSN 1830-7728.
News reports
  • Bajruši, Robert (1 October 2018). "Kako smo kao društvo postali toliko imuni na zlo?". Jutarnji list (in Croatian). Retrieved 5 October 2018.
  • "Ilija Stanić: Ubili smo Luburića jer se razišao s Pavelićem". Jutarnji list (in Croatian). 15 July 2009. Retrieved 23 June 2018.
  • Knezevic, Gordana (22 July 2017). "'Diana's List' Of Children Saved From Death Camps Revealed". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Retrieved 23 June 2018.
  • Knezevic, Gordana (20 August 2018). "Spain Awakens Bosnian, Croatian Ghosts Of 1945". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Retrieved 5 October 2018.
  • Majetić, Vanja (14 March 2018). "Odlazak vojničine starog kova kojem je Ženevska konvencija bila sveto pravilo". tportal.hr (in Croatian). Retrieved 19 July 2018.
  • Milekic, Sven (25 July 2018). "Spanish Law May Mean Moving Croatian Fascist Tombs". Balkan Insight. Retrieved 26 July 2018.
  • Radoš, Ivica (10 March 2010). "Za rođendan na dar dobio – otmicu aviona". Večernji list (in Croatian). Retrieved 23 June 2018.
  • Rašović, Renata (5 May 2012). "Agent Udbe: Luburića sam ubio jer je uvrijedio mog ćaću". Večernji list (in Croatian). Retrieved 23 June 2018.
  • Wittes, Benjamin (7 May 1998). "Croatian Reckoning". The Washington Post. Retrieved 23 June 2018.
Online resources
  • Holocaust Encyclopedia. "Jasenovac". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved 6 June 2018.
  • International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (3 May 2006). "Appeals Chamber Confirms Sentences Against Mladen Naletilic and Vinko Martinovic". United Nations. Retrieved 23 June 2018.
  • Jasenovac Memorial Site (March 2013). "List of Individual Victims of Jasenovac Concentration Camp". JUSP Jasenovac. Retrieved 23 June 2018.

External links edit

  • Biography on the Jasenovac Memorial Site 23 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine

January 12, 2024
vjekoslav, luburić, march, 1914, april, 1969, croatian, ustaše, official, headed, system, concentration, camps, independent, state, croatia, during, much, world, luburić, also, personally, oversaw, spearheaded, contemporaneous, genocides, serbs, jews, roma, lu. Vjekoslav Luburic 6 March 1914 20 April 1969 was a Croatian Ustase official who headed the system of concentration camps in the Independent State of Croatia NDH during much of World War II Luburic also personally oversaw and spearheaded the contemporaneous genocides of Serbs Jews and Roma in the NDH Vjekoslav LuburicLuburic in the 1940sNickname s MaksBorn 1914 03 06 6 March 1914Humac Condominium of Bosnia and Herzegovina Austria HungaryDied20 April 1969 1969 04 20 aged 55 Carcagente SpainAllegianceIndependent State of CroatiaService wbr branchUstase Surveillance Service 1941 1943 Main Directorate for Security and Public Order 1943 1945 Croatian Home Guard 1941 1942 Croatian Armed Forces 1944 1945 Years of service1929 1945RankGeneralCommands heldUstase Surveillance Service Bureau III9th Infantry Regiment Croatian Home Guard Croatian Armed Forces May 1945 Battles warsWorld War II in YugoslaviaSpouse s Isabela Hernaiz m 1953 div 1957 wbr Children5Luburic joined Ante Pavelic s Ustase movement in 1931 left Yugoslavia the following year and relocated to Hungary Following the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia and the establishment of the NDH with Pavelic at its head Luburic returned to the Balkans In late June 1941 Luburic was dispatched to the Lika region where he oversaw a series of massacres of Serbs which served as the casus belli for the Srb uprising Around this time he was appointed head of Bureau III a department of the Ustase Surveillance Service tasked with overseeing the NDH s sprawling network of concentration camps The largest of these was Jasenovac where approximately 100 000 people were killed over the course of the war In late 1942 Luburic was appointed commander of the Croatian Home Guard s 9th Infantry Regiment but was stripped of his command after shooting and killing one of his subordinates Under German pressure he was placed under house arrest but retained de facto control of the Ustase concentration camps In August 1944 he played a leading role in the disruption of the Lorkovic Vokic plot which sought to overthrow Pavelic and replace him with a pro Allied government In February 1945 Pavelic dispatched Luburic to Sarajevo where over the next two months he oversaw the torture and killing of hundreds of known and suspected communists Luburic flew back to Zagreb in early April and was promoted to the rank of general The NDH collapsed in May 1945 and its territory was reintegrated into Yugoslavia Luburic stayed behind to conduct a guerrilla warfare campaign against the communists during which he was seriously wounded In 1949 he emigrated to Spain and became active in Ustase emigre circles In 1955 Luburic broke with Pavelic over the latter s professed support for a future division of Bosnia and Herzegovina between Greater Croatia and Greater Serbia and formed a rival Croatian nationalist organization known as the Croatian National Resistance The disagreement resulted in great acrimony between the two men and when Pavelic died in 1959 Luburic was forbidden from attending his funeral In April 1969 Luburic was found murdered in his home a victim of either the Yugoslav secret police or rivals in the Croatian emigre community Contents 1 Early life 2 World War II 2 1 Creation of the NDH 2 2 Initial cleansing operations 2 3 Ustase Surveillance Service Bureau III 2 3 1 Jasenovac I III 2 3 2 Jasenovac IV V 2 4 Kozara Offensive 2 5 House arrest and disruption of the Lorkovic Vokic plot 2 6 Terror in Sarajevo 2 7 Destruction of the NDH 3 Later years 3 1 Exile 3 2 Rift with Pavelic 4 Death 5 Legacy 5 1 Influence on Croatian nationalism 5 2 Assessment 6 Footnotes 7 Citations 8 References 9 External linksEarly life editVjekoslav Luburic was born into a Herzegovinian Croat 1 family in the village of Humac near Ljubuski on 6 March 1914 2 He was the third child of Ljubomir Luburic a bank clerk and Marija Soldo a homemaker 3 The couple had another son Dragutin and two daughters Mira and Olga 4 Luburic was a devout and practicing Roman Catholic 5 In December 1918 his father was shot by a police officer while smuggling tobacco and died of blood loss 3 a Following his father s death Luburic came to detest and resent Serbs and the Serbian monarchy the historian Cathie Carmichael writes 7 Shortly thereafter Luburic s sister Olga committed suicide by jumping into the Trebizat River after their mother forbade her from marrying a Muslim Following the deaths of Luburic s father and sister his mother found work in a tobacco factory to provide for her remaining children She soon married a man named Jozo Tambic with whom she had three more children 3 Luburic s half siblings born of his mother s second marriage were named Zora Nada and Tomislav 4 Luburic completed his primary education in Ljubuski before relocating to Mostar to attend secondary school There he began associating with Croatian nationalist youths He became increasingly aggressive towards his teachers and peers and often truanted Luburic s first encounter with law enforcement occurred on 7 September 1929 when he was arrested for vagrancy and sentenced to two days imprisonment by a Mostar court 3 In his senior year Luburic dropped out of high school to work in the Mostar public stock exchange In 1931 he joined the Ustase a Croatian fascist and ultra nationalist movement committed to the destruction of Yugoslavia and the establishment of Greater Croatia 2 The same year he was arrested for the embezzlement of funds belonging to the exchange 3 On 5 December Luburic was sentenced to five months in prison for embezzlement Shortly thereafter he escaped captivity and made it as far as the Albanian Yugoslav border before being recaptured Upon release Luburic relocated to northern Croatia and then to Subotica where he surreptitiously crossed the Hungarian Yugoslav border Luburic first rendezvoused with the Croatian emigre community in Budapest before relocating to an Ustase training camp called Janka Puszta 8 Situated close to the Yugoslav frontier Janka Puszta was one of several Ustase training camps established in Hungary and Italy whose governments were sympathetic to the Ustase cause and had territorial aspirations in Yugoslavia It housed several hundred Croat emigres mostly manual labourers returning from Western Europe and North America The recruits swore an oath of loyalty to the leader of the Ustase Ante Pavelic took part in pseudo military exercises and produced anti Serb propaganda material 9 It was at Janka Puszta that Luburic earned the nickname Maks which he was to use for the remainder of his life 3 In October 1934 King Alexander of Yugoslavia was assassinated while on a diplomatic visit to Marseille in a joint conspiracy between the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization and the Ustase Following the assassination most of the Ustase residing in Hungary were evicted by the country s government with the exception of Luburic and several others 10 For a short time Luburic resided in Nagykanizsa where after a brief love affair a local woman bore him a son 11 World War II editCreation of the NDH edit nbsp Map of the partition of Yugoslavia 1941 1943Following the 1938 Anschluss between Germany and Austria Yugoslavia came to share its northwestern border with the Third Reich and fell under increasing pressure as its neighbours aligned themselves with the Axis powers In April 1939 Italy opened a second frontier with Yugoslavia when it invaded and occupied neighbouring Albania 12 Following the outbreak of World War II the Yugoslav government declared its neutrality 13 Between September and November 1940 Hungary and Romania joined the Tripartite Pact aligning themselves with the Axis and Italy invaded Greece Yugoslavia was by then almost completely surrounded by the Axis powers and their satellites and its neutral stance toward the war became strained 12 In late February 1941 Bulgaria joined the Pact The following day German troops entered Bulgaria from Romania closing the ring around Yugoslavia 14 Intending to secure his southern flank for the impending attack on the Soviet Union German dictator Adolf Hitler began placing heavy pressure on Yugoslavia to join the Axis On 25 March 1941 after some delay the Yugoslav government conditionally signed the Pact Two days later a group of pro Western Serbian nationalist Royal Yugoslav Air Force officers deposed the country s regent Prince Paul in a bloodless coup d etat They placed his teenage nephew Peter on the throne and brought to power a government of national unity led by the head of the Royal Yugoslav Air Force General Dusan Simovic 15 The coup enraged Hitler who immediately ordered the country s invasion which commenced on 6 April 1941 16 On 10 April the creation of the Independent State of Croatia Croatian Nezavisna Drzava Hrvatska NDH was announced over the radio by Slavko Kvaternik a former Austro Hungarian Army officer who had been in contact with Croatian nationalists abroad 17 Pavelic arrived in Zagreb on 15 April and proclaimed himself leader Croatian Poglavnik of the NDH having assured the Germans that the NDH would be loyal to the Axis cause 18 Disenchanted with more than twenty years of Serb hegemony the majority of Croats enthusiastically welcomed the NDH s creation The Axis invasion of Yugoslavia had transformed the Ustase from a small and relatively obscure Croatian nationalist organization into a popular movement almost overnight 19 b The Germans initially wanted to install Croatian Peasant Party leader Vladko Macek as the head of the Croatian puppet state but Macek refused citing his democratic convictions and his firm belief that the Axis powers would not win the war 22 The NDH was divided into German and Italian areas of influence 23 The Italian area of influence was divided into three operational zones Zone I which consisted of the coastal and island area surrounding the cities of Zadar Sibenik Trogir and Split was directly annexed by Italy Zone II was consigned to the NDH It encompassed much of Dalmatia and the Dalmatian Hinterland Zone III also allotted to the NDH extended as far as western and central Bosnia a sliver of eastern Bosnia and all of Herzegovina 24 On 17 April the Ustase instituted the Legal Provision for the Defence of the People and State a law legitimizing the establishment of concentration camps and the mass shooting of hostages across the NDH 25 The Jewish Question was only of secondary concern to the Ustase Their foremost goal was to rid the NDH of its 1 9 million Serbs who made up about 30 of the fledgling puppet state s total population 26 Senior Ustase officials openly stated that they sought to kill one third of Serbs living in the NDH expel one third and convert one third to Roman Catholicism 27 The Ustase movement s grievances centred around the perceived injustices inflicted upon the Croats in Serb dominated Yugoslavia during the interwar period Senior Ustase officials cited the shooting of five Croatian parliamentary deputies in June 1928 the murder of the Croatian nationalist anthropologist and historian Milan Sufflay in 1931 the suppression of the Velebit uprising in 1932 the murder of the Croatian Peasant Party vice president Josip Predavec in 1933 and the arrest and incarceration of dozens of other Croatian political figures 28 Initial cleansing operations edit nbsp A Serb family killed in their home by the Ustase 1941In early April 1941 Luburic had illegally crossed the Yugoslav border near the town of Gola By mid April he arrived in Zagreb and was appointed to the Economic Bureau of the Main Ustasa Headquarters Croatian Glavni ustaski stan GUS the Ustase ruling body serving as an adjutant to Vjekoslav Servatzy 11 On 6 May Luburic was dispatched to the village of Veljun near Slunj to lead the round up of 400 Serb males from the village in retaliation for the murder of a Croat family in neighbouring Blagaj the night before Although the identity of the perpetrators remained a mystery the Ustase announced that the Serbs of Veljun were responsible and decided that the village s male inhabitants were to be collectively punished 29 Luburic had a total of fifty men at his disposal many of them longtime Ustase who had lived in exile in Italy in the 1930s 30 On the evening of 9 May the Serb males of Veljun were brought to Blagaj and killed with knives and blunt objects in the backyard of a local elementary school The murders lasted all night The following morning Luburic was seen emerging from the school covered in blood washing his hands and sleeves by a water well 29 In late June Ustase officials driving through the villages of Gornja Suvaja and Donja Suvaja in the Lika region reported being shot at prompting the regional authorities to order a cleansing action against the villages 31 On the morning of 1 July Luburic led a group of Ustase into the two villages 32 33 The historian Max Bergholz writes that up to 300 Ustase took part in the operation 34 According to the journalist and Holocaust survivor Slavko Goldstein Luburic had about 150 members of the Ustase Auxiliary Force at his disposal in addition to 250 members of the Croatian Home Guard 32 Many of Gornja Suvaja and Donja Suvaja s male inhabitants had fled into the wilderness before the Ustase arrived Their female relatives stayed behind and were subjected to rape and sexual mutilation 35 The massacre lasted about two hours the Ustase relied primarily on knives and clubs to kill their victims 32 At least 173 villagers were killed mostly women children and the elderly 32 33 On 2 July 130 150 Ustase attacked the nearby village of Osredci Most of the village s inhabitants had fled in anticipation of a massacre having heard of what happened in Gornja Suvaja and Donja Suvaja the day before Over the course of the following two days the Ustase massacred about thirty of the village s inhabitants mostly the elderly and infirm who had been unable to flee along with the others 36 Concurrently Luburic and his followers massacred the inhabitants of the nearby village of Bubanj 37 According to their own internal documents the Ustase killed 152 Serb civilians in Bubanj and burned down twenty homes In some households not a single person was left alive Survivor accounts suggest that the number of fatalities was about 270 38 On 3 July one of Luburic s units detained 53 inhabitants of the village of Nebljusi including ten children under the age of 12 They were transported by horse drawn cart to the nearby village of Boricevac which contained a barracks and a karst pit The residents of Nebljusi were detained inside the barracks until nightfall alongside twelve adult males who had been arrested earlier That evening they were marched to the karst pit in groups of eight and pushed inside to their deaths Two of the victims managed to survive the ordeal 37 By the end of July the Ustase had killed at least 1 800 Serbs in and around Lika 33 The Ustase atrocities against the NDH s Serb population prompted thousands of Serbs to join Josip Broz Tito s Partisans and Draza Mihailovic s Chetniks 26 c The Lika massacres in particular served as the casus belli for the Srb uprising which commenced on 27 July 40 The revolt led to the Italian military occupations of Zone II and Zone III 41 Luburic and his superiors had wrongly calculated that the brutal killings of an innocent population would quash any embryonic resistance to their plan for the creation of an ethnically pure area Goldstein remarked Their actions provoked the completely opposite effect 40 In mid July 1941 Luburic was tasked with recapturing dozens of inmates who had escaped from the Kerestinec camp Almost all the fugitives were captured or killed and several Ustase also lost their lives 42 Ustase Surveillance Service Bureau III edit Jasenovac I III edit nbsp The decaying corpses of a pair of Jasenovac victims The NDH s security sector was made up of two agencies the Directorate for Security and Public Order Croatian Ravnateljstvo za javni red i sigurnost RAVSIGUR and the Ustase Surveillance Service Croatian Ustaska nadzorna sluzba UNS 43 Both the RAVSIGUR and the UNS were led by Kvaternik s son Dido 44 The RAVSIGUR was established on 4 May 1941 45 The UNS was established in August 46 d e The latter was divided into three bureaus Bureau I Bureau III and Bureau IV Bureau III also known as the Ustase Defense was tasked with administering the NDH s concentration camps 43 There were about 30 in total stretching across the NDH 53 From April to August 1941 the RAVSIGUR had been responsible for the camps administration 54 For much of the war Bureau III was headed by Luburic 55 According to Siegfried Kasche the German ambassador to the NDH Luburic had envisaged creating a network of concentration camps during his time in exile 42 56 In May 1941 Kvaternik had ordered the construction of two detention centers in the villages of Krapje Jasenovac I and Brocice Jasenovac II the first two sub camps of what was to become the Jasenovac concentration camp Krapje and Brocice opened on 23 August 57 The same day faced with the Italian military occupation of Zone II Bureau III ordered the dissolution of all concentration camps situated in the NDH s coastal areas 54 In the first months of the Jasenovac concentration camp system s operation Luburic rarely ordered mass executions without the consent of his superiors 58 Ante Moskov a leading Ustase official remarked He was more fond of the Poglavnik than he was even of his own mother and brothers and loyalty and obedience to him was the meaning of his life 59 Luburic s loyalty and dedication eventually paid off and as the war progressed he became a trusted member of Pavelic s inner circle 60 f In late September 1941 the government of the NDH dispatched Luburic to the Third Reich to study German methods of creating and maintaining concentration camps 61 Luburic s tour of the camps lasted ten days 62 63 Subsequent Ustase camps were modelled on Oranienburg and Sachsenhausen 61 g The Jasenovac camp system was situated in a heavily Serb populated area 62 On Luburic s orders between September and October 1941 all Serb villages in the vicinity of the two sub camps were razed their inhabitants rounded up and deported to Krapje and Brocice 65 Between 14 and 16 November 1941 Krapje and Brocice were dissolved 66 Able bodied prisoners were forced to construct a third sub camp Jasenovac III which came to be known as the Brickyard Croatian Ciglana 67 The sick and infirm were either killed or left to die in the abandoned campgrounds Of the 3 000 4 000 prisoners detained in Krapje and Brocice at the time of their dissolution only 1 500 lived to see the Brickyard 66 Jasenovac IV V edit nbsp Luburic sitting with a German officer at Stara Gradiska June 1942Armed with the information he had gathered in Germany Luburic was able to organize the Brickyard more efficiently than Krapje and Brocice had been 68 In January 1942 Bureau III ordered the establishment of Jasenovac IV a sub camp dedicated to leather production which became known as the Tannery Croatian Kozara 69 A fifth and final sub camp Jasenovac V was established around the same time Known as Stara Gradiska after the village in which it was located it was overseen by both male and female guards 70 Among them were Luburic s half sisters Nada and Zora 71 The former participated extensively in the tortures and executions that took place at Stara Gradiska 72 73 She went on to marry Dinko Sakic 74 During the war Sakic served as the deputy commander of Stara Gradiska 70 and later as the commander of the Brickyard 67 Luburic also recruited his cousin Ljubo Milos 71 75 Milos served as the labour service commandant at the Brickyard 67 Like Luburic who was in his late twenties when he was appointed head of Bureau III most of the Ustase tasked with administering the Jasenovac camp system were extremely young Sakic was 20 in 1941 and Milos was 22 76 The Jasenovac camp system was guarded by more than 1 500 Ustase 62 The Brickyard the Tannery and Stara Gradiska were capable of holding 7 000 inmates although the number of inmates never exceeded 4 000 at any given time 77 Luburic visited the Jasenovac camp system two or three times per month 78 He insisted on personally killing at least one inmate on each of his visits 79 Luburic enjoyed taunting prisoners as to the date and method of their execution 80 81 He would amuse himself by placing his revolver up against the heads of the prisoners the Tito biographer Jasper Godwin Ridley writes Sometimes he pulled the trigger sometimes he did not 82 Luburic s cruelty also extended to the other Ustase camps In one instance he deliberately dispatched hundreds of typhus ridden inmates from Stara Gradiska to Đakovo so as to expedite the spread of the disease among its prisoners 83 Luburic created such an atmosphere Milos recalled that every Ustasa actually felt himself called upon to kill a prisoner believing that this would be an act of patriotism 58 h After unsuccessfully experimenting with gas vans Luburic ordered that a gas chamber be constructed at Stara Gradiska which used a combination of sulfur dioxide and Zyklon B The gas chamber was poorly constructed and this method of killing was abandoned after three months 73 Over the course of the war unlike in the German camps most inmates were killed with knives or blunt objects 73 84 In early 1942 conditions at Jasenovac improved somewhat in anticipation of a visit by a Red Cross delegation Healthier inmates who were provided with new beds and bedclothes were allowed to speak to the delegation while sick and emaciated ones were killed After the delegation left camp conditions reverted to their prior state 85 Whenever he was pressed for information by the families of those detained at Jasenovac Luburic remained equivocal When a Croatian Jewish civil servant named Dragutin Rosenberg attempted to persuade him to allow food and clothing to be delivered to Jasenovac on a name by name basis Luburic only agreed to bulk consignments so as not to reveal which detainees were still alive 86 Luburic also proved impervious to bribes as exemplified by the case of Julius Schmidlin a Red Cross representative who attempted to bribe Luburic into treating the inmates at Jasenovac more humanely but was angrily rebuffed 87 In addition Luburic did not tolerate the mishandling of goods seized from camp inmates as exemplified by his response to the so called Gold Affair in which camp guards were caught attempting to smuggle confiscated jewellery out of Jasenovac Luburic ordered that the culprits be killed Among those killed was the brother of Luburic s deputy Ivica Matkovic who was beaten to death 88 Kozara Offensive edit nbsp The deportation of Serbs and Roma from KozaraOn 21 December 1941 Ustase units under the command of Luburic Rukavina and Moskov marched into Prkosi near Bosanski Petrovac 89 Luburic declared We have to kill everyone in Prkos sic and in all of their villages to the last man even children 90 The Ustase proceeded to round up more than 400 Serb civilians mostly women children and the elderly Shortly thereafter they were led to a nearby forest and killed 89 On 14 January 1942 Luburic led a group of Ustase into the village of Draksenic in northern Bosnia and ordered the killing of its inhabitants More than 200 villagers were killed in the ensuing massacre mostly women children and the elderly 91 In mid 1942 the State Intelligence and Propaganda Bureau Croatian Drzavni izvjestajni i promicbeni ured DIPU issued a stern warning to all newspapers in the NDH forbidding them from reporting on Luburic Bureau III and the NDH s so called collection centers 92 Despite the DIPU s warning Luburic was featured in a 1942 propaganda short film titled Guard on the Drina Croatian Straza na Drini German Wacht an der Drina 93 In June 1942 the Wehrmacht Home Guard and Ustase Militia launched the Kozara Offensive aimed at dislodging Partisan formations around Mount Kozara in northwestern Bosnia which threatened Germany s access to the Belgrade Zagreb railway line 94 Although the Partisans did suffer a humiliating defeat the area s civilian population bore the brunt of the offensive Between 10 June and 30 July 1942 60 000 civilians living in the vicinity of Mount Kozara mostly Serbs were rounded up and taken to concentration camps 65 95 Kozara was cleared to the last man Wehrmacht Plenipotentiary General Edmund Glaise Horstenau wrote and likewise the last woman and last child 65 Following Kozara s depopulation Luburic envisaged creating an annual tax whereby Serb boys would be taken from their families conditioned to renounce their Serb national identity and inducted into the Ustase fold In late 1942 he adopted 450 boys who had been displaced during the fighting around Mount Kozara 65 Dressed in black Ustase robes Luburic dubbed the boys his little janissaries an allusion to the Ottoman Empire s devsirme system which saw tens of thousands of boys taken from Christian families across the Balkans and inducted into the Ottoman military Each morning Luburic s janissaries were forced to take part in military drills and say the Lord s Prayer 96 The experiment failed and the majority of the boys refused to become Ustase 65 Most subsequently died of malnutrition dysentery and other diseases 96 Hundreds of other children abducted by the Ustase in the aftermath of the Kozara Offensive were saved by a group of Red Cross volunteers from Zagreb led by Diana Budisavljevic 97 In her diary Budisavljevic recalled an encounter she had with Luburic at Stara Gradiska in which the latter chastised her and her colleagues for caring only about Serb children while there were Croat and Bosnian Muslim children across the NDH who were suffering as well According to Budisavljevic Luburic threatened to have her and her colleagues detained ominously warning that no one would know what had happened to them or their whereabouts 98 House arrest and disruption of the Lorkovic Vokic plot edit In August 1942 Luburic was promoted to the rank of Bojnik Major 11 Glaise Horstenau complained to Pavelic that Luburic was interfering with German operations 99 The Germans distrusted Luburic with one of their internal memorandums describing him as a neurotic pathological personality 65 Seeking to appease the Germans Pavelic reassigned Luburic to Travnik 99 He appointed him commander of the Croatian Home Guard s 9th Infantry Regiment Croatian Deveta pjesacka pukovnija whose purpose would be to secure the NDH s border with Italian occupied Montenegro in East Herzegovina which had a heavy Chetnik presence 100 As the 9th Infantry Regiment was preparing to leave for Herzegovina Luburic shot and killed one of the Home Guards under his command i The killing sparked an outcry among the Home Guards 11 Luburic was immediately stripped of his command which went to Colonel Franjo Simic 99 In late November at the urging of the Germans Luburic was placed under house arrest which he spent in a Zagreb apartment together with his mother and half sisters 101 Stanko Sarc was appointed to oversee operations at Jasenovac in Luburic s absence Luburic s deputy Ivica Matkovic was replaced by Ivica Brkljacic 102 The terms of Luburic s house arrest were very lenient and he was allowed to leave his apartment for strolls 101 Luburic exercised de facto control over the operations at Jasenovac despite his officially having been replaced 101 103 For example in late 1942 he arranged for the release of Miroslav Filipovic who had been jailed for committing a series of atrocities against the Serb population of northern Bosnia Filipovic was subsequently appointed commander of Stara Gradiska 104 For a period of two months Macek and his wife lived alongside Luburic and his family According to Macek Luburic s mother tearfully told Macek s wife that she would regret having given birth to Luburic if her son had been responsible for the atrocities that he was rumoured to have committed 105 nbsp Mladen Lorkovic Minister of the Interior nbsp Ante Vokic Minister of Defense By late 1942 the growing unrest in the NDH was beginning to harm German interests in Southeast Europe The Germans began placing pressure on Pavelic to bring stability to the NDH To this end they encouraged him to halt the Ustase atrocities against the Serbs In response the Ustase established the so called Croatian Orthodox Church whose purpose was to assimilate the NDH s Serb population designating them as Croats of the Orthodox faith 106 Pavelic singled out Slavko and Dido Kvaternik as scapegoats for all the NDH s troubles He blamed the former for the Home Guard and Ustase Militia s inability to bring the Partisans and Chetniks to heel and the latter for the massacres of Serbs even though the atrocities had been committed with Pavelic s knowledge In October 1942 the father and son duo were exiled to Slovakia 107 On 21 January 1943 the UNS was dissolved and amalgamated into the Main Directorate for Security and Public Order Croatian Glavno ravnateljstvo za javni red i sigurnost GRAVSIGUR which had been established to replace the RAVSIGUR earlier that month The GRAVSIGUR then assumed responsibility for the administration of the NDH s concentration camps 102 Still officially under house arrest Luburic relocated to the village of Sumec near Lepoglava in mid 1943 Around this time he also began planning guerrilla operations against the Partisans with Gestapo officer Kurt Koppel in the event of Germany s defeat 108 The number of Partisans in the NDH continued to grow from a mere 7 000 in 1941 to 25 000 in 1942 and 100 000 in late 1943 On 8 September 1943 the Italians capitulated to the Allies Countless Italian units surrendered to the Partisans who disarmed them and thus acquired a significant amount of modern weaponry 109 Luburic remained sidelined for much of 1944 but his fortunes changed after the Lorkovic Vokic plot came to light in August 1944 On 30 August Luburic personally oversaw the arrests of government ministers Mladen Lorkovic and Ante Vokic 110 111 Lorkovic the Minister of Internal Affairs and Vokic the Minister of Defense were accused of conspiring to overthrow Pavelic and install a pro Allied government 112 113 Following their arrests Luburic was tasked with interrogating Lorkovic and Vokic as well as other suspected conspirators That October Luburic was promoted to the rank of Pukovnik Colonel 11 In December 1944 the Croatian Home Guard and the Ustase Militia were unified to create the Croatian Armed Forces 114 On 7 December Luburic forced more than thirty members of the collaborationist Serbian Volunteer Corps off a train passing through Zagreb s main railway station and ordered that they be shot Destined for Slovenia they had received Pavelic s approval to pass through Zagreb unmolested but Luburic showed no regard 115 116 Terror in Sarajevo edit nbsp German occupied SarajevoIn early 1945 Pavelic dispatched Luburic to Sarajevo to undermine the communist underground there 117 Luburic arrived in the city on 15 February 118 Five days later Hitler declared Sarajevo a Festung or fortress insisting that it be defended at all costs Hitler appointed General Heinz Kathner to organize the city s defenses in anticipation of a Partisan attack 119 On 24 February 120 Kathner organized a banquet in Luburic s honour 118 At the banquet Luburic announced his intention to destroy the communist resistance in Sarajevo 120 Luburic soon appointed nine Ustase officers to a special task force for carrying out executions of known and suspected communists His headquarters was located inside a villa in downtown Sarajevo which came to be known as the house of terror among the city s residents 118 On 1 March the Partisans launched Operation Sarajevo which aimed to wrest the city from the Germans and the Ustase 121 By early March Sarajevo had been encircled and cut off from the rest of the NDH 122 Luburic established a kangaroo court that he dubbed the Criminal War Court of Commander Luburic which dealt with cases of alleged treason 121 The court also dealt with more gratuitous charges such as price fixing 118 123 The first batch of prisoners to be tried was a group of 17 Muslim refugees from Mostar 124 Over the course of the month dozens of suspected communists were executed 125 The arrests and subsequent executions were of an alarmingly arbitrary nature which only served to exacerbate the terror felt by Sarajevans 124 According to survivors the torture method most commonly used by Luburic s agents involved tying prisoners hands behind their backs pulling their hands between their legs placing a rod between their knees hanging them upside down and then beating them These torture sessions which the Ustase euphemistically referred to as interrogations were usually followed by the prisoner s execution or deportation to a concentration camp Luburic is said to have revelled in inviting the family members of his victims to the villa and then describing in great detail how their loved ones had been tortured and killed As the killings progressed some Sarajevans took to bomb shelters in fear for their lives though the city had not been bombed in weeks 124 nbsp The Partisans enter SarajevoOn 16 March Luburic convened a meeting of over 1 000 Ustase political and military figures and in the presence of senior German officials issued a declaration denouncing Bolshevism the Yalta Conference and the new communist government in Belgrade 122 On 21 March the Ustase uncovered a plot to assassinate Luburic His would be assassin was a communist youth named Halid Nazecic who was betrayed by one of his accomplices 125 Four Ustase were subsequently killed in Partisan attacks within the city 126 On the night of 27 28 March the Ustase hanged fifty five Sarajevans from trees and street lamps in Sarajevo s Marindvor neighbourhood 120 127 Signs bearing the phrase Long live the Poglavnik were placed around their necks 120 128 Their bodies were left to hang as an example to others 123 Those attempting to retrieve the bodies were fired upon 127 On 4 April Luburic and his entourage left Sarajevo About 350 Ustase policemen and 400 Ustase soldiers stayed behind to defend the city 129 Luburic s reign of terror in Sarajevo claimed 323 lives according to a post war war crimes commission 120 127 Several hundred others were deported to concentration camps 127 The Partisans entered Sarajevo on 6 April and proclaimed its liberation The city s capture coincided with the fourth anniversary of the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia 130 The exhumation of bodies from the backyard of Luburic s villa many of which belonged to children was documented by a Soviet film crew 130 Another witness to the aftermath of Luburic s crimes was the American journalist Landrum Bolling who recalled seeing a roomful of bodies stacked like cordwood on top of one another 131 132 Many of the cadavers showed signs of torture and mutilation Among the corpses was that of Halid Nazecic whose head had been mutilated eyes gouged out and genitals burned with boiling water 130 Destruction of the NDH edit Upon leaving Sarajevo Luburic boarded a plane for Zagreb While attempting to land at the Borongaj airfield Luburic s plane crashed on a bomb damaged runway Luburic sustained a head injury and had to be hospitalized Pavelic visited Luburic while he was convalescing and found his subordinate jaded and disillusioned accusing the Germans of betraying Croatia 133 Shortly thereafter Luburic was promoted to the rank of General 11 In early April he ordered that Jasenovac s remaining prisoners be killed 134 He also ordered that documents pertaining to the camp s operation be destroyed and the corpses from surrounding mass graves exhumed and cremated Several individuals who possessed incriminating information pertaining to Luburic s wartime activities such as the Gestapo agent Koppel were killed at his behest 135 In late April Luburic approved the executions of Lorkovic and Vokic as well as others who had been implicated in the Lorkovic Vokic plot 136 As the Partisans neared Luburic suggested that the Ustase make their last stand in Zagreb but Pavelic refused 137 The Ustase were divided as to what to do Some proposed retreating towards Austria as quickly as possible Others Luburic foremost among them advocated establishing irregular formations in the countryside that would carry out guerrilla attacks following the NDH s demise 138 On 24 April forty three Roma and Sinti were killed in Hrastina by Luburic s followers 139 In early May Luburic met with the Archbishop of Zagreb Aloysius Stepinac who implored him not to put up armed resistance against the Partisans On 5 May the government of the NDH left Zagreb followed by Pavelic By 15 May the NDH had completely collapsed 140 Tens of thousands of Ustase surrendered to the British Army but were handed back to the Partisans An untold number were killed in subsequent Partisan reprisal killings together with several thousand Serbian and Slovenian collaborationists 141 Some Ustase who came to be known as Crusaders Croatian Krizari remained in Yugoslavia and carried out guerrilla attacks against the communists 142 Among these was a small group of fighters led by Luburic which remained in the forests of southern Slovenia and northern Slavonia skirmishing with the newly formed Yugoslav People s Army Serbo Croatian Jugoslovenska narodna armija JNA 143 Luburic evaded capture and probable execution by placing his identification papers next to the body of a dead soldier Through Matkovic and Moskov Luburic sent a letter to Pavelic who had escaped to Austria in which he signalled his intention to keep fighting Three different accounts exist of Luburic s activities in post war Yugoslavia According to one Luburic then headed south towards the Bilogora mountain range where he rendezvoused with a group of more than fifty Crusaders under the leadership of Branko Bacic They headed west establishing a base at Fruska Gora In November 1945 Luburic and about a dozen Crusaders crossed the Hungarian Yugoslav border and escaped Yugoslavia The second version holds that Luburic was wounded in a gunfight with the JNA and carried across the Drava River to Hungary by General Rafael Boban who subsequently returned to Yugoslavia and was never heard from again The third version espoused by Luburic himself is that Luburic fought with the Crusaders until late 1947 when he was seriously wounded and forced to leave the country 144 Luburic s half sister Nada and her husband Dinko Sakic escaped to Argentina 145 Some of Luburic s remaining kin were not as fortunate Milos was captured by the Yugoslav authorities in July 1947 together with several other Crusaders after sneaking back into the country as part of the Crusaders insurgency efforts 146 He was subsequently put on trial for the atrocities that he was alleged to have committed during the war During his trial he confessed in graphic detail to his role in the killings that took place at Jasenovac He was convicted on all counts and executed in 1948 75 Later years editExile edit In 1949 Luburic relocated to Spain 147 The country was viewed as a favourable destination by many Ustase exiles as it had been the only one outside the Axis to recognize the NDH 148 Luburic entered Spain under the pseudonym Maximilian Soldo j Upon arrival Luburic was imprisoned by the Spanish authorities but released shortly thereafter 150 With support from Agustin Munoz Grandes the former commander of the Blue Division he was able to settle in the country 147 He took up residence in Beniganim 150 Pavelic in the meantime had settled in Buenos Aires with his family and started a construction business He became the unofficial leader of the Croatian emigre community in South America 151 Pavelic s exile in distant and remote Argentina rendered him virtually irrelevant in the eyes of increasing numbers of Croatian emigres elsewhere particularly in Europe Faced with open rebellion in July 1950 Pavelic dispatched Luburic to Rome as a warning to anyone wishing to challenge his authority in Western Europe s Croatian emigre communities Given his wartime record Luburic arrived with a fearsome reputation the historian Guy Walters writes In August Pavelic issued a declaration in a Chicago based Croatian diaspora newspaper warning Croats against joining foreign militaries While Luburic is not thought to have killed any of Pavelic s political opponents in the post war period the mere invocation of his name drastically reduced the size of the anti Pavelic faction among the emigres When the grumblings of discontent against Pavelic subsided Luburic returned to Spain In 1951 he appeared in Hamburg and set up a recruiting centre for the pro Pavelic faction 78 That same year he established a newspaper called Drina 152 In November 1953 Luburic married a Spanish woman named Isabela Hernaiz The couple went on to have four children two boys and two girls 153 Rift with Pavelic edit nbsp Pavelic recovering from his wounds in a Buenos Aires hospital After Pavelic s death in 1959 Luburic unsuccessfully attempted to take control of the Pavelic founded Croatian Liberation Movement In 1955 Pavelic entered discussions with Chetnik emigres over the future partition of Bosnia and Herzegovina between Greater Croatia and Greater Serbia in the event of Yugoslavia s collapse Luburic was incensed 154 In his writings Luburic argued that Croatia much like the NDH should extend as far as the Drina River but also include areas of Serbia such as Sandzak which had never been part of the wartime puppet state 155 Luburic vehemently denounced Pavelic and his followers Shortly thereafter he founded the Friends of the Drina Society Croatian Drustvo Prijatelja Drine and the Croatian National Resistance Croatian Hrvatski narodni odpor HNO 156 In June 1956 Pavelic founded a rival organization the Croatian Liberation Movement Croatian Hrvatski oslobodilacki pokret HOP 157 In 1957 Luburic s wife received an anonymous letter detailing her husband s wartime atrocities with great emphasis placed on his role in the killing of children 158 She filed for divorce shortly thereafter During the divorce proceedings Luburic was granted joint custody of the couple s children as well as possession of their home The same year he sold the home and moved to the town of Carcaixent near Valencia where he opened a poultry farm The farm quickly went out of business and Luburic soon became a traveling salesman 158 Upon moving to Carcaixent he founded Drina Press an amateur publishing house which was situated in his home 159 Luburic s neighbours who knew him by the name Vicente Perez Garcia were apparently unaware of his wartime past 160 He wrote articles under the pseudonyms General Drinjanin and Bojnik Dizdar Colonel Dizdar 159 In his writings Luburic conceded that he had made certain mistakes during the war but never admitted to or expressed remorse for the atrocities that had been attributed to him 155 He advocated national reconciliation between the pro Ustase and pro communist Croats 155 Luburic also claimed to have made contact with the Soviet Union s intelligence services 161 He argued that Croatia should become a neutral state in the event of Yugoslavia s disintegration which was received particularly poorly in some fiercely anti communist Croatian emigre circles 155 On 10 April 1957 while returning from a celebratory gathering marking the anniversary of the NDH s establishment in Buenos Aires Pavelic was seriously wounded in an assassination attempt by the State Security Administration Serbo Croatian Uprava drzavne bezbednosti UDBA the Yugoslav secret service 162 163 He died in Madrid in December 1959 of complications related to his wounds Owing to the mutual resentment between the two men Luburic was barred from attending his funeral 148 Following Pavelic s death Luburic unsuccessfully attempted to take control of the HOP citing his role as the last commander of the Croatian Armed Forces After the HOP s senior leadership rebuffed him Luburic went down an increasingly militarist path establishing neo Ustase training camps in several European countries and publishing articles relating to military tactics and guerrilla techniques 164 In 1963 he established a paper called Obrana Defense 152 Death editOn the morning of 21 April 1969 Luburic s teenage son discovered his father s bloody corpse in one of the bedrooms in his home Luburic had been killed the day before Blood stains on the floor indicated that he had been dragged by his feet from the kitchen and crudely stuffed under a bed He had been bludgeoned over the head multiple times with a blunt instrument An autopsy determined that the blows to his head were not fatal Luburic had choked on his own blood 165 Luburic was buried in Carcagente His funeral was attended by hundreds of Croatian nationalists in Ustase uniform who chanted Ustase slogans and delivered fascist salutes 148 Luburic s death spelt the end of Drina and Obrana 155 Luburic s murder came at a time when the UDBA was carrying out assassinations of leading Croatian nationalist figures across Europe and suspicion inevitably fell on them 148 In 1967 Luburic had employed his godson Ilija Stanic to work at his publishing firm Stanic s father Vinko had served alongside Luburic during the war He was captured by the Yugoslav authorities while fighting with the Crusaders and died in captivity 166 Stanic who lived and worked in Luburic s home returned to Yugoslavia in the immediate aftermath of Luburic s death 148 Declassified Yugoslav intelligence documents show that Stanic was an UDBA agent codenamed Mongoose According to the minutes of his May 1969 debriefing Stanic told his handlers that he first placed poison in Luburic s coffee which had been given to him by another UDBA agent After the poison failed to kill Luburic Stanic began to panic and went to his room to retrieve a hammer When he returned to the kitchen Luburic complained that he was not feeling well As Luburic went to vomit in the sink Stanic struck him over the head several times Luburic fell to the floor motionless Stanic then left the kitchen to make sure the front door was locked When he returned he saw Luburic standing over the sink and wincing in pain Stanic struck him over the head once again fracturing his skull He then wrapped Luburic s body in blankets and dragged it to a nearby bedroom Stanic claimed that he initially wanted to hide the body in the print shop but that Luburic was too heavy Upon entering the bedroom Stanic hid the body under the bed and calmly left the house 167 In a July 2009 interview with the Croatian weekly Globus Stanic changed his story claiming that Luburic had been killed by two HOP members Aggrieved by a disparaging comment that Luburic had allegedly made about Stanic s father and his post war guerrilla activities Stanic claims that he sought out the two men who assured him that they merely wished to administer a beating The day that Luburic was murdered Stanic alleged that he allowed the men inside Luburic s home and the two proceeded to kill Luburic with a single blow to the head from a heavy metal bar 168 In 2012 Stanic changed his story once more this time accusing two different men of killing Luburic 167 Legacy editInfluence on Croatian nationalism edit Following Luburic s death the leadership of the HNO went to several of his close associates eventually splitting into rival leaderships in North America Australia Sweden and Argentina Leadership of the HNO s Argentine faction was delegated to Luburic s brother in law Dinko Sakic 169 In April 1971 two HNO affiliates entered the Yugoslav embassy in Stockholm and killed Yugoslavia s ambassador to Sweden Vladimir Rolovic The two men were arrested but set free the following year after a group of Croatian nationalists hijacked a Swedish domestic flight demanding their release 170 One of Rolovic s killers Miro Baresic underwent a baptism while in prison and adopted the Christian name Vjekoslav in Luburic s honour 171 The HNO boasted several thousand members at its height Notable members included Zvonko Busic Gojko Susak and Mladen Naletilic among others 172 Busic masterminded the hijacking of TWA Flight 355 in September 1976 172 Susak became Croatia s Minister of Defence in 1991 173 Naletilic was convicted of committing war crimes against Bosniak civilians during the Bosnian War by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia ICTY He was sentenced to 20 years in prison 174 During the Croatian War of Independence open admiration for Luburic could be found in the Croatian Army s officer corps Ante Luburic no relation who served as a senior officer during the Battle of Vukovar was nicknamed Maks by his confederates because of his battlefield ferocity Luburic seemed please with his sobriquet the journalist Robert Fox remarked 175 In early 1992 General Mirko Norac expressed admiration for Luburic after being relieved of his duties on the orders of Croatian President Franjo Tuđman 176 Fuck all the Croatian generals with Tuđman at the top Norac remarked The only general for me is Maks Luburic 177 Luburic is referenced in the opening lines of the Croatian nationalist song Jasenovac i Gradiska Stara which read as follows 178 Jasenovac i Gradiska Starato je kuca Maksovih mesara Jasenovac and Stara Gradiska that s the house of Maks butchers Darko Hudelist a journalist and Tuđman biographer considers Luburic one of the three most important Croatian political figures of the post war period alongside Tito and Tuđman 179 Hudelist argues that Tuđman was influenced by Luburic s writings which called for the unification of the ideologically disparate factions that made up the Croatian diaspora This became a key policy priority of Tuđman s Croatian Democratic Union during his presidency 180 The historian Ivo Goldstein concurs with Hudelist s hypothesis and surmises that Luburic in turn was influenced by Francisco Franco s calls for reconciliation between Republicans and Nationalists in the aftermath of the Spanish Civil War 181 Hudelist s hypothesis has been challenged by the journalist Ivan Bekavac who accuses Hudelist of attempting to cast Tuđman in a pro fascist light 182 In 2017 flyers containing excerpts from a speech delivered by Luburic appeared in Sarajevo s Dobrinja neighborhood 183 In July 2018 Spain s ruling Socialist Workers Party proposed a law against the memorization of fascist figures It was speculated that if the law was passed the Spanish authorities would be able to usurp Pavelic and Luburic s tombs under the pretext that they had become places of pilgrimage for neo fascists and move them to less prominent locations or transfer them to Bosnia 184 On 29 September 2018 the historian Vlado Vladic held an event at a Roman Catholic priory in Split promoting his book Hrvatski vitez Vjekoslav Maks Luburic The Croatian Knight Vjekoslav Maks Luburic The event was condemned by the Croatian left who accused Vladic of glorifying Luburic and the Catholic Church of facilitating historical revisionism Among those in attendance was Dario Kordic who served as the vice president of the Croatian Republic of Herzeg Bosnia during the Bosnian War Kordic was later found guilty of war crimes and crimes against humanity by the ICTY for his role in the Lasva Valley ethnic cleansing and was sentenced to 25 years in prison 185 Assessment edit nbsp A monument commemorating the 55 Sarajevans hanged on Luburic s orders on the night of 27 28 March 1945Contemporary German accounts place the number of Serbs killed by the Ustase at about 350 000 186 According to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum between 320 000 and 340 000 Serbs were killed by the Ustase over the course of the war 187 Most modern historians agree that the Ustase killed over 300 000 Serbs or about 17 percent of all Serbs living in the NDH 188 At the Nuremberg trials these killings were judged to have constituted genocide 186 The Ustase were also responsible for the deaths of 26 000 Jews and 20 000 Roma 189 The historian Emily Greble estimates that approximately 200 000 wartime deaths can be attributed to Luburic 118 During the war Luburic boasted that the Ustase had killed more Serbs in Jasenovac than the Ottoman Empire was able to do during its occupation of Europe 190 He also confided in Hermann Neubacher the Reich Ministry of Foreign Affairs Plenipotentiary for Southeastern Europe that he believed about 225 000 Serbs had been killed at Jasenovac 191 An incomplete list of victims compiled by the Jasenovac Memorial Site contains the names of 83 145 individuals including 47 627 Serbs 16 173 Roma and 13 116 Jews 192 Most historians agree that around 100 000 people were killed at Jasenovac 193 In 1998 Sakic was arrested in Argentina The following year he was extradited to Croatia to face charges of war crimes and crimes against humanity Sakic was convicted on all counts and sentenced to twenty years imprisonment 145 He died in July 2008 194 Luburic s half sister Nada was arrested around the same time as her husband but was released due to lack of evidence She died in February 2011 In July 2011 the Government of Serbia issued a warrant for her arrest apparently unaware that she had died earlier that year When the Serbian authorities learned of her death the warrant was revoked 195 Sakic described his brother in law as a humanitarian and a protector of the Jews 196 Several of Luburic s contemporaries as well as numerous scholars have offered a starkly different assessment Arthur Haffner an Abwehr officer denounced Luburic as one of Pavelic s fiercest bloodhounds 197 In academic literature Luburic is frequently described as a sadist 198 The Holocaust scholar Uki Goni characterizes him as a bloodthirsty madman 199 Of all the Poglavnik s thugs Walters writes Luburic was the worst 78 Jozo Tomasevich a historian specializing in the Balkans described Luburic as one of the most brutal and bloodthirsty members of the Ustase movement 200 Carmichael refers to Luburic as one of the most notorious war criminals of the Second World War 201 The historians Ladislaus Hory and Martin Broszat describe Luburic as one of the most feared and most hated Ustase leaders 202 k Footnotes edit Some sources contend that Ljubomir Luburic died in police custody after being immersed in freezing water and left overnight in an unheated prison cell 6 The Ustase likely did not have more than 12 000 members before 1941 20 In comparison the Communist Party of Yugoslavia had about 6 000 members in 1940 21 The communist led multi ethnic Partisans and the royalist Serbian nationalist Chetniks were the two primary resistance movements in occupied Yugoslavia Tito was the General Secretary of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia whereas Mihailovic had been an officer in the interwar Royal Yugoslav Army The two movements had widely divergent goals Whereas the Partisans sought to turn Yugoslavia into a communist state under Tito s leadership the Chetniks sought a return to the pre war status quo 39 According to some accounts Luburic was appointed to lead Bureau III following the death of its former head Mijo Babic indicating that the UNS was created prior to August 1941 47 48 Babic had been killed while battling Chetniks in the vicinity of Berkovici on 3 July 1941 49 50 According to Tomasevich the UNS was established on 16 August 1941 51 The historian Natasa Matausic writes that the UNS was established on 23 August 52 A member of Pavelic s inner circle was called a ras The term was derived from the Italian fascist title ras meaning boss 60 The Ustase replicated German approaches to prisoner arrival registration housing roll calls and forced labour They based the inmates colour codes on those devised by the German Concentration Camps Inspectorate German Inspektion der Konzentrationslager IDL 54 The Ustase also appointed foremen and deputies from among the prisoners roughly equivalent to the kapos in German concentration camps to manage camp life 64 Luburic distributed gold and silver medals to the most efficient Ustase killers He sought to expedite the pace of the killings by encouraging competition among the camp guards In August 1942 a guard named Petar Brzica killed 1 360 inmates over the course of a single night 84 Brzica was rewarded with a gold watch a bottle of wine and a suckling pig 7 Excess drinking and alcoholism were widespread among the camp personnel 58 84 Several conflicting accounts exist as to why Luburic killed the Home Guard According to contemporary documents Luburic accused the Home Guard of sedition 99 The historian Nikica Baric states that Luburic killed him unprovoked 100 This pseudonym was evidently created using a variation of Luburic s nickname Maks and his mother s maiden name Soldo 149 See Hory amp Broszat 1964 p 87 Die Leitung der Lager lag in den Handen des Ustascha Fuhrers Vjeskoslav Luburic der zu den meistgefurchteten und meistgehassten Spitzenfiguren des Ustascha Regimes gehorte Citations edit Tomasevich 2001 pp 378 379 a b Dizdar 1997 p 240 a b c d e f Licina 1985 p 110 a b Bitunjac 2013 p 196 Tomasevich 2001 pp 370 556 Licina 1985 p 110 footnote a b Carmichael 2015 p 81 Licina 1985 p 111 Lampe 2000 p 175 Tomasevich 2001 pp 35 36 a b c d e f Dizdar 1997 p 241 a b Roberts 1973 pp 6 7 Pavlowitch 2008 p 8 Roberts 1973 p 12 Pavlowitch 2008 pp 10 13 Roberts 1973 p 15 Goldstein 1999 p 133 Ramet 2006 p 155 Adriano amp Cingolani 2018 p 174 Ramet 2006 p 115 Malcolm 1996 pp 175 176 Malcolm 1996 p 175 Malcolm 1996 p 177 Matausic 2003 p 11 Singleton 1985 p 176 Tomasevich 2001 Map 4 Goldstein 1999 p 136 a b Malcolm 1996 p 176 Goldstein 1999 p 137 Tomasevich 2001 p 406 407 a b Goldstein 2012 pp 115 121 Erdeljac 2015 p 74 Bergholz 2016 p 106 a b c d Goldstein 2012 p 155 a b c Adriano amp Cingolani 2018 p 193 Bergholz 2016 p 107 Bergholz 2016 p 108 Bergholz 2016 p 110 a b Goldstein 2012 p 156 Bergholz 2016 p 115 Pavlowitch 2008 pp 59 60 a b Goldstein 2012 pp 156 157 Redzic 2005 pp 16 18 a b Matausic 2003 p 16 a b Yeomans 2013 p 10 Goldstein 1999 p 137 Dulic 2005 pp 256 257 Goldstein 2007 p 24 Kovacic 2009 p 315 Tomasevich 2001 pp 341 399 Licina 1985 p 119 Dulic 2005 p 82 Cohen 1998 p 29 Dulic 2005 pp 143 144 Tomasevich 2001 p 341 Matausic 2003 p 91 note 60 Goldstein 1999 pp 137 138 a b c Lohse 2018 p 48 Tomasevich 2001 p 399 Dulic 2005 p 255 note 46 Goldstein amp Velagic 2018a pp 58 59 a b c Dulic 2005 p 271 Dulic 2005 p 351 a b Biondich 2011 p 128 a b Dulic 2005 p 255 a b c Korb 2010 p 297 Mojzes 2011 p 57 Levy 2013 p 70 p 79 note 113 a b c d e f Levy 2013 p 67 a b Goldstein amp Velagic 2018a p 60 a b c Goldstein amp Velagic 2018b p 61 Adriano amp Cingolani 2018 pp 212 213 Goldstein amp Velagic 2018c pp 62 63 a b Goldstein et al 2018 p 64 a b Licina 1985 p 124 Cox 2007 p 226 a b c Levy 2013 p 71 Perica 2002 p 195 note 39 Levy 2013 p 71 a b Carmichael 2015 p 101 Biondich 2011 pp 128 129 Adriano amp Cingolani 2018 p 215 a b c Walters 2010 p 257 Okey 1999 p 265 Koshar 2000 p 205 Tanner 2001 p 152 Ridley 1994 p 164 Glenny 2012 p 501 a b c Levene 2013 p 278 Goldstein amp Velagic 2018b pp 61 62 Bauer 1981 p 280 Favez amp Fletcher 1999 pp 179 182 Miletic 1986 p 515 a b Goldstein 2012 p 395 Goldstein 2012 p 399 Komarica amp Odic 2005 p 60 Yeomans 2013 p 253 Carmichael 2015 pp 74 76 Tomasevich 2001 p 274 Rubinstein 2014 p 195 a b Dulic 2005 p 253 Adriano amp Cingolani 2018 p 229 Knezevic 22 July 2017 a b c d Licina 1985 p 131 a b Baric 2003 p 159 a b c Krizman 1986 p 461 a b Matausic 2003 p 77 Matausic 2003 p 74 Matausic 2003 p 111 Miletic 1986 p 617 Goldstein 1999 p 147 Tomasevich 2001 pp 439 440 Licina 1985 p 138 Goldstein 1999 p 149 Tomasevich 2001 p 452 note 80 Kovacic 2009 p 104 Tomasevich 2001 p 328 McCormick 2014 p 112 Tomasevich 2001 p 426 Stefanovic 1984 p 306 Krizman 1986 pp 213 214 Licina 1985 p 142 a b c d e Greble 2011 p 221 Donia 2006 p 198 a b c d e Donia 2006 p 197 a b Greble 2011 p 222 a b Greble 2011 p 224 a b Yeomans 2015 p 24 a b c Greble 2011 p 223 a b Hoare 2013 p 276 Licina 1985 p 143 a b c d Hoare 2013 p 277 Greble 2011 p 227 Greble 2011 p 228 a b c Greble 2011 p 229 Donia 2006 pp 197 198 Greble 2011 pp 229 230 Jareb 1995 p 116 Adriano amp Cingolani 2018 p 266 Licina 1985 pp 143 145 Yeomans 2013 p 350 Dizdar 1997 p 242 Tomasevich 2001 p 752 Mihovilovic amp Simunkovic 2021 Pavlowitch 2008 p 262 Tomasevich 2001 pp 751 768 Tomasevich 2001 p 560 Goldstein 2012 p 501 Radelic April 2002 pp 44 45 a b Perica 2002 p 195 note 39 Radelic April 2002 p 67 a b Bale 2017 note 77 a b c d e Carmichael 2015 p 104 Licina 1985 p 105 a b Licina 1985 p 154 Adriano amp Cingolani 2018 pp 394 398 a b Licina 1985 p 160 Licina 1985 pp 155 158 Cohen 1998 p 67 a b c d e Hockenos 2003 p 70 Adriano amp Cingolani 2018 pp 395 396 McCormick 2014 p 176 a b Licina 1985 p 159 a b Adriano amp Cingolani 2018 p 396 Licina 1985 p 103 Clissold 1975 p 111 McCormick 2014 p 178 Adriano amp Cingolani 2018 pp 400 401 Adriano amp Cingolani 2018 p 419 Licina 1985 pp 103 105 Walters 2010 pp 258 259 a b Rasovic 5 May 2012 Jutarnji list 15 July 2009 Hockenos 2003 pp 71 72 Hockenos 2003 p 64 Rados 10 March 2010 a b Hockenos 2003 p 69 Hockenos 2003 pp 73 74 International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia 3 May 2006 Fox 1993 p 538 Majetic 14 March 2018 Off 2004 p 189 Vuletic 2011 p 2 note 15 Hudelist 2004 p 686 Hudelist 2004 pp 618 623 Goldstein 2008 p 772 Bekavac 2007 pp 9 12 Knezevic 20 August 2018 Milekic 25 July 2018 Bajrusi 1 October 2018 a b Singleton 1985 p 177 United States Holocaust Memorial Museum paragraph 7 Cox 2007 p 225 Lohse 2018 p 46 Markusen amp Kopf 1995 p 114 Levene 2013 p 278 Israeli 2013 p 142 Jasenovac Memorial Site March 2013 Pavlowitch 2008 p 34 note 6 Levy 2013 p 72 Bitunjac 2013 p 205 Wittes 7 May 1998 Dulic 2005 p 291 Dulic 2015 pp 155 156 Bauer 1981 p 280 Tanner 2001 p 152 Donia 2006 p 197 Cox 2007 p 226 Goni 2002 p 218 Tomasevich 2001 p 422 Carmichael 2013 p 135 Carmichael 2015 p 81 Hory amp Broszat 1964 p 87 References editBooksAdriano Pino Cingolani Giorgio 2018 Nationalism and Terror Ante Pavelic and Ustasha Terrorism from Fascism to the Cold War Budapest Hungary Central European University Press ISBN 978 9 63386 206 3 Bale Jeffrey M 2017 Postwar Fascism Covert Operations and Terrorism The Darkest Sides of Politics Vol 1 New York City Routledge ISBN 978 1 3176 5946 4 Baric Nikica 2003 Ustroj kopnene vojske domobranstva Nezavisne drzave Hrvatske 1941 1945 in Croatian Zagreb Croatia Croatian Institute of History ISBN 978 9 5363 2438 5 Bauer Yehuda 1981 American Jewry and the Holocaust The American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee 1939 1945 Detroit Michigan Wayne State University Press ISBN 978 0 8143 1672 6 Bekavac Ivan 2007 Izmisljeni Tuđman O lazima krivotvorinama i namjerama Hudelistove biografije prvoga hrvatskog predsjednika in Croatian Zagreb Croatia Naklada P I P Pavicic ISBN 978 9 53630 867 5 Bergholz Max 2016 Violence as a Generative Force Identity Nationalism and Memory in a Balkan Community Ithaca New York Cornell University Press ISBN 978 1 50170 643 1 Biondich Mark 2011 The Balkans Revolution War and Political Violence Since 1878 Oxford England Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 929905 8 Bitunjac Martina 2013 Le donne e il movimento Ustascia in Italian Rome Italy Sapienza University Press ISBN 978 8 86812 182 2 Carmichael Cathie 2013 Genocide and the Problem of the State in Bosnia in the Twentieth Century In Ingelaere Bert Parmentier Stephan Segaert Barbara Haers Jacques eds Genocide Risk and Resilience An Interdisciplinary Approach New York City Springer pp 131 149 ISBN 978 1 1373 3243 1 Carmichael Cathie 2015 A Concise History of Bosnia Cambridge England Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 1 10701 615 6 Clissold Stephen 1975 Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union 1939 1973 A Documentary Survey Oxford England Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19218 315 6 Cohen Roger 1998 Hearts Grown Brutal Sagas of Sarajevo New York City Random House ISBN 978 0 81299 178 9 Cox John K 2007 Ante Pavelic and the Ustasa State in Croatia In Fischer Bernd Jurgen ed Balkan Strongmen Dictators and Authoritarian Rulers of South Eastern Europe West Lafayette Indiana Purdue University Press ISBN 978 1 55753 455 2 Dizdar Zdravko 1997 Luburic Vjekoslav In Dizdar Zdravko Grcic Marko Ravlic Slaven Stuparic Darko eds Tko je tko u NDH in Croatian Zagreb Croatia Minerva pp 240 242 ISBN 978 953 6377 03 9 Donia Robert J 2006 Sarajevo A Biography Ann Arbor Michigan University of Michigan Press ISBN 978 0 472 11557 0 Dulic Tomislav 2005 Utopias of Nation Local Mass Killing in Bosnia and Herzegovina 1941 42 Uppsala Sweden Uppsala University Library ISBN 978 9 1554 6302 1 Dulic Tomislav 2015 Rethinking Violence Motives and Modes of Mass Murder in the Independent State of Croatia 1941 5 In Carmichael Cathie Maguire 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ed The Routledge History of the Holocaust New York City Routledge pp 291 302 ISBN 978 1 1368 7060 6 Koshar Rudy 2000 From Monuments to Traces Artifacts of German Memory 1870 1990 Los Angeles California University of California Press ISBN 978 0 5209 2252 5 Kovacic Davor 2009 Redarstveno obavjestatjni sustav Nezavisne Drzavne Hrvatske od 1941 do 1945 godine in Croatian Zagreb Croatia Croatian Institute of History ISBN 978 9 5363 2474 3 Krizman Bogdan 1986 NDH između Hitlera i Mussolinija in Serbo Croatian Vol 2 Zagreb Yugoslavia Globus ISBN 978 8 63430 154 0 Lampe John R 2000 1996 Yugoslavia as History Twice There Was a Country 2nd ed Cambridge England Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 77401 7 Levene Mark 2013 Annihilation The European Rimlands 1939 1953 The Crisis of Genocide Vol 2 Oxford England Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 150555 3 Levy Michele Frucht 2013 The Last Bullet For The Last Serb The Ustasa Genocide Against Serbs 1941 1945 In Crowe David M ed Crimes of State Past and Present Government Sponsored Atrocities and International Legal Responses London England Routledge pp 54 85 ISBN 978 1 317 98682 9 Licina Đorde 1985 Vjekoslav Luburic In Licina Đorđe Vavic Milorad Pavlovski Jovan eds Andrija Artukovic Vjekoslav Luburic Xhafer Deva Vanco Mihailov in Serbo Croatian Zagreb Yugoslavia Centar za informacije i publicitet OCLC 12595707 Lohse Alexandra 2018 Croatia In Megargee Geoffrey P White Joseph R eds Camps and Ghettos under European Regimes Aligned with Nazi Germany The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos 1933 1945 Vol III Bloomington Indiana Indiana University Press pp 45 51 ISBN 978 0 25302 386 5 Malcolm Noel 1996 1994 Bosnia A Short History New York City New York University Press ISBN 978 0 8147 5520 4 Markusen Eric Kopf David 1995 The Holocaust and Strategic Bombing Genocide and Total War in the Twentieth Century Boulder Colorado Westview Press ISBN 978 0 8133 7532 8 Matausic Natasa 2003 Jasenovac 1941 1945 Logor smrti i radni logor in Croatian Zagreb Croatia Jasenovac Memorial Site ISBN 978 953 99169 4 5 McCormick Robert 2014 Croatia Under Ante Pavelic America the Ustase and Croatian Genocide New York City I B Tauris ISBN 978 1 78076 712 3 Mihovilovic Đorđe Simunkovic Mario 2021 Masakr nad romima i sintima u Hrastini 1945 godine Zlocini Luburicevaca u Zapresickom kraju in Croatian Zagreb Croatia JUSP ISBN 978 953 7895 13 6 Miletic Antun 1986 Koncentracioni logor Jasenovac 1941 1945 in Serbo Croatian Belgrade Yugoslavia Narodna knjiga ISBN 978 8 63310 025 0 Mojzes Paul 2011 Balkan Genocides Holocaust and Ethnic Cleansing in the 20th Century Lanham Maryland Rowman amp Littlefield ISBN 978 1 4422 0665 6 Off Carol 2004 The Ghosts of Medak Pocket The Story of Canada s Secret War Toronto Ontario Random House Canada ISBN 978 0 6793 1293 2 Okey Robin 1999 The Legacy of Massacre The Jasenovac Myth and the Breakdown of Communist Yugoslavia In Levene Mark Roberts Penny eds The Massacre in History New York City Berghahn Books pp 263 282 ISBN 978 1 5718 1934 5 Pavlowitch Stevan K 2008 Hitler s New Disorder The Second World War in Yugoslavia London England Hurst amp Company ISBN 978 1 85065 895 5 Perica Vjekoslav 2002 Balkan Idols Religion and Nationalism in Yugoslav States Oxford England Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19517 429 8 Ramet Sabrina P 2006 The Three Yugoslavias State Building and Legitimation 1918 2005 Bloomington Indiana Indiana University Press ISBN 978 0 253 34656 8 Ramet Sabrina P 2007 The NDH An Introduction In Ramet Sabrina P ed The Independent State of Croatia 1941 45 New York City Routledge pp 1 10 ISBN 978 0 41544 055 4 Redzic Enver 2005 1998 Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Second World War Translated by Aida Vidan Abingdon on Thames England Frank Cass ISBN 978 0 7146 5625 0 Ridley Jasper Godwin 1994 Tito London England Constable amp Robinson ISBN 978 0 0947 1260 7 Roberts Walter R 1973 Tito Mihailovic and the Allies 1941 1945 Durham North Carolina Duke University Press ISBN 978 0 8223 0773 0 Rubinstein William D 2014 Genocide New York City Routledge ISBN 978 1 3178 6996 2 Singleton Frederick Bernard 1985 A Short History of the Yugoslav Peoples Cambridge England Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 27485 2 Stefanovic Mladen 1984 Zbor Dimitrija Ljotica 1934 1945 in Serbo Croatian Belgrade Yugoslavia Narodna knjiga OCLC 13418730 Tanner Marcus 2001 Croatia A Nation Forged in War New Haven Connecticut Yale University Press ISBN 978 0 300 09125 0 Tomasevich Jozo 2001 War and Revolution in Yugoslavia 1941 1945 Occupation and Collaboration Stanford California Stanford University Press ISBN 978 0 8047 3615 2 Walters Guy 2010 Hunting Evil The Nazi War Criminals Who Escaped and the Quest to Bring Them to Justice New York City Random House ISBN 978 0 30759 248 4 Yeomans Rory 2013 Visions of Annihilation The Ustasha Regime and the Cultural Politics of Fascism 1941 1945 Pittsburgh Pennsylvania University of Pittsburgh Press ISBN 978 0 8229 7793 3 Yeomans Rory 2015 Introduction Utopia Terror and Everyday Experience in the Ustasha State In Yeomans Rory ed The Utopia of Terror Life and Death in Wartime Croatia Rochester New York University of Rochester Press pp 1 42 ISBN 978 1 58046 545 8 JournalsRadelic Zdenko April 2002 Povezivanje ustaskog vodstva i krizara 1945 1947 Croatian Institute of History in Croatian Zagreb Croatia 34 1 41 69 ISSN 1848 9079 Vuletic Dean 2011 The Silent Republic Popular Music and Nationalism in Socialist Croatia PDF Max Weber Programme Florence Italy European University Institute ISSN 1830 7728 News reportsBajrusi Robert 1 October 2018 Kako smo kao drustvo postali toliko imuni na zlo Jutarnji list in Croatian Retrieved 5 October 2018 Ilija Stanic Ubili smo Luburica jer se razisao s Pavelicem Jutarnji list in Croatian 15 July 2009 Retrieved 23 June 2018 Knezevic Gordana 22 July 2017 Diana s List Of Children Saved From Death Camps Revealed Radio Free Europe Radio Liberty Retrieved 23 June 2018 Knezevic Gordana 20 August 2018 Spain Awakens Bosnian Croatian Ghosts Of 1945 Radio Free Europe Radio Liberty Retrieved 5 October 2018 Majetic Vanja 14 March 2018 Odlazak vojnicine starog kova kojem je Zenevska konvencija bila sveto pravilo tportal hr in Croatian Retrieved 19 July 2018 Milekic Sven 25 July 2018 Spanish Law May Mean Moving Croatian Fascist Tombs Balkan Insight Retrieved 26 July 2018 Rados Ivica 10 March 2010 Za rođendan na dar dobio otmicu aviona Vecernji list in Croatian Retrieved 23 June 2018 Rasovic Renata 5 May 2012 Agent Udbe Luburica sam ubio jer je uvrijedio mog cacu Vecernji list in Croatian Retrieved 23 June 2018 Wittes Benjamin 7 May 1998 Croatian Reckoning The Washington Post Retrieved 23 June 2018 Online resourcesHolocaust Encyclopedia Jasenovac United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Retrieved 6 June 2018 International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia 3 May 2006 Appeals Chamber Confirms Sentences Against Mladen Naletilic and Vinko Martinovic United Nations Retrieved 23 June 2018 Jasenovac Memorial Site March 2013 List of Individual Victims of Jasenovac Concentration Camp JUSP Jasenovac Retrieved 23 June 2018 External links editBiography on the Jasenovac Memorial Site Archived 23 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Vjekoslav Luburic amp oldid 1192632971, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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