Upheaval of the Five Barbarians

The Upheaval of the Five Barbarians also translated as the Uprising, Rebellion^[6] or the Revolt^[7] of the Five Barbarians (simplified Chinese: 五胡乱华; traditional Chinese: 五胡亂華; lit. 'Five foreign tribes disrupting China'^[8]) is a Chinese expression used to refer to a chaotic period of warfare during the Jin dynasty (266–420) roughly between 304 and 316 which heavily involved non-Han peoples living in China, commonly called the Five Barbarians. Coinciding with the War of the Eight Princes that greatly weakened the empire, these conflicts eventually drove the Jin imperial court out of northern and southwestern China.

Upheaval of the Five Barbarians (五胡亂華)
Migration patterns of the Five Barbarians into China.
Date 304–316 Location North and Southwest China Result Expansion of Han-Zhao in northern China and Cheng-Han in Sichuan; Fall of the Western Jin dynasty in northern China; Formation of the Eastern Jin dynasty in southern China.
Belligerents
Han-Zhao	Jin dynasty Xianbei allies Tuoba in Dai Duan tribe in Liaoxi	Cheng-Han	Sima Ying loyalists (307–308)
Commanders and leaders
Liu Yuan Liu Xuan Liu Cong Liu Yao Shi Le (after 307) Wang Mi	Emperor Huai of Jin  Emperor Min of Jin  Sima Yue Gou Xi  Wang Yan  Liu Kun Wang Jun  Sima Bao Zhang Gui Zhang Shi Tuoba Yilu † Duan Wuwuchen Duan Jilujuan Duan Pidi^[1]^[2]^[3]^[4] Luo Shang	Li Xiong Fan Changsheng^[5]	Ji Sang † Shi Le (before 307)
Strength
c. 100,000 Xiongnu, Jie, Di, Qiang, Xianbei, Han Chinese and other tribal people	100,000–200,000 Han Chinese, Xianbei, Qiang, Di and Wuhuan	Ba-Di rebels and Han Chinese allies	Han Chinese and non-Han rebels
Casualties and losses
Unknown	Unknown	Unknown	Unknown

Upheaval of the Five Barbarians
Traditional Chinese	五胡亂華
Simplified Chinese	五胡乱华
Literal meaning	Five Barbarians disorderize China
Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Wǔhú luànhuá Bopomofo ㄨˇㄏㄨˊㄌㄨㄢˋㄏㄨㄚˊ Gwoyeu Romatzyh wuu hwu luann hwa Wade–Giles Wu^3-hu^2 luan^4-hua^2

The "Five Barbarians" were the Xiongnu, Jie, Qiang, Di and Xianbei, many of whom had resettled within China during the preceding centuries. Despite the period's name, many Han Chinese and other tribal people like the Wuhuan were also involved in the uprisings and often joined forces with the Five Barbarians. Years of poor administration and civil wars between the ruling princes left the empire vulnerable to its disaffected and opportunistic subjects. Ethnic tensions in the Guanzhong region between the Han and the tribes, primarily the Qiang and Di, led to major revolts which resulted in an influx of refugees into southwestern China. Efforts to force them back to Guanzhong were met with resistance and culminated in the rebellion of the Ba-Di refugee, Li Te in 301.

In the north, the Southern Xiongnu of Bing province took advantage of the Jin prince's infighting to establish the state of Han-Zhao in 304, acclaiming the noble, Liu Yuan as their ruler. Serving under Liu Yuan was the former Jie slave, Shi Le, who would effectively control the eastern part of his empire. The Xianbei tribes of Liaoxi and Dai were initially important allies of Jin in helping them fight against Han-Zhao, but later pulled out from the conflict to consolidate control over their territories.

Li Te's son Li Xiong captured Chengdu and established Cheng-Han in 304. In 311, Han-Zhao captured Emperor Huai of Jin and the ancient capital, Luoyang in an event known as the Disaster of Yongjia. In 316, Jin's hope of restoring imperial authority in the north were crushed when Han-Zhao defeated and captured Emperor Min in Chang'an. The establishments of Cheng-Han and Han-Zhao in 304 were seen as the start of the Sixteen Kingdoms period, and the defeat of Emperor Min led to the formation of the Eastern Jin dynasty by Emperor Yuan in Jiankang in 318. For the next 130 years or so, China would be divided between the Sixteen Kingdoms and the Eastern Jin before the eventual dissolution of Jin by the Liu Song dynasty and the unification of the north by the Northern Wei dynasty.

Background

Demobilization and War of the Eight Princes

When the Jin dynasty was established in 266, Emperor Wu of Jin sought to learn from the mistakes of his predecessor, the Cao Wei, by empowering the princes. Unlike during the Wei period, the princes were allowed to become military governors and were given personal armies in their fiefdoms. After unifying China in 280, Emperor Wu issued for the demobilization of every province and commandery in the empire and reduced the military authority of the provincial inspector into a civilian role. Only 100 military officials were stationed in large commanderies, while smaller commanderies only had 50.

The emperor had hope that by concentrating military power in the hands of the princes, it would help deter usurpers from the gentry clans. However, the ensuing War of the Eight Princes after his death in 290 undid any potential good from his policies. His successor, Emperor Hui of Jin, was developmentally disabled, making him a mere figurehead to be taken advantage of. Rather than protecting him, the princes pitted their soldiers against one another in a conflict for control over the imperial court.

While the Jin military weakened itself under the princes, many defenseless commanderies became targets for rebellion by the empire's disgruntled or opportunistic subjects. In the finals years of the Western Jin, nomadic subjects collectively known as the Five Barbarians emerged dominant over northern and western China. These Five Barbarians were the Xiongnu, Jie, Qiang, Di and Xianbei.

Southern Xiongnu of Bing province

The migration of the nomadic people into the Chinese interior had been ongoing since the Han dynasty. In 50 CE, a few years after the Xiongnu empire was divided into north and south, the Southern Xiongnu became a vassal of the Han. They moved their court to Xihe Commandery in Bing province and resettled in the frontier commanderies within the Great Wall. They were dependent on trade with the Han and cooperated with them to destroy the rival Northern Xiongnu. Although relations between the two sides declined in the later years with the Xiongnu occasionally rebelling, the Xiongnu remained a vassal to the Han dynasty up to its end in 220 to the Cao Wei.^[9]

In 216, the warlord, Cao Cao, abolished the chanyu position and divided the Southern Xiongnu into five divisions around Taiyuan Commandery, away from the frontier in hopes to deter them from rebelling. Gradually throughout the Cao Wei and early Western Jin periods, the Xiongnu elites began expressing resentment towards their new way of life. During the Jiaping era (249–254), the five divisions were unified as one under Liu Bao, but was gradually forced by the Wei-Jin imperial courts to split back to five. In 272, one of the Xiongnu leaders, Liu Meng rebelled against Jin in Bing but was defeated in a matter of months. In 294, another leader, Hao San (郝散), rebelled in Shangdang Commandery, but was also quickly dispatched. As the Xiongnu noble, Liu Xuan, states in the Book of Jin:

“In the past, our ancestors and those of the Han acted like brothers through joy and sorrow. However, since the fall of Han and the rise of Wei and Jin, our titles of chanyus hold no value, and we have not gained a foot of land since. Although we have been bestowed with many noble ranks, our households are all equally low."

Another ethnic group living in Bing at the time were the Jie people. Their exact origins is still debated by scholars today, but it is believed that they were once a part of the Southern Xiongnu and later resided in Shangdang. In 303, Bing was struck by famine, which displaced many of the Xiongnu, Jie and other tribal populace. The provincial inspector, Sima Teng, had these people captured and sold into slavery to fund his army for an ongoing civil war.

Ethnic tensions in Guanzhong

After the Han established their presence in the Hexi Corridor in 121 BC, the Qiang people of the Tibetan Plateau became a recurring threat to them in northwestern China. To appease them, the Qiang were sometimes allowed to resettle into the Guanzhong area, as well as the watersheds of the Wei and Jing rivers. There, they lived together with Han immigrants but faced oppression from the local administrators, which frequently led to rebellions. Living close to the Qiang were the Di people, who dispersed throughout the Central Plains after the Han defeated them to establish Wudu Commandery in 108 BC.

The fall of Han and the Three Kingdoms period further encouraged the immigration of nomadic people to repopulate devastated areas and provide military power and labour. The Guanzhong region in particular became a contested region between warlords and later between the states of Cao Wei and Shu Han. In 219, Cao Cao relocated around 50,000 Di from Wudu to Tianshui and Fufeng commanderies. The Qiang and Di people were numerous in northwestern China, and they often fought for Wei and Shu depending on their circumstances. Other nomadic people who lived or resettled in the northwest included the Lushui barbarians (盧水胡) and Xianbei tribes such as the Tufa (禿髮).

While the situtation was relatively controlled under Wei, the northwest descended into chaos under Western Jin as they lost the support of the tribes due to inept governance. In 270, the Xianbei chieftain, Tufa Shujineng, led a multi-ethnic rebellion against Jin in Liang and Qin provinces that lasted until 279, with the rebels even briefly taking control over Liang. From 296 to 299, the various tribes rebelled again, this time within Guanzhong and acclaiming the Di chieftain, Qi Wannian as their emperor. These rebellions were accompanied by famines and plagues, with Qi Wannian's rebellion being so severe that it devastated Guanzhong and prompted tens of thousands of refugees to move into Hanzhong and Sichuan in search of food.^[10]

Jin and Xianbei alliances

Following the fragmentation of the Xianbei confederation, the Murong, Duan and Yuwen tribes moved to the Liaoxi region where the three developed a rivalry with one another. The Murong was the first to affiliate themselves with the Central Plains dynasties starting with the Cao Wei in 238. They remained affiliated even after the founding of Jin, and despite a war between both sides from 281 to 289, the Murong resubmitted to Jin and their chieftain, Murong Hui, was appointed Commander of the Xianbei. Meanwhile, in 258, another Xianbei tribe, the Tuoba, occupied the abandon city of Shengle and also became a vassal of Wei and Jin.

At the turn of the 4th century, the Inspector of You province, Wang Jun, sought to consolidate his control over his province amidst the War of the Eight Princes. He allied himself with the neighbouring Duan tribe and a chief of the Yuwen as well as other smaller tribes like from the Wuhuan. The Xianbei provided him with troops who fought in the campaigns against Sima Ying and Sima Yong, playing a crucial role in securing Sima Yue's victory in the civil war. However, they also partook in the sacking of Ye in 304 and Chang'an in 306, killing thousands of the cities' inhabitants.

The Xianbei's effectiveness saw them continued use after the civil war by northern governors to contain the growing threat of Han-Zhao, eventually enlisting the help of the Tuoba tribe as well. However, it also created an overdependence that would cost Jin dearly in the later stages of the war.

Rise of Cheng-Han

The refugees displaced by Qi Wannian's rebellion were mostly from six commanderies in Guanzhong and composed of both Han Chinese and tribal people. They initially moved southwards to Hanzhong, where one Di chieftain, Yang Maosou, brought his followers to his ancestral home of Chouchi and declared semi-autonomy from Jin in 296. Later, the imperial court allowed the refugees to go further south into the Ba and Shu regions. They were scattered throughout Yi and Liáng provinces, where they became hired labourers for the local populace.

Among the refugees in Ba and Shu was one of their leaders, Li Te. He and his family were Ba-Di people, an ethnic group whose ancestors were Cong or Bandun people initially from Ba before moving north and mingling with the Di people. In 300, Li Te and his brothers joined the Inspector of Yi, Zhao Xin, in his rebellion against Jin, but later betrayed him after he killed one of the brothers. Li Te and his followers sacked the provincial capital, Chengdu and ousted Zhao Xin, but soon submitted back to Jin due to the arrival of an army led by the new inspector, Luo Shang.

Still, Li Te retained a significant influence over the refugees. In 301, the imperial court in Luoyang ordered the refugees in Ba and Shu to return to Guanzhong. They were reluctant to comply as they believed that northern China was still unstable and they did not have enough supplies to guarantee a safe journey. Li Te helped extend their stay by negotiating with Luo Shang, but the latter soon became frustrated with the delay and took measures to force a move. As conflict appeared inevitable, many of the refugees gathered under Li Te to defend themselves, and in winter 301, Luo Shang sent his troops to attack them. Li Te was killed in battle in 303, but in 304, his son, Li Xiong drove Luo Shang out of Chengdu and established the state of Cheng (renamed Han in 338, thus the name Cheng-Han).

Between its inception and the fall of Western Jin, Cheng took a slow approach in expanding its domain, only acting when there was a neighbouring refugee revolt. Their most significant gain came in 314, when rebels in Hanzhong surrendered the region to Cheng. Cheng's existence was threatened in 309 when Luo Shang launched an offensive to support rebelling Cheng administrators. Despite losing key commanderies early on, Cheng was ultimately successful at recovering their territory and driving Jin out by 311, partly due to Luo Shang's death the prior year which prompted infighting among his generals.

Jin forces in the southern provinces were unable to concentrate their resources on the southwest due to rebellions in Hubei and Henan. The war with Li Te and Cheng created more refugees, this time from Ba and Shu moving east into Jing province. Between 303 and 304, a Man official, Zhang Chang led a revolt that spread across Jing, Jiang, Xu, Yang and Yu provinces consisting of refugees and those evading a draft to fight Li Te's rebellion. From 311 to 315, a Han official, Du Tao led a refugee uprising against Jin in Jing and Xiang (湘州; in modern Hunan) provinces. However, unlike Li Te's rebellion, the revolts in Hubei and Hunan were ultimately put down by Jin.

Rise of Han-Zhao

Founding of Han-Zhao

In 304, the Xiongnu nobility in Bing province conspired to take advantage of the Jin princes' infighting to break away from the empire. Serving under the prince, Sima Ying, was the Xiongnu general, Liu Yuan. Liu Yuan was the grandson of the Southern Xiongnu chanyu, Yufuluo, although some modern Chinese historians doubt this claim, instead believing he was a member of the non-related but influential Tuge tribe (屠各部). He was a Sinicized Xiongnu, having spent his youth in the Chinese capital Luoyang as a hostage and being educated with Chinese-Confucian literature. After leaving Luoyang, Liu Yuan served a series of offices under Jin to oversee the Xiongnu tribes in Bing, during which he won the support of both the Xiongnu and Han people in Bing, You and Ji provinces.

Under Sima Ying, Liu Yuan served as the Chief Controller of the Five Divisions in the prince's base, Ye. Liu Yuan's granduncle, Liu Xuan, convinced the conspirators to elect Liu Yuan as their leader, so they sent an envoy to inform him of the plot and offered him the title of Grand Chanyu. At the time, Sima Ying was on the verge of defeat as Wang Jun's forces marched onto Ye. After agreeing to join the plot, Liu Yuan convinced Sima Ying to allow him to return to Bing so that he could gather the Xiongnu tribes to help fight Wang Jun. Once Liu Yuan reached Lishi, he was installed as the new Grand Chanyu and rallied around 50,000 soldiers.^{[full citation needed][11]}

Later in 304, Liu Yuan established the state of Han (renamed Zhao in 319, thus the name Han-Zhao). Despite being a Xiongnu, Liu Yuan depicted his state as a continuation of the Han dynasty, citing that his ancestor, Modu Chanyu, was married to a Han princess through Heqin. He initially took the imperial title of King, only becoming Emperor in 308 to imitate the ascension of Emperor Gaozu of Han. He also honored the emperors of the Western, Eastern and Shu Han. To bolster his forces, he was willing to accept the Han Chinese and non-Xiongnu tribes to serve under him.^{[12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20]}

Soon after becoming king, Liu Yuan greatly defeated a Jin force sent to quell his rebellion at Daling County (大陵縣; northeast of present-day Wenshui County, Shanxi). He then expanded his domain by capturing counties in Taiyuan and Xihe commaderies before suffering his first major defeat in 305. This defeat saw the first involvement of the Tuoba-Xianbei tribe in the war, as they provided Jin with their light cavalries to fight Han-Zhao. Along with a famine that forced him to move his capital to Lishi (離石; in modern Lüliang, Shanxi), Liu Yuan's expansion was temporarily stifled.

Rebellions in Hebei, Henan and Shandong

In the next few years, more rebellions began to break out in northeastern China. In 305, the general, Gongshi Fan rebelled in Hebei and in 306, the prefect, Liu Bogen (劉柏根), rebelled in Shandong. The two rebellions were swiftly dealt with by late-306, but Jin was unable to completely wipe out their forces, allowing their remnants to develop into more serious threats. Many of these rebel leaders were Han Chinese, but the most influential of them would prove to be Shi Le, a Jie chief who was previously sold into slavery during the famine in Bing province of 303 and 304.

After Gongshi Fan's defeat, his subordinates, Ji Sang and Shi Le, fled to the pastures of Shandong where they gathered followers, many of who were horse shepherds, and raided the surrounding counties. Their forces grew to such a size that in 307, they sacked the city of Ye and left it to burn for ten days. Around 10,000 people were killed including the city's commander, Sima Teng. However, after they left to invade Yan province, they suffered a string of defeats to the general, Gou Xi. Following a decisive defeat, the two decided to escape to Bing province to join Han-Zhao, but along the way, they were intercepted by Jin forces and forced to split up. Shi Le continued on to Bing while Ji Sang fled back to Shandong, where he was killed by refugees forces loyal to Sima Teng, the Qihuo.

Liu Bogen's subordinate, Wang Mi, also survived his superior's defeat and fled to Shandong, where he formed a bandit group. Much like Ji Sang and Shi Le, his forces grew immensely, and in 307, he invaded Qing and Xu provinces, ravaging the commanderies and killing many of the local officials. Wang Mi then attached himself to Han-Zhao, and in 308, his rebellion spilled over to Yan and Yu provinces while his forces swelled to the tens of thousands. He was even able to enter Xuchang and empty the city's arsenal before laying siege on Luoyang. However, the siege ended in failure as he was unable to break through the capital's defense. With his momentum coming to a halt, Wang Mi brought his forces over to Han-Zhao territory.

Under Liu Yuan, Shi Le and Wang Mi were elevated to powerful commanders. Wang Mi had previously befriended Liu Yuan during his youth in Luoyang and was thus immediately entrusted with important military affairs. Meanwhile, Shi Le, around the time of joining Han-Zhao, helped convinced the tribes of Shangdang Commandery and the Wuhuan people of Leping County (樂平; in present-day Jinzhong, Shanxi) into joining the state. For his deeds, he was given full command over the armies east of the Taihang Mountains.^[21]

Disaster of Yongjia and Jin defeat

Main article: Disaster of Yongjia

The Jin dynasty was ineffective in its attempts to halt the uprising in the north. The Jin capital, Luoyang was open to Liu Yuan's son Liu Cong (who was now commander of the rebellious forces), and he attacked Luoyang twice in 309 and 310, without success. However, in the wake of the War of the Eight Princes, the Jin Chancellor, Sima Yue, was deeply suspicious of his subordinates and Emperor Huai of Jin. Yue feared that he would be overthrown, and combined with Han-Zhao's attack on Luoyang, he left the capital with 40,000 troops to Xiang County (項縣; in present-day Shenqiu County, Henan) in 310, ostensibly to campaign against Shi Le.^{[11][full citation needed]}

The relationship between Sima Yue and Emperor Huai reached its breaking point after Emperor Huai conspired with Yue's powerful general, Gou Xi to campaign against him. Sima Yue discovered the conspiracy, but was so overwhelmed with stress that he became ill and later died. After Sima Yue's death, the main Jin forces in Henan, led by Wang Yan, decided to proceed to his peerage in Donghai to hold his funeral. However, Shi Le was able to track down the funeral procession. Shi Le ambushed and defeated Wang Yan at the Battle of Ningping, where more than 100,000 soldiers perished, including Wang Yan himself.^{[22][full citation needed]}

The defeat of Wang Yan's forces finally exhausted the military capacity of the Jin, leaving the capital Luoyang open to capture. Upon entering the city in 311 A.D., the uprising armies engaged in a massacre, razing the city and causing more than 30,000 deaths. This event in Chinese history was known as the Disaster of Yongjia, after the era name of Emperor Huai; the emperor himself was captured, while his crown prince and clansmen who were in the capital at the time were killed. Gou Xi was also defeated and captured by Shi Le at Mengcheng County.^{[22][full citation needed]}

Despite the loss of the emperor and the capital, the Western Jin would continue for another five years. In 312, a group of Jin generals recaptured the important city of Chang’an, which had been lost to Han-Zhao a year prior. They then acclaimed the 12-year-old Emperor Min of Jin (Emperor Huai's nephew) as the new emperor. Elsewhere, Jin governors continued to resist Han-Zhao. Most notable of these governors were Liu Kun in Bingzhou, Wang Jun in Youzhou, Sima Bao in Qinzhou and Zhang Gui in Liangzhou. Jin also received support from their Xianbei subjects, the Tuoba and Duan clan, and, while mostly remaining neutral, the Murong clan in Liaodong remained a vassal of Jin. However, the Jin leaders had conflicting goals and often did not trust each other. Han-Zhao was able to exploit this weakness and defeat them one by one. In 316, Han-Zhao forces reclaimed Chang'an and captured Emperor Min, thus ending the Western Jin dynasty.

Sixteen Kingdoms and Eastern Jin dynasty

Main articles: Sixteen Kingdoms and Jin dynasty (266–420) § Eastern Jin (317–420)

 

China in 317 CE shortly after the fall of the Western Jin dynasty.

The creation of Han-Zhao and Cheng-Han in 304 is often seen as the beginning of the Sixteen Kingdoms, a period of short-lived states in northern China (with the exception of Cheng-Han). In 319, just three years after Chang’an fell, Shi Le would break away from Han-Zhao and form the Later Zhao. Meanwhile, as Jin gradually lost control over the north, the Zhang clan of Liangzhou and the Murong clan of Liaodong would gain full autonomy over their respective territory, leading to the creation of the Han-led Former Liang and the Xianbei-led Former Yan. Other states that existed during this time but were not listed as part of the Sixteen Kingdoms were the Di-led Chouchi (established in 296) and Xianbei-led Dai (established in 310). As the period progressed, more and more of the Sixteen Kingdoms would form.

Han-Zhao had Emperor Huai and Emperor Min killed in 313 and 318 respectively. Both emperors suffered similar fates; they were forced to serve as Liu Cong's servants before being suspected of rebellion and executed. As the upheaval unfolded, the Prince of Langya, Sima Rui, emerged as an authoritative figure in southern China. Based in Jiankang, safe from the chaos in the north, many northern officials flocked to serve under Sima Rui, and following Emperor Min's capture, he became a popular candidate to ascend the throne. After Emperor Min's death in 318, Sima Rui declared himself emperor and found the Eastern Jin dynasty, formally shifting the Jin court to the south.

Historical impact

The collapse of the Western Jin had long-lasting effects. Just 24 years after the Western Jin dynasty ended the Three Kingdoms period in 280, China was once again in a state of division. The Sixteen Kingdoms ushered northern China into an age of constant warfare as well as political and economic collapse. The period ended in 439 with the unification of the north by the Northern Wei, completing the transition into the Northern and Southern dynasties period, but the full unification of China would only be achieved by the Sui dynasty in 589.

In 1907, the archaeologist, Aurel Stein discovered five letters written in Sogdian (an ancient Eastern Iranian language) sometime after the disaster known as the "Ancient Letters" in an abandoned watchtower near Dunhuang. One letter in the collection, written by the Sogdian, Nanai-vandak, addressed to his people back home in Samarkand informing them about the upheaval. He claimed that every single one of the diaspora Sogdians and Indians in Luoyang had died of starvation, and the emperor had fled the capital as the city and palaces were burnt. He added that Yecheng and Luoyang were no more while alluding to Jin’s efforts to recapture Chang’an as the conflict ended in disaster for the Sogdian diaspora in China.^{[23][24][25][26]}

While the era was one of military catastrophe, it was also one of deep cultural interaction. The nomadic tribes introduced new methods of government, while also encouraging introduced faiths such as Buddhism. Meanwhile, the southward exodus of the cultured Jin elite, who then spread across the southern provinces including modern-day Fujian and Guangdong, further integrated the areas south of the Yangtze River into the Chinese cultural sphere.

Han Chinese migrations

The chaos and devastation of the north led to a mass migration of Han Chinese to the areas south of the Huai River, where conditions were relatively stable. The southward migration of the Jin nobility is referred to in Chinese as yī guān nán dù (衣冠南渡, lit. "garments and headdresses moving south"). Many of those who fled south were of prominent families, who had the means to escape; among these prominent northern families were the Xie clan and the Wang clan, whose prominent members included Xie An and Wang Dao. Wang Dao, in particular, was instrumental in supporting Sima Rui to proclaim the Eastern Jin dynasty at Jiankang and serving as his chancellor. The Eastern Jin, dependent on established southern nobility as well as exiled northern nobility for its survival, became a relatively weak dynasty dominated by regional nobles who served as governors; nonetheless it would survive for another century as a southern regime.

The "Eight Great Surnames" were eight noble families who migrated from northern China to Fujian in southern China due to the uprising of the five barbarians when the Eastern Jin was founded, the Hu, He, Qiu, Dan, Zheng, Huang, Chen and Lin surnames.^{[27][28][29][30][31][32][33]}

The different waves of migration such as the fourth century and Tang dynasty northern Han Chinese migrants to the south are claimed as the origin of various Chen families in Fuzhou, Fujian.^[34] Mass migrations led to southern China's population growth, economic, agricultural and cultural development as it stayed peaceful unlike the north.^{[35][36][37][38][39][40][41]} Yellow registers were used to record the original southern Han Chinese population before the migration and white registers were used to record the massive influx of commoner and aristocratic northern Han Chinese migrants by the Eastern Jin dynasty government.^[42]

After the establishment of the Northern Wei in northern China and a return to stability, a small reverse migration of southern defectors to northern China took place. In Luoyang a Wu quarter was set up for southerners moving north.^{[43][44][45][46][47]} Han Chinese male nobles and royals of the southern dynasties who fled north to defect married over half of Northern Wei Xianbei Tuoba princesses.^[48] Southern Chinese from the southern capital of Jiankang (Nanjing) were deported to the northern capital of Chang'an by the Sui dynasty after reuniting China.^[49]

Han Chinese refugees from the five barbarian uprising also migrated into the Korean peninsula^[50] and into the Murong Former Yan state.^{[51][52][53][54]} Eastern Jin maintained nominal suzerainty over the Murong state until 353 as the Murong accepted titles from them.^[55] An official in the Murong state, Dong Shou defected to Goguryeo.^{[56][57][58][59][60][61]} Han Chinese refugees migrated west into Han Chinese controlled Former Liang.^[62][63][64]

The descendants of northern Han Chinese aristocrats who fled the five barbarians uprising to move south with the Eastern Jin and the local southern Han Chinese aristocrats already in southern China combined to form the Chinese Southern aristocracy in the Tang dynasty, in competition with the northeastern aristocracy and the mixed Han-Xianbei northwestern aristocracy of the former Northern Zhou who founded the Sui dynasty and Tang dynasty.^[65][66] The southern aristocracy only intermarried with each other and viewed themselves as preserving Han culture.^[67][68]

Southern Chinese Daoism developed as a result of a merger of the religious beliefs of the local southern Han Chinese aristocrats and northern Han Chinese emigres fleeing the five barbarians.^[69] The Han aristocrats of both south and north were highly insular and closed against outsiders and descended from the same families who originally hailed from northern China.^[70][71]

Analysis

Ming dynasty writer and historian Zhu Guozhen (1558-1632) remarked on how the Ming dynasty managed to successfully control the Mongols who surrendered to the Ming and were relocated into China to serve in military matters, unlike the Eastern Han dynasty and the Western Jin dynasty whose unsuccessful management of the surrendered barbarians led to rebellion:

Late during the Eastern Han (25-220 C.E.), surrendering barbarians were settled in the hinterlands [of China]. In time, they learned to study and grew conversant with [matters of the] past and present. As a result, during the Jin dynasty (265-419), there occurred the Revolt of the Five Barbarian [Tribes](late in the third and early in the fourth centuries C.E.). During our dynasty, surrendering barbarians were relocated to the hinterlands in great numbers. Because [the court] was generous in its stipends and awards, [the Mongols are content to] merely amuse themselves with archery and hunting. The brave among them gain recognition through [service in] the military. [They] serve as assistant regional commanders and regional vice commanders. Although they do not hold the seals of command, they may serve as senior officers. Some among those who receive investiture in the nobility of merit may occasionally hold the seals of command. However [because the court] places heavy emphasis on maintaining centralized control of the armies, [the Mongols] do not dare commit misdeeds. As a consequence, during the Tumu Incident, while there was unrest everywhere, it still did not amount to a major revolt. Additionally, [the Mongols] were relocated to Guangdong and Guangxi on military campaign. Thus, for more than 200 years, we have had peace throughout the realm. The dynastic forefathers' policies are the product of successive generations of guarding against the unexpected. [Our policies] are more thorough than those of the Han. The foundations of merit surpass the Sima family (founders of the Eastern Jin) ten thousand fold. In a word, one cannot generalize [about the policies towards surrendering barbarians].^[72]

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