Semitic root
The roots of verbs and most nouns in the Semitic languages are characterized as a sequence of consonants or "radicals" (hence the term consonantal root). Such abstract consonantal roots are used in the formation of actual words by adding the vowels and non-root consonants (or "transfixes") which go with a particular morphological category around the root consonants, in an appropriate way, generally following specific patterns. It is a peculiarity of Semitic linguistics that a large majority of these consonantal roots are triliterals (although there are a number of quadriliterals, and in some languages also biliterals).
Such roots are also common in other Afroasiatic languages. Notably, while Berber mostly has triconsonantal roots, Egyptian and its modern descendant, Coptic, both prefer biradical and monoradical roots.
Triconsonantal roots
A triliteral or triconsonantal root (Hebrew: שורש תלת-עיצורי, šoreš təlat-ʻiṣuri; Arabic: جذر ثلاثي, jiḏr ṯulāṯī; Syriac: ܫܪܫܐ, šeršā) is a root containing a sequence of three consonants.
The following are some of the forms which can be derived from the triconsonantal root k-t-b כ-ת-ב ك-ت-ب (general overall meaning "to write") in Hebrew and Arabic:
Note: The Hebrew fricatives transcribed as "ḵ" and "ḇ" can also be transcribed in a number of other ways, such as "ch" and "v", which are pronounced [χ] and [v], respectively. They are transliterated "ḵ" and "ḇ" on this page to retain the connection with the pure consonantal root כ-ת-ב k-t-b. Also notice that in Modern Hebrew, there is no gemination.
| Semitological abbreviation | Hebrew name | Arabic name | Morphological category | Hebrew Form | Arabic form | Approximate translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| G verb stem | פָּעַל (קָל) pā‘al (or qāl) | fa‘ala فَعَلَ (Stem I) | 3rd. masc. sing perfect | kāṯaḇ כתב | kataba كتب | "he wrote" |
| 1st. plur. perfect | kāṯaḇnū כתבנו | katabnā كتبنا | "we wrote" | |||
| 3rd. masc. sing. imperfect | yiḵtoḇ יכתוב | yaktubu يكتب | "he writes, will write" | |||
| 1st. plur. imperfect | niḵtoḇ נכתוב | naktubu نكتب | "we write, will write" | |||
| masc. sing. active participle | kōṯēḇ כותב | kātib كاتب | "writer" | |||
| Š verb stem | הִפְעִיל hip̄‘īl | af‘ala أَفْعَلَ (Stem IV) | 3rd. masc. sing perfect | hiḵtīḇ הכתיב | aktaba أكتب | "he dictated" |
| 3rd. masc. sing. imperfect | yaḵtīḇ יכתיב | yuktibu يكتب | "he dictates, will dictate" | |||
| Št(D) verb stem | הִתְפָּעֵל hiṯpā‘ēl | istaf‘ala استَفْعَلَ (Stem X) | 3rd. masc. sing perfect | hiṯkattēḇ התכתב | istaktaba استكتب | "he corresponded" (Hebrew), "he asked (someone) to write (something), had a copy made" (Arabic) |
| 3rd. masc. sing. imperfect | yiṯkattēḇ יתכתב | yastaktibu يستكتب | (imperfect of above) | |||
| Noun with m- prefix and original short vowels | mip̄‘āl מִפְעָל | map̄‘āl مَفْعَل | singular | miḵtāḇ מכתב | maktab مكتب | "letter" (Hebrew), "office" (Arabic) |
In Hebrew grammatical terminology, the word binyan (Hebrew: בניין, plural בניינים binyanim) is used to refer to a verb derived stem or overall verb derivation pattern, while the word mishqal (or mishkal) is used to refer to a noun derivation pattern, and these words have gained some use in English-language linguistic terminology. The Arabic terms, called وزن wazn (plural أوزان, awzān) for the pattern and جذر jaḏr (plural جذور, juḏūr) for the root have not gained the same currency in cross-linguistic Semitic scholarship as the Hebrew equivalents, and Western grammarians continue to use "stem"/"form"/"pattern" for the former and "root" for the latter—though "form" and "pattern" are accurate translations of the Arabic grammatical term wazn (originally meaning 'weight, measure'), and "root" is a literal translation of jaḏr.
Biliteral origin of some triliteral roots
Although most roots in Hebrew seem to be triliteral, many of them were originally biliteral, cf. the relation between:
| ג־ז־ז | √g-z-z | shear |
| ג־ז־ם | √g-z-m | prune, cut down |
| ג־ז־ר | √g-z-r | cut |
as well as between:
| פ־ר־ז | √p-r-z | divide a city |
| פ־ר־ט | √p-r-t | give change |
| פ־ר־ר | √p-r-r | crumble into pieces |
| פ־ר־ע | √p-r-‘ | pay a debt [1] |
The Hebrew root ש־ק־ף - √sh-q-p "look out/through" or "reflect" deriving from ק־ף - √q-p "bend, arch, lean towards" and similar verbs fit into the shaCCéC verb-pattern.
| "arch, bend" | |
| ק־פ־א | √q-p-' |
| ק־פ־ה | √q-p-h |
| ק־פ־ח | √q-p-ḥ[ħ] |
| ק־פ־י | √q-p-y |
This verb-pattern sh-C-C is usually causative, cf.
| ש־ט־ף - √sh-t-p ‘wash, rinse, make wet’, from ט־ף - √t-p ‘wet’ |
| ש־ל־ך - √sh-l-k ‘cast off, throw down, cause to go’ from ל־ך - √l-k ‘go’".[1] |
History
According to a study of the Proto-Semitic lexicon,[2] biconsonantal roots are more abundant for words denoting Stone Age materials, whereas materials discovered during the Neolithic are uniquely triconsonantal. This implies a change in Proto-Semitic language structure concomitant with the transition to agriculture. In particular monosyllabic biconsonantal names are associated with a pre-Natufian cultural background, more than 16,500 years ago. As we have no texts from any Semitic language older than 5,500 years ago, reconstructions of Proto-Semitic are inferred from these more recent Semitic texts.
Quadriliteral roots
A quadriliteral is a consonantal root containing a sequence of four consonants (instead of three consonants, as is more often the case). A quadriliteral form is a word derived from such a four-consonant root. For example, the abstract quadriliteral root t-r-g-m / t-r-j-m gives rise to the verb forms תרגם tirgem in Hebrew, ترجم tarjama in Arabic,ተረጐመ "täräggwämä" in Amharic, all meaning "he translated". In some cases, a quadriliteral root is actually a reduplication of a two-consonant sequence. So in Hebrew דגדג digdeg means "he tickled", and in Arabic زلزال zilzāl means "earthquake".
Generally, only a subset of the verb derivations formed from triliteral roots are allowed with quadriliteral roots. For example, in Hebrew, the Piʿel, Puʿal, and Hiṯpaʿel, and in Arabic, forms similar to the stem II and stem V forms of triliteral roots.
Another set of quadriliteral roots in modern Hebrew is the set of secondary roots. A secondary root is a root derived from a word that was derived from another root. For example, the root מ-ס-פ-ר m-s-p-r is secondary to the root ס-פ-ר s-p-r. סָפַר saphar, from the root s-p-r, means "counted"; מִסְפָּר mispar, from the same root, means "number"; and מִסְפֶּר misper, from the secondary root מ-ס-פ-ר, means "numbered".
An irregular quadriliteral verb made from a loanword is:
- נַשְׁפְּרִיץ[1] 2011-07-21 at the Wayback Machine (/naʃˈprit͡s/) – "we will sprinkle" or "we will splash", from Yiddish spritz (from German spritzen)
Quinqueliteral roots
A quinqueliteral is a consonantal root containing a sequence of five consonants. Traditionally, in Semitic languages, forms with more than four basic consonants (i.e. consonants not introduced by morphological inflection or derivation) were occasionally found in nouns, mainly in loanwords from other languages, but never in verbs.[3] However, in modern Israeli Hebrew, syllables are allowed to begin with a sequence of two consonants (a relaxation of the situation in early Semitic, where only one consonant was allowed), which has opened the door for a very small set of loan words to manifest apparent five root-consonant forms, such as טלגרף tilgref "he telegraphed".[4] However, -lgr- always appears as an indivisible cluster in the derivation of this verb and so the five root-consonant forms do not display any fundamentally different morphological patterns from four root-consonant forms (and the term "quinqueliteral" or "quinquiliteral" would be misleading if it implied otherwise). Only a few Hebrew quinqueliterals are recognized by the Academy of the Hebrew Language as proper, or standard; the rest are considered slang.
Other examples are:
- סִנְכְּרֵן[2] 2011-07-21 at the Wayback Machine (/sinˈkren/ – "he synchronized"), via the English word from Greek
- חִנְטְרֵשׁ[3] 2011-07-21 at the Wayback Machine (/χinˈtreʃ/ – "he did stupid things")
- הִתְפְלַרְטֵט[4] 2011-07-21 at the Wayback Machine (/hitflarˈtet/ – "he had a flirt"), from the English or Yiddish past tense of the English word
In Amharic, there is a very small set of verbs which are conjugated as quinqueliteral roots. One example is wäšänäffärä 'rain fell with a strong wind'[5] The conjugation of this small class of verb roots is explained by Wolf Leslau.[6] Unlike the Hebrew examples, these roots conjugate in a manner more like regular verbs, producing no indivisible clusters.
See also
Notes
- ^ a b See p. 1 of Zuckermann, Ghil'ad 2003, ‘‘Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew’’, Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, (Palgrave Studies in Language History and Language Change, Series editor: Charles Jones). ISBN 1-4039-1723-X.
- ^ Agmon (2010:23)
- ^ A New Arabic Grammar of the Written Language by J.A. Haywood and H.M. Nahmad (London: Lund Humphries, 1965), ISBN 0-85331-585-X, p. 261.
- ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). (PDF) from the original on 2013-07-22. Retrieved 2012-12-10.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link). - ^ p. 153. Thomas Leiper Kane. 1990. Amharic-English Dictionary. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
- ^ pp. 566-569, 1043. Wolf Leslau. Reference Grammar of Amharic. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
References
- Agmon, Noam (2010), "Materials and Language: Pre-Semitic Root Structure Change Concomitant with Transition to Agriculture" (PDF), Brill's Annual of Afroasiatic Languages and Linguistics, 2: 23–79, doi:10.1163/187666310X12688137960669
External links
- Semitic Roots Repository
- Roots in Quranic Arabic
- Project Root List
- Learn Hebrew Verbs
- Alexis Amid Neme and Eric Laporte (2013), Pattern-and-root inflectional morphology: the Arabic broken plural |year=
- Alexis Amid Neme and Eric Laporte (2015), Do computer scientists deeply understand Arabic morphology? - هل يفهم المهندسون الحاسوبيّون علم الصرف فهماً عميقاً؟, available also in Arabic, Indonesian, French