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Heqin

Heqin, also known as marriage alliance, refers to the historical practice of Chinese monarchs marrying princesses—usually members of minor branches of the ruling family—to rulers of neighboring states.[1] It was often adopted as an appeasement strategy with an enemy state that was too powerful to defeat on the battlefield. The policy was not always effective. It implied an equal diplomatic status between the two monarchs. As a result, it was controversial and had many critics.[1]

Heqin
Traditional Chinese和親
Simplified Chinese和亲
Literal meaningpeace marriage
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinHéqīn
Wade–GilesHo-ch‘in

Lou Jing (Chinese: 娄敬, later granted the imperial surname Liu 劉), the architect of the policy, proposed granting the eldest daughter of Emperor Gaozu of Han to the Modu Chanyu of the Xiongnu. His proposal was adopted and implemented with a treaty in 198 BC, following the Battle of Baideng two years prior.[2][3] Wang Zhaojun, of the Han dynasty, and Princess Wencheng, of the Tang dynasty, are among the most famous heqin princesses.

The 20th-century scholar Wang Tonglin praised heqin for facilitating the "melting of races" in China.[4]

Han dynasty edit

There were a total of fifteen instances of heqin marriage alliances during the Han dynasty.[5][3]

The Han dynasty sent random unrelated commoner women falsely labeled as "princesses" and members of the Han imperial family multiple times when they were practicing Heqin marriage alliances with the Xiongnu in order to avoid sending the emperor's daughters.[6][7][8][9][10]

Xiongnu edit

The Xiongnu practiced marriage alliances with Han dynasty officers and officials by marrying off daughters of the Chanyu (the Xiongnu ruler) to Han people who joined the Xiongnu and Xiongnu in Han service. The daughter of the Laoshang Chanyu (and older sister of Junchen Chanyu and Yizhixie Chanyu) was married to the Xiongnu General Zhao Xin, the Marquis of Xi who was serving the Han dynasty. The daughter of the Qiedihou Chanyu was married to the Han general Li Ling after he surrendered and defected.[11][12][13][14][15] The Yenisei Kirghiz Khagans claimed descent from Li Ling.[16][17] Another Han general who defected to the Xiongnu was Li Guangli who also married a daughter of the Hulugu Chanyu.[18] The Han diplomat Su Wu married a Xiongnu woman given by Li Ling when he was arrested and taken captive.[19] The Han explorer Zhang Qian married a Xiongnu woman and had a child with her when he was taken captive by the Xiongnu. The Emperor Wu of Han dispatched Zhang Qian to explore the Western Regions and to form an alliance with the Yuezhi people in order to combat the Xiongnu. During this time Zhang married a Xiongnu wife, who bore him a son, and gained the trust of the Xiongnu leader.[20][21][22][23][24][25][26]

The Yenisei Kyrgyz khagans of the Yenisei Kyrgyz Khaganate claimed descent from the Han general Li Ling, grandson of the famous general Li Guang.[27][28][29][30] Li Ling was captured by the Xiongnu and defected in the first century BCE.[31][32] And since the Tang imperial Li family also claimed descent from Li Guang, the Kirghiz Khagan was therefore recognized as a member of the Tang imperial family. This relationship soothed the relationship when Kyrgyz khagan Are (阿熱) invaded Uyghur Khaganate and put Qasar Qaghan to the sword. The news brought to Chang'an by Kyrgyz ambassador Zhuwu Hesu (註吾合素).

Kingdom of Khotan edit

 
A daughter of the King of Khotan married to the ruler of Dunhuang, Cao Yanlu, is here shown wearing elaborate headdress decorated with jade pieces. Mural in Mogao Cave 61, Five Dynasties.

The Cao family of ethnic Han descent that ruled the Guiyi Circuit established marriage alliances with the Saka Kingdom of Khotan, with both the Cao rulers marrying Khotanese princesses and with Cao princesses marrying Khotan rulers. A Khotan princess who was the daughter of the King of Khotan married Cao Yanlu.[33]

Sixteen Kingdoms edit

During the Sixteen Kingdoms period, there were a total of six recorded instances of heqin marriage. Heqin marriage alliances during the Sixteen Kingdoms period differed from those practiced during the Han dynasty in two main ways. First, they involved "real" princesses (i.e. daughters of emperors or rulers). Second, unlike during the Han dynasty, when most heqin marriages were aimed at establishing peace with foreign nations, heqin marriages during the Sixteen Kingdoms period were made primarily to settle rivalries and maintain a balance of power between the various states in China at the time.[5]

Northern and Southern dynasties edit

During the Northern and Southern dynasties period, China was divided into many rival states. A complicated system of rivalries and vassalage existed. Heqin marriage was employed as a method to maintain a balance of power or to solidify alliances between states.[5]

During the Northern and Southern dynasties, there were five instances of heqin marriage.

Northern Wei edit

The Tuoba imperial family of the Xianbei-led Northern Wei dynasty started to arrange for ethnic Han elites to marry daughters of the imperial family in the 480s.[34] More than fifty percent of Tuoba Xianbei princesses of the Northern Wei were married to southern Han men from the imperial families and aristocrats from southern China of the Southern dynasties who defected and moved north to join the Northern Wei.[35] Some exiled royalty of Han descent fled from southern China and defected to the Northern Wei. Several daughters of the Xianbei Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei were married to ethnic Han elites, the Liu Song royal Liu Hui 刘辉, married Princess Lanling 蘭陵公主 of the Northern Wei,[36][37][38][39][40][41][42] Princess Huayang 華陽公主 to Sima Fei 司馬朏, a descendant of Jin dynasty (266–420) royalty, Princess Jinan 濟南公主 to Lu Daoqian 盧道虔, Princess Nanyang 南阳长公主 to Xiao Baoyin 萧宝夤, a member of Southern Qi royalty.[43] Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei's sisters, the Shouyang Princess was wedded to the Liang dynasty ruler Emperor Wu of Liang's son Xiao Zong 蕭綜.[44] One of Emperor Xiaowu of Northern Wei's sister was married to Zhang Huan, an ethnic Han, according to the Book of Zhou. His name is given as Zhang Xin in the Book of Northern Qi and History of the Northern Dynasties which mention his marriage to a Xianbei princess of Wei. His personal name was changed due to a naming taboo on the emperor's name. He was the son of Zhang Qiong.[45]

When the Eastern Jin dynasty ended Northern Wei received the Jin prince Sima Chuzhi (司馬楚之) as a refugee. A Northern Wei Princess married Sima Chuzhi, giving birth to Sima Jinlong. Northern Liang Xiongnu King Juqu Mujian's daughter married Sima Jinlong.[46]

Rouran edit

The Rouran Khaganate arranged for one of their princesses, Khagan Yujiulü Anagui's daughter Princess Ruru 蠕蠕公主 to be married to the ethnic Han regent Gao Huan of the Eastern Wei.[47][48]

Gaochang edit

The Kingdom of Gaochang was made out of ethnic Han colonists and ruled by the Han people[49][50] Qu family, which originated from Gansu.[51] Jincheng commandery (金城 in Lanzhou), district of Yuzhong (榆中) was the home of the Qu Jia.[52] The Qu family was linked by marriage alliances to the Turks, with a Turk being the grandmother of King Qu Boya's.[53][54]

Sui dynasty edit

With the establishment of the Sui dynasty in 581, much of China proper was once again unified under one dynasty. Heqin marriage during the Sui dynasty therefore returned to its original purpose of trying to appease barbarian tribes surrounding the Sui.[5] There were a total of seven instances of heqin marriage during the Sui dynasty.

Tang dynasty edit

During the Tang dynasty, heqin marriage alliances were primarily aimed at the Tuyuhun, the Tibetan Empire, the Khitans and the allied Kumo Xi, the Uyghur Khaganate, and Nanzhao.[5]

There were a total of twenty-one instances of heqin marriage alliances during the Tang dynasty, including:

  • 640: Emperor Taizong of Tang marries Princess Honghua (弘化公主) to Murong Nuohebo, Khan of Tuyuhun.
  • 641: Emperor Taizong of Tang marries Princess Wencheng to Emperor Songtsän Gampo of Tibet.
  • 642: Emperor Taizong proposed the marriage of his fifteenth daughter, Princess Xinxing (新兴公主), to Zhenzhu Khan, Khan of Xueyantuo. The heqin was called off.
  • 664: Emperor Gaozong of Tang marries Lady Jincheng (金城县主), the third daughter of Li Dao'en, Prince of Guiji (会稽郡王李道恩), to Prince Sudumomo of Tuyuhun (吐谷浑王子苏度摸末).
  • 664: Emperor Gaozong marries Lady Jinming (金明县主), the daughter of a Tang imperial clansman, to Prince Talumomo of Tuyuhun (吐谷浑王子闼卢摸末).
  • 698: A daughter of Qapaghan, Khagan of the Second Eastern Turkic Khaganate marries Wu Zetian's great-nephew Wu Chengsi, Prince of Huaiyang (淮阳王武延秀).
  • 703: A daughter of Qapaghan Khagan marries Crown Prince Li Dan's eldest son Li Chengqi, Prince of Song.
  • 709: Empress Wu Zetian marries her great-granddaughter Princess Jincheng (金城公主), the daughter of her grandson Li Shouli, Prince of Bin, to Emperor Me Agtsom of Tibet
  • 712: Emperor Ruizong of Tang marries his granddaughter, Princess Jinshan (金山公主), the daughter of his son Li Chengqi, to Qapaghan Khagan
  • 717: Emperor Xuanzong of Tang marries Princess Yongle (永乐公主), the daughter of Yang Yuansi (杨元嗣) and a daughter of Li Xu, Prince of Dongping (东平王李续, son of Li Shen, Prince of Ji, the seventeenth son of Emperor Taizong), to Li Shihuo (李失活), leader of the Khitans.
  • 717: Princess Jianghe (交河公主), the daughter of Ashina Nahuaidao, 10th Khagan of the Western Turkic Khaganate, marries Sulu Khan, Khagan of Turgesh.
  • 722: Emperor Xuanzong of Tang marries Princess Yanjun (燕郡公主) (surname Murong (慕容)), a Tang "princess", to Khitan prince Li Yuyu (李郁于).
  • 726: Emperor Xuanzong marries his niece, Princess Donghua (东华公主, surname Chen 陈), to Khitan prince Li Shaogu (李邵固).
  • 726: Emperor Xuanzong marries Princess Dongguang (东光公主), the daughter of Emperor Xuanzong's first cousin Li Jijiang, Princess Cheng'an (成安公主李季姜 eighth daughter of Emperor Zhongzong of Tang) and Wei Jie (韦捷), to Li Lusu (李鲁苏), ruler of Kumo Xi.
  • 744: Emperor Xuanzong marries Princess Heyi (和义公主), a daughter of Li Can, Magistrate of Gaocheng (告城县令李参), to Axilan Dagan (阿悉烂达干), King of Ningyuan (宁远国王) in the Fergana Valley.
  • 745: Emperor Xuanzong marries his granddaughter, Princess Jingle (静乐公主, daughter of his fifteenth daughter Princess Xincheng 信成公主 and Dugu Ming 独孤明), to Khitan prince Li Huaixiu (李怀秀).
  • 745: Emperor Xuanzong marries Princess Yifang (宜芳公主), daughter of Princess Changning (长宁公主, daughter of Emperor Zhongzong of Tang) and Yang Shenjiao (杨慎交), to Khitan prince Li Yanchong (李延宠)
  • 756: Emperor Suzong of Tang marries his daughter, Princess Ninguo to Bayanchur, Khagan of the Uyghur Khaganate. In exchange, Princess Pijia (毗伽公主), daughter of Bayanchur, marries Li Chengcai (李承采), Prince of Dunhuang (敦煌王李承采), son of Li Shouli, Prince of Bin.

Liao, Song, Jin dynasties edit

Song dynasty edit

The Khitan-led Liao dynasty asked for a Song princess to marry the Liao emperor in the negotiations leading up to the Chanyuan Treaty but the Song dynasty refused to give a princess. The Jurchen-led Jin dynasty later rebelled against the Liao dynasty, sacked and destroyed the Liao supreme capital and burned the ancestral tombs of the Liao emperors. The Emperor Tianzuo of Liao was executed by the Jurchens during a polo match. Liao imperial princesses from the Yelü family and Xiao family were also distributed to Jin princes as concubine. Wanyan Liang married the Khitan women Lady Xiao (蕭氏), Consort Chen (宸妃), Lady Yelü (耶律氏), Consort Li (麗妃), Lady Yelü (耶律氏), Consort Rou (柔妃) and Lady Yelü (耶律氏), Zhaoyuan (昭媛).

The Jin dynasty then attacked the Northern Song dynasty in the Jingkang incident and seized a large number of the Song imperial family. Song princesses were married off to Jin princes such as Emperor Xizong of Jin. The Song male princes who were captured were given ethnic Khitan women to marry from the Liao dynasty palace by the Jin, who had also defeated and conquered the Liao. The original Han wives of the Song princes were confiscated and replaced with Khitan ones. One of the Emperor Huizong of Song's sons was given a Khitan consort from the Liao palace, and another one of his sons was given a Khitan princess by the Jin at the Jin supreme capital. The Jurchens continued to give new wives to the captured Song royals, the grandsons and sons of the Emperor Huizong of Song after they took away their original ethnic Han wives.[55] The Jin told the Song royals that they were fortunate because the Liao royals were being treated much worse by the Jin than the Song royals, Jin soldiers were given the children of the Emperor Tianzuo of Liao as gifts while the Song emperor was allowed to keep his children while he was in captivity.[56]

Liao dynasty edit

The Liao dynasty arranged for women from the consort Xiao clan to marry members of the Han 韓 clan of ethnic Han descent, which originated in Jizhou 冀州 before being abducted by the Liao and becoming part of the ethnic Han elites of the Liao.[57][58][59]

The Geng family of Han descent intermarried with the Khitans and the Han 韓 clan provided two of their women as wives to Geng Yanyi and the second one was the mother of Geng Zhixin.[60] Empress Rende's sister, a member of the Xiao clan, was the mother of Han Chinese General Geng Yanyi.[61]

Han Derang (Yelü Longyun) was the father of Queen dowager of the State of Chen, who was the wife of General Geng Yanyi and buried with him in his tomb in Zhaoyang in Liaoning.[62] His wife was also known as "Madame Han".[63] The Geng's tomb is located in Liaoning at Guyingzi in Chaoying.[64][65]

Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom edit

The Cao family of ethnic Han descent that ruled the Guiyi Circuit established marriage alliances with the Uighurs of the Ganzhou Kingdom, with both the Cao rulers marrying Uighur princesses and with Cao princesses marrying Uighur rulers. The Ganzhou Uighur Khagan's daughter was married to Cao Yijin in 916.[66][67][68]

Yuan dynasty edit

The Jin emperor Wanyan Yongji's daughter Princess Qiguo was married to Genghis Khan in exchange for relieving the Mongol siege upon Zhongdu (Beijing) in the Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty.[69]

The Emperor Gong of Song surrendered to the Yuan dynasty in 1276 and was married off to an ethnic Mongol princess of the imperial Borjigin family of the Yuan dynasty. Zhao Xian had one son with the Borjigin woman, Zhao Wanpu. Zhao Xian's son Zhao Wanpu was kept alive by the Yuan because of his mother's Borjigin ancestry even after Zhao Xian was ordered killed by the Emperor Yingzong of Yuan. Instead Zhao Wanpu was only moved and exiled. The outbreak of the Song loyalist Red Turban Rebellion in Henan led to a recommendation that Zhao Wanpu should be transferred somewhere else by an Imperial Censor in 1352. The Yuan did not want the ethnic Han rebels to get their hands on Zhao Wanpu so no one was permitted to see him and Zhao Wanpu's family and himself were exiled to Shazhou near the border by the Yuan emperor. Paul Pelliot and John Andrew Boyle commented on Rashid-al-Din Hamadani's chapter The Successors of Genghis Khan in his work Jami' al-tawarikh, identified references by Rashid al-Din to Zhao Xian in his book where he mentions a Chinese ruler who was an "emir" and son-in-law to the Qan (Khan) after being removed from his throne by the Mongols and he is also called "Monarch of Song", or "Suju" (宋主; Songzhu) in the book.[70]

The King of Dali Duan Gong was married to the Borjigin princess Agai, daughter of the Yuan dynasty Prince of Liang, Basalawarmi. They had a son and a daughter, Duan Sengnu.[71][72][73][74][75][76][77][78][79][80] their children were also called Duan Qiangna and Duan Bao.[81] Duan Sengnu raised Duan Bao to take revenge against Basalawarmi for the killing of Duan Gong.[82][83] A play was made based on these events.[84][85] According to Yuan documents, the Duan family were originally ethnic Han from Wuwei commandery, Gansu.[86][87][88] Other Duan families also originated from Wuwei.[89][90]

Ming dynasty edit

The Oirat leader Esen Taishi captured the Zhengtong Emperor of the Ming dynasty. Esen Taishi tried to force the Zhengtong Emperor to marry Esen's sister in a heqin marriage[91] and then placing him back in Beijing with his new wife.[92][93][94] The emperor rejected the marriage proposal.[95]

A Mongol account in the Altan Tobchi said that Zhengtong Emperor had a son with an ethnic Mongol woman he married while he was prisoner.[96]

A Mongol girl was given in marriage by the Gün-bilig-mergen Mongol Ordos leader Rinong (Jinong) to the ethnic Han officer of the Datong Army Wang Duo's (王鐸) son Wang San (王三) because Rinong wanted to hold on to Wang San and make him stay with the Mongols. The Ming arrested and executed Wang San in 1544 because Mongol soldiers were being guided by Wang San. Builders, carpenters, officers, and important prisoners such as the Ming Zhengtong Emperor often ethnic received Mongol wives.[97]

Qing dynasty edit

In the total span of the Qing dynasty, the number of ethnic Mongol grooms of Qing princesses was the largest. More than 58 percent of imperial sons-in-law were Mongols. A total of 32 princesses married Mongols but the majority of these were in the early Qing like Emperor Hong Taiji who married off 12 of his daughters to ethnic Mongol elites, when the Qing needed military support.[98] In the early period of Qing, a large amount of intermarriage between the two groups happened, and the Qing rulers used this tie to gain the military support from the Mongol tribes. The marriage also benefited the Qing dynasty in expanding its empire into the Mongolian Plateau and further west into Inner Asia. The marriage between ethnic Manchu princesses and ethnic Mongol princes continued to the end of Qing dynasty, although becoming less prominent after the 18th century due to the decline of the Mongols' political and military influence within the empire and the Qing after 1770 totally ceased marrying princesses off to Northern and Western Mongols, only marrying them off to princes from the southern Mongols who voluntarily surrendered to them before the establishment of the Qing, who numbered 7 tribes and 13 banners since the locations they inhabited were vital to Qing security unlike the steppes of the Northern and Western Mongols since the wars between the Zunghars and Khalkhas was over. During the Qianlong reign in 1751 and Jiaqing reign in 1801, the Qing emperors deliberately issued decrees eliminating Mongols from potential grooms of Qing princesses and started replacing them with majority Manchu grooms. The Qing at this time no longer needed the support of Mongols and started marrying off their daughters to majority Manchu grooms instead of Mongols.[98]

Ethnic Han generals who defected to the Qing early on were sometimes married to Qing princesses due to the desperate need of the Qing for military allies at that time and their use of marrying their women off to get them, although this is less frequent than the case where Aisin Gioro women married to ethnic Mongol aristocrats or other Manchu elites. Unlike the marriage between Manchus and southern Mongols that lasted throughout the Qing dynasty, the marriages between Qing princesses and ethnic Han generals ceased before 1750 as Qing rule was consolidated by then.[98]

The Manchu imperial Aisin Gioro clan practiced marriage alliances with Ming generals of Han descent and Mongol princes. Aisin Gioro women were married to ethnic Han generals who defected to the Qing side during the Transition from Ming to Qing. The Later Jin leader Nurhaci married one of his granddaughters, a daughter of Abatai, to the Ming general Li Yongfang,[99][100][101][102] the ancestor of Li Shiyao (李侍堯).[103][104] The offspring of Li received the "Third Class Viscount" (三等子爵; sān děng zǐjué) title[105] after he surrendered Fushun in Liaoning to the Manchu in 1618. A mass marriage of Han officers and officials to Manchu women numbering 1,000 couples was arranged by Prince Yoto 岳托 (Prince Keqin) and Hong Taiji in 1632 to promote harmony between the two ethnic groups.[106][107] Aisin Gioro women were married to the sons of the Han generals Sun Sike (孫思克), Geng Jimao, Shang Kexi, and Wu Sangui.[108]

The "Dolo efu" 和碩額駙 rank was given to husbands of Qing princesses. Geng Zhongming, a Han bannerman, was awarded the title of Prince Jingnan, and his son Geng Jingmao managed to have both his sons Geng Jingzhong and Geng Zhaozhong 耿昭忠 become court attendants under the Shunzhi Emperor and marry Aisin Gioro women, with Prince Abatai's granddaughter marrying Geng Zhaozhong 耿昭忠 and Haoge's (a son of Hong Taiji) daughter marrying Geng Jingzhong.[109] A daughter 和硕柔嘉公主 of the Manchu Aisin Gioro Prince Yolo 岳樂 (Prince An) was wedded to Geng Juzhong who was another son of Geng Jingmao.[110]

The 4th daughter of Kangxi (和硕悫靖公主) was wedded to the son (孫承恩) of Sun Sike (孫思克), an ethnic Han.[111]

Imperial Duke Who Assists the State (宗室輔國公) Aisin Gioro Suyan's (蘇燕) daughter was married to Han Banner general Nian Gengyao.[112][113][114] She was Manchu Prince Ajige's great-great-granddaughter.[115]

Manchu Prince Aisin Gioro Yuntang's fourth daughter married the Han Bannerman Zhao Shiyang (趙世揚) in 1721. Manchu Prince Aisin Gioro Yunsi's first daughter married the Han Bannerman Sun Wufu (孫五福) in July/August 1724. Manchu Prince Aisin Gioro Yunzhi, Prince Zhi's second daughter married the Han Bannerman Li Shu'ao (李淑鰲) in September/October 1707 and his fourth daughter married the Han Bannerman Sun Cheng'en (孫承恩) in February/March 1710.

Vietnam edit

The Lý, Trần, Hồ dynasties ruled Dai Viet (Vietnam) in a succession of heqin alliances.

Lý, Trần, Hồ dynasties edit

The Lý dynasty married its princesses off to regional rivals to establish alliances with them. The Lý family married one of their princesses (Lý Chiêu Hoàng) to a member of the Trần (Chen 陈) clan, Trần Thái Tông. This then enabled the Trần to topple the Lý and establish their own Trần dynasty.[116][117]

The Tran dynasty engaged in a similar practice, marrying Tran princesses to regional allies. Later, the Hồ family, which was also of Chinese origin, established the Hồ dynasty, taking power after having a Tran princess marry one of their members, Hồ Quý Ly. A Lý princess also married into the Ho family.[118][119]

Nguyen lords edit

The Cambodian King Chey Chettha II married the Vietnamese Nguyễn lord Princess Nguyễn Thị Ngọc Vạn, a daughter of Lord Nguyễn Phúc Nguyên, in 1618.[120][121] In return, the king granted the Vietnamese the right to establish settlements in Mô Xoài (now Bà Rịa), in the region of Prey Nokor—which they colloquially referred to as Sài Gòn, and which later became Ho Chi Minh City.[122][123]

Joseon edit

After the Qing conquest of Joseon, Joseon Korea was forced to give several of their royal princesses as concubines to the Qing regent Prince Dorgon, an ethnic Manchu.[124][125][126][127][128][129][130] In 1650, Dorgon married the Korean Princess Uisun (義順).[131] She was a collateral branches of the Korean royal family, and daughter of Yi Gae-yun (李愷胤).[132] Dorgon married two Korean princesses at Lianshan.[133]

See also edit

References edit

Citations edit

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  3. ^ a b Rui Chuanming (芮传明). (PDF) (in Chinese). Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 18 October 2014.
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  6. ^ Lo, Ping-cheung (2015). "11 Legalism and offensive realism in the Chinese court debate on defending national security 81 BCE". In Lo, Ping-cheung; Twiss, Sumner B (eds.). Chinese Just War Ethics: Origin, Development, and Dissent. War, Conflict and Ethics (illustrated ed.). Routledge. p. 269. ISBN 978-1317580973. There were altogether nine marriages of Han princesses (fake or real) to the Xiongnu during these roughly 60 years (for a complete list of details, see Cui 2007a, 555). We will call this policy Heqin Model One, and, as Ying-shih Yu ...
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heqin, also, known, marriage, alliance, refers, historical, practice, chinese, monarchs, marrying, princesses, usually, members, minor, branches, ruling, family, rulers, neighboring, states, often, adopted, appeasement, strategy, with, enemy, state, that, powe. Heqin also known as marriage alliance refers to the historical practice of Chinese monarchs marrying princesses usually members of minor branches of the ruling family to rulers of neighboring states 1 It was often adopted as an appeasement strategy with an enemy state that was too powerful to defeat on the battlefield The policy was not always effective It implied an equal diplomatic status between the two monarchs As a result it was controversial and had many critics 1 HeqinTraditional Chinese和親Simplified Chinese和亲Literal meaningpeace marriageTranscriptionsStandard MandarinHanyu PinyinHeqinWade GilesHo ch inLou Jing Chinese 娄敬 later granted the imperial surname Liu 劉 the architect of the policy proposed granting the eldest daughter of Emperor Gaozu of Han to the Modu Chanyu of the Xiongnu His proposal was adopted and implemented with a treaty in 198 BC following the Battle of Baideng two years prior 2 3 Wang Zhaojun of the Han dynasty and Princess Wencheng of the Tang dynasty are among the most famous heqin princesses The 20th century scholar Wang Tonglin praised heqin for facilitating the melting of races in China 4 Contents 1 Han dynasty 1 1 Xiongnu 2 Kingdom of Khotan 3 Sixteen Kingdoms 4 Northern and Southern dynasties 4 1 Northern Wei 4 2 Rouran 5 Gaochang 6 Sui dynasty 7 Tang dynasty 8 Liao Song Jin dynasties 8 1 Song dynasty 8 2 Liao dynasty 8 3 Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom 9 Yuan dynasty 10 Ming dynasty 11 Qing dynasty 12 Vietnam 12 1 Ly Trần Hồ dynasties 12 2 Nguyen lords 13 Joseon 14 See also 15 References 15 1 Citations 15 2 BibliographyHan dynasty editThere were a total of fifteen instances of heqin marriage alliances during the Han dynasty 5 3 The Han dynasty sent random unrelated commoner women falsely labeled as princesses and members of the Han imperial family multiple times when they were practicing Heqin marriage alliances with the Xiongnu in order to avoid sending the emperor s daughters 6 7 8 9 10 200 BC Emperor Gaozu of Han marries a Han princess to Xiongnu chieftain Modu Chanyu This is the first recorded incidence of heqin in Chinese history 192 BC Emperor Hui of Han marries another Han princess to Xiongnu chieftain Modu Chanyu 176 BC Emperor Wen of Han marries a third Han princess to Xiongnu chieftain Modu Chanyu 174 BC Emperor Wen of Han marries a Han princess to Xiongnu chieftain Laoshang Chanyu She brings a Yan eunuch named Zhonghang Yue with her to be her tutor 162 BC Emperor Wen of Han marries another Han princess to Xiongnu chieftain Laoshang Chanyu 160 BC Emperor Wen of Han marries a Han princess to Xiongnu chieftain Gunchen Chanyu 156 BC Emperor Jing of Han marries another Han princess to Xiongnu chieftain Gunchen Chanyu 155 BC Emperor Jing of Han marries a third Han princess to Xiongnu chieftain Gunchen Chanyu 152 BC Emperor Jing of Han marries a fourth Han princess to Xiongnu chieftain Gunchen Chanyu 140 BC Emperor Wu of Han marries a Han princess to Xiongnu chieftain Gunchen Chanyu 108 BC Emperor Wu of Han marries Liu Xijun 刘细君 130 101 BC daughter of Liu Jian 刘建 Prince of Jiangdu 江都王 d 121 BC granddaughter of Prince Yi of Jiangdu to Liejiaomi King of Wusun 103 BC Emperor Wu of Han marries Liu Jieyou 刘解忧 121 49 BC to King Junxumi of Wusun Liejiaomi s grandson After Junxumi s death in 93 BC Princess Jieyou in accordance with Wusun tradition married his successor and younger brother King Wengguimi After Wengguimi s death in 60 BC Princess Jieyou again remarried his successor King Nimi son of Junximi and a Xiongnu princess 33 BC Emperor Yuan of Han marries Wang Zhaojun 王昭君 52 BC 15 a lady of the imperial harem to Xiongnu chieftain Huhanye After Huhanye s death in 31 BC she remarried Huhanye s successor his son by his first wife and thus her stepson Fuzhuleiruodi Chanyu Xiongnu edit The Xiongnu practiced marriage alliances with Han dynasty officers and officials by marrying off daughters of the Chanyu the Xiongnu ruler to Han people who joined the Xiongnu and Xiongnu in Han service The daughter of the Laoshang Chanyu and older sister of Junchen Chanyu and Yizhixie Chanyu was married to the Xiongnu General Zhao Xin the Marquis of Xi who was serving the Han dynasty The daughter of the Qiedihou Chanyu was married to the Han general Li Ling after he surrendered and defected 11 12 13 14 15 The Yenisei Kirghiz Khagans claimed descent from Li Ling 16 17 Another Han general who defected to the Xiongnu was Li Guangli who also married a daughter of the Hulugu Chanyu 18 The Han diplomat Su Wu married a Xiongnu woman given by Li Ling when he was arrested and taken captive 19 The Han explorer Zhang Qian married a Xiongnu woman and had a child with her when he was taken captive by the Xiongnu The Emperor Wu of Han dispatched Zhang Qian to explore the Western Regions and to form an alliance with the Yuezhi people in order to combat the Xiongnu During this time Zhang married a Xiongnu wife who bore him a son and gained the trust of the Xiongnu leader 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 The Yenisei Kyrgyz khagans of the Yenisei Kyrgyz Khaganate claimed descent from the Han general Li Ling grandson of the famous general Li Guang 27 28 29 30 Li Ling was captured by the Xiongnu and defected in the first century BCE 31 32 And since the Tang imperial Li family also claimed descent from Li Guang the Kirghiz Khagan was therefore recognized as a member of the Tang imperial family This relationship soothed the relationship when Kyrgyz khagan Are 阿熱 invaded Uyghur Khaganate and put Qasar Qaghan to the sword The news brought to Chang an by Kyrgyz ambassador Zhuwu Hesu 註吾合素 Kingdom of Khotan edit nbsp A daughter of the King of Khotan married to the ruler of Dunhuang Cao Yanlu is here shown wearing elaborate headdress decorated with jade pieces Mural in Mogao Cave 61 Five Dynasties The Cao family of ethnic Han descent that ruled the Guiyi Circuit established marriage alliances with the Saka Kingdom of Khotan with both the Cao rulers marrying Khotanese princesses and with Cao princesses marrying Khotan rulers A Khotan princess who was the daughter of the King of Khotan married Cao Yanlu 33 Sixteen Kingdoms editDuring the Sixteen Kingdoms period there were a total of six recorded instances of heqin marriage Heqin marriage alliances during the Sixteen Kingdoms period differed from those practiced during the Han dynasty in two main ways First they involved real princesses i e daughters of emperors or rulers Second unlike during the Han dynasty when most heqin marriages were aimed at establishing peace with foreign nations heqin marriages during the Sixteen Kingdoms period were made primarily to settle rivalries and maintain a balance of power between the various states in China at the time 5 Fu Jian 337 385 Emperor Xuanzhao of Former Qin married one of his daughters to Yang Ding ruler of the state of Chouchi Fu Deng Emperor Gao of Former Qin married his younger sister Princess Dongping 东平公主 to Qifu Gangui Prince of Western Qi 441 Feng Ba Emperor Wencheng of Northern Yan married his daughter Princess Lelang 乐浪公主 to Yujiulu Hulu Khan Aidougai of Rouran 415 Yao Xing Emperor Wenhuan of Later Qin married his daughter Princess Xiping 西平公主 to Emperor Mingyuan of Northern Wei Because she was unable to forge a golden statue with her own hands she was never formally empress but was nevertheless recognized and respected as Emperor Mingyuan s wife Consort Yao Qifu Chipan Prince Wenzhao of Western Qin married his daughter Princess Xingping 兴平公主 to Juqu Mengxun Prince of Northern Liang s son Juqu Xingguo 433 Juqu Mengxun Prince of Northern Liang marries his daughter Princess Xingping 兴平公主 to Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei She became Emperor Taiwu s concubine Northern and Southern dynasties editDuring the Northern and Southern dynasties period China was divided into many rival states A complicated system of rivalries and vassalage existed Heqin marriage was employed as a method to maintain a balance of power or to solidify alliances between states 5 During the Northern and Southern dynasties there were five instances of heqin marriage 428 Emperor Mingyuan of Northern Wei marries his daughter Princess Shiping 始平公主 to Helian Chang Emperor of Xia 437 Emperor Mingyuan of Northern Wei marries his daughter Princess Wuwei 武威公主 to Juqu Mujian Prince Ai of Hexi last ruler of the state of Northern Liang whence she is known as Princess Tuoba Princess Lanling 兰陵公主 a princess of the imperial family of Northern Wei married the Khagan of the Rouran Khaganate Yujiulu Anagui Princess Qianjin 千金公主 daughter of Yuwen Zhao Prince of Zhao 赵王宇文招 and a member of the imperial family of Northern Zhou married Ishbara Khagan of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate 582 Emperor Ming of Western Liang marries his daughter Princess Xiao to Yang Guang Prince of Jin the second son Emperor Ming s overlord Emperor Wen of Sui She is known as Empress Xiao of Sui after his accession to the throne as Emperor Yang of Sui Northern Wei edit The Tuoba imperial family of the Xianbei led Northern Wei dynasty started to arrange for ethnic Han elites to marry daughters of the imperial family in the 480s 34 More than fifty percent of Tuoba Xianbei princesses of the Northern Wei were married to southern Han men from the imperial families and aristocrats from southern China of the Southern dynasties who defected and moved north to join the Northern Wei 35 Some exiled royalty of Han descent fled from southern China and defected to the Northern Wei Several daughters of the Xianbei Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei were married to ethnic Han elites the Liu Song royal Liu Hui 刘辉 married Princess Lanling 蘭陵公主 of the Northern Wei 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 Princess Huayang 華陽公主 to Sima Fei 司馬朏 a descendant of Jin dynasty 266 420 royalty Princess Jinan 濟南公主 to Lu Daoqian 盧道虔 Princess Nanyang 南阳长公主 to Xiao Baoyin 萧宝夤 a member of Southern Qi royalty 43 Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei s sisters the Shouyang Princess was wedded to the Liang dynasty ruler Emperor Wu of Liang s son Xiao Zong 蕭綜 44 One of Emperor Xiaowu of Northern Wei s sister was married to Zhang Huan an ethnic Han according to the Book of Zhou His name is given as Zhang Xin in the Book of Northern Qi and History of the Northern Dynasties which mention his marriage to a Xianbei princess of Wei His personal name was changed due to a naming taboo on the emperor s name He was the son of Zhang Qiong 45 When the Eastern Jin dynasty ended Northern Wei received the Jin prince Sima Chuzhi 司馬楚之 as a refugee A Northern Wei Princess married Sima Chuzhi giving birth to Sima Jinlong Northern Liang Xiongnu King Juqu Mujian s daughter married Sima Jinlong 46 Rouran edit The Rouran Khaganate arranged for one of their princesses Khagan Yujiulu Anagui s daughter Princess Ruru 蠕蠕公主 to be married to the ethnic Han regent Gao Huan of the Eastern Wei 47 48 Gaochang editThe Kingdom of Gaochang was made out of ethnic Han colonists and ruled by the Han people 49 50 Qu family which originated from Gansu 51 Jincheng commandery 金城 in Lanzhou district of Yuzhong 榆中 was the home of the Qu Jia 52 The Qu family was linked by marriage alliances to the Turks with a Turk being the grandmother of King Qu Boya s 53 54 Sui dynasty editWith the establishment of the Sui dynasty in 581 much of China proper was once again unified under one dynasty Heqin marriage during the Sui dynasty therefore returned to its original purpose of trying to appease barbarian tribes surrounding the Sui 5 There were a total of seven instances of heqin marriage during the Sui dynasty 597 Emperor Wen of Sui marries Princess Anyi 安义公主 a Sui princess to Yami Qaghan Khagan of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate She was assassinated by Yung Yu lu in 599 599 Emperor Wen of Sui marries another Sui princess Princess Yicheng 义成公主 the daughter of a Sui imperial clansman to Yami Khagan of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate After his death in 609 Princess Yicheng in accordance with the Gokturk custom of levirate marriage remarried to Yami Qaghan s successor and son by another wife Shibi Qaghan After Shibi Qaghan s death in 619 Princess Yicheng again remarried to Shibi Qaghan s successor and younger brother Chuluo After the khagan s death in 621 Princess Yicheng remarried for the fourth and final time to his successor and younger brother Illig Qaghan who revolted against Tang China and was captured and killed in 630 Emperor Yang of Sui married Princess Xinyi 信义公主 a Sui princess to Heshana Khan Khagan of the Western Turkish Khaganate Emperor Yang of Sui married his youngest daughter Princess Huainan 淮南公主 to the new heir Shibi s eldest son Tuli 596 Emperor Wen of Sui marries Princess Guanghua 光化公主 a Sui princess to Murong Shifu khagan of Tuyuhun After Murong Shifu s assassination in 597 Princess Guanghua remarried Murong Shifu s successor and younger brother Murong Fuyun Emperor Yang of Sui married a Sui princess to Qu Boya ruler of the oasis city of Gaochang in the Taklamakan Desert Tang dynasty editDuring the Tang dynasty heqin marriage alliances were primarily aimed at the Tuyuhun the Tibetan Empire the Khitans and the allied Kumo Xi the Uyghur Khaganate and Nanzhao 5 There were a total of twenty one instances of heqin marriage alliances during the Tang dynasty including 640 Emperor Taizong of Tang marries Princess Honghua 弘化公主 to Murong Nuohebo Khan of Tuyuhun 641 Emperor Taizong of Tang marries Princess Wencheng to Emperor Songtsan Gampo of Tibet 642 Emperor Taizong proposed the marriage of his fifteenth daughter Princess Xinxing 新兴公主 to Zhenzhu Khan Khan of Xueyantuo The heqin was called off 664 Emperor Gaozong of Tang marries Lady Jincheng 金城县主 the third daughter of Li Dao en Prince of Guiji 会稽郡王李道恩 to Prince Sudumomo of Tuyuhun 吐谷浑王子苏度摸末 664 Emperor Gaozong marries Lady Jinming 金明县主 the daughter of a Tang imperial clansman to Prince Talumomo of Tuyuhun 吐谷浑王子闼卢摸末 698 A daughter of Qapaghan Khagan of the Second Eastern Turkic Khaganate marries Wu Zetian s great nephew Wu Chengsi Prince of Huaiyang 淮阳王武延秀 703 A daughter of Qapaghan Khagan marries Crown Prince Li Dan s eldest son Li Chengqi Prince of Song 709 Empress Wu Zetian marries her great granddaughter Princess Jincheng 金城公主 the daughter of her grandson Li Shouli Prince of Bin to Emperor Me Agtsom of Tibet 712 Emperor Ruizong of Tang marries his granddaughter Princess Jinshan 金山公主 the daughter of his son Li Chengqi to Qapaghan Khagan 717 Emperor Xuanzong of Tang marries Princess Yongle 永乐公主 the daughter of Yang Yuansi 杨元嗣 and a daughter of Li Xu Prince of Dongping 东平王李续 son of Li Shen Prince of Ji the seventeenth son of Emperor Taizong to Li Shihuo 李失活 leader of the Khitans 717 Princess Jianghe 交河公主 the daughter of Ashina Nahuaidao 10th Khagan of the Western Turkic Khaganate marries Sulu Khan Khagan of Turgesh 722 Emperor Xuanzong of Tang marries Princess Yanjun 燕郡公主 surname Murong 慕容 a Tang princess to Khitan prince Li Yuyu 李郁于 726 Emperor Xuanzong marries his niece Princess Donghua 东华公主 surname Chen 陈 to Khitan prince Li Shaogu 李邵固 726 Emperor Xuanzong marries Princess Dongguang 东光公主 the daughter of Emperor Xuanzong s first cousin Li Jijiang Princess Cheng an 成安公主李季姜 eighth daughter of Emperor Zhongzong of Tang and Wei Jie 韦捷 to Li Lusu 李鲁苏 ruler of Kumo Xi 744 Emperor Xuanzong marries Princess Heyi 和义公主 a daughter of Li Can Magistrate of Gaocheng 告城县令李参 to Axilan Dagan 阿悉烂达干 King of Ningyuan 宁远国王 in the Fergana Valley 745 Emperor Xuanzong marries his granddaughter Princess Jingle 静乐公主 daughter of his fifteenth daughter Princess Xincheng 信成公主 and Dugu Ming 独孤明 to Khitan prince Li Huaixiu 李怀秀 745 Emperor Xuanzong marries Princess Yifang 宜芳公主 daughter of Princess Changning 长宁公主 daughter of Emperor Zhongzong of Tang and Yang Shenjiao 杨慎交 to Khitan prince Li Yanchong 李延宠 756 Emperor Suzong of Tang marries his daughter Princess Ninguo to Bayanchur Khagan of the Uyghur Khaganate In exchange Princess Pijia 毗伽公主 daughter of Bayanchur marries Li Chengcai 李承采 Prince of Dunhuang 敦煌王李承采 son of Li Shouli Prince of Bin Liao Song Jin dynasties editSong dynasty edit The Khitan led Liao dynasty asked for a Song princess to marry the Liao emperor in the negotiations leading up to the Chanyuan Treaty but the Song dynasty refused to give a princess The Jurchen led Jin dynasty later rebelled against the Liao dynasty sacked and destroyed the Liao supreme capital and burned the ancestral tombs of the Liao emperors The Emperor Tianzuo of Liao was executed by the Jurchens during a polo match Liao imperial princesses from the Yelu family and Xiao family were also distributed to Jin princes as concubine Wanyan Liang married the Khitan women Lady Xiao 蕭氏 Consort Chen 宸妃 Lady Yelu 耶律氏 Consort Li 麗妃 Lady Yelu 耶律氏 Consort Rou 柔妃 and Lady Yelu 耶律氏 Zhaoyuan 昭媛 The Jin dynasty then attacked the Northern Song dynasty in the Jingkang incident and seized a large number of the Song imperial family Song princesses were married off to Jin princes such as Emperor Xizong of Jin The Song male princes who were captured were given ethnic Khitan women to marry from the Liao dynasty palace by the Jin who had also defeated and conquered the Liao The original Han wives of the Song princes were confiscated and replaced with Khitan ones One of the Emperor Huizong of Song s sons was given a Khitan consort from the Liao palace and another one of his sons was given a Khitan princess by the Jin at the Jin supreme capital The Jurchens continued to give new wives to the captured Song royals the grandsons and sons of the Emperor Huizong of Song after they took away their original ethnic Han wives 55 The Jin told the Song royals that they were fortunate because the Liao royals were being treated much worse by the Jin than the Song royals Jin soldiers were given the children of the Emperor Tianzuo of Liao as gifts while the Song emperor was allowed to keep his children while he was in captivity 56 Liao dynasty edit The Liao dynasty arranged for women from the consort Xiao clan to marry members of the Han 韓 clan of ethnic Han descent which originated in Jizhou 冀州 before being abducted by the Liao and becoming part of the ethnic Han elites of the Liao 57 58 59 The Geng family of Han descent intermarried with the Khitans and the Han 韓 clan provided two of their women as wives to Geng Yanyi and the second one was the mother of Geng Zhixin 60 Empress Rende s sister a member of the Xiao clan was the mother of Han Chinese General Geng Yanyi 61 Han Derang Yelu Longyun was the father of Queen dowager of the State of Chen who was the wife of General Geng Yanyi and buried with him in his tomb in Zhaoyang in Liaoning 62 His wife was also known as Madame Han 63 The Geng s tomb is located in Liaoning at Guyingzi in Chaoying 64 65 Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom edit The Cao family of ethnic Han descent that ruled the Guiyi Circuit established marriage alliances with the Uighurs of the Ganzhou Kingdom with both the Cao rulers marrying Uighur princesses and with Cao princesses marrying Uighur rulers The Ganzhou Uighur Khagan s daughter was married to Cao Yijin in 916 66 67 68 Yuan dynasty editThe Jin emperor Wanyan Yongji s daughter Princess Qiguo was married to Genghis Khan in exchange for relieving the Mongol siege upon Zhongdu Beijing in the Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty 69 The Emperor Gong of Song surrendered to the Yuan dynasty in 1276 and was married off to an ethnic Mongol princess of the imperial Borjigin family of the Yuan dynasty Zhao Xian had one son with the Borjigin woman Zhao Wanpu Zhao Xian s son Zhao Wanpu was kept alive by the Yuan because of his mother s Borjigin ancestry even after Zhao Xian was ordered killed by the Emperor Yingzong of Yuan Instead Zhao Wanpu was only moved and exiled The outbreak of the Song loyalist Red Turban Rebellion in Henan led to a recommendation that Zhao Wanpu should be transferred somewhere else by an Imperial Censor in 1352 The Yuan did not want the ethnic Han rebels to get their hands on Zhao Wanpu so no one was permitted to see him and Zhao Wanpu s family and himself were exiled to Shazhou near the border by the Yuan emperor Paul Pelliot and John Andrew Boyle commented on Rashid al Din Hamadani s chapter The Successors of Genghis Khan in his work Jami al tawarikh identified references by Rashid al Din to Zhao Xian in his book where he mentions a Chinese ruler who was an emir and son in law to the Qan Khan after being removed from his throne by the Mongols and he is also called Monarch of Song or Suju 宋主 Songzhu in the book 70 The King of Dali Duan Gong was married to the Borjigin princess Agai daughter of the Yuan dynasty Prince of Liang Basalawarmi They had a son and a daughter Duan Sengnu 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 their children were also called Duan Qiangna and Duan Bao 81 Duan Sengnu raised Duan Bao to take revenge against Basalawarmi for the killing of Duan Gong 82 83 A play was made based on these events 84 85 According to Yuan documents the Duan family were originally ethnic Han from Wuwei commandery Gansu 86 87 88 Other Duan families also originated from Wuwei 89 90 Ming dynasty editThe Oirat leader Esen Taishi captured the Zhengtong Emperor of the Ming dynasty Esen Taishi tried to force the Zhengtong Emperor to marry Esen s sister in a heqin marriage 91 and then placing him back in Beijing with his new wife 92 93 94 The emperor rejected the marriage proposal 95 A Mongol account in the Altan Tobchi said that Zhengtong Emperor had a son with an ethnic Mongol woman he married while he was prisoner 96 A Mongol girl was given in marriage by the Gun bilig mergen Mongol Ordos leader Rinong Jinong to the ethnic Han officer of the Datong Army Wang Duo s 王鐸 son Wang San 王三 because Rinong wanted to hold on to Wang San and make him stay with the Mongols The Ming arrested and executed Wang San in 1544 because Mongol soldiers were being guided by Wang San Builders carpenters officers and important prisoners such as the Ming Zhengtong Emperor often ethnic received Mongol wives 97 Qing dynasty editIn the total span of the Qing dynasty the number of ethnic Mongol grooms of Qing princesses was the largest More than 58 percent of imperial sons in law were Mongols A total of 32 princesses married Mongols but the majority of these were in the early Qing like Emperor Hong Taiji who married off 12 of his daughters to ethnic Mongol elites when the Qing needed military support 98 In the early period of Qing a large amount of intermarriage between the two groups happened and the Qing rulers used this tie to gain the military support from the Mongol tribes The marriage also benefited the Qing dynasty in expanding its empire into the Mongolian Plateau and further west into Inner Asia The marriage between ethnic Manchu princesses and ethnic Mongol princes continued to the end of Qing dynasty although becoming less prominent after the 18th century due to the decline of the Mongols political and military influence within the empire and the Qing after 1770 totally ceased marrying princesses off to Northern and Western Mongols only marrying them off to princes from the southern Mongols who voluntarily surrendered to them before the establishment of the Qing who numbered 7 tribes and 13 banners since the locations they inhabited were vital to Qing security unlike the steppes of the Northern and Western Mongols since the wars between the Zunghars and Khalkhas was over During the Qianlong reign in 1751 and Jiaqing reign in 1801 the Qing emperors deliberately issued decrees eliminating Mongols from potential grooms of Qing princesses and started replacing them with majority Manchu grooms The Qing at this time no longer needed the support of Mongols and started marrying off their daughters to majority Manchu grooms instead of Mongols 98 Ethnic Han generals who defected to the Qing early on were sometimes married to Qing princesses due to the desperate need of the Qing for military allies at that time and their use of marrying their women off to get them although this is less frequent than the case where Aisin Gioro women married to ethnic Mongol aristocrats or other Manchu elites Unlike the marriage between Manchus and southern Mongols that lasted throughout the Qing dynasty the marriages between Qing princesses and ethnic Han generals ceased before 1750 as Qing rule was consolidated by then 98 The Manchu imperial Aisin Gioro clan practiced marriage alliances with Ming generals of Han descent and Mongol princes Aisin Gioro women were married to ethnic Han generals who defected to the Qing side during the Transition from Ming to Qing The Later Jin leader Nurhaci married one of his granddaughters a daughter of Abatai to the Ming general Li Yongfang 99 100 101 102 the ancestor of Li Shiyao 李侍堯 103 104 The offspring of Li received the Third Class Viscount 三等子爵 san deng zǐjue title 105 after he surrendered Fushun in Liaoning to the Manchu in 1618 A mass marriage of Han officers and officials to Manchu women numbering 1 000 couples was arranged by Prince Yoto 岳托 Prince Keqin and Hong Taiji in 1632 to promote harmony between the two ethnic groups 106 107 Aisin Gioro women were married to the sons of the Han generals Sun Sike 孫思克 Geng Jimao Shang Kexi and Wu Sangui 108 The Dolo efu 和碩額駙 rank was given to husbands of Qing princesses Geng Zhongming a Han bannerman was awarded the title of Prince Jingnan and his son Geng Jingmao managed to have both his sons Geng Jingzhong and Geng Zhaozhong 耿昭忠 become court attendants under the Shunzhi Emperor and marry Aisin Gioro women with Prince Abatai s granddaughter marrying Geng Zhaozhong 耿昭忠 and Haoge s a son of Hong Taiji daughter marrying Geng Jingzhong 109 A daughter 和硕柔嘉公主 of the Manchu Aisin Gioro Prince Yolo 岳樂 Prince An was wedded to Geng Juzhong who was another son of Geng Jingmao 110 The 4th daughter of Kangxi 和硕悫靖公主 was wedded to the son 孫承恩 of Sun Sike 孫思克 an ethnic Han 111 Imperial Duke Who Assists the State 宗室輔國公 Aisin Gioro Suyan s 蘇燕 daughter was married to Han Banner general Nian Gengyao 112 113 114 She was Manchu Prince Ajige s great great granddaughter 115 Manchu Prince Aisin Gioro Yuntang s fourth daughter married the Han Bannerman Zhao Shiyang 趙世揚 in 1721 Manchu Prince Aisin Gioro Yunsi s first daughter married the Han Bannerman Sun Wufu 孫五福 in July August 1724 Manchu Prince Aisin Gioro Yunzhi Prince Zhi s second daughter married the Han Bannerman Li Shu ao 李淑鰲 in September October 1707 and his fourth daughter married the Han Bannerman Sun Cheng en 孫承恩 in February March 1710 Vietnam editThe Ly Trần Hồ dynasties ruled Dai Viet Vietnam in a succession of heqin alliances Ly Trần Hồ dynasties edit The Ly dynasty married its princesses off to regional rivals to establish alliances with them The Ly family married one of their princesses Ly Chieu Hoang to a member of the Trần Chen 陈 clan Trần Thai Tong This then enabled the Trần to topple the Ly and establish their own Trần dynasty 116 117 The Tran dynasty engaged in a similar practice marrying Tran princesses to regional allies Later the Hồ family which was also of Chinese origin established the Hồ dynasty taking power after having a Tran princess marry one of their members Hồ Quy Ly A Ly princess also married into the Ho family 118 119 Nguyen lords edit The Cambodian King Chey Chettha II married the Vietnamese Nguyễn lord Princess Nguyễn Thị Ngọc Vạn a daughter of Lord Nguyễn Phuc Nguyen in 1618 120 121 In return the king granted the Vietnamese the right to establish settlements in Mo Xoai now Ba Rịa in the region of Prey Nokor which they colloquially referred to as Sai Gon and which later became Ho Chi Minh City 122 123 Joseon editAfter the Qing conquest of Joseon Joseon Korea was forced to give several of their royal princesses as concubines to the Qing regent Prince Dorgon an ethnic Manchu 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 In 1650 Dorgon married the Korean Princess Uisun 義順 131 She was a collateral branches of the Korean royal family and daughter of Yi Gae yun 李愷胤 132 Dorgon married two Korean princesses at Lianshan 133 See also editMarriage in China Marriage of state a similar practice in pre modern Europe Marriage of convenience Malacca Sultanate Women in ancient and imperial ChinaReferences editCitations edit a b Slobodnik 2006 p 268 Di Cosmo 2004 p 193 a b Rui Chuanming 芮传明 古代和亲利弊论 PDF in Chinese Archived from the original PDF on 19 August 2014 Retrieved 18 October 2014 Bulag 2002 p 83 a b c d e Cui 2005 pp 631 688 Lo Ping cheung 2015 11 Legalism and offensive realism in the Chinese court debate on defending national security 81 BCE In Lo Ping cheung Twiss Sumner B eds Chinese Just War Ethics Origin Development and Dissent War Conflict and Ethics illustrated ed Routledge p 269 ISBN 978 1317580973 There were altogether nine marriages of Han princesses fake or real to the Xiongnu during these roughly 60 years for a complete list of details see Cui 2007a 555 We will call this policy Heqin Model One and as Ying shih Yu Qian Sima 2019 Historical Records 史记 The First and Most Important Biographical General History Book in China DeepLogic Liu Jing said The Han dynasty was just calm the soldiers were exhausted by the fire and the Xiongnu could not be If the majesty could not send a big princess let the royal woman or the fake princess he I will know that I will Chin Tamara T 2020 Savage Exchange Han Imperialism Chinese Literary Style and the Economic Imagination Harvard University Studies in East Asian Law BRILL p 225 ISBN 978 1684170784 In the Han Wusun alliance unlike the Han Xiongnu heqin agreements the gifts flowed in the proper direction Thus while Empress Lu transgressed the heqin marriage in having a false princess sent Liu Jing s original proposal Chin Tamara Ta Lun 2005 Savage Exchange Figuring the Foreign in the Early Han Dynasty University of California Berkeley pp 66 73 74 Figuring the Foreign in the Early Han Dynasty Tamara Ta Lun Chin Emperor Han Wudi s military push to reverse the power relations between Xiongnu and Han stands in stark contrast to the original Xiongnu with a false princess Mosol Lee 2013 Ancient History of the Manchuria X libris Corporation p 77 ISBN 978 1483667676 孝文皇帝 sent a girl as a new wife for the Chanyu as a fake princess of Royal family with a eunuch named 中行 The Han lured the Xiongnu chief deep into the China proper town called 馬邑 but Gunchen Chanyu realized the trap https www academia edu 5147439 Aristocratic elites in the Xiongnu empire p 31 Qian Sima Burton Watson January 1993 Records of the Grand Historian Han dynasty Renditions Columbia University Press pp 161 ISBN 978 0 231 08166 5 Monumenta Serica H Vetch 2004 p 81 Frederic E Wakeman 1985 The Great Enterprise The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth century China University of California Press pp 41 ISBN 978 0 520 04804 1 Sima Qian 1993 Records of the Grand Historian Han Dynasty II p 128 ISBN 0231081677 Veronika Veit ed 2007 The role of women in the Altaic world Permanent International Altaistic Conference 44th meeting Walberberg 26 31 August 2001 Vol 152 of Asiatische Forschungen illustrated ed Otto Harrassowitz Verlag p 61 ISBN 978 3447055376 Retrieved 8 February 2012 Michael Robert Drompp 2005 Tang China and the collapse of the Uighur Empire a documentary history Vol 13 of Brill s Inner Asian library illustrated ed BRILL p 126 ISBN 9004141294 Retrieved 8 February 2012 Lin Jianming 林剑鸣 1992 秦漢史 History of Qin and Han Wunan Publishing pp 557 8 ISBN 978 957 11 0574 1 Hong Yuan 2018 The Sinitic Civilization Book II A Factual History Through the Lens of Archaeology Bronzeware Astronomy Divination Calendar and the Annals abridged ed iUniverse p 419 ISBN 978 1532058301 James A Millward 2007 Eurasian crossroads a history of Xinjiang Columbia University Press p 20 ISBN 978 0 231 13924 3 Retrieved 2011 04 17 Julia Lovell 2007 The Great Wall China Against the World 1000 BC AD 2000 Grove Press p 73 ISBN 978 0 8021 4297 9 Retrieved 2011 04 17 Alfred J Andrea James H Overfield 1998 The Human Record To 1700 Houghton Mifflin p 165 ISBN 978 0 395 87087 7 Retrieved 2011 04 17 Yiping Zhang 2005 Story of the Silk Road China Intercontinental Press p 22 ISBN 978 7 5085 0832 0 Retrieved 2011 04 17 Charles Higham 2004 Encyclopedia of ancient Asian civilizations Infobase Publishing p 409 ISBN 978 0 8160 4640 9 Retrieved 2011 04 17 Indian Society for Prehistoric amp Quaternary Studies 1998 Man and environment Volume 23 Issue 1 Indian Society for Prehistoric and Quaternary Studies p 6 Retrieved 2011 04 17 Adrienne Mayor 22 September 2014 The Amazons Lives and Legends of Warrior Women across the Ancient World Princeton University Press pp 422 ISBN 978 1 4008 6513 0 Veronika Veit ed 2007 The role of women in the Altaic world Permanent International Altaistic Conference 44th meeting Walberberg 26 31 August 2001 Vol 152 of Asiatische Forschungen illustrated ed Otto Harrassowitz Verlag p 61 ISBN 978 3447055376 Retrieved 8 February 2012 Michael Robert Drompp 2005 Tang China and the collapse of the Uighur Empire a documentary history Vol 13 of Brill s Inner Asian library illustrated ed BRILL p 126 ISBN 9004141294 Retrieved 8 February 2012 Kyzlasov Leonid R 2010 The Urban Civilization of Northern and Innermost Asia Historical and Archaeological Research PDF Curatores seriei VICTOR SPINEI et IONEL CANDEA VII Vol The Urban Civilization of Northern and Innermost Asia Historical and Archaeological Research ROMANIAN ACADEMY INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY OF IAȘI Editura Academiei Romane Editura Istros p 245 ISBN 978 973 27 1962 6 Florilegium magistrorum historiae archaeologiaeque Antiqutatis et Medii Aevi Drompp Michael 2021 Tang China and the Collapse of the Uighur Empire A Documentary History Brill s Inner Asian Library BRILL p 126 ISBN 978 9047414780 The role of women in the Altaic world Permanent International Altaistic Conference 44th meeting Walberberg 26 31 August 2001 Veit Veronika 1944 Wiesbaden Harrassowitz 2007 p 61 ISBN 978 3 447 05537 6 OCLC 182731462 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint others link Drompp Michael R 1999 Breaking the Orkhon Tradition Kirghiz Adherence to the Yenisei Region after A D 840 Journal of the American Oriental Society 119 3 394 395 doi 10 2307 605932 JSTOR 605932 Lilla Russell Smith 2005 Uygur Patronage In Dunhuang Regional Art Centres On The Northern Silk Road In The Tenth and Eleventh Centuries BRILL pp 23 ISBN 90 04 14241 X Rubie Sharon Watson 1991 Marriage and Inequality in Chinese Society University of California Press pp 80 ISBN 978 0 520 07124 7 Tang Qiaomei May 2016 Divorce and the Divorced Woman in Early Medieval China First through Sixth Century PDF A dissertation presented by Qiaomei Tang to The Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the subject of East Asian Languages and Civilizations Cambridge Massachusetts Harvard University pp 151 152 153 Lee 2014 Papers on Far Eastern History Australian National University Department of Far Eastern History 1983 p 86 Hinsch Bret 2018 Women in Early Medieval China Rowman amp Littlefield p 97 ISBN 978 1538117972 Hinsch Bret 2016 Women in Imperial China Rowman amp Littlefield p 72 ISBN 978 1442271661 Lee Jen der 2014 9 Crime and Punishment The Case of Liu Hui in the Wei Shu In Swartz Wendy Campany Robert Ford Lu Yang Choo Jessey eds Early Medieval China A Sourcebook illustrated ed Columbia University Press pp 156 165 ISBN 978 0231531009 Australian National University Dept of Far Eastern History 1983 Papers on Far Eastern History Volumes 27 30 Australian National University Department of Far Eastern History pp 86 87 88 Wang Yi t ung 1953 Slaves and Other Comparable Social Groups During The Northern Dynasties 386 618 Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies Harvard Yenching Institute 16 3 4 322 doi 10 2307 2718246 JSTOR 2718246 China Dawn of a Golden Age 200 750 AD Metropolitan Museum of Art 2004 pp 30 ISBN 978 1 58839 126 1 Xiao Baoyin Ancient and Early Medieval Chinese Literature vol 3 amp 4 A Reference Guide Part Three amp Four BRILL 22 September 2014 pp 1566 ISBN 978 90 04 27185 2 Adamek Piotr 2017 Good Son is Sad If He Hears the Name of His Father The Tabooing of Names in China as a Way of Implementing Social Values Routledge p 242 ISBN 978 1351565219 Southern Song 105 We read the story of a certain Zhang Huan 張歡 in the Zhoushu who married a sister of Emperor Xiaowu 宣武帝 of the Northern Wei r China Dawn of a Golden Age 200 750 AD Metropolitan Museum of Art 2004 pp 18 ISBN 978 1 58839 126 1 sima Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women Antiquity Through Sui 1600 B C E 618 C E M E Sharpe 2007 pp 316 ISBN 978 0 7656 4182 3 Gao Huan as demanded by Yujiulu Anagui as one of the peace terms between Eastern Wei and Rouran married the Princess Ruru in 545 and had her take the place of Princess Lou as his wife but never formally divorced Princess Lou After Gao Huan s death pursuant to Rouran customs the Princess Ruru became married to Gao Huan s son Gao Cheng who also however did not formally divorce his wife Baij Nath Puri 1987 Buddhism in Central Asia Motilal Banarsidass pp 78 ISBN 978 81 208 0372 5 Charles Eliot Sir Charles Eliot 1998 Hinduism and Buddhism An Historical Sketch Psychology Press pp 206 ISBN 978 0 7007 0679 2 Marc S Abramson 31 December 2011 Ethnic Identity in Tang China University of Pennsylvania Press pp 119 ISBN 978 0 8122 0101 7 Roy Andrew Miller 1959 Accounts of Western Nations in the History of the Northern Chou Dynasty Chou Shu 50 10b 17b Translated and Annotated by Roy Andrew Miller University of California Press pp 5 GGKEY SXHP29BAXQY Jonathan Karam Skaff 1998 Straddling steppe and town Tang China s relations with the nomads of inner Asia 640 756 University of Michigan p 57 ISBN 9780599084643 Asia Major Institute of History and Philology of the Academia Sinica 1998 p 87 Ebrey Patricia Buckley 2014 Emperor Huizong illustrated reprint ed Harvard University Press p 488 ISBN 978 0674726420 Ebrey Patricia Buckley 2014 Emperor Huizong illustrated reprint ed Harvard University Press p 482 ISBN 978 0674726420 Biran 2012 p 88 Biran 2012 p 88 Cha 2005 p 51 1 2 3 Yang Shao yun 2014 Fan and Han The Origins and Uses of a Conceptual Dichotomy in Mid Imperial China ca 500 1200 In Fiaschetti Francesca Schneider Julia eds Political Strategies of Identity Building in Non Han Empires in China Wiesbaden Harrassowitz Verlag p 22 Orient Maruzen Company 2004 p 41 Orient Maruzen Company 2004 p 41 Hsueh man Shen Asia Society Asia Society Museum Museum fur Ostasiatische Kunst Berlin Germany Museum Rietberg 1 September 2006 Gilded splendor treasures of China s Liao Empire 907 1125 5 continents p 106 ISBN 978 88 7439 332 9 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Jiayao An 1987 Early Chinese Glassware Millennia p 12 http kt82 zhaoxinpeng com view 138019 htm permanent dead link https www academia edu 4954295 La Steppe et l Empire la formation de la dynastie Khitan Liao Eighteen Lectures on Dunhuang BRILL 7 June 2013 pp 44 ISBN 978 90 04 25233 2 Lilla Russell Smith 2005 Uygur Patronage In Dunhuang Regional Art Centres On The Northern Silk Road In The Tenth and Eleventh Centuries BRILL pp 63 ISBN 90 04 14241 X Wenjie Duan Chung Tan 1 January 1994 Dunhuang Art Through the Eyes of Duan Wenjie Abhinav Publications pp 189 ISBN 978 81 7017 313 7 Broadbridge Anne F 2018 Women and the Making of the Mongol Empire illustrated ed Cambridge University Press p 94 ISBN 978 1108636629 Hua Kaiqi 2018 Chapter 6 The Journey of Zhao Xian and the Exile of Royal Descendants in the Yuan Dynasty 1271 1358 In Heirman Ann Meinert Carmen Anderl Christoph eds Buddhist Encounters and Identities Across East Asia Leiden Netherlands BRILL p 213 doi 10 1163 9789004366152 008 ISBN 978 9004366152 Lee Lily Xiao Hong Wiles Sue 2015 Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women Volume II Tang Through Ming 618 1644 Routledge p 5 ISBN 978 1317515623 Lee Lily Xiao Hong Wiles Sue eds 2014 Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women Tang Through Ming 618 1644 M E Sharpe p 5 ISBN 978 0765643162 Mair Victor H ed 2016 Imperial China and Its Southern Neighbours Flipside Digital Content Company Inc p 269 ISBN 978 9814620550 Mair Victor H Kelley Liam 2015 Imperial China and Its Southern Neighbours CHINA SOUTHEAST ASIA History illustrated reprint ed Institute of Southeast Asian Studies p 269 ISBN 978 9814620536 Chen 陈 Lufan 吕范 1990 泰族起源问题研究 国际文化出版公司 pp 271 285 ISBN 9787800494970 Retrieved Sep 9 2008 Mao yi yu lu you Trade and tours 1986 p 19 Retrieved Jul 31 2007 Istituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente Istituto italiano per l Africa e l Oriente 1991 Cina Volumes 23 25 Istituto italiano per il medio ed estremo oriente pp 157 159 Retrieved Jun 13 2011 Cina Volumes 15 16 Istituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente Istituto italiano per l Africa e l Oriente Istituto italiano per il medio ed estremo oriente 1979 p 295 Retrieved Jun 13 2011 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint others link Cina Volumes 15 16 Istituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente Istituto italiano per l Africa e l Oriente Istituto italiano per il medio ed estremo oriente 1979 p 295 Retrieved Jun 13 2011 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint others link Robinson David M 2019 Part III A Tough Crowd In the Shadow of the Mongol Empire Cambridge University Press pp 187 270 ISBN 9781108482448 Bryson Megan 2016 Goddess on the Frontier Religion Ethnicity and Gender in Southwest China Stanford University Press p 212 ISBN 978 1503600454 Lee Lily Xiao Hong Wiles Sue 2015 Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women Volume II Tang Through Ming 618 1644 Routledge p 55 ISBN 978 1317515623 Lee Lily Xiao Hong Wiles Sue eds 2014 Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women Tang Through Ming 618 1644 M E Sharpe p 55 ISBN 978 0765643162 Malmqvist Nils Goran David ed 1989 A Selective Guide to Chinese Literature 1900 1949 The Drama Vol 4 of Selected Guide to Chinese Literature 1900 1949 Vol 4 European Science Foundation illustrated ed BRILL p 126 ISBN 9004090983 Renger Almut Barbara Fan Xin 2019 Receptions of Greek and Roman Antiquity in East Asia BRILL p 316 ISBN 978 9004370715 Bryson Megan 2016 Goddess on the Frontier Religion Ethnicity and Gender in Southwest China Stanford University Press p 41 ISBN 978 1503600454 Mote Frederick W 2003 Imperial China 900 1800 Vol 0 of Titolo collana illustrated ed Harvard University Press p 710 ISBN 0674012127 Mote Frederick W 1999 Imperial China 900 1800 Vol 0 of Titolo collana 2 illustrated ed Harvard University Press p 710 ISBN 0674445155 Reed Carrie Elizabeth 2003 A Tang Miscellany An Introduction to Youyang Zazu Vol 57 of Asian thought and culture Peter Lang pp 11 121 ISBN 0820467472 ISSN 0893 6870 Retrieved Sep 9 2008 Shang Huping 2019 The Belt and Road Initiative Key Concepts Springer p 81 ISBN 978 9811392016 Carlos Rojas 1 April 2011 The Great Wall Harvard University Press pp 102 ISBN 978 0 674 05880 4 Denis Crispin Twitchett John King Fairbank 1978 The Cambridge History of China Cambridge University Press pp 326 ISBN 978 0 521 24332 2 Ph De Heer 1986 The Care taker Emperor Aspects of the Imperial Institution in Fifteenth century China as Reflected in the Political History of the Reign of Chu Chʾi yu BRILL pp 24 ISBN 90 04 07898 3 Quennell Peter 1976 History today p 460 Central Asiatic Journal O Harrassowitz 1983 p 67 Dmitriĭ Dmitrievich Pokotilov 1947 History of the eastern Mongols during the Ming dynasty from 1368 to 1634 part I translation of the Russian text Chinese Cultural Studies Research Institute West China Union University p 51 Henry Serruys 1959 Chinese in Southern Mongolia During the Sixteenth Century C I C M p 75 a b c Walthall Anne 2008 Servants of the Dynasty Palace Women in World History University of California Pr pp 148 152 ISBN 9780520254442 李永芳将军的简介 李永芳的后代 历史趣闻网 Archived from the original on 2017 12 03 Retrieved 2018 04 14 曹德全 首个投降后金的明将李永芳 历史人物 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