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Simón Bolívar

November 03, 2023

"Bolívar" redirects here. For other uses, see Bolívar (disambiguation) and Simón Bolívar (disambiguation).

In this Spanish name, the first or paternal surname is Bolívar and the second or maternal family name is Palacios.

Simón José Antonio de la Santísima Trinidad Bolívar Palacios Ponte y Blanco[c] (24 July 1783 – 17 December 1830) was a Venezuelan military and political leader who led what are currently the countries of Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Panama and Bolivia to independence from the Spanish Empire. He is known colloquially as El Libertador, or the Liberator of America.

Simón Bolívar
Posthumous portrait, 1922
1st President of Colombia
In office
16 February 1819 – 27 April 1830
Preceded byEstanislao Vergara y Sanz de Santamaría
Succeeded byDomingo Caycedo
6th President of Peru[a]
In office
10 February 1824 – 27 January 1827
1st President of Bolivia[b]
In office
6 August 1825 – 29 December 1825
Preceded byOffice established
Succeeded byAntonio José de Sucre
Personal details
Born(1783-07-24)24 July 1783
Caracas, Captaincy General of Venezuela, Spanish Empire
Died17 December 1830(1830-12-17) (aged 47)
Santa Marta, Gran Colombia (now Colombia)
Resting placeNational Pantheon of Venezuela
Nationality
  • Spanish (until 1810)
  • Venezuelan (1813–1819)
  • Colombian (from 1819)
Spouse
​
​
(m. 1802; died 1803)​
Domestic partnerManuelita Sáenz
Signature

Simón Bolívar was born in Caracas in the Captaincy General of Venezuela into a wealthy family of American-born Spaniards (criollo) but lost both parents as a child. Bolívar was educated abroad and lived in Spain, as was common for men of upper-class families in his day. While living in Madrid from 1800 to 1802, he was introduced to Enlightenment philosophy and married María Teresa Rodríguez del Toro y Alaysa, who died in Venezuela from yellow fever in 1803. From 1803 to 1805, Bolívar embarked on a Grand Tour that ended in Rome, where he swore to end the Spanish rule in the Americas. In 1807, Bolívar returned to Venezuela and promoted Venezuelan independence to other wealthy creoles. When the Spanish authority in the Americas weakened due to Napoleon's Peninsular War, Bolívar became a zealous combatant and politician in the Spanish American wars of independence.

Bolívar began his military career in 1810 as a militia officer in the Venezuelan War of Independence, fighting Royalist forces for the first and second Venezuelan republics and the United Provinces of New Granada. After Spanish forces subdued New Granada in 1815, Bolívar was forced into exile on Jamaica. In Haiti, Bolívar met and befriended Haitian revolutionary leader Alexandre Pétion. After promising to abolish slavery in Spanish America, Bolívar received military support from Pétion and returned to Venezuela. He established a third republic in 1817 and then crossed the Andes to liberate New Granada in 1819. Bolívar and his allies defeated the Spanish in New Granada in 1819, Venezuela and Panama in 1821, Ecuador in 1822, Peru in 1824, and Bolivia in 1825. Venezuela, New Granada, Ecuador, and Panama were merged into the Republic of Colombia (Gran Colombia), with Bolívar as president there and in Peru and Bolivia.

In his final years, Bolívar became increasingly disillusioned with the South American republics, and distanced from them because of his centralist ideology. He was successively removed from his offices until he resigned the presidency of Colombia and died of tuberculosis in 1830. His legacy is diverse and far-reaching within Latin America and beyond. He is regarded as a hero and national and cultural icon throughout Latin America; the nations of Bolivia and Venezuela (as the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela) are named after him, and he has been memorialized all over the world in the form of public art or street names and in popular culture.

Early life and family edit

Simón Bolívar was born on 24 July 1783 in Caracas, capital of the Captaincy General of Venezuela, the fourth and youngest child of Juan Vicente Bolívar y Ponte [es] and María de la Concepción Palacios y Blanco [es].[5] He was baptized as Simón José Antonio de la Santísma Trinidad Bolívar y Palacios on 30 July.[6] The first of Bolívar's family to have emigrated to the Americas was a similarly named minor Spanish governmental official named Simón de Bolívar, who had been a notary in the Spanish region of Basque, and who had later arrived in Venezuela in the 1580s.[7] The earlier Simón de Bolívar's descendants had served in the colonial bureaucracy and had married into various wealthy Caracas families over the years.[8] By the time Simón Bolívar was born, the Bolívar family was one of the wealthiest and most prestigious criollo (creole) families in the Spanish Americas.[9]

Simón Bolívar's childhood was described by British historian John Lynch as "at once privileged and deprived."[10] Juan Vicente died of tuberculosis on 19 January 1786,[11] leaving María de la Concepción Palacios and her father, Feliciano Palacios y Sojo [es],[12] as legal guardians over the Bolívar children's inheritances.[13] Those children – María Antonia [es] (born 1777), Juana [es] (born 1779), Juan Vicente [es] (born 1781), and Simón[14] – were raised separately from each other and their mother, and, following colonial custom, by African house slaves;[15] Simón was raised by a slave named Hipólita [es] whom he viewed as both a motherly and fatherly figure.[16] On 6 July 1792,[17] María de la Concepción also died of tuberculosis.[18] Believing that his family would inherit the Bolívars' wealth,[19] Feliciano Palacios arranged marriages for María Antonia and Juana and,[20] before dying on 5 December 1793,[21] assigned custody of Juan Vicente and Simón to his sons, Juan Félix Palacios and Carlos Palacios y Blanco [es], respectively.[22] Bolívar came to loathe Carlos Palacios,[23] who had no interest in the boy other than his inheritance.[24]

Education and first journey to Europe: 1793–1802 edit

As a child, Bolívar was notoriously unruly[25] and neglected his studies.[19] Before his mother died, he spent two years under the tutelage of the Venezuelan lawyer Miguel José Sanz at the direction of the Real Audiencia of Caracas [es], the Spanish court of appeals in Caracas.[26] In 1793, Carlos enrolled Bolívar at a rudimentary primary school [es] run by Venezuelan educator Simón Rodríguez.[27] In June 1795, Bolívar fled his uncle's custody for the house of his sister María Antonia and her husband.[28] The couple sought formal recognition of his change of residence,[29] but the Real Audiencia decided the matter in favor of Palacios, who sent Simón to live with Rodríguez.[30]

After two months there, the Real Audiencia directed that he be returned to the Palacios family home.[31] Bolívar promised the Real Audiencia that he would focus on his education and was subsequently taught full-time by Rodríguez and the Venezuelan intellectuals Andrés Bello and Francisco de Andújar [es].[32] In 1797, Rodríguez's connection to the pro-independence Gual and España conspiracy forced him to go into exile,[33] and Bolívar was enrolled in an honorary militia force. When he was commissioned as an officer after a year,[34] his uncles' Carlos and Esteban Palacios y Blanco [es] decided to send Bolívar to join the latter in Madrid.[35] There, Esteban was friends with Queen Maria Luisa's favorite, Manuel Mallo.[36]

 
Miniature portrait of Bolívar in 1800

On 19 January 1799, Bolívar boarded the Spanish warship San Ildefonso at the port of La Guaira,[37] bound for Cádiz.[38] He arrived in Santoña, on the northern coast of Spain, in May 1799.[39] A little over a week later,[40] he arrived in Madrid and joined Esteban,[41] who found Bolívar to be "very ignorant."[42] Esteban asked Gerónimo Enrique de Uztáriz y Tovar, a Caracas native and government official, to educate Bolívar.[43][44] Bolívar moved into Uztáriz's residence in February 1800 and was educated in the Classics, literature, and social studies.[45][46]

At the same time, Mallo fell out of the Queen's favor and Manuel Godoy, her previous favorite, returned to power.[47] As members of Mallo's faction at court, Esteban was arrested on pretense,[48] and Bolívar was banished from court following a public incident at the Puerta de Toledo over the wearing of diamonds without royal permission.[49] Bolívar also at this time met María Teresa Rodríguez del Toro y Alaysa, the daughter of another wealthy Caracas creole.[50] They were engaged in August 1800,[51] but were separated when the del Toros left Madrid for a summer home in Bilbao.[52] After Uztáriz left Madrid for a government assignment in Teruel in 1801,[51][53] Bolívar himself left for Bilbao and remained there when the del Toros returned to the capital in August 1801.[54] Early in 1802, Bolívar traveled to Paris while he awaited permission to return to Madrid, which was granted in April.[55]

Return to Venezuela and second journey to Europe: 1802–1805 edit

 
Wedding of Bolívar and del Toro as painted by Tito Salas, 1921

Bolívar and del Toro, aged 18 and 21 respectively, were married in Madrid on 26 May 1802.[56] The couple boarded the San Ildefonso in La Coruña[57] on 15 June and sailed for La Guaira, where they arrived on 12 July.[51] They settled in Caracas, where del Toro fell ill and died of yellow fever on 22 January 1803.[58] Bolívar was devastated by del Toro's death and later told Louis Peru de Lacroix, one of his generals and biographers, that he swore to never remarry.[59] By July 1803,[60] Bolívar had decided to leave Venezuela for Europe. He entrusted his estates to an agent and his brother and in October boarded a ship bound for Cádiz.[61]

Bolívar arrived in Spain in December 1803, then traveled to Madrid to console his father-in-law.[62] In March 1804, the municipal authorities of Madrid ordered all non-residents in the city to leave to alleviate a bread shortage brought about by Spain's resumed hostilities with Britain.[63][64] Over April, Bolívar and Fernando Rodríguez del Toro [es], a childhood friend and relative of his wife, made their way to Paris and arrived in time for Napoleon to be proclaimed Emperor of the French on 18 May 1804.[65] They rented an apartment on the Rue Vivienne [fr] and met with other South Americans such as Carlos de Montúfar, Vicente Rocafuerte, and Simón Rodríguez, who joined Bolívar and del Toro in their apartment. While in Paris, Bolívar began a dalliance with the Countess Dervieu du Villars,[66] at whose salon he likely met the naturalists Alexander von Humboldt and Aimé Bonpland, who had traveled through much of Spanish America from 1799 to 1804. Bolívar allegedly discussed Spanish American independence with them.[67]

I swear before you ... that I will not rest body or soul until I have broken the chains binding us to the will of Spanish might!

Simón Bolívar, 15 August 1805[68]

In April 1805, Bolívar left Paris with Rodríguez and del Toro on a Grand Tour to Italy.[69] Beginning in Lyon, they traveled through the Savoy Alps and then to Milan.[70] The trio arrived on 26 May 1805 and witnessed Napoleon's coronation as King of Italy.[71] From Milan, they traveled down the Po Valley to Venice, then to Florence, and then finally Rome,[72] where Bolívar met, among others, Pope Pius VII, French writer Germaine de Staël, and Humboldt again.[73] Rome's sites and history excited Bolívar. On 18 August 1805, when he, del Toro, and Rodríguez traveled to the Mons Sacer, where the plebs had seceded from Rome in the 4th century BC, Bolívar swore to end Spanish rule in the Americas.[74]

Political and military career edit

Main article: Military career of Simón Bolívar
 
Portrait of Francisco de Miranda by Martín Tovar y Tovar

By April 1806, Bolívar had returned to Paris and desired passage to Venezuela,[75] where Venezuelan revolutionary Francisco de Miranda had just attempted an invasion with American volunteers.[76] British control of the seas resulting from the 1805 Battle of Trafalgar, however, obliged Bolívar to board an American ship in Hamburg in October 1806. Bolívar arrived in Charleston, South Carolina, in January 1807,[77] and from there traveled to Washington, D.C., Philadelphia, New York City, and Boston.[78] After six months in the United States,[79] Bolívar returned to Philadelphia and sailed for Venezuela, where he arrived in June 1807. He began to meet with other creole elites to discuss independence from Spain.[80] Finding himself to be far more radical than the rest of Caracas high society,[81] however, Bolívar occupied himself with a property dispute with a neighbor, Antonio Nicolás Briceño [es].[82]

In 1807–08, Napoleon invaded the Iberian peninsula and replaced the rulers of Spain with his brother, Joseph.[83] This news arrived in Venezuela in July 1808.[84] Napoleonic rule was rejected and Venezuelan creoles, though still loyal to Ferdinand VII of Spain, sought to form their own local government in place of the existing Spanish government.[85] On 24 November 1808, a group of creoles presented a petition demanding an independent government to Juan de Casas [es], the Captain-General of Venezuela, and were arrested.[86] Bolívar, though he did not sign the petition and thus was not arrested, was warned to cease hosting or attending seditious meetings.[87] In May 1809, Casas was replaced by Vicente Emparán and his staff, which included Fernando Rodríguez del Toro. The creoles also resisted Emparán's government, despite his friendlier disposition towards them.[88]

By February 1810, French victories in Spain prompted the dissolution of the anti-French Spanish government in favor of a five-man regency council for Ferdinand VII.[89] This news, and two delegates that included Carlos de Montúfar, arrived in Venezuela on 17 April 1810.[90] Two days later, the creoles succeeded in deposing and then expelling Emparán,[91] and created the Supreme Junta of Caracas, independent from the Spanish regency but not Ferdinand VII.[92][93] Absent from Caracas for the coup,[94] Bolívar and his brother returned to the city and offered their services to the Supreme Junta as diplomats.[95] In May 1810, Juan Vicente was sent to the United States to buy weapons,[96] while Simón secured a place in a diplomatic mission to Great Britain with the lawyer Luis López Méndez [es] and Andrés Bello by paying for the mission. The trio boarded a British warship in June 1810 and arrived at Portsmouth on 10 July 1810.[97]

The three delegates first met Miranda at his London residence, despite instructions from the Supreme Junta to avoid him, and thereafter received the benefit of his connections and consultation.[98] On 16 July 1810, the Venezuelan delegation met the British foreign secretary, Richard Wellesley, at his residence. Led by Bolívar, the Venezuelans argued in favor of Venezuelan independence, which Wellesley stated that it was intolerable for Anglo-Spanish relations.[99] Subsequent meetings produced no recognition or concrete support from Britain.[100] Finding that he had many shared beliefs with Miranda, however, Bolívar convinced him to come back to Venezuela.[101] On 22 September 1810,[102] Bolívar left for Venezuela while López and Bello remained in London as diplomats,[103] and arrived in La Guaira on 5 December.[104] Although the British government wanted Miranda to remain in Britain, they could not prevent his departure,[105] and he arrived in Venezuela later in December.[106][d]

Venezuela: 1811–1812 edit

 
Oil on canvas "Terremoto de 1812", by Venezuelan painter Tito Salas

While Bolívar was in England, the Supreme Junta passed liberal economic reforms[112] and began to hold elections for representatives to a congress to be held in Caracas.[113] It had also alienated Caracas from the Venezuelan provinces of Coro, Maracaibo, and Guayana, which professed loyalty to the regency council,[114] and began hostilities with them.[115][116] Co-founding the Patriotic Society, a political organization advocating for independence from Spain, Bolívar and Miranda campaigned for and secured the latter's election to the congress.[117] The congress first met on 2 March 1811 and declared its allegiance to Ferdinand VII.[118] After it was discovered that one of the men leading the congress was a Spanish agent who had escaped with military documents, however,[119] discourse – which Bolívar was prominent in – changed decidedly in favor of independence over 3 and 4 July.[120] Finally, on 5 July, the congress declared Venezuela's independence.[121]

The declaration of independence created the first Republic of Venezuela. It had a weak base of support and enemies in conservative whites, disenfranchised people of color, and the already hostile Venezuelan provinces, which received troops and supplies from the Captaincy-Generals of Puerto Rico and Cuba.[122] On 13 July 1811, the republic raised militias to fight the pro-Spanish Royalists.[123] The congress appointed Francisco Rodríguez del Toro [es], the Marquis of Toro [es], to command these forces,[124] which opened a breach between Bolívar and Miranda. Bolívar and del Toro were close friends, while del Toro and Miranda and their families were enemies.[125] After he failed to suppress a Royalist uprising in the city of Valencia later in July,[126] the congress replaced del Toro with Miranda, and he recaptured Valencia [es] on 13 August.[127] As a condition of assuming command of the Republican forces, Miranda had Bolívar stripped of his command of a militia unit.[128] Bolívar nonetheless fought in the Valencia campaign as part of del Toro's militia[129] and was selected by Miranda to bring news of its recapture to Caracas,[130] where he argued for more punitive and forceful campaigning against the Royalists.[131]

I left my house for the Cathedral ... and the earth began to shake with a huge roar. ... I saw the church of San Jacinto collapse on its own foundations. ... I climbed over the ruins and entered, and I immediately saw about forty persons dead or dying under the rubble. I climbed out again and I shall never forget that moment. On the top of the ruins I found Don Simón Bolívar ... He saw me and [said], "We will fight nature itself if it opposes us, and force it to obey."

Royalist historian José Domingo Díaz [es], quoted by John Lynch[132]

Beginning in November 1811, Royalist forces began pushing back the Republicans from the north and east.[133] On 26 March 1812, a powerful earthquake devastated Republican Venezuela; Caracas itself was almost totally destroyed.[134] Bolívar, who was still near Caracas,[135] rushed into the city to participate in the rescue of survivors and exhumation of the dead.[136] The earthquake destroyed public support for the republic, as it was believed to have been divine retribution for declaring independence from Spain.[137] By April, a Royalist army under the Spanish naval officer Juan Domingo de Monteverde overran western Venezuela. Miranda,[138] retreating east with a disintegrating army,[139] ordered Bolívar to assume command of the coastal city of Puerto Cabello and its fortress,[140] which contained Royalist prisoners and most of the republic's remaining arms and ammunition.[141]

Bolívar arrived at Puerto Cabello on 4 May 1812.[142] On 30 June, an officer of the fort's garrison loyal to the Royalists released its prisoners, armed them, and turned its cannons on Puerto Cabello.[139][143] Weakened by shelling, defections, and lack of supplies, Bolívar and his remaining troops fled for La Guaira on 6 July.[144] Believing the republic to be doomed,[139] Miranda decided to capitulate,[145] shocking Bolívar and other Republican officers.[146] After formally surrendering his command to Monteverde on 25 July,[147] Miranda made his way to La Guaira, where a group of officers including Bolívar arrested Miranda on 30 July on charges of treason against the republic.[148] La Guaira declared for the Royalists the next day and closed its port on Monteverde's orders.[149] Miranda was taken into Spanish custody and moved to a prison in Cádiz, where he died on 16 July 1816.[150]

New Granada and Venezuela: 1812–1815 edit

Bolívar escaped La Guaira early on 31 July 1812 and rode to Caracas,[151] where he hid from arrest in the home of Esteban Fernández de León [es], the Marquis de Casa León [es]. Bolívar and Casa León convinced Francisco Iturbe, a friend of the Bolívar family and of Monteverde, to intercede on Bolívar's behalf and secure escape from Venezuela for him. Iturbe persuaded Monteverde to issue Bolívar a passport for his role in Miranda's arrest,[152] and on 27 August he sailed for the island of Curaçao. He and his uncles' Francisco and José Félix Ribas arrived on 1 September. Late in October, the exiles arranged for passage west to the city of Cartagena to offer their services as military leaders to the United Provinces of New Granada against the Royalists.[153] They arrived in November and were welcomed by Manuel Rodríguez Torices, president of the Free State of Cartagena [es],[154] who instructed his commanding general, Pierre Labatut, to give Bolívar a military command. Labatut, a former partisan of Miranda, begrudgingly obliged and on 1 December 1812 placed Bolívar in command of the 70-man garrison of a town on the lower Magdalena River.[155]

While en route to his posting, Bolívar issued the Cartagena Manifesto, outlining what he believed to be the causes of the Venezuelan republic's defeat and his political program. In particular, Bolívar called for the disparate New Granadan republics to help him invade Venezuela to prevent a Royalist invasion of New Granada.[156] Bolívar arrived on the Magdalena River on 21 December and,[157] in spite of orders from Labatut to not act without his direction,[158] launched an offensive that secured control of the Magdalena River from Royalist forces by 8 January 1813.[159] In February, he joined forces with Republican colonel Manuel del Castillo y Rada [es], who requested Bolívar's assistance with stopping a Royalist advance into New Granada from Venezuela, and captured the city of Cúcuta from the Royalists.[160]

In early March 1813, Bolívar set up his headquarters in Cúcuta and sent José Félix Ribas to request permission to invade Venezuela.[161] Though rewarded with honorary citizenship in New Granada and a promotion to the rank of brigadier general,[162] that permission did not come until 7 May because of del Castillo's opposition to the invasion. When a limited invasion was permitted, Castillo resigned his command and was succeeded by Francisco de Paula Santander.[163] On 14 May, Bolívar launched the Admirable Campaign,[164] in which he issued the Decree of War to the Death, ordering the death of all Spaniards in South America not actively aiding his forces.[165] Within six months, Bolívar pushed all the way to Caracas,[166] which he entered on 6 August,[167][168] and then drove Monteverde out of Venezuela in October.[169][170] Bolívar returned to Caracas on 14 October and was named "The Liberator" (El Libertador) by its town council,[171] a title first given to him by the citizens of the Venezuelan town of Mérida on 23 May.[172]

 
Portrait of Santiago Mariño by Martín Tovar y Tovar

On 2 January 1814, Bolívar was made the dictator of a Second Republic of Venezuela,[173] which retained the weaknesses of the first republic.[174] Though all of Venezuela but Maracaibo, Coro, and Guayana was controlled by Republicans,[175][176] Bolívar only governed western Venezuela. The east was controlled by Santiago Mariño, a Venezuelan Republican who had fought Monteverde in the east throughout 1813[177][178] and was unwilling to subordinate himself to Bolívar.[179] Venezuela was economically devastated and could not support the republic's armies,[180] and people of color remained disenfranchised and thus unsupportive of the republic.[181] The republic was assailed from all sides by slave revolts and Royalist forces,[182] especially the Legion of Hell, an army of llaneros – the horsemen of the Llanos, to the south – led by the Spanish warlord José Tomás Boves.[183] Beginning in February 1814, Boves surged out of the Llanos and overwhelmed the republic, occupying Caracas on 16 July and then destroying Mariño's powerbase on 5 December at the Battle of Urica, where Boves died.[184][185]

As Boves approached Caracas, Bolívar ordered the city stripped of its gold and silver,[186] which was moved through La Guaira to Barcelona, Venezuela,[187] and from there to Cumaná.[188] Bolívar then led 20,000 of its citizens east.[186] He arrived in Barcelona on 2 August,[189] but following another defeat at the Battle of Aragua de Barcelona on 17 August 1814, he moved to Cumaná.[190] On 26 August, he sailed with Mariño to Margarita Island with the treasure. The officer in control of the island, Manuel Piar, declared Bolívar and Mariño to be traitors and forced them to return to the mainland.[191] There, Ribas also accused Bolívar and Mariño of treachery, confiscated the treasure,[192] and then exiled the two on 8 September.[193]

Bolívar arrived in Cartagena on 19 September and then met with the New Granadan congress in Tunja,[194] which tasked him with subduing the rival Free and Independent State of Cundinamarca.[195] On 12 December, Bolívar captured Cundinamarca's capital, Bogotá, and was given command of New Granada's armies in January 1815.[196] Bolívar next grappled with del Castillo, who had taken control of Cartagena.[197] Bolívar besieged the city [es] for six weeks. His change of focus allowed the Royalist forces to regain control of the Magdalena.[198] On 8 May, Bolívar made a truce with del Castillo, resigned his command, and sailed for self-exile on Jamaica as a result of this error.[199] In July, 8,000 Spanish soldiers commanded by Spanish general Pablo Morillo landed at Santa Marta and then besieged Cartagena [es], which capitulated on 6 December; del Castillo was executed.[200][201]

Jamaica, Haiti, Venezuela, and New Granada: 1815–1819 edit

 
Portrait of Bolívar by Arturo Michelena, 1895

Bolívar arrived in Kingston, Jamaica, on 14 May 1815 and,[202] as in his earlier exile on Curaçao, ruminated on the fall of the Venezuelan and New Granadan republics. He wrote extensively, requesting assistance from Britain and corresponding with merchants based in the Caribbean. This culminated in September 1815 with the Jamaica Letter, in which Bolívar again laid out his ideology and vision of the future of the Americas.[203] On 9 December, the Venezuelan pirate Renato Beluche brought Bolívar news from New Granada and asked him to join the Republican community in exile in Haiti.[204] Bolívar tentatively accepted and escaped assassination that night when his manservant mistakenly killed his paymaster as part of a Spanish plot.[205] He left Jamaica eight days later,[206] arrived in Les Cayes on 24 December,[207] and on 2 January 1816 was introduced to Alexandre Pétion, President of the Republic of Haiti by a mutual friend.[208] Bolívar and Pétion impressed and befriended each other and,[209] after Bolívar pledged to free every slave in the areas he occupied, Pétion gave him money and military supplies.[210][211]

Returning to Les Cayes, Bolívar held a conference with the Republican leaders in Haiti and was made supreme leader with Mariño as his chief of staff.[212] The Republicans departed Les Cayes for Venezuela on 31 March 1816 and followed the Antilles eastward.[213] After a delay to allow a lover of Bolívar's to join the fleet, it arrived on 2 May at Margarita Island, controlled by Republican commander Juan Bautista Arismendi.[214] Bolívar next moved to the mainland, where he declared the emancipation of all slaves and annulled of the Decree of War to the Death.[215][e] He seized Carúpano on 31 May and sent Mariño and Piar into Guayana to build their own army,[218] then took and held Ocumare de la Costa from 6 to 14 July, when it was recaptured by the Royalists.[219][220] Bolívar fled by sea to Güiria where, on 22 August, he was deposed by Mariño and Venezuelan Republican José Francisco Bermúdez.[221]

Bolívar returned to Haiti by early September,[222] where Pétion again agreed to assist him.[223] In his absence, the Republican leaders scattered across Venezuela, concentrating in the Llanos, and became disunited warlords.[224] Unwilling to recognize Mariño's leadership, [225] Arismendi wrote to Bolívar and dispatched New Granadan Republican Francisco Antonio Zea to convince him to return. Bolívar and Zea set sail for Venezuela on 21 December with Luis Brión, a Dutch merchant,[226] and arrived ten days later at Barcelona. There, Bolívar announced his return and called for a congress for a new, third republic.[227] He wrote to the Republican leaders, especially José Antonio Páez, who controlled most of the western Llanos, to unite under his leadership.[228][229] On 8 January 1817, Bolívar marched towards Caracas but was defeated at the Battle of Clarines and pursued to Barcelona by a larger Royalist force.[230] At Bolívar's request, Mariño arrived on 8 February with Bermúdez, who then reconciled with Bolívar, and forced a Royalist withdrawal.[231]

Even with their combined forces, however, Bolívar, Mariño, and Bermúdez could not hold Barcelona.[232] Instead, on 25 March 1817,[233] Bolívar began moving south to join Piar in Guayana, Piar's power base, and establish his own economic and political base there.[234][235] Bolívar met Piar on 4 April,[236] promoted him to the rank of general of the army, and then joined a force of Piar's troops besieging the city of Angostura (now Ciudad Bolívar) on 2 May.[237] Meanwhile, Mariño went east to reestablish his power base and on 8 May convened a congress of ten men, including Brión and Zea, that named Mariño as supreme commander of the Republican forces.[238] This backfired and provoked the defection of 30 officers, including Rafael Urdaneta and Antonio José de Sucre, to Bolívar.[239] On 30 June, Bolívar granted Piar leave of absence at his request,[240] and then issued an arrest warrant on 23 July after Piar began fomenting rebellion, alleging that Bolívar had dismissed him because of his mulatto heritage. Piar was captured on 27 September as he fled to join Mariño and was brought to Angostura, where he was executed by firing squad on 16 October.[241] Bolívar then sent Sucre to reconcile with Mariño,[242] who pledged loyalty to Bolívar on 26 January 1818.[243]

On 17 July 1817, Angostura fell [es] to Bolívar's forces, which gained control of the Orinoco River in early August.[244][245] Angostura became the provisional Republican capital and in September,[246] Bolívar began creating formal political and military structures for the republic.[247][248] Following a meeting at San Juan de Payara on 30 January 1818, Páez recognized Bolívar as supreme leader.[249] In February 1818, the Republicans moved north and took Calabozo, where they defeated Morillo [es],[250] who had returned to Venezuela a year earlier after conquering Republican New Granada.[251] Bolívar next advanced towards Caracas, but was defeated while en route at the Third Battle of La Puerta [es] on 16 March.[252][253] He escaped assassination by Spanish infiltrators in April. Illness and additional Republican defeats obliged Bolívar to return to Angostura in May. For the rest of the year, he focused on administering the republic, rebuilding its armed forces,[254] and organizing elections for a national congress that would meet in 1819.[255][256]

Gran Colombia: 1819–1830 edit

 
Equestrian portrait of Bolívar by José Hilarión Ibarra [es], c. 1826

The congress met in Angostura on 15 February 1819.[257] There, Bolívar gave a speech in which he advocated for a centralized government modeled on the British government and racial equality,[258] and relinquished civil authority to the congress.[259] On 16 February, the congress elected Bolívar as president and Zea as vice president.[256][260] On 27 February,[261] Bolívar left Angostura to rejoin Páez in the west and resumed campaigning [es] against Morillo, albeit ineffectively.[256][262] In May, as the annual wet season was beginning in the Llanos, Bolívar met with his officers and revealed his intention to invade and liberate New Granada from Royalist occupation,[263] which he had prepared for by sending Santander to build up Republican forces in Casanare Province in August 1818.[264][265] On 27 May,[266] Bolívar marched with more than 2,000 soldiers toward the Andes[267][268] and left Páez, Mariño, Urdaneta, and Bermúdez to tie down Morillo's forces in Venezuela.[269]

Bolívar entered Casanare Province with his army on 4 June 1819,[270] then met up with Santander at Tame, Arauca, on 11 June.[271] The combined Republican force reached the Eastern Range of the Andes on 22 June and began a grueling crossing.[272] On 6 July, the Republicans descended from the Andes at Socha and into the plains of New Granada.[273] After a brief convalescence, the Republicans made rapid progress against the forces of Spanish colonel José María Barreiro Manjón [es] until, on 7 August, the Royalists were routed at the Battle of Boyacá. On 10 August, Bolívar entered Bogotá, which the Spanish officials had hastily abandoned,[274][275] and captured the viceregal treasury and armories.[276] After sending forces to secure Republican control of central New Granada,[277] Bolívar paraded through Bogotá on 18 September with Santander.[278]

Desiring to merge New Granada and Venezuela into a "greater republic of Colombia", Bolívar first established a provisional government in Bogotá with Santander,[279] and then left to resume campaigning against the Royalists in Venezuela on 20 September 1819.[280] En route, he learned that Zea had been replaced as vice president in September 1819 by Arismendi, who was conspiring with Mariño against Urdaneta and Bermúdez. Bolívar arrived in Angostura on 11 December and, by being conciliatory, defused the plot.[281] He then proposed the merging of New Granada and Venezuela to the congress on 14 December,[282] which was approved. On 17 December, the congress issued a decree creating the Republic of Colombia, including the regions of Venezuela, New Granada, and the still Spanish-controlled Real Audiencia of Quito, and elected Bolívar and Zea president and vice president respectively.[283]

After Christmas Day, 1819,[284] Bolívar left Angostura to direct campaigns against Royalist forces along the Caribbean coasts of Venezuela and New Granada.[285] He met with Santander in Bogotá in March 1820, then rode to Cúcuta and inspected Republican forces in northern Colombia over April and May 1820.[286] Meanwhile, Morillo's military and political position was fatally undermined by the mutiny of Spanish soldiers in Cádiz on 1 January [es], which forced Ferdinand VII to accept a liberal constitution in March.[287][288] News of the mutiny and its consequences arrived in Colombia in March and was followed by orders from Spain to Morillo to publicize the constitution and negotiate a peace that would return Colombia to the Spanish Empire. Bolívar and Morillo, seeking to gain leverage over each other,[289] delayed talks until 21 November, when Colombian and Royalist delegates met in Trujillo, Venezuela.[290] The delegates completed two treaties [es] on 25 November, establishing a six-month truce, a prisoner exchange, and basic rights for combatants. Bolívar and Morillo signed the treaties on 25 and 26 November, then met the next day at Santa Ana de Trujillo [es].[291][292] After this meeting, Morillo turned his command over to Spanish general Miguel de la Torre and departed for Spain on 17 December.[293]

In February 1821, as Bolívar was traveling from Bogotá to Cúcuta in anticipation of the opening of a new congress there,[294] he learned that Royalist-controlled Maracaibo had defected to Colombia and been occupied by Urdaneta.[295][296] La Torre protested to Bolívar, who refused to return Maracaibo, leading to a renewal of hostilities on 28 April.[297] Over May and June, Colombia's armies made rapid progress until, on 24 June, Bolívar and Páez decisively defeated La Torre at the Battle of Carabobo.[298][299] All Royalist forces remaining in Venezuela were eliminated by August 1823.[300] Bolívar entered Caracas in triumph on 29 June,[301] and issued a decree on 16 July dividing Venezuela into three military zones governed by Páez, Bermúdez, and Mariño.[302] Bolívar then met with the Congress of Cúcuta,[303] which had ratified the formation of Gran Colombia and elected him as president and Santander as vice president in September. Bolívar accepted and was sworn in on 3 October, although he protested the establishment of a precedent of military leaders as head of the Colombian state.[304]

Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia: 1821–1826 edit

After the Battle of Carabobo, Bolívar turned his attention south, to Pasto, Colombia; Quito and the Free Province of Guayaquil, Ecuador; and the Viceroyalty of Peru. Pasto and Quito were Royalist strongholds,[300][305] while Guayaquil had declared its independence on 9 October 1820[306] and had been garrisoned by Sucre on Bolívar's orders in January 1821.[307] Panama declared its independence on 28 November 1821 and joined Colombia.[308] Peru had been invaded by a Republican army led by Argentine general José de San Martín, who had liberated Chile and Peru,[309] and Bolívar feared San Martín would absorb Ecuador into Peru.[310] In October 1821, after congress empowered him to secure Ecuador for Colombia,[311] Bolívar assembled an army in Bogotá that departed on 13 December 1821.[312] His advance was halted by illness and a Pyrrhic victory at the Battle of Bomboná [es] in southern Colombia on 7 April 1822.[313][314]

 
Portrait of Manuela Sáenz by Marco Salas Yepes, 1960

To the south, Sucre, who had been trapped in Guayaquil by Royalist advances from Quito,[315] now advanced, decisively defeated the Royalists at the Battle of Pichincha on 24 May 1822, and occupied Quito.[313][316] On 6 June, Pasto surrendered,[317] and ten days later Bolívar paraded through Quito with Sucre.[318] He also met the Ecuadorian Republican Manuela Sáenz, the wife of a British merchant, with whom he began a lasting affair.[319] From Quito, Bolívar traveled to Guayaquil in anticipation of a meeting with San Martín to discuss the city's status and to rally support for its annexation by Colombia.[320] When San Martín arrived in Guayaquil on 26 July,[321] Bolívar had already secured Guayaquil for Colombia,[322] and the two-day Guayaquil Conference produced no agreement between Bolívar and San Martín. Ill, politically isolated, and disillusioned, San Martín resigned from his offices and went into exile.[323][324]

Over the rest of 1822, Bolívar traveled around Ecuador to complete its annexation while dispatching officers to suppress repeated rebellions in Pasto and resisting calls to return to Bogotá or Venezuela.[325] Meanwhile, Royalist forces under general José de Canterac overwhelmed the Peruvian republic [es].[326][327] After initially refusing Colombian assistance,[328] the Peruvian congress asked Bolívar several times in 1823 to assume command of their forces. Bolívar responded by sending an army under Sucre to assist,[329] then delayed his own departure to Peru until he obtained permission from the Colombian congress on 3 August.[330] When Bolívar arrived in Lima, Peru's capital, on 1 September,[331] Peru was split between two rival presidents, José de la Riva Agüero and José Bernardo de Tagle, and the Royalists under the Viceroy of Peru, José de la Serna.[332][333]

In November 1823, Riva Agüero, who plotted with the Royalists against Bolívar, was betrayed by his officers to Bolívar and exiled from Peru.[334] While Bolívar was bedridden with fever over the first two months of 1824, Tagle defected to the Royalists with the garrison and city of Callao and briefly took Lima.[335] In response, the Peruvian congress named Bolívar dictator of Peru on 10 February 1824. Bolívar moved to northern Peru in March and began assembling an army.[333][336] His repeated demands for additional men and money strained his relationship with Santander.[337]

In May 1823, conservative Royalist general Pedro Antonio Olañeta, based in the region of Upper Peru, rebelled [es] against la Serna. Bolívar seized the opportunity to advance into the Junín region, where he defeated Canterac at the Battle of Junín on 6 August, driving them out of Peru.[338][339] Choosing to ignore Olañeta, la Serna ordered his forces to concentrate at Cuzco to face Bolívar.[339][340] Heavy rainfall in September halted Bolívar's advance,[341] and on 6 October he gave command of the army to Sucre and moved to Huancayo to manage political affairs.[342]

On 24 October, Bolívar received a letter from Santander informing him that because he had accepted the dictatorship of Peru the Colombian congress had stripped him of his military and civil authority in favor of Sucre and Santander, respectively.[342] Although indignant and resentful of Santander, Bolívar wrote to him on 10 November to communicate his acquiescence[343] and reoccupied Lima on 5 December 1824.[344] On 9 December, Sucre decisively defeated La Serna's Royalists at the Battle of Ayacucho and accepted the surrender [es] of all Royalist forces in Peru. The garrison of Callao and Olañeta ignored the surrender. Shortly after arriving in Lima, Bolívar began a siege of Callao that lasted until January 1826,[345][346] and sent Sucre into Upper Peru to eliminate Olañeta, which he accomplished in April 1825.[347]

 
Portrait of Bolívar by José Gil de Castro, 1825

In early 1825, Bolívar resigned from his offices in Colombia and Peru, but neither nation's congress accepted his resignation; on 10 February 1825, the Peruvian congress extended his dictatorship for another year. Accepting the extension,[348] Bolívar settled into governing Peru and passing reforms that were largely not carried out, such as a school system based on the principles of English educator Joseph Lancaster that was managed by Simón Rodríguez.[349] In April 1825, Bolívar began a tour of southern Peru that took him to the cities of Arequipa and Cuzco by August. As Bolívar approached Upper Peru, a congress gathered in the city of Chuquisaca (now Sucre); on 6 August, it declared the region to be the nation of Bolivia, named Bolívar President, and asked him to write a constitution for Bolivia.[350] Bolívar arrived in Potosí on 5 October and met with two Argentine agents, Carlos María de Alvear and José Miguel Díaz Vélez, who tried without success to convince him to intervene in the Cisplatine War against the Empire of Brazil.[351]

From Potosí, Bolívar traveled to Chuquisaca and appointed Sucre to govern Bolivia on 29 December 1825;[352] he departed for Peru on 1 January 1826.[353] Bolívar arrived in Lima on 10 February and dispatched his draft of the Bolivian constitution to Sucre on 12 May.[354] That constitution [es] was ratified with modification by the Bolivian congress in July 1826.[355] Peru, whose elites chafed at Bolívar's rule and the presence of his soldiers, was also induced to accept a modified version of Bolívar's constitution on 16 August.[356] In Venezuela, Páez revolted against Santander, and in Panama, a congress of American nations organized by Bolívar convened without his attendance and produced no change in the hemispheric status quo. On 3 September, responding to pleas for his return to Colombia, Bolívar departed Peru and left it under a governing council led by Bolivian general Andrés de Santa Cruz.[357]

Final years: 1826–1830 edit

See also: Septembrine Conspiracy

Bolívar arrived in Guayaquil on 13 September 1826 and heard complaints against Santander's governance from the people of Guayaquil and Quito, who declared him their dictator.[358] From Ecuador, he continued north and heard more complaints, promoted civil and military officers, and commuted prison sentences.[359] As he approached Bogotá, Bolívar was met by Santander, who hoped to persuade Bolívar to his cause in the conflict with Páez. Although Santander was annoyed at Bolívar for his desire to return to power and ratify a version of the Bolivian constitution in Colombia, they reconciled and agreed that Bolívar would resume the presidency of Colombia; congress had reelected them to a second four-year term beginning on 2 January 1827. Bolívar arrived in Bogotá on 14 November 1826.[360]

On 25 November, Bolívar left Bogotá with an army supplied by Santander and arrived at Puerto Cabello on 31 December,[361] where he issued a general amnesty to Páez and his allies if they submitted to his authority. Páez accepted and in January 1827, Bolívar confirmed Páez's military authority in Venezuela and entered Caracas with him to much jubilation; for two months, Bolívar attended balls celebrating his return and the amnesty.[362] That amnesty, and clashes over Santander's handling of Colombia's finances, caused a break between Bolívar and Santander that became an open enmity in 1827.[363] In February 1827, Bolívar submitted his resignation from the Presidency of Colombia, which its congress rejected.[364] Meanwhile, the Colombian soldiers garrisoned in Lima mutinied, arrested their Venezuelan officers, and occupied Guayaquil until September 1827, allowing Bolívar's opponents in Peru to depose him as president and repeal his constitution.[365]

Bolívar departed Venezuela to return to Bogotá in July 1827. He arrived on 10 September with an army he had gathered at Cartagena and secured the calling of a new congress to meet at the city of Ocaña in early 1828 to modify the Colombian constitution. The elections for this congress were held in November 1827 and, as Bolívar declined to campaign because he didn't wish to be perceived as personally influencing the elections, were very favorable to his political opponents.[366] In January 1828, Bolívar was joined in Bogotá by Sáenz,[367] but on 16 March 1828 he left the capital after being informed of a Spanish-backed rebellion in Venezuela. As that revolt was crushed before he arrived, Bolívar turned his attention to the occupation of Cartagena by José Prudencio Padilla, a New Granadan admiral and Santander loyalist. Padilla's rebellion was also crushed before Bolívar arrived, however, and he was arrested and imprisoned in Bogotá. As the Convention of Ocaña opened on 9 April, Bolívar based himself at Bucaramanga to monitor its proceedings through his aides.[368]

 
The window of the Palacio de San Carlos through which Bolívar escaped assassination on 25 September 1828

The convention appeared likely to adopt a federalist system. To prevent this, on 11 June 1828 Bolívar's allies staged a walkout, leaving the convention without a quorum.[369] Two days later, Pedro Alcántara Herrán, a Bolívar loyalist and the governor of New Granada, called a meeting of the city's elite that denounced the Convention of Ocaña and called on Bolívar to assume absolute power in Colombia. Bolívar returned to Bogotá on 24 June and on 27 August assumed supreme power as the "president-liberator" of Colombia, abolished the office of the vice president, and assigned Santander to a diplomatic posting in Washington, D.C. On 25 September 1828, a group of young liberals that included Santander's secretary made an attempt to assassinate Bolívar and overthrow his government. The attempt was thwarted by Sáenz, who bought time for Bolívar to escape as the assassins entered the Palacio de San Carlos, and the Colombian Army. Bolívar spent the night hiding under a bridge until soldiers loyal to his regime rescued him.[370]

In the aftermath of the attempted coup, Santander and the conspirators were arrested. Bolívar, depressed and ill, considered resigning from politics and pardoning the conspirators, but was dissuaded from this by his officers. Padilla, though uninvolved with the attempted coup, was executed for treason for his earlier rebellion; Santander, whom Bolívar thought responsible for the plot, was pardoned but exiled from Colombia.[371] In December 1828, Bolívar left Bogotá to respond to Peru's intervention in Bolivia and invasion of Ecuador and a revolt in Popayán and Pasto led by José María Obando. He left behind a council of ministers led by Urdaneta to govern Colombia and announced that a congress would convene in January 1830 to devise a new constitution. Over 1829, Obando was defeated by Colombian general José María Córdova at Bolívar's direction in January and then pardoned, while Sucre and Venezuelan general Juan José Flores defeated the Peruvians at the Battle of Tarqui in February, leading to an armistice in July and then the Treaty of Guayaquil in September.[372]

While Bolívar was away, Urdaneta and the council of ministers planned with French envoys to have a member of the House of Bourbon succeed Bolívar on his death as King of Colombia. This plan was widely unpopular, and inspired Córdova to launch a revolt that was crushed in October 1829 by Daniel Florence O'Leary, Bolívar's aide-de-camp. In November, Bolívar ordered the council to cease its planning; instead they resigned.[373] Venezuelans, encouraged by a circular letter Bolívar had published in October, voted to secede from Colombia.[374] On 15 January 1830, Bolívar arrived in Bogotá and on 20 January the Admirable Congress [es] convened in the city. Bolívar submitted his resignation from the presidency, which the congress did not accept until 27 April, following the appointment of New Granadan politician Domingo Caycedo as interim President.[375]

Death and burial edit

 
Bolívar's death, by Venezuelan painter Antonio Herrera Toro, 1889

Determined to go into exile, Bolívar, who had given away or lost his fortune over his career, sold most of his remaining possessions and departed from Bogotá on 8 May 1830.[376] He traveled down the Magdalena to Cartagena, where he arrived by the end of June to wait for a ship to take him to England.[377] On 1 July, Bolívar was informed that Sucre had been assassinated near Pasto while en route to Quito, and wrote to Flores to ask him to avenge Sucre.[378] In September, Urdaneta installed a conservative government in Bogotá and asked Bolívar to return, but he refused.[379] With his health deteriorating and no ship forthcoming, Bolívar was moved by his staff to Barranquilla in October and then, at the invitation of a Spanish landowner in the area, to the Quinta de San Pedro Alejandrino near Santa Marta. There, on 17 December 1830, at the age of 47, Bolívar died of tuberculosis.[380]

Bolívar's body, dressed in a borrowed shirt, was interred in the Cathedral Basilica of Santa Marta [es] on 20 December 1830.[381] In 1842, Páez secured the repatriation of Bolívar's remains, which were paraded through Caracas and then laid to rest in its cathedral in December together with his wife and parents; Bolívar's heart remained in Santa Marta. His remains were moved again in October 1876 into the National Pantheon of Venezuela in Caracas, created that year by President Antonio Guzmán Blanco.[382]

Bolívar's death has been the subject of conspiracy theories advanced by the United Socialist Party of Venezuela. In January 2008, President Hugo Chávez set up a commission to investigate his claim that Bolívar had been poisoned by "New Granada traitors."[383][384] The commission exhumed Bolívar's remains on 16 July 2010.[385] The results, made public on 26 July 2011, were inconclusive; Vice President of Venezuela Elías Jaua announced that the commission could not prove Chávez's claim.[386][387][388] Chávez continued to claim that Bolívar had been assassinated via arsenic poisoning, citing a paper by infectious disease specialist Paul Auwaerter. Following Chávez's remarks, Auwaerter stated that the arsenic likely came from medicines Bolívar had ingested to treat his illnesses.[386][389][390]

Personal beliefs edit

Bolívar's personal beliefs were liberal and republican, and formed by Classical and Enlightenment philosophy;[391] among his favorite authors were Hobbes, Spinoza, the Baron d'Holbach, Hume, Montesquieu, and Rousseau.[21] The tutelage of Simón Rodríguez, a student of Rousseau, has been traditionally seen as foundational for Bolívar's beliefs.[32][392] Also important to Bolívar's intellectual development were his stays in Paris from 1804 to 1806 and in London in 1810.[393][394] Bolívar was an anglophile, and sought British aid in securing Latin American independence.[395][396] The extent of Bolívar's religiosity is debated; while Bolívar resented the social capital of the Catholic Church and its Royalist leanings during the wars of independence, he sought to co-opt its social capital for the benefit of the republics he established rather than dismember the Church.[397][398]

Throughout his political career, Bolívar concerned himself with the construction of liberal democracy in Latin America and the region's place in the Atlantic world.[399] By the 1820s, his goal was to create a federation of Latin American republics in Spanish America, each governed by a strong executive and a constitution modeled on the British constitution.[400] Inspired by Montesquieu, Bolívar believed that a government should conform to the needs and character of its region and inhabitants;[401] in the Cartagena Manifesto, Bolívar stated that federalism as practiced in the United States was the "perfect" government but was unworkable in Spanish America because, he believed, Spanish imperialism had left Spanish Americans unprepared for federalism.[402][403] Bolívar sought to prepare Colombia for a more liberal democracy via free, public education.[404] Over the 1820s, Bolívar became increasingly disillusioned and authoritarian until, in 1830, he declared to Flores, "all who have served the Revolution have plowed the sea."[405]

Legacy edit

Bolívar is the preeminent symbol of Latin America and the focus of what could seem almost unrivaled posthumous attention, seen from his own times forward as a force now for liberalism or other forms of modernity, now for old regime values and authoritarianism, now for a mix of the two, with the debate over the meaning of his figure having no end in sight.

Robert T. Conn, Bolívar's Afterlife in the Americas[406]

Bolívar has had an immense legacy, becoming the essential personality of Latin America.[406][407] The currencies of Venezuela and Bolivia—the bolívar and boliviano respectively—are named after Bolívar.[408][409] In the English-speaking world, Bolívar is known as Latin America's George Washington.[410] He has been memorialized across the world in literature, public monuments, and historiography, and paid tribute to in the names of towns, cities, provinces, and other people.[411][412] The Quinta near Santa Marta has been preserved as a museum to Bolívar[413] and the house in which he was born was opened as a museum and archive of his papers on 5 July 1921.[414] In 1978, UNESCO created the International Simón Bolívar Prize "to reward an activity of outstanding merit in accordance with the ideals of Simón Bolívar."[415]

Initial historical evaluations of Bolívar were at first negative, consisting of criticism of his conduct of the war, execution of Piar, betrayal of Miranda, and authoritarianism.[416] These and other criticisms endure in studies of Bolívar.[417] Beginning in 1842, however, popular opinion about Bolívar in Venezuela became overwhelmingly positive and eventually became what has been described by scholars as the "cult of Bolívar", led by succeeding heads of the Venezuelan state. In 1998, President Hugo Chávez, who had made extensive use of Bolívar's image for government projects and initiatives, changed the official name of Venezuela to the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela.[418] In Colombia, allegiance or opposition to Bolívar formed the bedrock of the Conservative and Liberal parties respectively.[419] Bolívar continued to have such a cultural influence in Colombia that in 1974 the 19th of April Movement, an insurgent leftist group that later joined an alliance thereof called the Simón Bolívar Guerrilla Coordinating Board, stole a sword [es] alleged to belong to Bolívar from his Bogotá residence.[420][421]

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ Styled as Supreme Political and Military Authority of the Peruvian Republic.[1]
  2. ^ Styled as Liberator President of the Republic of Colombia, Liberator of Peru, and Charged with the Supreme Command of it. The term "president" was not in common use at the time of Bolívar's designation. Whether this then makes Bolívar not the first president is a minor source of academic dispute.[2]
  3. ^ English: /ˈbɒlɪvər, -vɑːr/ BOL-iv-ər, -⁠ar;[3] US: /ˈboʊlɪvɑːr/ BOH-liv-ar;[4] Spanish: [siˈmom boˈliβaɾ] ⓘ. In isolation, Simón is pronounced as Spanish [siˈmon], and that is the pronunciation in the recording.
  4. ^ Biographers disagree on the exact date Miranda arrived in Venezuela in December 1810. Arana says 10 December,[107] Lynch says 11 December,[108] Masur and Langley say 12 December,[109][110] Slatta and de Grummond say 13 December.[111]
  5. ^ Masur, Langley, and Arana state that Bolívar issued his proclamation of emancipation in early June.[216] Slatta, de Grummond, and Lynch state that it was issued in July.[217]

Notes edit

  1. ^ "Ley Disponiendo Que El Ejecutivo Comunique A Bolívar La Abolición De La Constitución Vitalicia Y La Elección De Presidente De La República, 22 de Junio de 1827" (in Spanish). Congress of Peru. 22 June 1827. Retrieved 29 March 2023.
  2. ^ "Se enciende el debate por el cargo de Simón Bolívar" [Debate Ignites over Simón Bolívar's Position]. El Día (in Spanish). Santa Cruz de la Sierra. 19 December 2011. from the original on 14 February 2023. Retrieved 14 February 2023.
  3. ^ . Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. Archived from the original on 31 May 2019. Retrieved 21 August 2019.
  4. ^ . Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. Longman. Archived from the original on 21 August 2019. Retrieved 21 August 2019.
  5. ^ Masur 1969, pp. 20, 22; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 311; Lynch 2006, p. 2; Langley 2009, p. 4; Arana 2013, pp. 6–8.
  6. ^ Langley 2009, p. 4.
  7. ^ Masur 1969, p. 20; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 10; Arana 2013, pp. 8–9.
  8. ^ Masur 1969, p. 20; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 10–11; Langley 2009, p. 4.
  9. ^ Masur 1969, p. 20; Langley 2009, p. 4; Arana 2013, pp. 7, 17.
  10. ^ Lynch 2006, p. 7.
  11. ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 311; Langley 2009, p. xix; Arana 2013, p. 21.
  12. ^ Langley 2009, p. 9; Arana 2013, p. 18.
  13. ^ Masur 1969, p. 23; Langley 2009, p. 9; Arana 2013, p. 18.
  14. ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 11.
  15. ^ Masur 1969, pp. 22–23.
  16. ^ Masur 1969, pp. 22–23; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 11–12; Lynch 2006, p. 16; Arana 2013, pp. 7–8, 22.
  17. ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 12; Langley 2009, p. xix.
  18. ^ Masur 1969, p. 23; Langley 2009, p. 9; Arana 2013, p. 24.
  19. ^ a b Arana 2013, p. 25.
  20. ^ Masur 1969, p. 23; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 13; Arana 2013, p. 24.
  21. ^ a b Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 13.
  22. ^ Masur 1969, p. 24; Arana 2013, p. 25.
  23. ^ Lynch 2006, p. 17.
  24. ^ Langley 2009, p. 9; Arana 2013, p. 25.
  25. ^ Masur 1969, pp. 23–24; Langley 2009, p. 9; Arana 2013, p. 22.
  26. ^ Masur 1969, pp. 23–24; Langley 2009, p. 9; Arana 2013, pp. 22–23.
  27. ^ Lynch 2006, p. 17; Arana 2013, p. 32.
  28. ^ Masur 1969, p. 25; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 14; Lynch 2006, p. 17; Arana 2013, p. 32.
  29. ^ Arana 2013, p. 32.
  30. ^ Masur 1969, p. 25; Lynch 2006, p. 17; Arana 2013, p. 33.
  31. ^ Masur 1969, p. 25; Arana 2013, p. 34.
  32. ^ a b Masur 1969, pp. 24–25; Lynch 2006, pp. 16–17; Arana 2013, pp. 34–35.
  33. ^ Masur 1969, p. 27; Lynch 2006, p. 17; Arana 2013, pp. 36–37.
  34. ^ Masur 1969, p. 27; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 17; Lynch 2006, p. 18; Arana 2013, p. 37.
  35. ^ Lynch 2006, p. 18; Arana 2013, p. 37.
  36. ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 17; Arana 2013, p. 42.
  37. ^ Masur 1969, p. 27; Lynch 2006, p. 18; Arana 2013, p. 38.
  38. ^ Arana 2013, p. 37.
  39. ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 18; Lynch 2006, p. 18.
  40. ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 18; Arana 2013, p. 43.
  41. ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 18; Lynch 2006, p. 19; Arana 2013, p. 43.
  42. ^ Masur 1969, p. 28; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 18; Langley 2009, p. 13; Arana 2013, p. 44.
  43. ^ Arana 2013, p. 44.
  44. ^ Cardozo Uzcátegui 2011, pp. 17–18.
  45. ^ Cardozo Uzcátegui 2011, pp. 14, 19.
  46. ^ Masur 1969, p. 28; Langley 2009, p. 13; Arana 2013, p. 44.
  47. ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 19; Arana 2013, p. 46.
  48. ^ Masur 1969, p. 30; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 18; Arana 2013, p. 46.
  49. ^ Masur 1969, pp. 30–31; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 19; Langley 2009, p. 13.
  50. ^ Masur 1969, p. 30; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 18–19; Arana 2013, pp. 46–47.
  51. ^ a b c Lynch 2006, p. 20.
  52. ^ Lynch 2006, p. 20; Arana 2013, p. 47.
  53. ^ Cardozo Uzcátegui 2011, p. 18.
  54. ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 19; Arana 2013, p. 47.
  55. ^ Masur 1969, p. 31; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 19; Lynch 2006, p. 20.
  56. ^ Lynch 2006, p. 20; Arana 2013, p. 48.
  57. ^ Arana 2013, p. 48.
  58. ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 19; Lynch 2006, p. 20; Arana 2013, pp. 49–50.
  59. ^ Masur 1969, p. 31; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 19–20; Lynch 2006, p. 21; Langley 2009, p. 14; Arana 2013, pp. 50–51.
  60. ^ Arana 2013, p. 51.
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Bibliography edit

Biographies of Simón Bolívar edit

Works by Simón Bolívar edit

General reference edit

  • Armillas-Tiseyra, Magalí (Fall 2013). "Introduction: Dislocations". The Global South. Indiana University Press. 7 (2): 1–10. doi:10.2979/globalsouth.7.2.1. ISSN 1932-8656. JSTOR 10.2979. S2CID 261249096.
  • Bushnell, David; Langley, Lester D., eds. (2008). Simón Bolívar: Essays on the Life and Legacy of the Liberator. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-7425-5619-5.
  • Gómez Pernia, Alejandro E. "The Liberator's Sword: The Most Precious Relic of the Bolivarian Revolution". In Shanahan & Reyes (2017), pp. 215–30.

Further reading edit

  • Bushnell, David. The Liberator, Simón Bolívar: Man and Image. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1970.
  • Bushnell, David and Macaulay, Neill. The Emergence of Latin America in the Nineteenth Century (Second edition). Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1994. ISBN 978-0-19-508402-3
  • Gómez Martínez, José Luis. "La encrucijada del cambio: Simón Bolívar entre dos paradigmas (una reflexión ante la encrucijada postindustrial)". Cuadernos Americanos 104 (2004): 11–32.
  • Lacroix, Luis Perú de. Diario de Bucaramanga. Caracas: Ministerio del Poder Popular para la Comunicación y la Información, 2009.
  • Lynch, John. Simón Bolívar and the Age of Revolution. London: University of London Institute of Latin American Studies, 1983. ISBN 978-0-901145-54-3
  • Marx, Karl. "Bolívar y Ponte" in the New American Cyclopaedia, Vol. III. New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1858.
  • Racine, Karen. "Simón Bolívar and friends: Recent biographies of independence figures in Colombia and Venezuela" History Compass 18#3 (Feb 2020) https://doi.org/10.1111/hic3.12608

External links edit

  • (In Spanish) –12,000+ transcribed documents of the Libertador, from 1799 to 1830.
Political offices
New office President of Colombia
1819–1830 		Succeeded by
President of Bolivia
1825 		Succeeded by

November 03, 2023
simón, bolívar, bolívar, redirects, here, other, uses, bolívar, disambiguation, disambiguation, this, spanish, name, first, paternal, surname, bolívar, second, maternal, family, name, palacios, simón, josé, antonio, santísima, trinidad, bolívar, palacios, pont. Bolivar redirects here For other uses see Bolivar disambiguation and Simon Bolivar disambiguation In this Spanish name the first or paternal surname is Bolivar and the second or maternal family name is Palacios Simon Jose Antonio de la Santisima Trinidad Bolivar Palacios Ponte y Blanco c 24 July 1783 17 December 1830 was a Venezuelan military and political leader who led what are currently the countries of Colombia Venezuela Ecuador Peru Panama and Bolivia to independence from the Spanish Empire He is known colloquially as El Libertador or the Liberator of America Simon BolivarPosthumous portrait 19221st President of ColombiaIn office 16 February 1819 27 April 1830Preceded byEstanislao Vergara y Sanz de SantamariaSucceeded byDomingo Caycedo6th President of Peru a In office 10 February 1824 27 January 18271st President of Bolivia b In office 6 August 1825 29 December 1825Preceded byOffice establishedSucceeded byAntonio Jose de SucrePersonal detailsBorn 1783 07 24 24 July 1783Caracas Captaincy General of Venezuela Spanish EmpireDied17 December 1830 1830 12 17 aged 47 Santa Marta Gran Colombia now Colombia Resting placeNational Pantheon of VenezuelaNationalitySpanish until 1810 Venezuelan 1813 1819 Colombian from 1819 SpouseMaria Teresa Rodriguez del Toro y Alaysa m 1802 died 1803 wbr Domestic partnerManuelita SaenzSignatureSimon Bolivar was born in Caracas in the Captaincy General of Venezuela into a wealthy family of American born Spaniards criollo but lost both parents as a child Bolivar was educated abroad and lived in Spain as was common for men of upper class families in his day While living in Madrid from 1800 to 1802 he was introduced to Enlightenment philosophy and married Maria Teresa Rodriguez del Toro y Alaysa who died in Venezuela from yellow fever in 1803 From 1803 to 1805 Bolivar embarked on a Grand Tour that ended in Rome where he swore to end the Spanish rule in the Americas In 1807 Bolivar returned to Venezuela and promoted Venezuelan independence to other wealthy creoles When the Spanish authority in the Americas weakened due to Napoleon s Peninsular War Bolivar became a zealous combatant and politician in the Spanish American wars of independence Bolivar began his military career in 1810 as a militia officer in the Venezuelan War of Independence fighting Royalist forces for the first and second Venezuelan republics and the United Provinces of New Granada After Spanish forces subdued New Granada in 1815 Bolivar was forced into exile on Jamaica In Haiti Bolivar met and befriended Haitian revolutionary leader Alexandre Petion After promising to abolish slavery in Spanish America Bolivar received military support from Petion and returned to Venezuela He established a third republic in 1817 and then crossed the Andes to liberate New Granada in 1819 Bolivar and his allies defeated the Spanish in New Granada in 1819 Venezuela and Panama in 1821 Ecuador in 1822 Peru in 1824 and Bolivia in 1825 Venezuela New Granada Ecuador and Panama were merged into the Republic of Colombia Gran Colombia with Bolivar as president there and in Peru and Bolivia In his final years Bolivar became increasingly disillusioned with the South American republics and distanced from them because of his centralist ideology He was successively removed from his offices until he resigned the presidency of Colombia and died of tuberculosis in 1830 His legacy is diverse and far reaching within Latin America and beyond He is regarded as a hero and national and cultural icon throughout Latin America the nations of Bolivia and Venezuela as the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela are named after him and he has been memorialized all over the world in the form of public art or street names and in popular culture Contents 1 Early life and family 1 1 Education and first journey to Europe 1793 1802 1 2 Return to Venezuela and second journey to Europe 1802 1805 2 Political and military career 2 1 Venezuela 1811 1812 2 2 New Granada and Venezuela 1812 1815 2 3 Jamaica Haiti Venezuela and New Granada 1815 1819 2 4 Gran Colombia 1819 1830 2 4 1 Ecuador Peru and Bolivia 1821 1826 2 4 2 Final years 1826 1830 3 Death and burial 4 Personal beliefs 5 Legacy 6 See also 7 References 7 1 Notes 7 2 Bibliography 7 2 1 Biographies of Simon Bolivar 7 2 2 Works by Simon Bolivar 7 2 3 General reference 8 Further reading 9 External linksEarly life and family editSimon Bolivar was born on 24 July 1783 in Caracas capital of the Captaincy General of Venezuela the fourth and youngest child of Juan Vicente Bolivar y Ponte es and Maria de la Concepcion Palacios y Blanco es 5 He was baptized as Simon Jose Antonio de la Santisma Trinidad Bolivar y Palacios on 30 July 6 The first of Bolivar s family to have emigrated to the Americas was a similarly named minor Spanish governmental official named Simon de Bolivar who had been a notary in the Spanish region of Basque and who had later arrived in Venezuela in the 1580s 7 The earlier Simon de Bolivar s descendants had served in the colonial bureaucracy and had married into various wealthy Caracas families over the years 8 By the time Simon Bolivar was born the Bolivar family was one of the wealthiest and most prestigious criollo creole families in the Spanish Americas 9 Simon Bolivar s childhood was described by British historian John Lynch as at once privileged and deprived 10 Juan Vicente died of tuberculosis on 19 January 1786 11 leaving Maria de la Concepcion Palacios and her father Feliciano Palacios y Sojo es 12 as legal guardians over the Bolivar children s inheritances 13 Those children Maria Antonia es born 1777 Juana es born 1779 Juan Vicente es born 1781 and Simon 14 were raised separately from each other and their mother and following colonial custom by African house slaves 15 Simon was raised by a slave named Hipolita es whom he viewed as both a motherly and fatherly figure 16 On 6 July 1792 17 Maria de la Concepcion also died of tuberculosis 18 Believing that his family would inherit the Bolivars wealth 19 Feliciano Palacios arranged marriages for Maria Antonia and Juana and 20 before dying on 5 December 1793 21 assigned custody of Juan Vicente and Simon to his sons Juan Felix Palacios and Carlos Palacios y Blanco es respectively 22 Bolivar came to loathe Carlos Palacios 23 who had no interest in the boy other than his inheritance 24 Education and first journey to Europe 1793 1802 edit As a child Bolivar was notoriously unruly 25 and neglected his studies 19 Before his mother died he spent two years under the tutelage of the Venezuelan lawyer Miguel Jose Sanz at the direction of the Real Audiencia of Caracas es the Spanish court of appeals in Caracas 26 In 1793 Carlos enrolled Bolivar at a rudimentary primary school es run by Venezuelan educator Simon Rodriguez 27 In June 1795 Bolivar fled his uncle s custody for the house of his sister Maria Antonia and her husband 28 The couple sought formal recognition of his change of residence 29 but the Real Audiencia decided the matter in favor of Palacios who sent Simon to live with Rodriguez 30 After two months there the Real Audiencia directed that he be returned to the Palacios family home 31 Bolivar promised the Real Audiencia that he would focus on his education and was subsequently taught full time by Rodriguez and the Venezuelan intellectuals Andres Bello and Francisco de Andujar es 32 In 1797 Rodriguez s connection to the pro independence Gual and Espana conspiracy forced him to go into exile 33 and Bolivar was enrolled in an honorary militia force When he was commissioned as an officer after a year 34 his uncles Carlos and Esteban Palacios y Blanco es decided to send Bolivar to join the latter in Madrid 35 There Esteban was friends with Queen Maria Luisa s favorite Manuel Mallo 36 nbsp Miniature portrait of Bolivar in 1800On 19 January 1799 Bolivar boarded the Spanish warship San Ildefonso at the port of La Guaira 37 bound for Cadiz 38 He arrived in Santona on the northern coast of Spain in May 1799 39 A little over a week later 40 he arrived in Madrid and joined Esteban 41 who found Bolivar to be very ignorant 42 Esteban asked Geronimo Enrique de Uztariz y Tovar a Caracas native and government official to educate Bolivar 43 44 Bolivar moved into Uztariz s residence in February 1800 and was educated in the Classics literature and social studies 45 46 At the same time Mallo fell out of the Queen s favor and Manuel Godoy her previous favorite returned to power 47 As members of Mallo s faction at court Esteban was arrested on pretense 48 and Bolivar was banished from court following a public incident at the Puerta de Toledo over the wearing of diamonds without royal permission 49 Bolivar also at this time met Maria Teresa Rodriguez del Toro y Alaysa the daughter of another wealthy Caracas creole 50 They were engaged in August 1800 51 but were separated when the del Toros left Madrid for a summer home in Bilbao 52 After Uztariz left Madrid for a government assignment in Teruel in 1801 51 53 Bolivar himself left for Bilbao and remained there when the del Toros returned to the capital in August 1801 54 Early in 1802 Bolivar traveled to Paris while he awaited permission to return to Madrid which was granted in April 55 Return to Venezuela and second journey to Europe 1802 1805 edit nbsp Wedding of Bolivar and del Toro as painted by Tito Salas 1921Bolivar and del Toro aged 18 and 21 respectively were married in Madrid on 26 May 1802 56 The couple boarded the San Ildefonso in La Coruna 57 on 15 June and sailed for La Guaira where they arrived on 12 July 51 They settled in Caracas where del Toro fell ill and died of yellow fever on 22 January 1803 58 Bolivar was devastated by del Toro s death and later told Louis Peru de Lacroix one of his generals and biographers that he swore to never remarry 59 By July 1803 60 Bolivar had decided to leave Venezuela for Europe He entrusted his estates to an agent and his brother and in October boarded a ship bound for Cadiz 61 Bolivar arrived in Spain in December 1803 then traveled to Madrid to console his father in law 62 In March 1804 the municipal authorities of Madrid ordered all non residents in the city to leave to alleviate a bread shortage brought about by Spain s resumed hostilities with Britain 63 64 Over April Bolivar and Fernando Rodriguez del Toro es a childhood friend and relative of his wife made their way to Paris and arrived in time for Napoleon to be proclaimed Emperor of the French on 18 May 1804 65 They rented an apartment on the Rue Vivienne fr and met with other South Americans such as Carlos de Montufar Vicente Rocafuerte and Simon Rodriguez who joined Bolivar and del Toro in their apartment While in Paris Bolivar began a dalliance with the Countess Dervieu du Villars 66 at whose salon he likely met the naturalists Alexander von Humboldt and Aime Bonpland who had traveled through much of Spanish America from 1799 to 1804 Bolivar allegedly discussed Spanish American independence with them 67 I swear before you that I will not rest body or soul until I have broken the chains binding us to the will of Spanish might Simon Bolivar 15 August 1805 68 In April 1805 Bolivar left Paris with Rodriguez and del Toro on a Grand Tour to Italy 69 Beginning in Lyon they traveled through the Savoy Alps and then to Milan 70 The trio arrived on 26 May 1805 and witnessed Napoleon s coronation as King of Italy 71 From Milan they traveled down the Po Valley to Venice then to Florence and then finally Rome 72 where Bolivar met among others Pope Pius VII French writer Germaine de Stael and Humboldt again 73 Rome s sites and history excited Bolivar On 18 August 1805 when he del Toro and Rodriguez traveled to the Mons Sacer where the plebs had seceded from Rome in the 4th century BC Bolivar swore to end Spanish rule in the Americas 74 Political and military career editMain article Military career of Simon Bolivar nbsp Portrait of Francisco de Miranda by Martin Tovar y TovarBy April 1806 Bolivar had returned to Paris and desired passage to Venezuela 75 where Venezuelan revolutionary Francisco de Miranda had just attempted an invasion with American volunteers 76 British control of the seas resulting from the 1805 Battle of Trafalgar however obliged Bolivar to board an American ship in Hamburg in October 1806 Bolivar arrived in Charleston South Carolina in January 1807 77 and from there traveled to Washington D C Philadelphia New York City and Boston 78 After six months in the United States 79 Bolivar returned to Philadelphia and sailed for Venezuela where he arrived in June 1807 He began to meet with other creole elites to discuss independence from Spain 80 Finding himself to be far more radical than the rest of Caracas high society 81 however Bolivar occupied himself with a property dispute with a neighbor Antonio Nicolas Briceno es 82 In 1807 08 Napoleon invaded the Iberian peninsula and replaced the rulers of Spain with his brother Joseph 83 This news arrived in Venezuela in July 1808 84 Napoleonic rule was rejected and Venezuelan creoles though still loyal to Ferdinand VII of Spain sought to form their own local government in place of the existing Spanish government 85 On 24 November 1808 a group of creoles presented a petition demanding an independent government to Juan de Casas es the Captain General of Venezuela and were arrested 86 Bolivar though he did not sign the petition and thus was not arrested was warned to cease hosting or attending seditious meetings 87 In May 1809 Casas was replaced by Vicente Emparan and his staff which included Fernando Rodriguez del Toro The creoles also resisted Emparan s government despite his friendlier disposition towards them 88 By February 1810 French victories in Spain prompted the dissolution of the anti French Spanish government in favor of a five man regency council for Ferdinand VII 89 This news and two delegates that included Carlos de Montufar arrived in Venezuela on 17 April 1810 90 Two days later the creoles succeeded in deposing and then expelling Emparan 91 and created the Supreme Junta of Caracas independent from the Spanish regency but not Ferdinand VII 92 93 Absent from Caracas for the coup 94 Bolivar and his brother returned to the city and offered their services to the Supreme Junta as diplomats 95 In May 1810 Juan Vicente was sent to the United States to buy weapons 96 while Simon secured a place in a diplomatic mission to Great Britain with the lawyer Luis Lopez Mendez es and Andres Bello by paying for the mission The trio boarded a British warship in June 1810 and arrived at Portsmouth on 10 July 1810 97 The three delegates first met Miranda at his London residence despite instructions from the Supreme Junta to avoid him and thereafter received the benefit of his connections and consultation 98 On 16 July 1810 the Venezuelan delegation met the British foreign secretary Richard Wellesley at his residence Led by Bolivar the Venezuelans argued in favor of Venezuelan independence which Wellesley stated that it was intolerable for Anglo Spanish relations 99 Subsequent meetings produced no recognition or concrete support from Britain 100 Finding that he had many shared beliefs with Miranda however Bolivar convinced him to come back to Venezuela 101 On 22 September 1810 102 Bolivar left for Venezuela while Lopez and Bello remained in London as diplomats 103 and arrived in La Guaira on 5 December 104 Although the British government wanted Miranda to remain in Britain they could not prevent his departure 105 and he arrived in Venezuela later in December 106 d Venezuela 1811 1812 edit nbsp Oil on canvas Terremoto de 1812 by Venezuelan painter Tito SalasWhile Bolivar was in England the Supreme Junta passed liberal economic reforms 112 and began to hold elections for representatives to a congress to be held in Caracas 113 It had also alienated Caracas from the Venezuelan provinces of Coro Maracaibo and Guayana which professed loyalty to the regency council 114 and began hostilities with them 115 116 Co founding the Patriotic Society a political organization advocating for independence from Spain Bolivar and Miranda campaigned for and secured the latter s election to the congress 117 The congress first met on 2 March 1811 and declared its allegiance to Ferdinand VII 118 After it was discovered that one of the men leading the congress was a Spanish agent who had escaped with military documents however 119 discourse which Bolivar was prominent in changed decidedly in favor of independence over 3 and 4 July 120 Finally on 5 July the congress declared Venezuela s independence 121 The declaration of independence created the first Republic of Venezuela It had a weak base of support and enemies in conservative whites disenfranchised people of color and the already hostile Venezuelan provinces which received troops and supplies from the Captaincy Generals of Puerto Rico and Cuba 122 On 13 July 1811 the republic raised militias to fight the pro Spanish Royalists 123 The congress appointed Francisco Rodriguez del Toro es the Marquis of Toro es to command these forces 124 which opened a breach between Bolivar and Miranda Bolivar and del Toro were close friends while del Toro and Miranda and their families were enemies 125 After he failed to suppress a Royalist uprising in the city of Valencia later in July 126 the congress replaced del Toro with Miranda and he recaptured Valencia es on 13 August 127 As a condition of assuming command of the Republican forces Miranda had Bolivar stripped of his command of a militia unit 128 Bolivar nonetheless fought in the Valencia campaign as part of del Toro s militia 129 and was selected by Miranda to bring news of its recapture to Caracas 130 where he argued for more punitive and forceful campaigning against the Royalists 131 I left my house for the Cathedral and the earth began to shake with a huge roar I saw the church of San Jacinto collapse on its own foundations I climbed over the ruins and entered and I immediately saw about forty persons dead or dying under the rubble I climbed out again and I shall never forget that moment On the top of the ruins I found Don Simon Bolivar He saw me and said We will fight nature itself if it opposes us and force it to obey Royalist historian Jose Domingo Diaz es quoted by John Lynch 132 Beginning in November 1811 Royalist forces began pushing back the Republicans from the north and east 133 On 26 March 1812 a powerful earthquake devastated Republican Venezuela Caracas itself was almost totally destroyed 134 Bolivar who was still near Caracas 135 rushed into the city to participate in the rescue of survivors and exhumation of the dead 136 The earthquake destroyed public support for the republic as it was believed to have been divine retribution for declaring independence from Spain 137 By April a Royalist army under the Spanish naval officer Juan Domingo de Monteverde overran western Venezuela Miranda 138 retreating east with a disintegrating army 139 ordered Bolivar to assume command of the coastal city of Puerto Cabello and its fortress 140 which contained Royalist prisoners and most of the republic s remaining arms and ammunition 141 Bolivar arrived at Puerto Cabello on 4 May 1812 142 On 30 June an officer of the fort s garrison loyal to the Royalists released its prisoners armed them and turned its cannons on Puerto Cabello 139 143 Weakened by shelling defections and lack of supplies Bolivar and his remaining troops fled for La Guaira on 6 July 144 Believing the republic to be doomed 139 Miranda decided to capitulate 145 shocking Bolivar and other Republican officers 146 After formally surrendering his command to Monteverde on 25 July 147 Miranda made his way to La Guaira where a group of officers including Bolivar arrested Miranda on 30 July on charges of treason against the republic 148 La Guaira declared for the Royalists the next day and closed its port on Monteverde s orders 149 Miranda was taken into Spanish custody and moved to a prison in Cadiz where he died on 16 July 1816 150 New Granada and Venezuela 1812 1815 edit Bolivar escaped La Guaira early on 31 July 1812 and rode to Caracas 151 where he hid from arrest in the home of Esteban Fernandez de Leon es the Marquis de Casa Leon es Bolivar and Casa Leon convinced Francisco Iturbe a friend of the Bolivar family and of Monteverde to intercede on Bolivar s behalf and secure escape from Venezuela for him Iturbe persuaded Monteverde to issue Bolivar a passport for his role in Miranda s arrest 152 and on 27 August he sailed for the island of Curacao He and his uncles Francisco and Jose Felix Ribas arrived on 1 September Late in October the exiles arranged for passage west to the city of Cartagena to offer their services as military leaders to the United Provinces of New Granada against the Royalists 153 They arrived in November and were welcomed by Manuel Rodriguez Torices president of the Free State of Cartagena es 154 who instructed his commanding general Pierre Labatut to give Bolivar a military command Labatut a former partisan of Miranda begrudgingly obliged and on 1 December 1812 placed Bolivar in command of the 70 man garrison of a town on the lower Magdalena River 155 While en route to his posting Bolivar issued the Cartagena Manifesto outlining what he believed to be the causes of the Venezuelan republic s defeat and his political program In particular Bolivar called for the disparate New Granadan republics to help him invade Venezuela to prevent a Royalist invasion of New Granada 156 Bolivar arrived on the Magdalena River on 21 December and 157 in spite of orders from Labatut to not act without his direction 158 launched an offensive that secured control of the Magdalena River from Royalist forces by 8 January 1813 159 In February he joined forces with Republican colonel Manuel del Castillo y Rada es who requested Bolivar s assistance with stopping a Royalist advance into New Granada from Venezuela and captured the city of Cucuta from the Royalists 160 In early March 1813 Bolivar set up his headquarters in Cucuta and sent Jose Felix Ribas to request permission to invade Venezuela 161 Though rewarded with honorary citizenship in New Granada and a promotion to the rank of brigadier general 162 that permission did not come until 7 May because of del Castillo s opposition to the invasion When a limited invasion was permitted Castillo resigned his command and was succeeded by Francisco de Paula Santander 163 On 14 May Bolivar launched the Admirable Campaign 164 in which he issued the Decree of War to the Death ordering the death of all Spaniards in South America not actively aiding his forces 165 Within six months Bolivar pushed all the way to Caracas 166 which he entered on 6 August 167 168 and then drove Monteverde out of Venezuela in October 169 170 Bolivar returned to Caracas on 14 October and was named The Liberator El Libertador by its town council 171 a title first given to him by the citizens of the Venezuelan town of Merida on 23 May 172 nbsp Portrait of Santiago Marino by Martin Tovar y TovarOn 2 January 1814 Bolivar was made the dictator of a Second Republic of Venezuela 173 which retained the weaknesses of the first republic 174 Though all of Venezuela but Maracaibo Coro and Guayana was controlled by Republicans 175 176 Bolivar only governed western Venezuela The east was controlled by Santiago Marino a Venezuelan Republican who had fought Monteverde in the east throughout 1813 177 178 and was unwilling to subordinate himself to Bolivar 179 Venezuela was economically devastated and could not support the republic s armies 180 and people of color remained disenfranchised and thus unsupportive of the republic 181 The republic was assailed from all sides by slave revolts and Royalist forces 182 especially the Legion of Hell an army of llaneros the horsemen of the Llanos to the south led by the Spanish warlord Jose Tomas Boves 183 Beginning in February 1814 Boves surged out of the Llanos and overwhelmed the republic occupying Caracas on 16 July and then destroying Marino s powerbase on 5 December at the Battle of Urica where Boves died 184 185 As Boves approached Caracas Bolivar ordered the city stripped of its gold and silver 186 which was moved through La Guaira to Barcelona Venezuela 187 and from there to Cumana 188 Bolivar then led 20 000 of its citizens east 186 He arrived in Barcelona on 2 August 189 but following another defeat at the Battle of Aragua de Barcelona on 17 August 1814 he moved to Cumana 190 On 26 August he sailed with Marino to Margarita Island with the treasure The officer in control of the island Manuel Piar declared Bolivar and Marino to be traitors and forced them to return to the mainland 191 There Ribas also accused Bolivar and Marino of treachery confiscated the treasure 192 and then exiled the two on 8 September 193 Bolivar arrived in Cartagena on 19 September and then met with the New Granadan congress in Tunja 194 which tasked him with subduing the rival Free and Independent State of Cundinamarca 195 On 12 December Bolivar captured Cundinamarca s capital Bogota and was given command of New Granada s armies in January 1815 196 Bolivar next grappled with del Castillo who had taken control of Cartagena 197 Bolivar besieged the city es for six weeks His change of focus allowed the Royalist forces to regain control of the Magdalena 198 On 8 May Bolivar made a truce with del Castillo resigned his command and sailed for self exile on Jamaica as a result of this error 199 In July 8 000 Spanish soldiers commanded by Spanish general Pablo Morillo landed at Santa Marta and then besieged Cartagena es which capitulated on 6 December del Castillo was executed 200 201 Jamaica Haiti Venezuela and New Granada 1815 1819 edit nbsp Portrait of Bolivar by Arturo Michelena 1895Bolivar arrived in Kingston Jamaica on 14 May 1815 and 202 as in his earlier exile on Curacao ruminated on the fall of the Venezuelan and New Granadan republics He wrote extensively requesting assistance from Britain and corresponding with merchants based in the Caribbean This culminated in September 1815 with the Jamaica Letter in which Bolivar again laid out his ideology and vision of the future of the Americas 203 On 9 December the Venezuelan pirate Renato Beluche brought Bolivar news from New Granada and asked him to join the Republican community in exile in Haiti 204 Bolivar tentatively accepted and escaped assassination that night when his manservant mistakenly killed his paymaster as part of a Spanish plot 205 He left Jamaica eight days later 206 arrived in Les Cayes on 24 December 207 and on 2 January 1816 was introduced to Alexandre Petion President of the Republic of Haiti by a mutual friend 208 Bolivar and Petion impressed and befriended each other and 209 after Bolivar pledged to free every slave in the areas he occupied Petion gave him money and military supplies 210 211 Returning to Les Cayes Bolivar held a conference with the Republican leaders in Haiti and was made supreme leader with Marino as his chief of staff 212 The Republicans departed Les Cayes for Venezuela on 31 March 1816 and followed the Antilles eastward 213 After a delay to allow a lover of Bolivar s to join the fleet it arrived on 2 May at Margarita Island controlled by Republican commander Juan Bautista Arismendi 214 Bolivar next moved to the mainland where he declared the emancipation of all slaves and annulled of the Decree of War to the Death 215 e He seized Carupano on 31 May and sent Marino and Piar into Guayana to build their own army 218 then took and held Ocumare de la Costa from 6 to 14 July when it was recaptured by the Royalists 219 220 Bolivar fled by sea to Guiria where on 22 August he was deposed by Marino and Venezuelan Republican Jose Francisco Bermudez 221 Bolivar returned to Haiti by early September 222 where Petion again agreed to assist him 223 In his absence the Republican leaders scattered across Venezuela concentrating in the Llanos and became disunited warlords 224 Unwilling to recognize Marino s leadership 225 Arismendi wrote to Bolivar and dispatched New Granadan Republican Francisco Antonio Zea to convince him to return Bolivar and Zea set sail for Venezuela on 21 December with Luis Brion a Dutch merchant 226 and arrived ten days later at Barcelona There Bolivar announced his return and called for a congress for a new third republic 227 He wrote to the Republican leaders especially Jose Antonio Paez who controlled most of the western Llanos to unite under his leadership 228 229 On 8 January 1817 Bolivar marched towards Caracas but was defeated at the Battle of Clarines and pursued to Barcelona by a larger Royalist force 230 At Bolivar s request Marino arrived on 8 February with Bermudez who then reconciled with Bolivar and forced a Royalist withdrawal 231 Even with their combined forces however Bolivar Marino and Bermudez could not hold Barcelona 232 Instead on 25 March 1817 233 Bolivar began moving south to join Piar in Guayana Piar s power base and establish his own economic and political base there 234 235 Bolivar met Piar on 4 April 236 promoted him to the rank of general of the army and then joined a force of Piar s troops besieging the city of Angostura now Ciudad Bolivar on 2 May 237 Meanwhile Marino went east to reestablish his power base and on 8 May convened a congress of ten men including Brion and Zea that named Marino as supreme commander of the Republican forces 238 This backfired and provoked the defection of 30 officers including Rafael Urdaneta and Antonio Jose de Sucre to Bolivar 239 On 30 June Bolivar granted Piar leave of absence at his request 240 and then issued an arrest warrant on 23 July after Piar began fomenting rebellion alleging that Bolivar had dismissed him because of his mulatto heritage Piar was captured on 27 September as he fled to join Marino and was brought to Angostura where he was executed by firing squad on 16 October 241 Bolivar then sent Sucre to reconcile with Marino 242 who pledged loyalty to Bolivar on 26 January 1818 243 On 17 July 1817 Angostura fell es to Bolivar s forces which gained control of the Orinoco River in early August 244 245 Angostura became the provisional Republican capital and in September 246 Bolivar began creating formal political and military structures for the republic 247 248 Following a meeting at San Juan de Payara on 30 January 1818 Paez recognized Bolivar as supreme leader 249 In February 1818 the Republicans moved north and took Calabozo where they defeated Morillo es 250 who had returned to Venezuela a year earlier after conquering Republican New Granada 251 Bolivar next advanced towards Caracas but was defeated while en route at the Third Battle of La Puerta es on 16 March 252 253 He escaped assassination by Spanish infiltrators in April Illness and additional Republican defeats obliged Bolivar to return to Angostura in May For the rest of the year he focused on administering the republic rebuilding its armed forces 254 and organizing elections for a national congress that would meet in 1819 255 256 Gran Colombia 1819 1830 edit nbsp Equestrian portrait of Bolivar by Jose Hilarion Ibarra es c 1826The congress met in Angostura on 15 February 1819 257 There Bolivar gave a speech in which he advocated for a centralized government modeled on the British government and racial equality 258 and relinquished civil authority to the congress 259 On 16 February the congress elected Bolivar as president and Zea as vice president 256 260 On 27 February 261 Bolivar left Angostura to rejoin Paez in the west and resumed campaigning es against Morillo albeit ineffectively 256 262 In May as the annual wet season was beginning in the Llanos Bolivar met with his officers and revealed his intention to invade and liberate New Granada from Royalist occupation 263 which he had prepared for by sending Santander to build up Republican forces in Casanare Province in August 1818 264 265 On 27 May 266 Bolivar marched with more than 2 000 soldiers toward the Andes 267 268 and left Paez Marino Urdaneta and Bermudez to tie down Morillo s forces in Venezuela 269 Bolivar entered Casanare Province with his army on 4 June 1819 270 then met up with Santander at Tame Arauca on 11 June 271 The combined Republican force reached the Eastern Range of the Andes on 22 June and began a grueling crossing 272 On 6 July the Republicans descended from the Andes at Socha and into the plains of New Granada 273 After a brief convalescence the Republicans made rapid progress against the forces of Spanish colonel Jose Maria Barreiro Manjon es until on 7 August the Royalists were routed at the Battle of Boyaca On 10 August Bolivar entered Bogota which the Spanish officials had hastily abandoned 274 275 and captured the viceregal treasury and armories 276 After sending forces to secure Republican control of central New Granada 277 Bolivar paraded through Bogota on 18 September with Santander 278 Desiring to merge New Granada and Venezuela into a greater republic of Colombia Bolivar first established a provisional government in Bogota with Santander 279 and then left to resume campaigning against the Royalists in Venezuela on 20 September 1819 280 En route he learned that Zea had been replaced as vice president in September 1819 by Arismendi who was conspiring with Marino against Urdaneta and Bermudez Bolivar arrived in Angostura on 11 December and by being conciliatory defused the plot 281 He then proposed the merging of New Granada and Venezuela to the congress on 14 December 282 which was approved On 17 December the congress issued a decree creating the Republic of Colombia including the regions of Venezuela New Granada and the still Spanish controlled Real Audiencia of Quito and elected Bolivar and Zea president and vice president respectively 283 After Christmas Day 1819 284 Bolivar left Angostura to direct campaigns against Royalist forces along the Caribbean coasts of Venezuela and New Granada 285 He met with Santander in Bogota in March 1820 then rode to Cucuta and inspected Republican forces in northern Colombia over April and May 1820 286 Meanwhile Morillo s military and political position was fatally undermined by the mutiny of Spanish soldiers in Cadiz on 1 January es which forced Ferdinand VII to accept a liberal constitution in March 287 288 News of the mutiny and its consequences arrived in Colombia in March and was followed by orders from Spain to Morillo to publicize the constitution and negotiate a peace that would return Colombia to the Spanish Empire Bolivar and Morillo seeking to gain leverage over each other 289 delayed talks until 21 November when Colombian and Royalist delegates met in Trujillo Venezuela 290 The delegates completed two treaties es on 25 November establishing a six month truce a prisoner exchange and basic rights for combatants Bolivar and Morillo signed the treaties on 25 and 26 November then met the next day at Santa Ana de Trujillo es 291 292 After this meeting Morillo turned his command over to Spanish general Miguel de la Torre and departed for Spain on 17 December 293 In February 1821 as Bolivar was traveling from Bogota to Cucuta in anticipation of the opening of a new congress there 294 he learned that Royalist controlled Maracaibo had defected to Colombia and been occupied by Urdaneta 295 296 La Torre protested to Bolivar who refused to return Maracaibo leading to a renewal of hostilities on 28 April 297 Over May and June Colombia s armies made rapid progress until on 24 June Bolivar and Paez decisively defeated La Torre at the Battle of Carabobo 298 299 All Royalist forces remaining in Venezuela were eliminated by August 1823 300 Bolivar entered Caracas in triumph on 29 June 301 and issued a decree on 16 July dividing Venezuela into three military zones governed by Paez Bermudez and Marino 302 Bolivar then met with the Congress of Cucuta 303 which had ratified the formation of Gran Colombia and elected him as president and Santander as vice president in September Bolivar accepted and was sworn in on 3 October although he protested the establishment of a precedent of military leaders as head of the Colombian state 304 Ecuador Peru and Bolivia 1821 1826 edit After the Battle of Carabobo Bolivar turned his attention south to Pasto Colombia Quito and the Free Province of Guayaquil Ecuador and the Viceroyalty of Peru Pasto and Quito were Royalist strongholds 300 305 while Guayaquil had declared its independence on 9 October 1820 306 and had been garrisoned by Sucre on Bolivar s orders in January 1821 307 Panama declared its independence on 28 November 1821 and joined Colombia 308 Peru had been invaded by a Republican army led by Argentine general Jose de San Martin who had liberated Chile and Peru 309 and Bolivar feared San Martin would absorb Ecuador into Peru 310 In October 1821 after congress empowered him to secure Ecuador for Colombia 311 Bolivar assembled an army in Bogota that departed on 13 December 1821 312 His advance was halted by illness and a Pyrrhic victory at the Battle of Bombona es in southern Colombia on 7 April 1822 313 314 nbsp Portrait of Manuela Saenz by Marco Salas Yepes 1960To the south Sucre who had been trapped in Guayaquil by Royalist advances from Quito 315 now advanced decisively defeated the Royalists at the Battle of Pichincha on 24 May 1822 and occupied Quito 313 316 On 6 June Pasto surrendered 317 and ten days later Bolivar paraded through Quito with Sucre 318 He also met the Ecuadorian Republican Manuela Saenz the wife of a British merchant with whom he began a lasting affair 319 From Quito Bolivar traveled to Guayaquil in anticipation of a meeting with San Martin to discuss the city s status and to rally support for its annexation by Colombia 320 When San Martin arrived in Guayaquil on 26 July 321 Bolivar had already secured Guayaquil for Colombia 322 and the two day Guayaquil Conference produced no agreement between Bolivar and San Martin Ill politically isolated and disillusioned San Martin resigned from his offices and went into exile 323 324 Over the rest of 1822 Bolivar traveled around Ecuador to complete its annexation while dispatching officers to suppress repeated rebellions in Pasto and resisting calls to return to Bogota or Venezuela 325 Meanwhile Royalist forces under general Jose de Canterac overwhelmed the Peruvian republic es 326 327 After initially refusing Colombian assistance 328 the Peruvian congress asked Bolivar several times in 1823 to assume command of their forces Bolivar responded by sending an army under Sucre to assist 329 then delayed his own departure to Peru until he obtained permission from the Colombian congress on 3 August 330 When Bolivar arrived in Lima Peru s capital on 1 September 331 Peru was split between two rival presidents Jose de la Riva Aguero and Jose Bernardo de Tagle and the Royalists under the Viceroy of Peru Jose de la Serna 332 333 In November 1823 Riva Aguero who plotted with the Royalists against Bolivar was betrayed by his officers to Bolivar and exiled from Peru 334 While Bolivar was bedridden with fever over the first two months of 1824 Tagle defected to the Royalists with the garrison and city of Callao and briefly took Lima 335 In response the Peruvian congress named Bolivar dictator of Peru on 10 February 1824 Bolivar moved to northern Peru in March and began assembling an army 333 336 His repeated demands for additional men and money strained his relationship with Santander 337 In May 1823 conservative Royalist general Pedro Antonio Olaneta based in the region of Upper Peru rebelled es against la Serna Bolivar seized the opportunity to advance into the Junin region where he defeated Canterac at the Battle of Junin on 6 August driving them out of Peru 338 339 Choosing to ignore Olaneta la Serna ordered his forces to concentrate at Cuzco to face Bolivar 339 340 Heavy rainfall in September halted Bolivar s advance 341 and on 6 October he gave command of the army to Sucre and moved to Huancayo to manage political affairs 342 On 24 October Bolivar received a letter from Santander informing him that because he had accepted the dictatorship of Peru the Colombian congress had stripped him of his military and civil authority in favor of Sucre and Santander respectively 342 Although indignant and resentful of Santander Bolivar wrote to him on 10 November to communicate his acquiescence 343 and reoccupied Lima on 5 December 1824 344 On 9 December Sucre decisively defeated La Serna s Royalists at the Battle of Ayacucho and accepted the surrender es of all Royalist forces in Peru The garrison of Callao and Olaneta ignored the surrender Shortly after arriving in Lima Bolivar began a siege of Callao that lasted until January 1826 345 346 and sent Sucre into Upper Peru to eliminate Olaneta which he accomplished in April 1825 347 nbsp Portrait of Bolivar by Jose Gil de Castro 1825In early 1825 Bolivar resigned from his offices in Colombia and Peru but neither nation s congress accepted his resignation on 10 February 1825 the Peruvian congress extended his dictatorship for another year Accepting the extension 348 Bolivar settled into governing Peru and passing reforms that were largely not carried out such as a school system based on the principles of English educator Joseph Lancaster that was managed by Simon Rodriguez 349 In April 1825 Bolivar began a tour of southern Peru that took him to the cities of Arequipa and Cuzco by August As Bolivar approached Upper Peru a congress gathered in the city of Chuquisaca now Sucre on 6 August it declared the region to be the nation of Bolivia named Bolivar President and asked him to write a constitution for Bolivia 350 Bolivar arrived in Potosi on 5 October and met with two Argentine agents Carlos Maria de Alvear and Jose Miguel Diaz Velez who tried without success to convince him to intervene in the Cisplatine War against the Empire of Brazil 351 From Potosi Bolivar traveled to Chuquisaca and appointed Sucre to govern Bolivia on 29 December 1825 352 he departed for Peru on 1 January 1826 353 Bolivar arrived in Lima on 10 February and dispatched his draft of the Bolivian constitution to Sucre on 12 May 354 That constitution es was ratified with modification by the Bolivian congress in July 1826 355 Peru whose elites chafed at Bolivar s rule and the presence of his soldiers was also induced to accept a modified version of Bolivar s constitution on 16 August 356 In Venezuela Paez revolted against Santander and in Panama a congress of American nations organized by Bolivar convened without his attendance and produced no change in the hemispheric status quo On 3 September responding to pleas for his return to Colombia Bolivar departed Peru and left it under a governing council led by Bolivian general Andres de Santa Cruz 357 Final years 1826 1830 edit See also Septembrine Conspiracy Bolivar arrived in Guayaquil on 13 September 1826 and heard complaints against Santander s governance from the people of Guayaquil and Quito who declared him their dictator 358 From Ecuador he continued north and heard more complaints promoted civil and military officers and commuted prison sentences 359 As he approached Bogota Bolivar was met by Santander who hoped to persuade Bolivar to his cause in the conflict with Paez Although Santander was annoyed at Bolivar for his desire to return to power and ratify a version of the Bolivian constitution in Colombia they reconciled and agreed that Bolivar would resume the presidency of Colombia congress had reelected them to a second four year term beginning on 2 January 1827 Bolivar arrived in Bogota on 14 November 1826 360 On 25 November Bolivar left Bogota with an army supplied by Santander and arrived at Puerto Cabello on 31 December 361 where he issued a general amnesty to Paez and his allies if they submitted to his authority Paez accepted and in January 1827 Bolivar confirmed Paez s military authority in Venezuela and entered Caracas with him to much jubilation for two months Bolivar attended balls celebrating his return and the amnesty 362 That amnesty and clashes over Santander s handling of Colombia s finances caused a break between Bolivar and Santander that became an open enmity in 1827 363 In February 1827 Bolivar submitted his resignation from the Presidency of Colombia which its congress rejected 364 Meanwhile the Colombian soldiers garrisoned in Lima mutinied arrested their Venezuelan officers and occupied Guayaquil until September 1827 allowing Bolivar s opponents in Peru to depose him as president and repeal his constitution 365 Bolivar departed Venezuela to return to Bogota in July 1827 He arrived on 10 September with an army he had gathered at Cartagena and secured the calling of a new congress to meet at the city of Ocana in early 1828 to modify the Colombian constitution The elections for this congress were held in November 1827 and as Bolivar declined to campaign because he didn t wish to be perceived as personally influencing the elections were very favorable to his political opponents 366 In January 1828 Bolivar was joined in Bogota by Saenz 367 but on 16 March 1828 he left the capital after being informed of a Spanish backed rebellion in Venezuela As that revolt was crushed before he arrived Bolivar turned his attention to the occupation of Cartagena by Jose Prudencio Padilla a New Granadan admiral and Santander loyalist Padilla s rebellion was also crushed before Bolivar arrived however and he was arrested and imprisoned in Bogota As the Convention of Ocana opened on 9 April Bolivar based himself at Bucaramanga to monitor its proceedings through his aides 368 nbsp The window of the Palacio de San Carlos through which Bolivar escaped assassination on 25 September 1828The convention appeared likely to adopt a federalist system To prevent this on 11 June 1828 Bolivar s allies staged a walkout leaving the convention without a quorum 369 Two days later Pedro Alcantara Herran a Bolivar loyalist and the governor of New Granada called a meeting of the city s elite that denounced the Convention of Ocana and called on Bolivar to assume absolute power in Colombia Bolivar returned to Bogota on 24 June and on 27 August assumed supreme power as the president liberator of Colombia abolished the office of the vice president and assigned Santander to a diplomatic posting in Washington D C On 25 September 1828 a group of young liberals that included Santander s secretary made an attempt to assassinate Bolivar and overthrow his government The attempt was thwarted by Saenz who bought time for Bolivar to escape as the assassins entered the Palacio de San Carlos and the Colombian Army Bolivar spent the night hiding under a bridge until soldiers loyal to his regime rescued him 370 In the aftermath of the attempted coup Santander and the conspirators were arrested Bolivar depressed and ill considered resigning from politics and pardoning the conspirators but was dissuaded from this by his officers Padilla though uninvolved with the attempted coup was executed for treason for his earlier rebellion Santander whom Bolivar thought responsible for the plot was pardoned but exiled from Colombia 371 In December 1828 Bolivar left Bogota to respond to Peru s intervention in Bolivia and invasion of Ecuador and a revolt in Popayan and Pasto led by Jose Maria Obando He left behind a council of ministers led by Urdaneta to govern Colombia and announced that a congress would convene in January 1830 to devise a new constitution Over 1829 Obando was defeated by Colombian general Jose Maria Cordova at Bolivar s direction in January and then pardoned while Sucre and Venezuelan general Juan Jose Flores defeated the Peruvians at the Battle of Tarqui in February leading to an armistice in July and then the Treaty of Guayaquil in September 372 While Bolivar was away Urdaneta and the council of ministers planned with French envoys to have a member of the House of Bourbon succeed Bolivar on his death as King of Colombia This plan was widely unpopular and inspired Cordova to launch a revolt that was crushed in October 1829 by Daniel Florence O Leary Bolivar s aide de camp In November Bolivar ordered the council to cease its planning instead they resigned 373 Venezuelans encouraged by a circular letter Bolivar had published in October voted to secede from Colombia 374 On 15 January 1830 Bolivar arrived in Bogota and on 20 January the Admirable Congress es convened in the city Bolivar submitted his resignation from the presidency which the congress did not accept until 27 April following the appointment of New Granadan politician Domingo Caycedo as interim President 375 Death and burial edit nbsp Bolivar s death by Venezuelan painter Antonio Herrera Toro 1889Determined to go into exile Bolivar who had given away or lost his fortune over his career sold most of his remaining possessions and departed from Bogota on 8 May 1830 376 He traveled down the Magdalena to Cartagena where he arrived by the end of June to wait for a ship to take him to England 377 On 1 July Bolivar was informed that Sucre had been assassinated near Pasto while en route to Quito and wrote to Flores to ask him to avenge Sucre 378 In September Urdaneta installed a conservative government in Bogota and asked Bolivar to return but he refused 379 With his health deteriorating and no ship forthcoming Bolivar was moved by his staff to Barranquilla in October and then at the invitation of a Spanish landowner in the area to the Quinta de San Pedro Alejandrino near Santa Marta There on 17 December 1830 at the age of 47 Bolivar died of tuberculosis 380 Bolivar s body dressed in a borrowed shirt was interred in the Cathedral Basilica of Santa Marta es on 20 December 1830 381 In 1842 Paez secured the repatriation of Bolivar s remains which were paraded through Caracas and then laid to rest in its cathedral in December together with his wife and parents Bolivar s heart remained in Santa Marta His remains were moved again in October 1876 into the National Pantheon of Venezuela in Caracas created that year by President Antonio Guzman Blanco 382 Bolivar s death has been the subject of conspiracy theories advanced by the United Socialist Party of Venezuela In January 2008 President Hugo Chavez set up a commission to investigate his claim that Bolivar had been poisoned by New Granada traitors 383 384 The commission exhumed Bolivar s remains on 16 July 2010 385 The results made public on 26 July 2011 were inconclusive Vice President of Venezuela Elias Jaua announced that the commission could not prove Chavez s claim 386 387 388 Chavez continued to claim that Bolivar had been assassinated via arsenic poisoning citing a paper by infectious disease specialist Paul Auwaerter Following Chavez s remarks Auwaerter stated that the arsenic likely came from medicines Bolivar had ingested to treat his illnesses 386 389 390 Personal beliefs editBolivar s personal beliefs were liberal and republican and formed by Classical and Enlightenment philosophy 391 among his favorite authors were Hobbes Spinoza the Baron d Holbach Hume Montesquieu and Rousseau 21 The tutelage of Simon Rodriguez a student of Rousseau has been traditionally seen as foundational for Bolivar s beliefs 32 392 Also important to Bolivar s intellectual development were his stays in Paris from 1804 to 1806 and in London in 1810 393 394 Bolivar was an anglophile and sought British aid in securing Latin American independence 395 396 The extent of Bolivar s religiosity is debated while Bolivar resented the social capital of the Catholic Church and its Royalist leanings during the wars of independence he sought to co opt its social capital for the benefit of the republics he established rather than dismember the Church 397 398 Throughout his political career Bolivar concerned himself with the construction of liberal democracy in Latin America and the region s place in the Atlantic world 399 By the 1820s his goal was to create a federation of Latin American republics in Spanish America each governed by a strong executive and a constitution modeled on the British constitution 400 Inspired by Montesquieu Bolivar believed that a government should conform to the needs and character of its region and inhabitants 401 in the Cartagena Manifesto Bolivar stated that federalism as practiced in the United States was the perfect government but was unworkable in Spanish America because he believed Spanish imperialism had left Spanish Americans unprepared for federalism 402 403 Bolivar sought to prepare Colombia for a more liberal democracy via free public education 404 Over the 1820s Bolivar became increasingly disillusioned and authoritarian until in 1830 he declared to Flores all who have served the Revolution have plowed the sea 405 Legacy editBolivar is the preeminent symbol of Latin America and the focus of what could seem almost unrivaled posthumous attention seen from his own times forward as a force now for liberalism or other forms of modernity now for old regime values and authoritarianism now for a mix of the two with the debate over the meaning of his figure having no end in sight Robert T Conn Bolivar s Afterlife in the Americas 406 Bolivar has had an immense legacy becoming the essential personality of Latin America 406 407 The currencies of Venezuela and Bolivia the bolivar and boliviano respectively are named after Bolivar 408 409 In the English speaking world Bolivar is known as Latin America s George Washington 410 He has been memorialized across the world in literature public monuments and historiography and paid tribute to in the names of towns cities provinces and other people 411 412 The Quinta near Santa Marta has been preserved as a museum to Bolivar 413 and the house in which he was born was opened as a museum and archive of his papers on 5 July 1921 414 In 1978 UNESCO created the International Simon Bolivar Prize to reward an activity of outstanding merit in accordance with the ideals of Simon Bolivar 415 Initial historical evaluations of Bolivar were at first negative consisting of criticism of his conduct of the war execution of Piar betrayal of Miranda and authoritarianism 416 These and other criticisms endure in studies of Bolivar 417 Beginning in 1842 however popular opinion about Bolivar in Venezuela became overwhelmingly positive and eventually became what has been described by scholars as the cult of Bolivar led by succeeding heads of the Venezuelan state In 1998 President Hugo Chavez who had made extensive use of Bolivar s image for government projects and initiatives changed the official name of Venezuela to the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela 418 In Colombia allegiance or opposition to Bolivar formed the bedrock of the Conservative and Liberal parties respectively 419 Bolivar continued to have such a cultural influence in Colombia that in 1974 the 19th of April Movement an insurgent leftist group that later joined an alliance thereof called the Simon Bolivar Guerrilla Coordinating Board stole a sword es alleged to belong to Bolivar from his Bogota residence 420 421 See also editLibertadores Toussaint LouvertureReferences edit Styled as Supreme Political and Military Authority of the Peruvian Republic 1 Styled as Liberator President of the Republic of Colombia Liberator of Peru and Charged with the Supreme Command of it The term president was not in common use at the time of Bolivar s designation Whether this then makes Bolivar not the first president is a minor source of academic dispute 2 English ˈ b ɒ l ɪ v er v ɑːr BOL iv er ar 3 US ˈ b oʊ l ɪ v ɑːr BOH liv ar 4 Spanish siˈmom boˈlibaɾ In isolation Simon is pronounced as Spanish siˈmon and that is the pronunciation in the recording Biographers disagree on the exact date Miranda arrived in Venezuela in December 1810 Arana says 10 December 107 Lynch says 11 December 108 Masur and Langley say 12 December 109 110 Slatta and de Grummond say 13 December 111 Masur Langley and Arana state that Bolivar issued his proclamation of emancipation in early June 216 Slatta de Grummond and Lynch state that it was issued in July 217 Notes edit Ley Disponiendo Que El Ejecutivo Comunique A Bolivar La Abolicion De La Constitucion Vitalicia Y La Eleccion De Presidente De La Republica 22 de Junio de 1827 in Spanish Congress of Peru 22 June 1827 Retrieved 29 March 2023 Se enciende el debate por el cargo de Simon Bolivar Debate Ignites over Simon Bolivar s Position El Dia in Spanish Santa Cruz de la Sierra 19 December 2011 Archived from the original on 14 February 2023 Retrieved 14 February 2023 Bolivar Collins English Dictionary HarperCollins Archived from the original on 31 May 2019 Retrieved 21 August 2019 Bolivar Simon Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English Longman Archived from the original on 21 August 2019 Retrieved 21 August 2019 Masur 1969 pp 20 22 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 311 Lynch 2006 p 2 Langley 2009 p 4 Arana 2013 pp 6 8 Langley 2009 p 4 Masur 1969 p 20 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 10 Arana 2013 pp 8 9 Masur 1969 p 20 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 10 11 Langley 2009 p 4 Masur 1969 p 20 Langley 2009 p 4 Arana 2013 pp 7 17 Lynch 2006 p 7 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 311 Langley 2009 p xix Arana 2013 p 21 Langley 2009 p 9 Arana 2013 p 18 Masur 1969 p 23 Langley 2009 p 9 Arana 2013 p 18 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 11 Masur 1969 pp 22 23 Masur 1969 pp 22 23 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 11 12 Lynch 2006 p 16 Arana 2013 pp 7 8 22 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 12 Langley 2009 p xix Masur 1969 p 23 Langley 2009 p 9 Arana 2013 p 24 a b Arana 2013 p 25 Masur 1969 p 23 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 13 Arana 2013 p 24 a b Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 13 Masur 1969 p 24 Arana 2013 p 25 Lynch 2006 p 17 Langley 2009 p 9 Arana 2013 p 25 Masur 1969 pp 23 24 Langley 2009 p 9 Arana 2013 p 22 Masur 1969 pp 23 24 Langley 2009 p 9 Arana 2013 pp 22 23 Lynch 2006 p 17 Arana 2013 p 32 Masur 1969 p 25 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 14 Lynch 2006 p 17 Arana 2013 p 32 Arana 2013 p 32 Masur 1969 p 25 Lynch 2006 p 17 Arana 2013 p 33 Masur 1969 p 25 Arana 2013 p 34 a b Masur 1969 pp 24 25 Lynch 2006 pp 16 17 Arana 2013 pp 34 35 Masur 1969 p 27 Lynch 2006 p 17 Arana 2013 pp 36 37 Masur 1969 p 27 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 17 Lynch 2006 p 18 Arana 2013 p 37 Lynch 2006 p 18 Arana 2013 p 37 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 17 Arana 2013 p 42 Masur 1969 p 27 Lynch 2006 p 18 Arana 2013 p 38 Arana 2013 p 37 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 18 Lynch 2006 p 18 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 18 Arana 2013 p 43 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 18 Lynch 2006 p 19 Arana 2013 p 43 Masur 1969 p 28 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 18 Langley 2009 p 13 Arana 2013 p 44 Arana 2013 p 44 Cardozo Uzcategui 2011 pp 17 18 Cardozo Uzcategui 2011 pp 14 19 Masur 1969 p 28 Langley 2009 p 13 Arana 2013 p 44 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 19 Arana 2013 p 46 Masur 1969 p 30 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 18 Arana 2013 p 46 Masur 1969 pp 30 31 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 19 Langley 2009 p 13 Masur 1969 p 30 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 18 19 Arana 2013 pp 46 47 a b c Lynch 2006 p 20 Lynch 2006 p 20 Arana 2013 p 47 Cardozo Uzcategui 2011 p 18 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 19 Arana 2013 p 47 Masur 1969 p 31 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 19 Lynch 2006 p 20 Lynch 2006 p 20 Arana 2013 p 48 Arana 2013 p 48 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 19 Lynch 2006 p 20 Arana 2013 pp 49 50 Masur 1969 p 31 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 19 20 Lynch 2006 p 21 Langley 2009 p 14 Arana 2013 pp 50 51 Arana 2013 p 51 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 19 20 Lynch 2006 p 22 Arana 2013 p 51 Masur 1969 pp 33 34 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 20 Lynch 2006 p 22 Langley 2009 p 15 Arana 2013 pp 51 52 Arana 2013 p 52 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 20 Langley 2009 p 15 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 20 Arana 2013 p 52 Lynch 2006 p 23 Arana 2013 pp 53 54 Masur 1969 pp 36 37 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 21 22 Lynch 2006 p 23 Langley 2009 p 15 Arana 2013 pp 54 57 58 Bushnell 2003 p 114 Brown 2009 p 4 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 24 Lynch 2006 p 25 Arana 2013 p 61 Masur 1969 p 41 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 24 Lynch 2006 p 25 Arana 2013 pp 61 62 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 24 Arana 2013 p 62 Masur 1969 p 41 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 24 Lynch 2006 p 26 Arana 2013 p 63 Masur 1969 pp 41 42 Arana 2013 pp 63 65 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 24 Lynch 2006 p 26 Arana 2013 pp 65 66 Lynch 2006 p 27 Masur 1969 pp 55 56 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 30 Lynch 2006 p 39 Arana 2013 p 70 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 25 Arana 2013 p 71 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 25 Lynch 2006 p 39 Arana 2013 p 72 Langley 2009 p 18 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 26 Arana 2013 p 77 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 33 34 Lynch 2006 p 41 Arana 2013 p 80 Lynch 2006 p 41 Arana 2013 pp 77 81 Masur 1969 pp 61 62 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 26 27 Lynch 2006 p 44 Arana 2013 pp 77 78 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 31 32 Lynch 2006 p 45 Arana 2013 p 79 Lynch 2006 pp 45 46 Arana 2013 pp 79 80 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 33 34 Lynch 2006 pp 46 47 Masur 1969 pp 65 66 Lynch 2006 p 46 Arana 2013 p 81 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 35 Lynch 2006 p 47 Arana 2013 pp 82 83 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 35 Lynch 2006 p 47 Arana 2013 pp 83 84 Masur 1969 p 67 Arana 2013 p 84 Masur 1969 pp 68 69 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 36 37 Arana 2013 pp 84 86 Lynch 2006 p 48 Arana 2013 p 86 McFarlane 2014 p 85 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 38 Lynch 2006 p 48 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 38 Lynch 2006 p 48 Arana 2013 p 87 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 38 Masur 1969 pp 72 73 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 38 Lynch 2006 pp 48 49 Langley 2009 p 28 Arana 2013 pp 87 88 Lynch 2006 pp 49 50 Arana 2013 p 92 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 39 40 Lynch 2006 pp 51 52 Arana 2013 pp 88 90 Masur 1969 p 77 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 40 Lynch 2006 pp 52 53 Lynch 2006 p 50 Langley 2009 pp 30 31 Arana 2013 pp 93 94 Lynch 2006 p 53 Arana 2013 p 95 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 41 Langley 2009 p 31 Arana 2013 p 95 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 41 Lynch 2006 p 53 Arana 2013 p 95 Masur 1969 pp 80 81 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 41 Lynch 2006 pp 53 54 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 41 42 Lynch 2006 p 54 Arana 2013 pp 96 97 Arana 2013 p 95 Lynch 2006 p 54 Masur 1969 p 85 Langley 2009 p 32 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 42 Lynch 2006 p 54 Langley 2009 p 31 McFarlane 2014 p 87 Masur 1969 p 83 Langley 2009 p 31 Masur 1969 p 84 Langley 2009 p 31 McFarlane 2014 pp 87 88 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 46 Arana 2013 p 97 Masur 1969 p 86 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 46 Arana 2013 p 100 Masur 1969 pp 87 88 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 47 Lynch 2006 p 55 Langley 2009 p 33 Arana 2013 pp 100 01 Masur 1969 p 88 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 47 Arana 2013 p 101 McFarlane 2014 pp 88 91 Lynch 2006 p 56 Arana 2013 pp 99 100 Lynch 2006 p 58 Arana 2013 p 100 Masur 1969 p 91 Arana 2013 p 104 McFarlane 2014 p 91 Masur 1969 p 91 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 48 Langley 2009 p 34 Langley 2009 p 34 Arana 2013 p 104 Masur 1969 p 92 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 48 52 Lynch 2006 p 58 Arana 2013 pp 104 05 Masur 1969 p 92 Arana 2013 p 105 Masur 1969 p 93 Arana 2013 pp 105 06 Lynch 2006 p 1 McFarlane 2014 pp 91 92 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 55 Lynch 2006 p 59 Langley 2009 pp 35 36 Arana 2013 pp 107 09 Masur 1969 p 96 Arana 2013 pp 108 09 Masur 1969 pp 95 96 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 56 Lynch 2006 p 59 Arana 2013 pp 109 10 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 57 a b c McFarlane 2014 p 93 Masur 1969 pp 97 98 Lynch 2006 p 60 Arana 2013 p 112 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 57 Arana 2013 p 112 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 57 Lynch 2006 p 60 Arana 2013 p 112 Masur 1969 p 100 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 58 Arana 2013 pp 114 15 Masur 1969 p 101 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 58 59 Arana 2013 Masur 1969 p 103 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 63 Arana 2013 p 118 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 64 Lynch 2006 p 61 Arana 2013 p 119 Lynch 2006 p 61 Arana 2013 p 118 Masur 1969 pp 103 04 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 64 65 Lynch 2006 pp 61 62 Arana 2013 pp 120 22 Masur 1969 pp 104 05 Lynch 2006 p 62 Arana 2013 p 122 Masur 1969 p 105 Langley 2009 p 38 Masur 1969 p 105 Arana 2013 p 122 Masur 1969 pp 105 06 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 67 Lynch 2006 pp 62 63 Arana 2013 pp 124 26 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 67 Langley 2009 p 42 Arana 2013 pp 126 28 Masur 1969 pp 107 112 Arana 2013 p 128 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 71 Arana 2013 pp 129 132 Masur 1969 pp 113 115 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 70 Lynch 2006 pp 66 68 Arana 2013 pp 130 31 Masur 1969 p 116 Masur 1969 p 116 Lynch 2006 p 69 Arana 2013 pp 131 32 Masur 1969 pp 116 17 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 71 72 Lynch 2006 pp 69 70 Arana 2013 pp 132 33 Masur 1969 pp 118 19 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 72 73 Arana 2013 pp 136 38 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 73 74 Lynch 2006 p 70 Masur 1969 p 119 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 74 Arana 2013 p 138 Masur 1969 pp 119 20 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 74 76 Lynch 2006 pp 70 71 Arana 2013 pp 138 39 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 75 Masur 1969 p 124 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 77 Lynch 2006 p 73 Langley 2009 p 46 Arana 2013 pp 142 43 McFarlane 2014 p 115 Masur 1969 p 129 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 75 Lynch 2006 p 75 Arana 2013 p 146 McFarlane 2014 p 120 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 82 84 Lynch 2006 p 84 McFarlane 2014 p 123 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 84 85 Lynch 2006 p 79 Masur 1969 pp 122 23 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 76 Lynch 2006 p 72 Arana 2013 p 140 Lynch 2006 p 77 McFarlane 2014 p 125 Lynch 2006 pp 77 78 McFarlane 2014 p 122 Masur 1969 pp 138 39 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 75 85 Lynch 2006 pp 76 78 McFarlane 2014 pp 118 19 Masur 1969 p 140 Langley 2009 p 47 Arana 2013 p 150 Masur 1969 p 135 Langley 2009 p 49 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 86 Langley 2009 pp 48 49 Arana 2013 p 153 McFarlane 2014 pp 123 24 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 85 87 97 Lynch 2006 pp 81 82 Arana 2013 pp 151 52 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 100 04 106 12 Langley 2009 p 50 Arana 2013 pp 156 59 163 64 McFarlane 2014 pp 126 29 a b Masur 1969 p 161 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 106 Lynch 2006 p 86 Arana 2013 p 159 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 107 Masur 1969 p 162 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 108 Arana 2013 p 160 Masur 1969 pp 161 62 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 108 Lynch 2006 pp 86 87 Arana 2013 p 161 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 108 09 Lynch 2006 p 87 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 109 Lynch 2006 p 87 Arana 2013 pp 162 63 Masur 1969 p 163 Arana 2013 p 163 Masur 1969 pp 165 66 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 110 11 Lynch 2006 p 88 Masur 1969 p 167 Lynch 2006 p 89 Langley 2009 p 54 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 111 13 Lynch 2006 pp 88 89 Arana 2013 p 168 Masur 1969 pp 168 70 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 113 14 Lynch 2006 pp 89 90 Langley 2009 p 55 Arana 2013 pp 169 70 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 114 Lynch 2006 pp 89 90 Arana 2013 pp 169 70 Masur 1969 pp 170 71 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 114 Langley 2009 p 55 Arana 2013 pp 170 71 Masur 1969 pp 173 74 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 115 Lynch 2006 p 90 Arana 2013 McFarlane 2014 p 138 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 116 Lynch 2006 p 90 Masur 1969 pp 184 85 190 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 124 27 Lynch 2006 pp 92 95 Langley 2009 pp 55 57 Arana 2013 pp 174 76 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 128 29 Masur 1969 p 183 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 129 Lynch 2006 pp 96 97 Arana 2013 p 177 Masur 1969 p 191 Lynch 2006 p 97 Arana 2013 pp 177 78 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 129 Langley 2009 p 59 Arana 2013 p 178 Masur 1969 p 192 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 130 Lynch 2006 p 97 Langley 2009 p 59 Arana 2013 pp 178 79 Masur 1969 pp 192 93 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 130 Arana 2013 p 179 Masur 1969 p 193 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 130 Lynch 2006 p 97 Arana 2013 p 179 McFarlane 2014 p 313 Masur 1969 pp 194 95 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 131 32 Arana 2013 p 179 Masur 1969 p 195 Lynch 2006 p 100 Arana 2013 p 183 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 137 38 Lynch 2006 p 100 Arana 2013 pp 183 84 Masur 1969 pp 197 98 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 141 42 Lynch 2006 p 100 Langley 2009 p 60 Arana 2013 p 186 Masur 1969 p 197 Langley 2009 p 60 Arana 2013 p 186 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 142 Lynch 2006 p 100 Masur 1969 p 197 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 139 40 Masur 1969 pp 198 200 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 141 44 Lynch 2006 p 100 McFarlane 2014 p 314 Masur 1969 p 202 Lynch 2006 p 101 Arana 2013 p 189 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 147 48 Arana 2013 p 190 Masur 1969 p 203 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 146 Lynch 2006 p 101 Arana 2013 p 189 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 146 Arana 2013 pp 190 91 Masur 1969 p 203 Arana 2013 p 191 Masur 1969 p 203 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 150 51 Arana 2013 pp 190 91 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 151 52 Lynch 2006 p 102 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 146 47 Lynch 2006 p 102 Arana 2013 pp 191 92 McFarlane 2014 pp 313 15 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 152 Arana 2013 p 192 Masur 1969 pp 208 09 Arana 2013 pp 192 93 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 153 Lynch 2006 p 102 Arana 2013 p 193 Masur 1969 p 210 Arana 2013 p 195 Masur 1969 pp 207 08 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 153 Lynch 2006 pp 102 03 Arana 2013 p 193 McFarlane 2014 p 315 Masur 1969 p 210 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 154 Masur 1969 p 211 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 155 Lynch 2006 pp 103 04 Arana 2013 pp 195 96 Masur 1969 pp 211 213 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 153 54 156 Arana 2013 pp 200 02 Masur 1969 pp 213 14 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 156 Lynch 2006 p 104 Arana 2013 p 202 Masur 1969 p 217 Lynch 2006 p 106 Arana 2013 p 197 Masur 1969 pp 217 18 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 158 60 Arana 2013 pp 197 99 Masur 1969 p 220 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 160 Arana 2013 pp 202 03 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 160 Masur 1969 p 215 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 157 Arana 2013 p 201 McFarlane 2014 pp 317 18 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 163 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 163 Lynch 2006 pp 110 12 McFarlane 2014 p 319 Lynch 2006 pp 113 14 Arana 2013 p 207 Masur 1969 pp 231 32 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 171 72 Lynch 2006 p 115 Arana 2013 pp 209 11 McFarlane 2014 p 317 Masur 1969 pp 234 35 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 173 Lynch 2006 p 116 Arana 2013 pp 211 12 McFarlane 2014 pp 321 22 Masur 1969 pp 235 37 243 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 174 80 Lynch 2006 pp 116 17 Arana 2013 pp 212 17 Masur 1969 p 244 Lynch 2006 p 117 a b c McFarlane 2014 p 325 Masur 1969 p 245 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 180 Lynch 2006 p 119 Arana 2013 p 222 Masur 1969 pp 246 53 Lynch 2006 pp 120 22 Arana 2013 pp 222 25 Masur 1969 p 246 Arana 2013 p 222 Masur 1969 p 254 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 180 Arana 2013 p 225 Masur 1969 p 255 Masur 1969 pp 255 58 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 180 81 Lynch 2006 p 126 Arana 2013 pp 226 28 Masur 1969 p 263 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 183 Lynch 2006 p 127 Arana 2013 pp 228 29 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 176 Lynch 2006 p 124 McFarlane 2014 pp 324 25 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 183 Lynch 2006 p 127 Lynch 2006 p 127 Langley 2009 p 75 Arana 2013 p 228 McFarlane 2014 pp 326 27 Lynch 2006 p 127 Arana 2013 pp 229 30 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 184 Arana 2013 p 230 Masur 1969 p 264 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 184 Lynch 2006 p 128 Arana 2013 pp 230 31 Masur 1969 p 166 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 185 Lynch 2006 p 128 Arana 2013 p 232 Masur 1969 pp 268 73 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 188 93 Lynch 2006 pp 128 30 Langley 2009 p 75 Arana 2013 pp 232 35 McFarlane 2014 pp 327 28 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 193 Lynch 2006 p 130 Arana 2013 pp 235 237 Masur 1969 p 276 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 193 195 Lynch 2006 pp 130 31 Masur 1969 p 280 Lynch 2006 p 130 Arana 2013 pp 238 39 Masur 1969 pp 277 280 Lynch 2006 p 131 Arana 2013 pp 240 41 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 195 Lynch 2006 pp 131 32 Masur 1969 pp 282 83 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 196 97 Lynch 2006 pp 132 33 Arana 2013 pp 245 46 Masur 1969 p 283 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 197 98 Arana 2013 p 246 Masur 1969 p 284 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 198 Lynch 2006 p 134 Arana 2013 pp 246 47 Masur 1969 p 290 Arana 2013 p 247 Masur 1969 p 290 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 200 01 Arana 2013 p 247 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 201 02 Lynch 2006 pp 134 136 Masur 1969 pp 291 92 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 204 Lynch 2006 p 136 Arana 2013 pp 247 48 McFarlane 2014 p 368 Masur 1969 pp 292 97 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 204 09 Lynch 2006 pp 136 37 Arana 2013 pp 248 253 54 Masur 1969 p 297 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 209 Arana 2013 p 254 Masur 1969 p 297 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 209 10 Lynch 2006 p 137 Arana 2013 pp 254 55 McFarlane 2014 pp 388 89 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 211 Lynch 2006 p 138 Arana 2013 p 257 Masur 1969 p 303 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 216 Masur 1969 pp 302 03 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 216 Lynch 2006 p 139 McFarlane 2014 p 391 Masur 1969 p 304 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 218 Arana 2013 p 263 Masur 1969 pp 304 07 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 218 20 Lynch 2006 pp 139 40 Arana 2013 pp 263 65 McFarlane 2014 pp 391 92 a b McFarlane 2014 p 392 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 221 Arana 2013 p 267 Lynch 2006 pp 141 42 Arana 2013 p 266 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 221 Arana 2013 p 271 Masur 1969 pp 308 10 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 221 Lynch 2006 pp 145 46 Arana 2013 p 271 Masur 1969 pp 313 14 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 224 Lynch 2006 p 167 Lynch 2006 p 167 Masur 1969 pp 302 319 Lynch 2006 pp 138 39 168 Masur 1969 p 317 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 222 Lynch 2006 p 167 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 213 15 Langley 2009 p 79 Arana 2013 pp 271 77 Masur 1969 p 317 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 224 25 Lynch 2006 p 167 Arana 2013 p 278 Masur 1969 p 312 Lynch 2006 p 146 Masur 1969 p 321 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 221 Lynch 2006 pp 146 168 Arana 2013 pp 278 79 a b McFarlane 2014 p 393 Masur 1969 pp 323 25 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 226 Lynch 2006 p 169 Arana 2013 pp 281 83 Masur 1969 p 320 Lynch 2006 p 168 Arana 2013 p 280 Masur 1969 p 325 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 226 27 Lynch 2006 p 170 Langley 2009 pp 80 81 Arana 2013 pp 28 88 Masur 1969 pp 325 26 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 227 Masur 1969 p 327 Lynch 2006 pp 170 71 Arana 2013 pp 287 88 Masur 1969 p 327 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 228 230 Lynch 2006 pp 171 178 79 Langley 2009 p 81 Arana 2013 pp 289 90 Masur 1969 pp 328 330 31 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 234 Lynch 2006 pp 171 72 Arana 2013 p 292 Masur 1969 p 331 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 235 Arana 2013 pp 295 96 Masur 1969 p 331 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 235 Lynch 2006 p 172 Langley 2009 pp 81 82 Masur 1969 pp 331 338 41 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 235 37 Lynch 2006 pp 173 75 Langley 2009 p 82 Arana 2013 pp 295 305 McFarlane 2014 pp 394 95 Masur 1969 pp 343 45 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 240 41 Lynch 2006 pp 175 76 Arana 2013 pp 306 07 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 243 Arana 2013 pp 305 308 McFarlane 2014 pp 395 96 Masur 1969 p 353 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 241 Lynch 2006 p 183 Masur 1969 pp 354 56 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 242 43 Arana 2013 pp 308 09 Masur 1969 p 356 Lynch 2006 p 184 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 243 44 Lynch 2006 p 185 Langley 2009 p 86 Arana 2013 pp 310 11 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 243 44 Lynch 2006 p 185 Langley 2009 pp 86 87 Arana 2013 p 312 a b McFarlane 2014 p 398 Masur 1969 p 362 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 244 Lynch 2006 pp 185 86 Masur 1969 pp 364 66 Lynch 2006 pp 186 87 Arana 2013 pp 315 317 18 Lynch 2006 pp 189 90 Masur 1969 pp 368 370 Lynch 2006 pp 189 90 Masur 1969 pp 372 75 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 247 50 Lynch 2006 pp 191 93 Langley 2009 p 88 Arana 2013 pp 320 326 28 a b McFarlane 2014 p 402 Masur 1969 p 375 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 250 Masur 1969 p 376 Arana 2013 p 329 a b Masur 1969 p 376 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 251 Lynch 2006 p 193 Arana 2013 p 329 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 252 Lynch 2006 p 193 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 252 Arana 2013 p 331 Masur 1969 pp 378 79 383 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 252 56 Lynch 2006 pp 194 95 Arana 2013 pp 331 35 McFarlane 2014 pp 402 05 McFarlane 2014 pp 404 05 Masur 1969 pp 381 82 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 256 57 Lynch 2006 pp 194 95 Arana 2013 p 339 Lynch 2006 pp 195 96 208 Arana 2013 pp 342 43 Masur 1969 pp 386 88 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 257 Lynch 2006 pp 195 96 199 Arana 2013 pp 343 46 Masur 1969 pp 388 90 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 257 Lynch 2006 p 200 Decreto Supremo de 29 de diciembre de 1825 Gaceta Oficial del Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia in Spanish Government of Bolivia 19 December 1825 Retrieved 4 February 2023 Masur 1969 pp 391 92 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 261 62 Lynch 2006 p 201 Lynch 2006 p 201 Arana 2013 pp 348 350 Masur 1969 p 394 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 264 Masur 1969 p 406 Lynch 2006 pp 209 211 Arana 2013 pp 356 57 Masur 1969 pp 407 414 15 423 26 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 265 67 Lynch 2006 pp 213 15 222 23 Arana 2013 pp 353 58 Masur 1969 p 426 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 268 Arana 2013 pp 362 64 Masur 1969 pp 421 426 Lynch 2006 p 218 Arana 2013 pp 363 64 Masur 1969 pp 427 28 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 268 69 Lynch 2006 pp 218 19 Arana 2013 pp 364 65 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 270 Arana 2013 p 367 Masur 1969 pp 430 31 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 270 Lynch 2006 pp 225 26 Langley 2009 p 99 Arana 2013 pp 367 69 Masur 1969 pp 433 35 Lynch 2006 pp 227 28 Langley 2009 p 99 Arana 2013 pp 370 72 Masur 1969 p 436 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 272 Masur 1969 pp 435 36 443 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 272 Lynch 2006 p 228 Arana 2013 pp 362 372 73 Masur 1969 pp 437 38 444 45 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 273 74 Lynch 2006 pp 229 30 232 33 Arana 2013 pp 376 78 388 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 274 Lynch 2006 p 231 Masur 1969 pp 445 47 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 275 76 Lynch 2006 pp 233 36 Langley 2009 p 102 Arana 2013 pp 390 91 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 276 Lynch 2006 p 237 Arana 2013 p 393 Masur 1969 pp 451 56 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 276 80 Lynch 2006 pp 237 38 240 41 Langley 2009 pp 102 03 Arana 2013 pp 393 94 396 403 Masur 1969 pp 456 58 Lynch 2006 pp 241 42 Langley 2009 p 103 Arana 2013 pp 403 08 Masur 1969 pp 460 64 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 277 281 84 Lynch 2006 pp 253 59 Arana 2013 pp 411 15 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 286 87 Lynch 2006 pp 262 66 Arana 2013 pp 414 17 424 426 Lynch 2006 p 267 Arana 2013 pp 425 26 Masur 1969 pp 472 76 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 287 89 Lynch 2006 pp 270 72 Langley 2009 p 105 Arana 2013 pp 427 30 432 435 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 272 73 Lynch 2006 p 273 Arana 2013 pp 433 36 Lynch 2006 p 274 Arana 2013 p 439 Masur 1969 pp 481 82 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 p 290 Lynch 2006 pp 274 75 Arana 2013 pp 440 449 Masur 1969 pp 483 84 Lynch 2006 p 275 Arana 2013 pp 445 46 Masur 1969 pp 485 87 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 290 91 Lynch 2006 pp 275 78 Arana 2013 pp 448 450 54 Masur 1969 p 487 Lynch 2006 p 278 Arana 2013 p 456 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 295 301 Lynch 2006 pp 300 01 Arana 2013 pp 459 61 Forero Juan 23 February 2008 Chavez Assailed on Many Fronts Is Riveted by 19th Century Idol The Washington Post Archived from the original on 12 November 2012 Retrieved 17 July 2010 Bolivar and Chavez a Worthy Comparison Council on Hemispheric Affairs 11 August 2011 Archived from the original on 30 March 2012 Retrieved 9 April 2012 Lopez Jaime 17 July 2010 Exhuman el cadaver de Simon Bolivar para investigar si fue envenenado con arsenico Venezuela Exhumes Body of Simon Bolivar to Investigate If He Was Poisoned with Arsenic El Mundo in Spanish Archived from the original on 28 March 2022 Retrieved 12 November 2022 a b Phillips Tom Lopez Virginia 26 July 2011 Hugo Chavez Claims Simon Bolivar Was Murdered Not Backed by Science The Guardian Archived from the original on 2 April 2023 Retrieved 13 June 2023 Gupta Girish 26 July 2011 Venezuela Unable to Determine Cause of Bolivar s Death Christian Science Monitor Archived from the original on 28 March 2023 Retrieved 13 June 2023 Venezuela Hero Simon Bolivar Death Tests Inconclusive BBC News 26 July 2011 Archived from the original on 2 April 2023 Retrieved 13 June 2023 Romero Simon 3 August 2010 Building a New History by Exhuming Bolivar The New York Times Archived from the original on 2 April 2023 Retrieved 13 June 2023 Padgett Tim 17 July 2010 Why Venezuela s Chavez Dug Up Bolivar s Bones Time Magazine Archived from the original on 2 April 2023 Retrieved 13 June 2023 Collier 2008 pp 13 15 Jaksic 2008 p 84 Collier 2008 p 15 Lynch 2006 pp 28 38 Racine 2008 pp 58 59 Masur 1969 pp 412 14 Lynch 2006 pp 216 17 Collier 2008 pp 19 27 Ewell 2008 pp 38 39 47 Racine 2008 pp 57 58 Masur 1969 pp 181 82 Lynch 2006 pp 78 244 49 Racine 2008 pp 63 64 Safford 2008 pp 101 02 Collier 2008 p 14 Collier 2008 pp 15 19 25 27 Collier 2008 p 18 Collier 2008 pp 16 18 Ewell 2008 pp 38 40 Langley 2009 p 44 Lynch 2006 pp 285 86 Masur 1969 p 484 Lynch 2006 pp 259 62 276 Arana 2013 pp 447 450 a b Conn 2020 p 2 Arana 2013 p 460 Conn 2020 p 90 Armillas Tiseyra 2013 p 1 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 3 8 Langley 2009 pp ix xi Arana 2013 pp 4 6 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 303 04 Arana 2013 p 459 Conn 2020 p 13 Grant Will 5 July 2010 Venezuela Honors Simon Bolivar s Lover Manuela Saenz BBC News Archived from the original on 31 May 2022 Retrieved 17 July 2010 Lynch 2006 p 302 International UNESCO Simon Bolivar Prize UNESCO Archived from the original on 13 June 2023 Retrieved 13 June 2023 Arana 2013 pp 455 458 Lynch 2006 pp 281 83 Langley 2009 pp 44 45 Arana 2013 p 458 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 305 308 Lynch 2006 pp 299 304 Langley 2009 pp 109 10 119 20 Arana 2013 pp 460 63 Langley 2009 p 111 Slatta amp de Grummond 2003 pp 305 06 Gomez Pernia 2017 p 206 Bibliography edit Biographies of Simon Bolivar edit Arana Marie 2013 Bolivar American Liberator Simon amp Schuster ISBN 978 1 4391 1020 1 Langley Lester D 2009 Simon Bolivar Venezuelan Rebel American Revolutionary Rowman amp Littlefield ISBN 978 0 7425 6655 2 Lynch John 2006 Simon Bolivar A Life Yale University Press ISBN 978 0 300 12604 4 Masur Gerhard 1969 1948 Simon Bolivar Revised ed University of New Mexico Press ISBN 978 0 8263 0131 4 Slatta Richard W de Grummond Jane Lucas 2003 Simon Bolivar s Quest for Glory Texas A amp M University Press ISBN 978 1 58544 239 3 Works by Simon Bolivar edit Brown Matthew ed 2009 The Bolivarian Revolution Simon Bolivar Verso Books ISBN 978 1 84467 381 0 Bushnell David ed 2003 El Libertador Writings of Simon Bolivar Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 514480 2 General reference edit Armillas Tiseyra Magali Fall 2013 Introduction Dislocations The Global South Indiana University Press 7 2 1 10 doi 10 2979 globalsouth 7 2 1 ISSN 1932 8656 JSTOR 10 2979 S2CID 261249096 Bushnell David Langley Lester D eds 2008 Simon Bolivar Essays on the Life and Legacy of the Liberator Rowman amp Littlefield ISBN 978 0 7425 5619 5 Collier Simon Simon Bolivar as Political Thinker In Bushnell amp Langley 2008 pp 13 34 Ewell Judith Bolivar s Atlantic Word Diplomacy In Bushnell amp Langley 2008 pp 35 54 Racine Karen Simon Bolivar Englishman Elite Responsibility and Social Reform in Spanish American Independence In Bushnell amp Langley 2008 pp 55 72 Jaksic Ivan Simon Bolivar and Andres Bello The Republican Ideal In Bushnell amp Langley 2008 pp 75 98 Safford Frank Bolivar as Triumphal State Maker and Despairing Democrat In Bushnell amp Langley 2008 pp 99 120 Cardozo Uzcategui Alejandro 2011 Don Geronimo Enrique de Uztariz y Tovar II Marques de Uztariz Protector y maestro de Simon Bolivar en Madrid Presente y Pasado Revista de Historia in Spanish University of the Andes Venezuela 16 31 11 36 ISSN 1316 1369 Archived from the original on 31 May 2022 Retrieved 23 April 2022 Conn Robert T 2020 Bolivar s Afterlife in the Americas Biography Ideology and the Public Sphere Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 978 3 030 26217 4 McFarlane Anthony 2014 War and Independence in Spanish America Routledge ISBN 978 1 85728 783 7 Shanahan Maureen G Reyes Ana Maria eds 2017 Simon Bolivar Travels and Transformations of a Cultural Icon University Press of Florida ISBN 978 0 8130 5449 0 Gomez Pernia Alejandro E The Liberator s Sword The Most Precious Relic of the Bolivarian Revolution In Shanahan amp Reyes 2017 pp 215 30 Further reading editBushnell David The Liberator Simon Bolivar Man and Image New York Alfred A Knopf 1970 Bushnell David and Macaulay Neill The Emergence of Latin America in the Nineteenth Century Second edition Oxford and New York Oxford University Press 1994 ISBN 978 0 19 508402 3 Gomez Martinez Jose Luis La encrucijada del cambio Simon Bolivar entre dos paradigmas una reflexion ante la encrucijada postindustrial Cuadernos Americanos 104 2004 11 32 Lacroix Luis Peru de Diario de Bucaramanga Caracas Ministerio del Poder Popular para la Comunicacion y la Informacion 2009 Lynch John Simon Bolivar and the Age of Revolution London University of London Institute of Latin American Studies 1983 ISBN 978 0 901145 54 3 Marx Karl Bolivar y Ponte in the New American Cyclopaedia Vol III New York D Appleton amp Co 1858 Racine Karen Simon Bolivar and friends Recent biographies of independence figures in Colombia and Venezuela History Compass 18 3 Feb 2020 https doi org 10 1111 hic3 12608External links editArchivo del Libertador In Spanish 12 000 transcribed documents of the Libertador from 1799 to 1830 Political officesNew office President of Colombia1819 1830 Succeeded byDomingo CaycedoPresident of Bolivia1825 Succeeded byAntonio Jose de Sucre Portals nbsp Biography nbsp Bolivia nbsp Colombia nbsp Ecuador nbsp History nbsp Latin America nbsp Panama nbsp Peru nbsp VenezuelaSimon Bolivar at Wikipedia s sister projects nbsp Media from Commons nbsp Quotations from Wikiquote nbsp Texts from Wikisource Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Simon Bolivar amp oldid 1183279544, wikipedia, wiki, 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