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Siberian tiger

January 01, 1970

"Amur tiger" redirects here. For the leopard cat subspecies, see Amur leopard cat.

The Siberian tiger or Amur tiger is a population of the tiger subspecies Panthera tigris tigris native to the Russian Far East, Northeast China[1] and possibly North Korea.[2] It once ranged throughout the Korean Peninsula, but currently inhabits mainly the Sikhote-Alin mountain region in southwest Primorye Province in the Russian Far East. In 2005, there were 331–393 adult and subadult Siberian tigers in this region, with a breeding adult population of about 250 individuals. The population had been stable for more than a decade because of intensive conservation efforts, but partial surveys conducted after 2005 indicate that the Russian tiger population was declining.[3] An initial census held in 2015 indicated that the Siberian tiger population had increased to 480–540 individuals in the Russian Far East, including 100 cubs.[4][5] This was followed up by a more detailed census which revealed there was a total population of 562 wild Siberian tigers in Russia.[6] As of 2014, about 35 individuals were estimated to range in the international border area between Russia and China.[7]

Siberian tiger
Siberian tiger at the Leipzig Zoological Garden
Scientific classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Suborder: Feliformia
Family: Felidae
Subfamily: Pantherinae
Genus: Panthera
Species: P. tigris
Subspecies: P. t. tigris
Population: Siberian tiger
Siberian tiger distribution
  Modern-day range
  Range in the late 1800s

The Siberian tiger is genetically close to the now-extinct Caspian tiger. Results of a phylogeographic study comparing mitochondrial DNA from Caspian tigers and living tiger populations indicate that the common ancestor of the Siberian and Caspian tigers colonized Central Asia from eastern China, via the Gansu−Silk Road corridor, and then subsequently traversed Siberia eastward to establish the Siberian tiger population in the Russian Far East.[8] The Caspian and Siberian tiger populations were the northernmost in mainland Asia.[9][10]

The Siberian tiger was also called "Amur tiger", "Manchurian tiger", "Korean tiger",[2] and "Ussurian tiger", depending on the region where individuals were observed.[9][11]

Taxonomy

 
Siberian tiger face

Felis tigris was the scientific name proposed by Carl Linnaeus in 1758 for the tiger.[12] In the 19th century, several tiger specimens were collected in East Asia and described:

  • Felis tigris altaicus proposed by Coenraad Jacob Temminck in 1844 were tiger skins with long hairs and dense coats sold in Japan, which originated in Korea, most likely from animals killed in the Altai and Pisihan Mountains.[13]
  • Tigris longipilis proposed by Leopold Fitzinger in 1868 was based on a long-haired tiger skin in the Natural History Museum, Vienna.[14]
  • Felis tigris var. amurensis proposed by Charles Dode in 1871 was based on tiger skins from the Amur region.[15]
  • Felis tigris coreensis by Emil Brass in 1904 was a tiger skin from Korea.[16]

The validity of several tiger subspecies was questioned in 1999. Most putative subspecies described in the 19th and 20th centuries were distinguished on the basis of fur length and colouration, striping patterns and body size – characteristics that vary widely within populations. Morphologically, tigers from different regions vary little, and gene flow between populations in those regions is considered to have been possible during the Pleistocene. Therefore, it was proposed to recognize only two tiger subspecies as valid, namely Panthera tigris tigris in mainland Asia, and P. t. sondaica in the Greater Sunda Islands and possibly in Sundaland.[17][18] In 2015, morphological, ecological and molecular traits of all putative tiger subspecies were analysed in a combined approach. Results support distinction of the two evolutionary groups: continental and Sunda tigers. The authors proposed recognition of only two subspecies: namely P. t. tigris comprising the Bengal, Malayan, Indochinese, South China, Siberian and Caspian tiger populations; and P. t. sondaica comprising the Javan, Bali and Sumatran tiger populations.[19]

In 2017, the Cat Specialist Group revised felid taxonomy and now recognizes all the tiger populations in mainland Asia as P. t. tigris.[1]

Phylogeny

 
Phylogenetic relationship of tiger populations[8] Note the close relationship between the Caspian (PTV or P. t. virgata) and Siberian (ALT or P. t. altaica) tigers.

Several reports have been published since the 1990s on the genetic makeup of the Siberian tiger and its relationship to other populations. One of the most important outcomes has been the discovery of low genetic variability in the wild population, especially when it comes to maternal or mitochondrial DNA lineages.[20] It seems that a single mtDNA haplotype almost completely dominates the maternal lineages of wild Siberian tigers. On the other hand, captive tigers appear to show higher mtDNA diversity. This may suggest that the subspecies has experienced a very recent genetic bottleneck caused by human pressure, with the founders of the captive population having been captured when genetic variability was higher in the wild.[21][22]

At the start of the 21st century, researchers from the University of Oxford, U.S. National Cancer Institute and Hebrew University of Jerusalem collected tissue samples from 20 of 23 Caspian tiger specimens kept in museums across Eurasia. They sequenced at least one segment of five mitochondrial genes and found a low amount of variability of the mitochondrial DNA in Caspian tigers as compared to other tiger subspecies. They re-assessed the phylogenetic relationships of tiger subspecies and observed a remarkable similarity between Caspian and Siberian tigers, indicating that the Siberian tiger is the genetically closest living relative of the Caspian tiger, which strongly implies a very recent common ancestry. Based on phylogeographic analysis, they suggested that the ancestor of Caspian and Siberian tigers colonized Central Asia less than 10,000 years ago via the Gansu−Silk Road region from eastern China, and subsequently traversed eastward to establish the Siberian tiger population in the Russian Far East. The events of the Industrial Revolution may have been the critical factor in the reciprocal isolation of Caspian and Siberian tigers from what was likely a single contiguous population.[8]

Samples of 95 wild Amur tigers were collected throughout their native range to investigate questions relative to population genetic structure and demographic history. Additionally, targeted individuals from the North American ex situ population were sampled to assess the genetic representation found in captivity. Population genetic and Bayesian structure analyses clearly identified two populations separated by a development corridor in Russia. Despite their well-documented 20th century decline, the researchers failed to find evidence of a recent population bottleneck, although genetic signatures of a historical contraction were detected. This disparity in signal may be due to several reasons, including historical paucity in population genetic variation associated with postglacial colonisation and potential gene flow from an extirpated Chinese population. The extent and distribution of genetic variation in captive and wild populations were similar, yet gene variants persisted ex situ that were lost in situ. Overall, their results indicate the need to secure ecological connectivity between the two Russian populations to minimize loss of genetic diversity and overall susceptibility to stochastic events, and support a previous study suggesting that the captive population may be a reservoir of gene variants lost in situ.[23]

In 2013, the whole genome of the Siberian tiger was sequenced and published.[24] Tigers in mainland Asia fall into two clades: the northern clade comprises the Siberian and Caspian tiger populations, and the southern clade all remaining continental tiger populations.[19] A study published in 2018 was based on 32 tiger specimens using a whole-genome sequencing for analysis. Results support six monophyletic tiger clades and indicate that the most recent common ancestor lived about 110,000 years ago.[25]

Characteristics

 
Captive Siberian tiger at Münster Zoo

The tiger is reddish-rusty, or rusty-yellow in colour, with narrow black transverse stripes. The body length is not less than 150 cm (59 in), condylobasal length of skull 250 mm (9.8 in), zygomatic width 180 mm (7.1 in), and length of upper carnassial tooth over 26 mm (1.0 in) long. It has an extended supple body standing on rather short legs with a fairly long tail.[10]

Body size

In the 1980s, the typical weight range of wild Siberian tigers was indicated as 180 to 306 kg (397 to 675 lb) for males and 100 to 167 kg (220 to 368 lb) for females.[9] Exceptionally large individuals were targeted and shot by hunters.[26]

In 2005, a group of Russian, American and Indian zoologists published an analysis of historical and contemporary data on body weights of wild and captive tigers, both female and male across all subspecies. The data used include weights of tigers that were older than 35 months and measured in the presence of authors. Their comparison with historical data indicates that up to the first half of the 20th century both male and female Siberian tigers were on average heavier than post-1970 ones. The average historical wild male Siberian tiger weighed 215.3 kg (475 lb) and the female 137.5 kg (303 lb); the contemporary wild male Siberian tiger weighs 176.4 kg (389 lb) on average with an asymptotic limit being 222.3 kg (490 lb); a wild female weighs 117.9 kg (260 lb) on average. Historical Siberian tigers and Bengal tigers were the largest ones, whereas contemporary Siberian tigers are on average lighter than Bengal tigers. The reduction of the body weight of today's Siberian tigers may be explained by concurrent causes, namely the reduced abundance of prey because of illegal hunting and that the individuals were usually sick or injured and captured in a conflict situation with people.[27]

Measurements taken by scientists of the Siberian Tiger Project in the Sikhote-Alin range from 178 to 208 cm (70 to 82 in) in head and body length measured in straight line, with an average of 195 cm (77 in) for males; and for females ranging from 167 to 182 cm (66 to 72 in) with an average of 174 cm (69 in). The average tail measures 99 cm (39 in) in males and 91 cm (36 in) in females. The longest male measured 309 cm (122 in) in total length including a tail of 101 cm (40 in) and with a chest girth of 127 cm (50 in). The longest female measured 270 cm (110 in) in total length including tail of 88 cm (35 in) and with a chest girth of 108 cm (43 in).[28] A male captured by members of the Siberian Tiger Project weighed 206 kg (454 lb), and the largest radio-collared male weighed 212 kg (467 lb).[29][30]

The Siberian tiger is often considered to be the largest tiger.[31] A wild male, killed in Manchuria by the Sungari River in 1943, reportedly measured 350 cm (140 in) "over the curves", with a tail length of about 1 m (3 ft 3 in). It weighed about 300 kg (660 lb). Dubious sources mention weights of 318 and 384 kg (701 and 847 lb) and even 408 kg (899 lb).[32]

Skull

The skull of the Siberian tiger is characterized by its large size. The facial region is very powerful and very broad in the region of the canines.[10] The skull prominences, especially in the sagittal crest and crista occipitalis, are very high and strong in old males, and often much more massive than usually observed in the biggest skulls of Bengal tigers. The size variation in skulls of Siberian tigers ranges from 331 to 383 mm (13.0 to 15.1 in) in nine individuals measured. A female skull is always smaller and never as heavily built and robust as that of a male. The height of the sagittal crest in its middle part reaches as much as 27 mm (1.1 in), and in its posterior part up to 46 mm (1.8 in).[33]

Female skulls range from 279.7 to 310.2 mm (11.01 to 12.21 in). The skulls of male Caspian tigers from Turkestan had a maximum length of 297.0 to 365.8 mm (11.69 to 14.40 in), while that of females measured 195.7 to 255.5 mm (7.70 to 10.06 in). A tiger killed on the Sumbar River in Kopet Dag in January 1954 had a greatest skull length of 385 mm (15.2 in), which is considerably more than the known maximum for this population and slightly exceeds that of most Siberian tigers. However, its condylobasal length was only 305 mm (12.0 in), smaller than those of the Siberian tigers, with a maximum recorded condylobasal length of 342 mm (13.5 in).[28] The biggest skull of a Siberian tiger from northeast China measured 406 mm (16.0 in) in length, which is about 20–30 mm (0.79–1.18 in) more than the maximum skull lengths of tigers from the Amur region and northern India,[11] with the exception of a skull of a northern Indian tiger from the vicinity of Nagina, which measured 413 mm (16.25 in) "over the bone".[34]

Fur and coat

 
A Siberian tiger cub at the Pittsburgh Zoo

The ground colour of Siberian tigers' pelage is often very pale, especially in winter coat. However, variations within populations may be considerable. Individual variation is also found in form, length, and partly in colour, of the dark stripes, which have been described as being dark brown rather than black.[33]

The fur of the Siberian tiger is moderately thick, coarse and sparse compared to that of other felids living in the former Soviet Union. Compared to the extinct westernmost populations, the Siberian tiger's summer and winter coats contrast sharply with other subspecies. Generally, the coat of western populations was brighter and more uniform than that of the Far Eastern populations. The summer coat is coarse, while the winter coat is denser, longer, softer, and silkier. The winter fur often appears quite shaggy on the trunk and is markedly longer on the head, almost covering the ears. Siberian and Caspian tigers had the thickest fur amongst tigers.[10][9]

The whiskers and hair on the back of the head and the top of the neck are also greatly elongated. The background colour of the winter coat is generally less bright and rusty compared to that of the summer coat. Because of the winter fur's greater length, the stripes appear broader with less defined outlines. The summer fur on the back is 15–17 mm (0.59–0.67 in) long, 30–50 mm (1.2–2.0 in) along the top of the neck, 25–35 mm (0.98–1.38 in) on the abdomen, and 14–16 mm (0.55–0.63 in) on the tail. The winter fur on the back is 40–50 mm (1.6–2.0 in), 70–110 mm (2.8–4.3 in) on the top of the neck, 70–95 mm (2.8–3.7 in) on the throat, 60–100 mm (2.4–3.9 in) on the chest and 65–105 mm (2.6–4.1 in) on the abdomen. The whiskers are 90–115 mm (3.5–4.5 in).[10]

Distribution and habitat

 
Sikhote-Alin in Primorsky Krai
 
A tiger in Bastak Nature Reserve

The Siberian tiger once inhabited much of the Korean Peninsula, Manchuria and other parts of north-eastern China, the eastern part of Siberia and the Russian Far East, perhaps as far west as Mongolia and the area of Lake Baikal, where the Caspian tiger also reportedly occurred.[10] During the late Pleistocene and Holocene, it was likely connected to the South China tiger population through corridors in the Yellow River basin, before humans interrupted gene flow.[35]

Today, its range stretches south to north for almost 1,000 km (620 mi) the length of Primorsky Krai and into southern Khabarovsk Krai east and south of the Amur River. It also occurs within the Greater Xing'an Range, which crosses into Russia from China at several places in southwest Primorye. This region represents a merger zone of the East Asian temperate broadleaf and mixed forest and the taiga, resulting in a mosaic of forest types that vary in elevation and topography. Key habitats of the Siberian tiger are Korean pine forests with a complex composition and structure.[36]

The faunal complex of the region is represented by a mixture of Asian and boreal life forms. The ungulate complex is represented by seven species, with Manchurian wapiti, Siberian roe deer, and wild boar being the most common throughout the Sikhote-Alin mountains but rare in higher altitude spruce-fir forests. Sika deer are restricted to the southern half of the Sikhote-Alin mountains. Siberian musk deer and Amur moose are associated with the conifer forests and are near the southern limits of their distribution in the central Sikhote-Alin mountains.[37]

In 2005, the number of Amur tigers in China was estimated at 18–22, and 331–393 in the Russian Far East, comprising a breeding adult population of about 250, fewer than 100 likely to be sub-adults, more than 20 likely to be less than 3 years of age. More than 90% of the population occurred in the Sikhote Alin mountain region.[3] An unknown number of tigers survive in the reserve areas around Baekdu Mountain, on the border between China and North Korea, based on tracks and sightings.[2]

In August 2012, a Siberian tiger with four cubs was recorded for the first time in northeastern China's Hunchun National Nature Reserve located in the vicinity of the international borders with Russia and North Korea.[38][39] Camera-trap surveys carried out in the spring seasons of 2013 and 2014 revealed between 27 and 34 tigers along the China-Russian border.[7] In April 2014, World Wide Fund for Nature personnel captured a video of a tigress with cubs in inland China.[40] The tiger population in the Changbai Mountains dispersed westwards between 2003 and 2016.[41] Camera trap surveys between 2013 and 2018 revealed about 55 Siberian tigers in four forested landscapes in northeastern China: Laoyeling, Zhangguangcai Range, Wandashan and Lesser Khingan Mountains. Feces, urine and hair was used to genetically identify 30 tigers in this region. However, only Laoyeling is thought to support a breeding population.[42]

Ecology and behavior

 
A Siberian tiger photographed by a camera trap

Siberian tigers are known to travel up to 1,000 km (620 mi) over ecologically unbroken country.[10] In 1992 and 1993, the maximum total population density of the Sikhote-Alin tiger population was estimated at 0.62 tigers in 100 km2 (39 sq mi). The maximum adult population estimated in 1993 reached 0.3 tigers in 100 km2 (39 sq mi), with a sex ratio of averaging 2.4 females per male. These density values were much lower than what had been reported for other subspecies at the time.[43] In 2004, dramatic changes in land tenure, population density, and reproductive output in the core area of the Sikhote-Alin Zapovednik Siberian Tiger Project were detected, suggesting that when tigers are well protected from human-induced mortality for long periods, the adult female population density increases significantly. When more adult females survived, the mothers shared their home ranges with their daughters once the daughters reached maturity. By 2007, population density of tigers was estimated at 0.8±0.4 tigers in 100 km2 (39 sq mi) in the southern part of Sikhote-Alin Zapovednik, and 0.6±0.3 tigers in 100 km2 (39 sq mi) in the central part of the protected area.[44]

Siberian tigers share habitat with Amur leopards (P. pardus orientalis), but in the Changbai Mountains have been recorded more often in lower elevations than leopards.[45]

Hunting and diet

 
A diorama at the Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Milano shows a tiger chasing a sika deer

Prey species of the tiger include ungulates such as Manchurian wapiti (Cervus canadensis xanthopygus), Siberian musk deer (Moschus moschiferus), long-tailed goral (Naemorhedus caudatus), moose (Alces alces), Siberian roe deer (Capreolus pygargus) and sika deer (Cervus nippon), wild boar (Sus scrofa), and even sometimes small size Asiatic black bears (Ursus thibetanus) and brown bears (Ursus arctos). Siberian tigers also take smaller prey like hares, rabbits, pikas and even salmon.[32][36] Scat was collected along the international border between Russia and China between November 2014 and April 2015; 115 scat samples of nine tigers contained foremost remains of wild boar, sika deer and roe deer.[46]

Between January 1992 and November 1994, 11 tigers were captured, fitted with radio-collars and monitored for more than 15 months in the eastern slopes of the Sikhote-Alin mountain range. Results of this study indicate that their distribution is closely associated with distribution of Manchurian wapiti, while distribution of wild boar was not such a strong predictor for tiger distribution. Although they prey on both Siberian roe deer and sika deer, overlap of these ungulates with tigers was low. Distribution of moose was poorly associated with tiger distribution. The distribution of preferred habitat of key prey species was an accurate predictor of tiger distribution.[36]

Results of a three-year study on Siberian tigers indicate that the mean interval between their kills and estimated prey consumption varied across seasons: during 2009 to 2012, three adult tigers killed prey every 7.4 days in summer and consumed a daily average of 7.89 kg (17.4 lb); in winter they killed more large-bodied prey, made kills every 5.7 days and consumed a daily average of 10.3 kg (23 lb).[47]

Interspecific predatory relationships

 
Siberian tiger. Frame from a camera trap
 
Taxidermy exhibit portraying a tiger fighting a brown bear, Vladivostok Museum

Following a decrease of ungulate populations from 1944 to 1959, 32 cases of Amur tigers attacking both Ussuri brown (Ursus arctos lasiotus) and Ussuri black bears (U. thibetanus ussuricus) were recorded in the Russian Far East, and hair of bears were found in several tiger scat samples. Tigers attack black bears less often than brown bears, as the latter live in more open habitats and are not able to climb trees. In the same time period, four cases of brown bears killing female tigers and young cubs were reported, both in disputes over prey and in self-defense. Tigers mainly feed on the bear's fat deposits, such as the back, hams and groin.[10]

When Amur tigers prey on brown bears, they usually target young and sub-adult bears, besides small female adults taken outside their dens, generally when lethargic from hibernation.[26] Predation by tigers on denned brown bears was not detected during a study carried between 1993 and 2002.[48] Ussuri brown bears, along with the smaller black bears constitute 2.1% of the Siberian tiger's annual diet, of which 1.4% are brown bears.[49][50]

The effect the presence of tigers has on brown bear behavior seems to vary. In the winters of 1970–1973, Yudakov and Nikolaev recorded two cases of bears showing no fear of tigers and another case of a brown bear changing path upon crossing tiger tracks.[51] Other researchers have observed bears following tiger tracks to scavenge tiger kills and to potentially prey on tigers.[10][49] Despite the threat of predation, some brown bears actually benefit from the presence of tigers by appropriating tiger kills that the bears may not be able to successfully hunt themselves.[49] Brown bears generally prefer to contest the much smaller female tigers.[52] During telemetry research in the Sikhote-Alin Nature Reserve, 44 direct confrontations between bears and tigers were observed, in which bears in general were killed in 22 cases, and tigers in 12 cases.[53] There are reports of brown bears specifically targeting Amur leopards and tigers to abstract their prey. In the Sikhote-Alin reserve, 35% of tiger kills were stolen by bears, with tigers either departing entirely or leaving part of the kill for the bear.[54] Some studies show that bears frequently track down tigers to usurp their kills, with occasional fatal outcomes for the tiger. A report from 1973 describes twelve known cases of brown bears killing tigers, including adult males; in all cases the tigers were subsequently eaten by the bears.[55][56]

The relationship between the Amur tiger and the Himalayan bear is not specifically studied. Numerous publications on these species there are mainly episodic and survey data on this issue are collected by different authors in selected areas which do not give a complete picture of the nature.[49]

Tigers depress wolf (Canis lupus) numbers, either to the point of localized extinction or to such low numbers as to make them a functionally insignificant component of the ecosystem. Wolves appear capable of escaping competitive exclusion from tigers only when human pressure decreases tiger numbers. In areas where wolves and tigers share ranges, the two species typically display a great deal of dietary overlap, resulting in intense competition. Wolf and tiger interactions are well documented in Sikhote-Alin, where until the beginning of the 20th century, very few wolves were sighted. Wolf numbers may have increased in the region after tigers were largely eliminated during the Russian colonisation in the late 19th century and early 20th century. This is corroborated by native inhabitants of the region claiming that they had no memory of wolves inhabiting Sikhote-Alin until the 1930s, when tiger numbers decreased. Today, wolves are considered scarce in tiger habitat, being found in scattered pockets, and usually seen travelling as loners or in small groups. First hand accounts on interactions between the two species indicate that tigers occasionally chase wolves from their kills, while wolves will scavenge from tiger kills. Tigers are not known to prey on wolves, though there are four records of tigers killing wolves without consuming them.[57] Tigers recently released are also said to hunt wolves.[58]

This competitive exclusion of wolves by tigers has been used by Russian conservationists to convince hunters in the Far East to tolerate the big cats, as they limit ungulate populations less than wolves, and are effective in controlling wolf numbers.[59]

Siberian tigers also compete with the Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) and occasionally kill and eat them. Eurasian lynx remains have been found in the stomach contents of Siberian tigers in Russia.[10] In March 2014, a dead lynx discovered in Bastak Nature Reserve bore evidence of predation by a Siberian tiger. The tiger apparently ambushed, pursued, and killed the lynx but only consumed it partially. This incident marks one of the first documented cases of a tiger preying on a lynx, and indicates that the tiger might have been more intent on eliminating a competitor than on catching prey.[60]

Reproduction and life cycle

 
A tiger at the Rehabilitation and Reintroduction Center for Amur (Siberian) Tigers in the village of Alekseevka, Primorsky Krai, Russia
Three orphaned Siberian tigers rescued after their mothers were killed by poachers are released back to the wild in Russia

Siberian tigers mate at any time of the year. A female signals her receptiveness by leaving urine deposits and scratch marks on trees. She will spend 5 or 6 days with the male, during which she is receptive for three days. Gestation lasts from 3 to 3½ months. Litter size is normally two or four cubs but there can be as many as six. The cubs are born blind in a sheltered den and are left alone when the female leaves to hunt for food. Cubs are divided equally between sexes at birth. However, by adulthood there are usually two to four females for every male. The female cubs remain with their mothers longer, and later they establish territories close to their original ranges. Males, on the other hand, travel unaccompanied and range farther earlier in their lives, making them more vulnerable to poachers and other tigers.[61] A Siberian tiger family comprising an adult male, a female and three cubs were recorded in 2015.[62]

At 35 months of age, tigers are sub-adults. Males reach sexual maturity at the age of 48 to 60 months.[63][64]

The average lifespan for Siberian tigers ranges from 16–18 years. Wild individuals tend to live between 10–15 years, while in captivity individuals may live up to 25 years.[65][66]

Threats

Results of genetic analysis of 95 wild Siberian tiger samples from Russia revealed that genetic diversity is low, only 27–35 individuals contributed to their genes. Further exacerbating the problem is that more than 90% of the population occurred in the Sikhote Alin mountain region. Tigers rarely move across the development corridor, which separates this sub-population from the much smaller sub-population in southwest Primorye province.[23]

The winter of 2006–2007 was marked by heavy poaching.[44] Poaching of tigers and their wild prey species is considered to be driving the decline, although heavy snows in the winter of 2009 could have biased the data.[3] In northern China’s Huang Ni He National Nature Reserve, poachers set up foremost snare traps, but there is not sufficient personnel to patrol this 75 km2 (29 sq mi) area throughout the year.[67] In Hunchun National Nature Reserve, poaching of ungulate species impedes recovery of the tiger population.[68]

In the past

After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, illegal deforestation and bribery of park rangers facilitated poaching of Siberian tigers. Local hunters had access to a formerly sealed off lucrative Chinese market, and this once again put the region's tiger population at risk of extinction.[61] While improvement in the local economy has led to greater resources being invested in conservation efforts, an increase in economic activity has led to an increased rate of development and deforestation. The major obstacle in preserving the tiger is the enormous territory individual tigers require; up to 450 km2 (170 sq mi) is needed by a single female and more for a single male.[69]

The Siberian tiger was once common in the Korean Peninsula.[10] It was eradicated during the period of Korea under Japanese rule between 1910 and 1945.[70]

Conservation

Tigers are included on CITES Appendix I, banning international trade. All tiger range states and countries with consumer markets have banned domestic trade as well.[71] At the 14th Conference of the Parties to CITES in 2007, stronger enforcement measures were called for, as well as an end to tiger farming.[72]

In 1992, the Siberian Tiger Project was founded, with the aim of providing a comprehensive picture of the ecology of the Amur tiger and the role of tigers in the Russian Far East through scientific studies. By capturing and outfitting tigers with radio collars, their social structure, land use patterns, food habits, reproduction, mortality patterns and their relation with other inhabitants of the ecosystem, including humans is studied. These data compilations will hopefully contribute toward minimizing poaching threats because of traditional hunting. The Siberian Tiger Project has been productive in increasing local capacity to address human-tiger conflict with a Tiger Response Team, part of the Russian government's Inspection Tiger, which responds to all tiger-human conflicts; by continuing to enhance the large database on tiger ecology and conservation with the goal of creating a comprehensive Siberian tiger conservation plan; and training the next generation of Russian conservation biologists.[73]

In August 2010, China and Russia agreed to enhance conservation and cooperation in protected areas in a transboundary area for Amur tigers. China has undertaken a series of public awareness campaigns including celebration of the first Global Tiger Day in July 2010, and International Forum on Tiger Conservation and Tiger Culture and China 2010 Hunchun Amur Tiger Culture Festival in August 2010.[74]

 
A couple in a German zoo

Reintroduction

Further information: Reintroduction, Species translocation, and Siberian Tiger Introduction Project

Inspired by findings that the Amur tiger is the closest relative of the Caspian tiger, there has been discussion whether the Amur tiger could be an appropriate subspecies for reintroduction into a safe place in Central Asia. The Amu-Darya Delta was suggested as a potential site for such a project. A feasibility study was initiated to investigate if the area is suitable and if such an initiative would receive support from relevant decision makers. A viable tiger population of about 100 animals would require at least 5,000 km2 (1,900 sq mi) of large tracts of contiguous habitat with rich prey populations. Such habitat is not presently available in the delta and so cannot be provided in the short term. The proposed region is therefore unsuitable for the reintroduction, at least at this stage of development.[75]

 
Comparison of the distribution of all tiger subspecies (1900 vs. 1990)

A second possible introduction site in Kazakhstan is the Ili River delta at the southern edge of Lake Balkhash. The delta is situated between the Saryesik-Atyrau Desert and the Taukum Desert and forms a large wetland of about 8,000 km2 (3,100 sq mi). Until 1948, the delta was a refuge of the extinct Caspian tiger. Reintroduction of the Siberian tiger to the delta has been proposed. Large populations of wild boar inhabit the swamps of the delta. The reintroduction of the Bukhara deer, which was once an important prey, is under consideration. The Ili delta is therefore considered as a suitable site for introduction.[76]

In 2010, Russia exchanged two captive Siberian tigers for Persian leopards with the Iranian government, as conservation groups of both countries agreed on reintroducing these animals into the wild within the next five years. This issue is controversial since only 30% of such releases have been successful. In addition, the Siberian tiger is not genetically identical to the Caspian tiger.[8] Another difference is the climatic, with temperatures higher in Iran than in Siberia. Introducing exotic species into a new habitat could inflict irreversible and unknown damage.[77] In December 2010, one of the tigers exchanged died in Eram Zoo in Tehran.[78] Nevertheless, the project has its defenders, and Iran has successfully reintroduced the Persian onager and Caspian red deer.[77]

In 2005, re-introduction was planned as part of the rewilding project at Pleistocene Park in the Kolyma River basin in northern Yakutia, Russia, provided the herbivore population has reached a size warranting the introduction of large predators.[79][80]

In captivity

 
A tigress with cub in captivity in DierenPark Amersfoort

In recent years, captive breeding of tigers in China has accelerated to the point where the captive population of several tiger subspecies exceeds 4,000 animals. Three thousand specimens are reportedly held by 10–20 "significant" facilities, with the remainder scattered among some 200 facilities. This makes China home to the second largest captive tiger population in the world, after the U.S., which in 2005 had an estimated 4,692 captive tigers.[81] In a census conducted by the U.S.-based Feline Conservation Federation, 2,884 tigers were documented as residing in 468 American facilities.[82]

In 1986, the Chinese government established the world's largest Siberian tiger breeding base, the Harbin Siberian Tiger Park, and was meant to build a Siberian tiger gene pool to ensure the genetic diversity of the tiger. The Park and its existing tiger population would be further divided into two parts, one as the protective species for genetic management and the other as the ornamental species. It was discovered that when the Heilongjiang Northeast Tiger Forest Park was founded it had only 8 tigers, but according to the current breeding rate of tigers at the park, the worldwide number of wild Siberian tigers will break through 1,000 in late 2010.[83] South Korea expected to receive three tigers pledged for donation in 2009 by Russia in 2011.[84][85]

Attacks on humans

 
Sign warns Caution! Tigers nearby! (Russian: Осторожно! Тигры рядoм!).
See also: Tiger attack

The Siberian tiger very rarely becomes a man-eater.[10][61] Numerous cases of attacks on humans were recorded in the 19th century, occurring usually in central Asia excluding Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan and the Far East. Tigers were historically rarely considered dangerous unless provoked, though in the lower reaches of the Syr-Darya, a tiger reportedly killed a woman collecting firewood and an unarmed military officer whilst passing through reed thickets. Attacks on shepherds were recorded in the lower reaches of Ili. In the Far East, during the middle and late 19th century, attacks on people were recorded. In 1867 on the Tsymukha River, tigers killed 21 men and injured 6 others. In China's Jilin Province, tigers reportedly attacked woodsmen and coachmen, and occasionally entered cabins and dragged out both adults and children.[10]

 
A tiger family depicted in a Korean scroll from the late 18th century

According to the Japanese Police Bureau in Korea, in 1928 a tiger killed one human, whereas leopards killed three, wild boars four and wolves killed 48.[86] Six cases were recorded in 20th century Russia of unprovoked attacks leading to man-eating behaviour. Provoked attacks are however more common, usually the result of botched attempts at capturing them.[61] In December 1997, an injured Amur tiger attacked, killed and consumed two people. Both attacks occurred in the Bikin River valley. The anti-poaching task force Inspection Tiger investigated both deaths, tracked down and killed the tiger.[87]

In January 2002, a man was attacked by a tiger on a remote mountain road near Hunchun in Jilin province, China, near the borders of Russia and North Korea. He suffered compound fractures but managed to survive. When he sought medical attention, his story raised suspicions as Siberian tigers seldom attack humans. An investigation of the attack scene revealed that raw venison carried by the man was left untouched by the tiger. Officials suspected the man to be a poacher who provoked the attack.[88] The following morning, tiger sightings were reported by locals along the same road, and a local TV station did an on-site coverage. The group found tiger tracks and blood spoor in the snow at the attack scene and followed them for approximately 2,500 meters, hoping to catch a glimpse of the animal. Soon, the tiger was seen ambling slowly ahead of them. As the team tried to get closer for a better camera view, the tiger suddenly turned and charged, causing the four to flee in panic.[89] About an hour after that encounter, the tiger attacked and killed a 26-year-old woman on the same road.[90] Authorities retrieved the body with the help of a bulldozer. By then, the tiger was found lying 20 meters away, weak and barely alive.[91] It was successfully tranquilized and taken for examination, which revealed that the tiger was anemic and gravely injured by a poacher's snare around its neck, with the steel wire cutting deeply down to the vertebrae, severing both trachea and esophagus. Despite extensive surgery by a team of veterinarians, the tiger died of wound infection.[92][93] Subsequent investigation revealed that the first victim was a poacher who set multiple snares that caught both the tiger and a deer.[94] The man was later charged for poaching and harming endangered species. He served two years in prison.[95] After being released from prison, he worked in clearing the forest of old snares.[96]

In an incident at the San Francisco Zoo in December 2007, a tiger escaped and killed a visitor, and injured two others. The animal was shot by the police. The zoo was widely criticized for maintaining only a 12.5 ft (3.8 m) fence around the tiger enclosure, while the international standard is 16 ft (4.9 m). The zoo subsequently erected a taller barrier topped by an electric fence. One of the victims admitted to taunting the animal.[97]

Zookeepers in Anhui province and the cities of Shanghai and Shenzhen were attacked and killed in 2010.[98] In January 2011, a tiger attacked and killed a tour bus driver at a breeding park in Heilongjiang province. Park officials reported that the bus driver violated safety guidelines by leaving the vehicle to check on the condition of the bus.[99] In September 2013, a tiger mauled a zookeeper to death at a zoo in western Germany after the worker forgot to lock a cage door during feeding time.[100] In July 2020, a female tiger attacked and killed a 55-year-old zookeeper at the Zürich Zoo in Switzerland.[101]

In culture

 
Heraldic arms of the Jewish Autonomous Oblast in Russia

The English name 'Siberian tiger' was coined by James Cowles Prichard in the 1830s.[102] The name 'Amur tiger' was used in 1933 for Siberian tigers killed by the Amur River for an exhibition in the American Museum of Natural History.[103]

The Tungusic peoples considered the tiger a near-deity and often referred to it as "Grandfather" or "Old man". The Udege and Nani people call it "Amba".[104] The Manchu considered the Siberian tiger as Hu Lin, the king.[61] Since the tiger has a mark on its foreheads that looks like a Chinese character for 'King' (Chinese: 王; pinyin: Wáng), or a similar character meaning "Great Emperor", it is revered by the Udege and Chinese people.[10]

The Siberian tiger is used in heraldic symbols throughout the area where it is indigenous.

See also

  • Amur leopard
  • Bergmann's rule
  • Holocene extinction

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External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
Panthera tigris altaica (category)
 
Wikispecies has information related to Panthera tigris altaica.
  • IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group: Tiger (Panthera tigris)
  • IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group : Amur (P. t. altaica)
  • Amur Leopard and Tiger Alliance (ALTA) – Conserving Amur leopards and tigers in the Russian Far East and China
  • World Wide Fund for Nature: Amur tiger
  • The Amur Tiger Programme : Two Adult Tigers Tagged in the Ussuri Nature Reserve
  • Walker, M. (2009). "Amur tigers on 'genetic brink'". BBC Earth News.

January 01, 1970
siberian, tiger, amur, tiger, redirects, here, leopard, subspecies, amur, leopard, amur, tiger, population, tiger, subspecies, panthera, tigris, tigris, native, russian, east, northeast, china, possibly, north, korea, once, ranged, throughout, korean, peninsul. Amur tiger redirects here For the leopard cat subspecies see Amur leopard cat The Siberian tiger or Amur tiger is a population of the tiger subspecies Panthera tigris tigris native to the Russian Far East Northeast China 1 and possibly North Korea 2 It once ranged throughout the Korean Peninsula but currently inhabits mainly the Sikhote Alin mountain region in southwest Primorye Province in the Russian Far East In 2005 there were 331 393 adult and subadult Siberian tigers in this region with a breeding adult population of about 250 individuals The population had been stable for more than a decade because of intensive conservation efforts but partial surveys conducted after 2005 indicate that the Russian tiger population was declining 3 An initial census held in 2015 indicated that the Siberian tiger population had increased to 480 540 individuals in the Russian Far East including 100 cubs 4 5 This was followed up by a more detailed census which revealed there was a total population of 562 wild Siberian tigers in Russia 6 As of 2014 about 35 individuals were estimated to range in the international border area between Russia and China 7 Siberian tiger Siberian tiger at the Leipzig Zoological Garden Scientific classification Domain Eukaryota Kingdom Animalia Phylum Chordata Class Mammalia Order Carnivora Suborder Feliformia Family Felidae Subfamily Pantherinae Genus Panthera Species P tigris Subspecies P t tigris Population Siberian tiger Siberian tiger distribution Modern day range Range in the late 1800s The Siberian tiger is genetically close to the now extinct Caspian tiger Results of a phylogeographic study comparing mitochondrial DNA from Caspian tigers and living tiger populations indicate that the common ancestor of the Siberian and Caspian tigers colonized Central Asia from eastern China via the Gansu Silk Road corridor and then subsequently traversed Siberia eastward to establish the Siberian tiger population in the Russian Far East 8 The Caspian and Siberian tiger populations were the northernmost in mainland Asia 9 10 The Siberian tiger was also called Amur tiger Manchurian tiger Korean tiger 2 and Ussurian tiger depending on the region where individuals were observed 9 11 Contents 1 Taxonomy 1 1 Phylogeny 2 Characteristics 2 1 Body size 2 2 Skull 2 3 Fur and coat 3 Distribution and habitat 4 Ecology and behavior 4 1 Hunting and diet 4 2 Interspecific predatory relationships 4 3 Reproduction and life cycle 5 Threats 5 1 In the past 6 Conservation 6 1 Reintroduction 6 2 In captivity 7 Attacks on humans 8 In culture 9 See also 10 References 11 External linksTaxonomy nbsp Siberian tiger face Felis tigris was the scientific name proposed by Carl Linnaeus in 1758 for the tiger 12 In the 19th century several tiger specimens were collected in East Asia and described Felis tigris altaicus proposed by Coenraad Jacob Temminck in 1844 were tiger skins with long hairs and dense coats sold in Japan which originated in Korea most likely from animals killed in the Altai and Pisihan Mountains 13 Tigris longipilis proposed by Leopold Fitzinger in 1868 was based on a long haired tiger skin in the Natural History Museum Vienna 14 Felis tigris var amurensis proposed by Charles Dode in 1871 was based on tiger skins from the Amur region 15 Felis tigris coreensis by Emil Brass in 1904 was a tiger skin from Korea 16 The validity of several tiger subspecies was questioned in 1999 Most putative subspecies described in the 19th and 20th centuries were distinguished on the basis of fur length and colouration striping patterns and body size characteristics that vary widely within populations Morphologically tigers from different regions vary little and gene flow between populations in those regions is considered to have been possible during the Pleistocene Therefore it was proposed to recognize only two tiger subspecies as valid namely Panthera tigris tigris in mainland Asia and P t sondaica in the Greater Sunda Islands and possibly in Sundaland 17 18 In 2015 morphological ecological and molecular traits of all putative tiger subspecies were analysed in a combined approach Results support distinction of the two evolutionary groups continental and Sunda tigers The authors proposed recognition of only two subspecies namely P t tigris comprising the Bengal Malayan Indochinese South China Siberian and Caspian tiger populations and P t sondaica comprising the Javan Bali and Sumatran tiger populations 19 In 2017 the Cat Specialist Group revised felid taxonomy and now recognizes all the tiger populations in mainland Asia as P t tigris 1 Phylogeny nbsp Phylogenetic relationship of tiger populations 8 Note the close relationship between the Caspian PTV or P t virgata and Siberian ALT or P t altaica tigers Several reports have been published since the 1990s on the genetic makeup of the Siberian tiger and its relationship to other populations One of the most important outcomes has been the discovery of low genetic variability in the wild population especially when it comes to maternal or mitochondrial DNA lineages 20 It seems that a single mtDNA haplotype almost completely dominates the maternal lineages of wild Siberian tigers On the other hand captive tigers appear to show higher mtDNA diversity This may suggest that the subspecies has experienced a very recent genetic bottleneck caused by human pressure with the founders of the captive population having been captured when genetic variability was higher in the wild 21 22 At the start of the 21st century researchers from the University of Oxford U S National Cancer Institute and Hebrew University of Jerusalem collected tissue samples from 20 of 23 Caspian tiger specimens kept in museums across Eurasia They sequenced at least one segment of five mitochondrial genes and found a low amount of variability of the mitochondrial DNA in Caspian tigers as compared to other tiger subspecies They re assessed the phylogenetic relationships of tiger subspecies and observed a remarkable similarity between Caspian and Siberian tigers indicating that the Siberian tiger is the genetically closest living relative of the Caspian tiger which strongly implies a very recent common ancestry Based on phylogeographic analysis they suggested that the ancestor of Caspian and Siberian tigers colonized Central Asia less than 10 000 years ago via the Gansu Silk Road region from eastern China and subsequently traversed eastward to establish the Siberian tiger population in the Russian Far East The events of the Industrial Revolution may have been the critical factor in the reciprocal isolation of Caspian and Siberian tigers from what was likely a single contiguous population 8 Samples of 95 wild Amur tigers were collected throughout their native range to investigate questions relative to population genetic structure and demographic history Additionally targeted individuals from the North American ex situ population were sampled to assess the genetic representation found in captivity Population genetic and Bayesian structure analyses clearly identified two populations separated by a development corridor in Russia Despite their well documented 20th century decline the researchers failed to find evidence of a recent population bottleneck although genetic signatures of a historical contraction were detected This disparity in signal may be due to several reasons including historical paucity in population genetic variation associated with postglacial colonisation and potential gene flow from an extirpated Chinese population The extent and distribution of genetic variation in captive and wild populations were similar yet gene variants persisted ex situ that were lost in situ Overall their results indicate the need to secure ecological connectivity between the two Russian populations to minimize loss of genetic diversity and overall susceptibility to stochastic events and support a previous study suggesting that the captive population may be a reservoir of gene variants lost in situ 23 In 2013 the whole genome of the Siberian tiger was sequenced and published 24 Tigers in mainland Asia fall into two clades the northern clade comprises the Siberian and Caspian tiger populations and the southern clade all remaining continental tiger populations 19 A study published in 2018 was based on 32 tiger specimens using a whole genome sequencing for analysis Results support six monophyletic tiger clades and indicate that the most recent common ancestor lived about 110 000 years ago 25 Characteristics nbsp Captive Siberian tiger at Munster Zoo The tiger is reddish rusty or rusty yellow in colour with narrow black transverse stripes The body length is not less than 150 cm 59 in condylobasal length of skull 250 mm 9 8 in zygomatic width 180 mm 7 1 in and length of upper carnassial tooth over 26 mm 1 0 in long It has an extended supple body standing on rather short legs with a fairly long tail 10 Body size In the 1980s the typical weight range of wild Siberian tigers was indicated as 180 to 306 kg 397 to 675 lb for males and 100 to 167 kg 220 to 368 lb for females 9 Exceptionally large individuals were targeted and shot by hunters 26 In 2005 a group of Russian American and Indian zoologists published an analysis of historical and contemporary data on body weights of wild and captive tigers both female and male across all subspecies The data used include weights of tigers that were older than 35 months and measured in the presence of authors Their comparison with historical data indicates that up to the first half of the 20th century both male and female Siberian tigers were on average heavier than post 1970 ones The average historical wild male Siberian tiger weighed 215 3 kg 475 lb and the female 137 5 kg 303 lb the contemporary wild male Siberian tiger weighs 176 4 kg 389 lb on average with an asymptotic limit being 222 3 kg 490 lb a wild female weighs 117 9 kg 260 lb on average Historical Siberian tigers and Bengal tigers were the largest ones whereas contemporary Siberian tigers are on average lighter than Bengal tigers The reduction of the body weight of today s Siberian tigers may be explained by concurrent causes namely the reduced abundance of prey because of illegal hunting and that the individuals were usually sick or injured and captured in a conflict situation with people 27 Measurements taken by scientists of the Siberian Tiger Project in the Sikhote Alin range from 178 to 208 cm 70 to 82 in in head and body length measured in straight line with an average of 195 cm 77 in for males and for females ranging from 167 to 182 cm 66 to 72 in with an average of 174 cm 69 in The average tail measures 99 cm 39 in in males and 91 cm 36 in in females The longest male measured 309 cm 122 in in total length including a tail of 101 cm 40 in and with a chest girth of 127 cm 50 in The longest female measured 270 cm 110 in in total length including tail of 88 cm 35 in and with a chest girth of 108 cm 43 in 28 A male captured by members of the Siberian Tiger Project weighed 206 kg 454 lb and the largest radio collared male weighed 212 kg 467 lb 29 30 The Siberian tiger is often considered to be the largest tiger 31 A wild male killed in Manchuria by the Sungari River in 1943 reportedly measured 350 cm 140 in over the curves with a tail length of about 1 m 3 ft 3 in It weighed about 300 kg 660 lb Dubious sources mention weights of 318 and 384 kg 701 and 847 lb and even 408 kg 899 lb 32 Skull The skull of the Siberian tiger is characterized by its large size The facial region is very powerful and very broad in the region of the canines 10 The skull prominences especially in the sagittal crest and crista occipitalis are very high and strong in old males and often much more massive than usually observed in the biggest skulls of Bengal tigers The size variation in skulls of Siberian tigers ranges from 331 to 383 mm 13 0 to 15 1 in in nine individuals measured A female skull is always smaller and never as heavily built and robust as that of a male The height of the sagittal crest in its middle part reaches as much as 27 mm 1 1 in and in its posterior part up to 46 mm 1 8 in 33 Female skulls range from 279 7 to 310 2 mm 11 01 to 12 21 in The skulls of male Caspian tigers from Turkestan had a maximum length of 297 0 to 365 8 mm 11 69 to 14 40 in while that of females measured 195 7 to 255 5 mm 7 70 to 10 06 in A tiger killed on the Sumbar River in Kopet Dag in January 1954 had a greatest skull length of 385 mm 15 2 in which is considerably more than the known maximum for this population and slightly exceeds that of most Siberian tigers However its condylobasal length was only 305 mm 12 0 in smaller than those of the Siberian tigers with a maximum recorded condylobasal length of 342 mm 13 5 in 28 The biggest skull of a Siberian tiger from northeast China measured 406 mm 16 0 in in length which is about 20 30 mm 0 79 1 18 in more than the maximum skull lengths of tigers from the Amur region and northern India 11 with the exception of a skull of a northern Indian tiger from the vicinity of Nagina which measured 413 mm 16 25 in over the bone 34 Fur and coat nbsp A Siberian tiger cub at the Pittsburgh Zoo The ground colour of Siberian tigers pelage is often very pale especially in winter coat However variations within populations may be considerable Individual variation is also found in form length and partly in colour of the dark stripes which have been described as being dark brown rather than black 33 The fur of the Siberian tiger is moderately thick coarse and sparse compared to that of other felids living in the former Soviet Union Compared to the extinct westernmost populations the Siberian tiger s summer and winter coats contrast sharply with other subspecies Generally the coat of western populations was brighter and more uniform than that of the Far Eastern populations The summer coat is coarse while the winter coat is denser longer softer and silkier The winter fur often appears quite shaggy on the trunk and is markedly longer on the head almost covering the ears Siberian and Caspian tigers had the thickest fur amongst tigers 10 9 The whiskers and hair on the back of the head and the top of the neck are also greatly elongated The background colour of the winter coat is generally less bright and rusty compared to that of the summer coat Because of the winter fur s greater length the stripes appear broader with less defined outlines The summer fur on the back is 15 17 mm 0 59 0 67 in long 30 50 mm 1 2 2 0 in along the top of the neck 25 35 mm 0 98 1 38 in on the abdomen and 14 16 mm 0 55 0 63 in on the tail The winter fur on the back is 40 50 mm 1 6 2 0 in 70 110 mm 2 8 4 3 in on the top of the neck 70 95 mm 2 8 3 7 in on the throat 60 100 mm 2 4 3 9 in on the chest and 65 105 mm 2 6 4 1 in on the abdomen The whiskers are 90 115 mm 3 5 4 5 in 10 Distribution and habitat nbsp Sikhote Alin in Primorsky Krai nbsp A tiger in Bastak Nature Reserve The Siberian tiger once inhabited much of the Korean Peninsula Manchuria and other parts of north eastern China the eastern part of Siberia and the Russian Far East perhaps as far west as Mongolia and the area of Lake Baikal where the Caspian tiger also reportedly occurred 10 During the late Pleistocene and Holocene it was likely connected to the South China tiger population through corridors in the Yellow River basin before humans interrupted gene flow 35 Today its range stretches south to north for almost 1 000 km 620 mi the length of Primorsky Krai and into southern Khabarovsk Krai east and south of the Amur River It also occurs within the Greater Xing an Range which crosses into Russia from China at several places in southwest Primorye This region represents a merger zone of the East Asian temperate broadleaf and mixed forest and the taiga resulting in a mosaic of forest types that vary in elevation and topography Key habitats of the Siberian tiger are Korean pine forests with a complex composition and structure 36 The faunal complex of the region is represented by a mixture of Asian and boreal life forms The ungulate complex is represented by seven species with Manchurian wapiti Siberian roe deer and wild boar being the most common throughout the Sikhote Alin mountains but rare in higher altitude spruce fir forests Sika deer are restricted to the southern half of the Sikhote Alin mountains Siberian musk deer and Amur moose are associated with the conifer forests and are near the southern limits of their distribution in the central Sikhote Alin mountains 37 In 2005 the number of Amur tigers in China was estimated at 18 22 and 331 393 in the Russian Far East comprising a breeding adult population of about 250 fewer than 100 likely to be sub adults more than 20 likely to be less than 3 years of age More than 90 of the population occurred in the Sikhote Alin mountain region 3 An unknown number of tigers survive in the reserve areas around Baekdu Mountain on the border between China and North Korea based on tracks and sightings 2 In August 2012 a Siberian tiger with four cubs was recorded for the first time in northeastern China s Hunchun National Nature Reserve located in the vicinity of the international borders with Russia and North Korea 38 39 Camera trap surveys carried out in the spring seasons of 2013 and 2014 revealed between 27 and 34 tigers along the China Russian border 7 In April 2014 World Wide Fund for Nature personnel captured a video of a tigress with cubs in inland China 40 The tiger population in the Changbai Mountains dispersed westwards between 2003 and 2016 41 Camera trap surveys between 2013 and 2018 revealed about 55 Siberian tigers in four forested landscapes in northeastern China Laoyeling Zhangguangcai Range Wandashan and Lesser Khingan Mountains Feces urine and hair was used to genetically identify 30 tigers in this region However only Laoyeling is thought to support a breeding population 42 Ecology and behavior nbsp A Siberian tiger photographed by a camera trap Siberian tigers are known to travel up to 1 000 km 620 mi over ecologically unbroken country 10 In 1992 and 1993 the maximum total population density of the Sikhote Alin tiger population was estimated at 0 62 tigers in 100 km2 39 sq mi The maximum adult population estimated in 1993 reached 0 3 tigers in 100 km2 39 sq mi with a sex ratio of averaging 2 4 females per male These density values were much lower than what had been reported for other subspecies at the time 43 In 2004 dramatic changes in land tenure population density and reproductive output in the core area of the Sikhote Alin Zapovednik Siberian Tiger Project were detected suggesting that when tigers are well protected from human induced mortality for long periods the adult female population density increases significantly When more adult females survived the mothers shared their home ranges with their daughters once the daughters reached maturity By 2007 population density of tigers was estimated at 0 8 0 4 tigers in 100 km2 39 sq mi in the southern part of Sikhote Alin Zapovednik and 0 6 0 3 tigers in 100 km2 39 sq mi in the central part of the protected area 44 Siberian tigers share habitat with Amur leopards P pardus orientalis but in the Changbai Mountains have been recorded more often in lower elevations than leopards 45 Hunting and diet nbsp A diorama at the Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Milano shows a tiger chasing a sika deer Prey species of the tiger include ungulates such as Manchurian wapiti Cervus canadensis xanthopygus Siberian musk deer Moschus moschiferus long tailed goral Naemorhedus caudatus moose Alces alces Siberian roe deer Capreolus pygargus and sika deer Cervus nippon wild boar Sus scrofa and even sometimes small size Asiatic black bears Ursus thibetanus and brown bears Ursus arctos Siberian tigers also take smaller prey like hares rabbits pikas and even salmon 32 36 Scat was collected along the international border between Russia and China between November 2014 and April 2015 115 scat samples of nine tigers contained foremost remains of wild boar sika deer and roe deer 46 Between January 1992 and November 1994 11 tigers were captured fitted with radio collars and monitored for more than 15 months in the eastern slopes of the Sikhote Alin mountain range Results of this study indicate that their distribution is closely associated with distribution of Manchurian wapiti while distribution of wild boar was not such a strong predictor for tiger distribution Although they prey on both Siberian roe deer and sika deer overlap of these ungulates with tigers was low Distribution of moose was poorly associated with tiger distribution The distribution of preferred habitat of key prey species was an accurate predictor of tiger distribution 36 Results of a three year study on Siberian tigers indicate that the mean interval between their kills and estimated prey consumption varied across seasons during 2009 to 2012 three adult tigers killed prey every 7 4 days in summer and consumed a daily average of 7 89 kg 17 4 lb in winter they killed more large bodied prey made kills every 5 7 days and consumed a daily average of 10 3 kg 23 lb 47 Interspecific predatory relationships nbsp Siberian tiger Frame from a camera trap nbsp Taxidermy exhibit portraying a tiger fighting a brown bear Vladivostok Museum Following a decrease of ungulate populations from 1944 to 1959 32 cases of Amur tigers attacking both Ussuri brown Ursus arctos lasiotus and Ussuri black bears U thibetanus ussuricus were recorded in the Russian Far East and hair of bears were found in several tiger scat samples Tigers attack black bears less often than brown bears as the latter live in more open habitats and are not able to climb trees In the same time period four cases of brown bears killing female tigers and young cubs were reported both in disputes over prey and in self defense Tigers mainly feed on the bear s fat deposits such as the back hams and groin 10 When Amur tigers prey on brown bears they usually target young and sub adult bears besides small female adults taken outside their dens generally when lethargic from hibernation 26 Predation by tigers on denned brown bears was not detected during a study carried between 1993 and 2002 48 Ussuri brown bears along with the smaller black bears constitute 2 1 of the Siberian tiger s annual diet of which 1 4 are brown bears 49 50 The effect the presence of tigers has on brown bear behavior seems to vary In the winters of 1970 1973 Yudakov and Nikolaev recorded two cases of bears showing no fear of tigers and another case of a brown bear changing path upon crossing tiger tracks 51 Other researchers have observed bears following tiger tracks to scavenge tiger kills and to potentially prey on tigers 10 49 Despite the threat of predation some brown bears actually benefit from the presence of tigers by appropriating tiger kills that the bears may not be able to successfully hunt themselves 49 Brown bears generally prefer to contest the much smaller female tigers 52 During telemetry research in the Sikhote Alin Nature Reserve 44 direct confrontations between bears and tigers were observed in which bears in general were killed in 22 cases and tigers in 12 cases 53 There are reports of brown bears specifically targeting Amur leopards and tigers to abstract their prey In the Sikhote Alin reserve 35 of tiger kills were stolen by bears with tigers either departing entirely or leaving part of the kill for the bear 54 Some studies show that bears frequently track down tigers to usurp their kills with occasional fatal outcomes for the tiger A report from 1973 describes twelve known cases of brown bears killing tigers including adult males in all cases the tigers were subsequently eaten by the bears 55 56 The relationship between the Amur tiger and the Himalayan bear is not specifically studied Numerous publications on these species there are mainly episodic and survey data on this issue are collected by different authors in selected areas which do not give a complete picture of the nature 49 Tigers depress wolf Canis lupus numbers either to the point of localized extinction or to such low numbers as to make them a functionally insignificant component of the ecosystem Wolves appear capable of escaping competitive exclusion from tigers only when human pressure decreases tiger numbers In areas where wolves and tigers share ranges the two species typically display a great deal of dietary overlap resulting in intense competition Wolf and tiger interactions are well documented in Sikhote Alin where until the beginning of the 20th century very few wolves were sighted Wolf numbers may have increased in the region after tigers were largely eliminated during the Russian colonisation in the late 19th century and early 20th century This is corroborated by native inhabitants of the region claiming that they had no memory of wolves inhabiting Sikhote Alin until the 1930s when tiger numbers decreased Today wolves are considered scarce in tiger habitat being found in scattered pockets and usually seen travelling as loners or in small groups First hand accounts on interactions between the two species indicate that tigers occasionally chase wolves from their kills while wolves will scavenge from tiger kills Tigers are not known to prey on wolves though there are four records of tigers killing wolves without consuming them 57 Tigers recently released are also said to hunt wolves 58 This competitive exclusion of wolves by tigers has been used by Russian conservationists to convince hunters in the Far East to tolerate the big cats as they limit ungulate populations less than wolves and are effective in controlling wolf numbers 59 Siberian tigers also compete with the Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx and occasionally kill and eat them Eurasian lynx remains have been found in the stomach contents of Siberian tigers in Russia 10 In March 2014 a dead lynx discovered in Bastak Nature Reserve bore evidence of predation by a Siberian tiger The tiger apparently ambushed pursued and killed the lynx but only consumed it partially This incident marks one of the first documented cases of a tiger preying on a lynx and indicates that the tiger might have been more intent on eliminating a competitor than on catching prey 60 Reproduction and life cycle nbsp A tiger at the Rehabilitation and Reintroduction Center for Amur Siberian Tigers in the village of Alekseevka Primorsky Krai Russia source source source source source source source source Three orphaned Siberian tigers rescued after their mothers were killed by poachers are released back to the wild in Russia Siberian tigers mate at any time of the year A female signals her receptiveness by leaving urine deposits and scratch marks on trees She will spend 5 or 6 days with the male during which she is receptive for three days Gestation lasts from 3 to 3 months Litter size is normally two or four cubs but there can be as many as six The cubs are born blind in a sheltered den and are left alone when the female leaves to hunt for food Cubs are divided equally between sexes at birth However by adulthood there are usually two to four females for every male The female cubs remain with their mothers longer and later they establish territories close to their original ranges Males on the other hand travel unaccompanied and range farther earlier in their lives making them more vulnerable to poachers and other tigers 61 A Siberian tiger family comprising an adult male a female and three cubs were recorded in 2015 62 At 35 months of age tigers are sub adults Males reach sexual maturity at the age of 48 to 60 months 63 64 The average lifespan for Siberian tigers ranges from 16 18 years Wild individuals tend to live between 10 15 years while in captivity individuals may live up to 25 years 65 66 ThreatsResults of genetic analysis of 95 wild Siberian tiger samples from Russia revealed that genetic diversity is low only 27 35 individuals contributed to their genes Further exacerbating the problem is that more than 90 of the population occurred in the Sikhote Alin mountain region Tigers rarely move across the development corridor which separates this sub population from the much smaller sub population in southwest Primorye province 23 The winter of 2006 2007 was marked by heavy poaching 44 Poaching of tigers and their wild prey species is considered to be driving the decline although heavy snows in the winter of 2009 could have biased the data 3 In northern China s Huang Ni He National Nature Reserve poachers set up foremost snare traps but there is not sufficient personnel to patrol this 75 km2 29 sq mi area throughout the year 67 In Hunchun National Nature Reserve poaching of ungulate species impedes recovery of the tiger population 68 In the past After the dissolution of the Soviet Union illegal deforestation and bribery of park rangers facilitated poaching of Siberian tigers Local hunters had access to a formerly sealed off lucrative Chinese market and this once again put the region s tiger population at risk of extinction 61 While improvement in the local economy has led to greater resources being invested in conservation efforts an increase in economic activity has led to an increased rate of development and deforestation The major obstacle in preserving the tiger is the enormous territory individual tigers require up to 450 km2 170 sq mi is needed by a single female and more for a single male 69 The Siberian tiger was once common in the Korean Peninsula 10 It was eradicated during the period of Korea under Japanese rule between 1910 and 1945 70 ConservationTigers are included on CITES Appendix I banning international trade All tiger range states and countries with consumer markets have banned domestic trade as well 71 At the 14th Conference of the Parties to CITES in 2007 stronger enforcement measures were called for as well as an end to tiger farming 72 In 1992 the Siberian Tiger Project was founded with the aim of providing a comprehensive picture of the ecology of the Amur tiger and the role of tigers in the Russian Far East through scientific studies By capturing and outfitting tigers with radio collars their social structure land use patterns food habits reproduction mortality patterns and their relation with other inhabitants of the ecosystem including humans is studied These data compilations will hopefully contribute toward minimizing poaching threats because of traditional hunting The Siberian Tiger Project has been productive in increasing local capacity to address human tiger conflict with a Tiger Response Team part of the Russian government s Inspection Tiger which responds to all tiger human conflicts by continuing to enhance the large database on tiger ecology and conservation with the goal of creating a comprehensive Siberian tiger conservation plan and training the next generation of Russian conservation biologists 73 In August 2010 China and Russia agreed to enhance conservation and cooperation in protected areas in a transboundary area for Amur tigers China has undertaken a series of public awareness campaigns including celebration of the first Global Tiger Day in July 2010 and International Forum on Tiger Conservation and Tiger Culture and China 2010 Hunchun Amur Tiger Culture Festival in August 2010 74 nbsp A couple in a German zoo Reintroduction Further information Reintroduction Species translocation and Siberian Tiger Introduction Project Inspired by findings that the Amur tiger is the closest relative of the Caspian tiger there has been discussion whether the Amur tiger could be an appropriate subspecies for reintroduction into a safe place in Central Asia The Amu Darya Delta was suggested as a potential site for such a project A feasibility study was initiated to investigate if the area is suitable and if such an initiative would receive support from relevant decision makers A viable tiger population of about 100 animals would require at least 5 000 km2 1 900 sq mi of large tracts of contiguous habitat with rich prey populations Such habitat is not presently available in the delta and so cannot be provided in the short term The proposed region is therefore unsuitable for the reintroduction at least at this stage of development 75 nbsp Comparison of the distribution of all tiger subspecies 1900 vs 1990 A second possible introduction site in Kazakhstan is the Ili River delta at the southern edge of Lake Balkhash The delta is situated between the Saryesik Atyrau Desert and the Taukum Desert and forms a large wetland of about 8 000 km2 3 100 sq mi Until 1948 the delta was a refuge of the extinct Caspian tiger Reintroduction of the Siberian tiger to the delta has been proposed Large populations of wild boar inhabit the swamps of the delta The reintroduction of the Bukhara deer which was once an important prey is under consideration The Ili delta is therefore considered as a suitable site for introduction 76 In 2010 Russia exchanged two captive Siberian tigers for Persian leopards with the Iranian government as conservation groups of both countries agreed on reintroducing these animals into the wild within the next five years This issue is controversial since only 30 of such releases have been successful In addition the Siberian tiger is not genetically identical to the Caspian tiger 8 Another difference is the climatic with temperatures higher in Iran than in Siberia Introducing exotic species into a new habitat could inflict irreversible and unknown damage 77 In December 2010 one of the tigers exchanged died in Eram Zoo in Tehran 78 Nevertheless the project has its defenders and Iran has successfully reintroduced the Persian onager and Caspian red deer 77 In 2005 re introduction was planned as part of the rewilding project at Pleistocene Park in the Kolyma River basin in northern Yakutia Russia provided the herbivore population has reached a size warranting the introduction of large predators 79 80 In captivity nbsp A tigress with cub in captivity in DierenPark Amersfoort In recent years captive breeding of tigers in China has accelerated to the point where the captive population of several tiger subspecies exceeds 4 000 animals Three thousand specimens are reportedly held by 10 20 significant facilities with the remainder scattered among some 200 facilities This makes China home to the second largest captive tiger population in the world after the U S which in 2005 had an estimated 4 692 captive tigers 81 In a census conducted by the U S based Feline Conservation Federation 2 884 tigers were documented as residing in 468 American facilities 82 In 1986 the Chinese government established the world s largest Siberian tiger breeding base the Harbin Siberian Tiger Park and was meant to build a Siberian tiger gene pool to ensure the genetic diversity of the tiger The Park and its existing tiger population would be further divided into two parts one as the protective species for genetic management and the other as the ornamental species It was discovered that when the Heilongjiang Northeast Tiger Forest Park was founded it had only 8 tigers but according to the current breeding rate of tigers at the park the worldwide number of wild Siberian tigers will break through 1 000 in late 2010 83 South Korea expected to receive three tigers pledged for donation in 2009 by Russia in 2011 84 85 Attacks on humans nbsp Sign warns Caution Tigers nearby Russian Ostorozhno Tigry ryadom See also Tiger attack The Siberian tiger very rarely becomes a man eater 10 61 Numerous cases of attacks on humans were recorded in the 19th century occurring usually in central Asia excluding Turkmenistan Kazakhstan and the Far East Tigers were historically rarely considered dangerous unless provoked though in the lower reaches of the Syr Darya a tiger reportedly killed a woman collecting firewood and an unarmed military officer whilst passing through reed thickets Attacks on shepherds were recorded in the lower reaches of Ili In the Far East during the middle and late 19th century attacks on people were recorded In 1867 on the Tsymukha River tigers killed 21 men and injured 6 others In China s Jilin Province tigers reportedly attacked woodsmen and coachmen and occasionally entered cabins and dragged out both adults and children 10 nbsp A tiger family depicted in a Korean scroll from the late 18th century According to the Japanese Police Bureau in Korea in 1928 a tiger killed one human whereas leopards killed three wild boars four and wolves killed 48 86 Six cases were recorded in 20th century Russia of unprovoked attacks leading to man eating behaviour Provoked attacks are however more common usually the result of botched attempts at capturing them 61 In December 1997 an injured Amur tiger attacked killed and consumed two people Both attacks occurred in the Bikin River valley The anti poaching task force Inspection Tiger investigated both deaths tracked down and killed the tiger 87 In January 2002 a man was attacked by a tiger on a remote mountain road near Hunchun in Jilin province China near the borders of Russia and North Korea He suffered compound fractures but managed to survive When he sought medical attention his story raised suspicions as Siberian tigers seldom attack humans An investigation of the attack scene revealed that raw venison carried by the man was left untouched by the tiger Officials suspected the man to be a poacher who provoked the attack 88 The following morning tiger sightings were reported by locals along the same road and a local TV station did an on site coverage The group found tiger tracks and blood spoor in the snow at the attack scene and followed them for approximately 2 500 meters hoping to catch a glimpse of the animal Soon the tiger was seen ambling slowly ahead of them As the team tried to get closer for a better camera view the tiger suddenly turned and charged causing the four to flee in panic 89 About an hour after that encounter the tiger attacked and killed a 26 year old woman on the same road 90 Authorities retrieved the body with the help of a bulldozer By then the tiger was found lying 20 meters away weak and barely alive 91 It was successfully tranquilized and taken for examination which revealed that the tiger was anemic and gravely injured by a poacher s snare around its neck with the steel wire cutting deeply down to the vertebrae severing both trachea and esophagus Despite extensive surgery by a team of veterinarians the tiger died of wound infection 92 93 Subsequent investigation revealed that the first victim was a poacher who set multiple snares that caught both the tiger and a deer 94 The man was later charged for poaching and harming endangered species He served two years in prison 95 After being released from prison he worked in clearing the forest of old snares 96 In an incident at the San Francisco Zoo in December 2007 a tiger escaped and killed a visitor and injured two others The animal was shot by the police The zoo was widely criticized for maintaining only a 12 5 ft 3 8 m fence around the tiger enclosure while the international standard is 16 ft 4 9 m The zoo subsequently erected a taller barrier topped by an electric fence One of the victims admitted to taunting the animal 97 Zookeepers in Anhui province and the cities of Shanghai and Shenzhen were attacked and killed in 2010 98 In January 2011 a tiger attacked and killed a tour bus driver at a breeding park in Heilongjiang province Park officials reported that the bus driver violated safety guidelines by leaving the vehicle to check on the condition of the bus 99 In September 2013 a tiger mauled a zookeeper to death at a zoo in western Germany after the worker forgot to lock a cage door during feeding time 100 In July 2020 a female tiger attacked and killed a 55 year old zookeeper at the Zurich Zoo in Switzerland 101 In culture nbsp Heraldic arms of the Jewish Autonomous Oblast in Russia The English name Siberian tiger was coined by James Cowles Prichard in the 1830s 102 The name Amur tiger was used in 1933 for Siberian tigers killed by the Amur River for an exhibition in the American Museum of Natural History 103 The Tungusic peoples considered the tiger a near deity and often referred to it as Grandfather or Old man The Udege and Nani people call it Amba 104 The Manchu considered the Siberian tiger as Hu Lin the king 61 Since the tiger has a mark on its foreheads that looks like a Chinese character for King Chinese 王 pinyin Wang or a similar character meaning Great Emperor it is revered by the Udege and Chinese people 10 The Siberian tiger is used in heraldic symbols throughout the area where it is indigenous See alsoTiger populations Mainlaind Asian populations Bengal tiger Caspian tiger Indochinese tiger Malayan tiger South China tiger Sunda island populations Bali tiger Bornean tiger Javan tiger Sumatran tiger Prehistoric tigers Panthera tigris soloensisPanthera tigris trinilensisPanthera tigris acutidens Amur leopard Bergmann s rule Holocene extinctionReferences a b Kitchener A C Breitenmoser Wursten C Eizirik E Gentry A Werdelin L Wilting A Yamaguchi N Abramov A V Christiansen P Driscoll C Duckworth J W Johnson W Luo S J Meijaard E O Donoghue P Sanderson J Seymour K Bruford M Groves C Hoffmann M Nowell K Timmons Z amp Tobe S 2017 A revised taxonomy of the Felidae The final report of the Cat Classification Task Force of the IUCN Cat Specialist Group PDF Cat News Special Issue 11 66 68 a b c Rak K C Miquelle D G amp Pikunov D G 1998 A survey of tigers and leopards and prey resources in the Paektusan area North Korea in winter 1998 PDF Report Archived from the original on 5 December 2020 Retrieved 16 June 2012 a b c Goodrich J Lynam A Miquelle D Wibisono H Kawanishi K Pattanavibool A Htun S Tempa T Karki J Jhala Y amp Karanth U 2015 Panthera tigris IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2015 e T15955A50659951 WWF Russia 2015 Russia Announce Tiger Census Results tigers panda org Worldwide Fund for Nature Retrieved June 7 2015 Hance J 2015 Happy tigers Siberian population continues to grow Mongabay com Retrieved 13 June 2015 The Siberian Times reporter 2015 Sex imbalance as endangered Siberian tigers show signs of recovery The Siberian Times Retrieved 18 December 2015 a b Xiao W Feng L Mou P Miquelle D G Hebblewhite M Goldberg J F Robinson H S Zhao X Zhou B Wang T amp Ge J 2016 Estimating abundance and density of Amur tigers along the Sino Russian border Integrative Zoology 11 4 322 332 doi 10 1111 1749 4877 12210 PMID 27136188 a b c d Driscoll C A Yamaguchi N Bar Gal G K Roca A L Luo S Macdonald D W amp O Brien S J 2009 Mitochondrial Phylogeography Illuminates the Origin of the Extinct Caspian Tiger and Its Relationship to the Amur Tiger PLOS ONE 4 1 e4125 Bibcode 2009PLoSO 4 4125D doi 10 1371 journal pone 0004125 PMC 2624500 PMID 19142238 a b c d Mazak V 1981 Panthera tigris PDF Mammalian Species 152 1 8 doi 10 2307 3504004 JSTOR 3504004 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Heptner V G amp Sludskij A A 1992 1972 Tiger Mlekopitajuscie Sovetskogo Soiuza Moskva Vyssaia Skola Mammals of the Soviet Union Volume II Part 2 Carnivora Hyaenas and Cats Washington DC Smithsonian Institution and the National Science Foundation pp 95 202 a b Loukashkin A S 1938 The Manchurian Tiger The China Journal 28 3 127 133 Linnaeus C 1758 Felis tigris Caroli Linnaei Systema naturae per regna tria naturae secundum classes ordines genera species cum characteribus differentiis synonymis locis Tomus I decima reformata ed Holmiae Laurentius Salvius p 41 Temminck C J 1844 Apercu general et specifique sur les Mammiferes qui habitent le Japon et les Iles qui en dependent In Siebold P F v Temminck C J Schlegel H eds Fauna Japonica sive Descriptio animalium quae in itinere per Japoniam jussu et auspiciis superiorum qui summum in India Batava imperium tenent suscepto annis 1825 1830 collegit notis observationibus et adumbrationibus illustravit Ph Fr de Siebold Leiden Lugduni Batavorum Fitzinger L J 1868 Revision der zur naturlichen Familie der Katzen Feles gehorigen Formen Sitzungsberichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften Mathematisch Naturwissenschaftliche Classe 58 421 519 Dode C 1871 Felis tigris var amurensis Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London May 480 481 Brass E 1904 Nutzbare Tiere Ostasiens Pelz und Jagdtiere Haustiere Seetiere Neudamm J Neumann Kitchener A 1999 Tiger distribution phenotypic variation and conservation issues In Seidensticker J Christie S Jackson P eds Riding the Tiger Tiger Conservation in Human Dominated Landscapes Cambridge University Press pp 19 39 ISBN 978 0 521 64835 6 Kitchener A amp Yamaguchi N 2010 What is a Tiger Biogeography Morphology and Taxonomy In Tilson R amp Nyhus P J eds Tigers of the World The Science Politics and Conservation ofPanthera tigris Second ed London Burlington Academic Press pp 53 84 ISBN 978 0 08 094751 8 a b Wilting A Courtiol A Christiansen P Niedballa J Scharf A K Orlando L Balkenhol N Hofer H Kramer Schadt S Fickel J amp Kitchener A C 2015 Planning tiger recovery Understanding intraspecific variation for effective conservation Science Advances 11 5 e1400175 Bibcode 2015SciA 1E0175W doi 10 1126 sciadv 1400175 PMC 4640610 PMID 26601191 Luo S J Kim J H Johnson W E van der Walt J Martenson J Yuhki N Miquelle D G Uphyrkina O Goodrich J M Quigley H B Tilson R Brady G Martelli P Subramaniam V McDougal C Hean S Huang S Q Pan W Karanth U K Sunquist M Smith J L D amp O Brien S J 2004 Phylogeography and genetic ancestry of tigers Panthera tigris PLOS Biology 2 12 e442 doi 10 1371 journal pbio 0020442 PMC 534810 PMID 15583716 Russello M A Gladyshev E Miquelle D amp Caccone A 2005 Potential genetic consequences of a recent bottleneck in the Siberian tiger of the Russian Far East Conservation Genetics 5 5 707 713 doi 10 1007 s10592 004 1860 2 S2CID 37492591 Platt J R 2009 Rare Siberian tigers face potential genetic bottleneck Scientific American Retrieved 4 November 2014 a b Henry P Miquelle D Sugimoto T McCullough D R Caccone A amp Russello M A 2009 In situ population structure and ex situ representation of the endangered Amur tiger Molecular Ecology 18 15 3173 3184 Bibcode 2009MolEc 18 3173H doi 10 1111 j 1365 294X 2009 04266 x PMID 19555412 S2CID 25766120 Cho Y S Hu L Hou H Lee H Xu J Kwon S Oh S Kim H M Jho S Kim S Shin Y A Kim B C Kim H Kim C U Luo S J Johnson W E Koepfli K P Schmidt Kuntzel A Turner J A Marker L Harper C Miller S M Jacobs W Bertola L D Kim T H Lee S Zhou Q Jung H J Xu X amp Gadhvi P 2013 The tiger genome and comparative analysis with lion and snow leopard genomes Nature Communications 4 2433 Bibcode 2013NatCo 4 2433C doi 10 1038 ncomms3433 hdl 2263 32583 PMC 3778509 PMID 24045858 Liu Y C Sun X Driscoll C Miquelle D G Xu X Martelli P Uphyrkina O Smith J L D O Brien S J amp Luo S J 2018 Genome wide evolutionary analysis of natural history and adaptation in the world s tigers Current Biology 28 23 3840 3849 Bibcode 2018CBio 28E3840L doi 10 1016 j cub 2018 09 019 PMID 30482605 a b Fraser A F 2012 Feline Behaviour and Welfare CABI pp 72 77 ISBN 978 1 84593 926 7 Slaght J C Miquelle D G Nikolaev I G Goodrich J M Smirnov E N Traylor Holzer K Christie S Arjanova T Smith J L D Karanth K U 2005 Chapter 6 Who s king of the beasts Historical and contemporary data on the body weight of wild and captive Amur tigers in comparison with other subspecies PDF In D G Miquelle E N Smirnov J M Goodrich eds Tigers in Sikhote Alin Zapovednik Ecology and Conservation in Russian Vladivostok Russia PSP pp 25 35 a b Kerley L Goodrich J Smirnov E Miquelle D Nikolaev I Arjanova T Slaght J Schleyer B Kuigli H amp Hornocker M 2005 Chapter 7 Morphological indicators of the Amur tiger In Miquelle D G Smirnov E N amp Goodrich J M eds Tigers in Sikhote Alin Zapovednik Ecology and Conservation in Russian Vladivostok Russia PSP pp 1 15 WCS Russia 2015 The Amur tiger Ecology The Amur Tiger Programme 2014 Two long term resident tigers in the Ussuri Nature Reserve Nowell K amp Jackson P 1996 Tiger Panthera tigris Linnaeus 1758 PDF Wild Cats Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan Gland Switzerland IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group pp 55 64 ISBN 978 2 8317 0045 8 a b Mazak V 1983 Der Tiger The Tiger Nachdruck der 3 Auflage 2004 ed Hohenwarsleben Westarp Wissenschaften ISBN 978 3 89432 759 0 a b Mazak V 1967 Notes on Siberian long haired tiger Panthera tigris altaica Temminck 1844 with a remark on Temminck s mammal volume of the Fauna Japonica Mammalia 31 4 537 573 doi 10 1515 mamm 1967 31 4 537 S2CID 85177441 Hewett J P amp Hewett Atkinson L 1938 Jungle trails in northern India reminiscences of hunting in India London Metheun and Company Limited Cooper D M Dugmore A J Gittings B M Scharf A K Wilting A amp Kitchener A C 2016 Predicted Pleistocene Holocene range shifts of the tiger Panthera tigris Diversity and Distributions 22 11 1199 1211 Bibcode 2016DivDi 22 1199C doi 10 1111 ddi 12484 a b c Miquelle D G Smirnov E N Merrill T W Myslenkov A E Quigley H Hornocker M G amp Schleyer B 1999 Hierarchical spatial analysis of Amur tiger relationships to habitat and prey In Seidensticker J Christie S amp Jackson P eds Riding the Tiger Tiger Conservation in Human dominated Landscapes UK Cambridge University Press pp 71 99 Carroll C amp Miquelle D 2006 Spatial viability analysis of Amur tiger Panthera tigris altaica in the Russian Far East the role of protected areas and landscape matrix in population persistence Journal of Applied Ecology 43 6 1056 1068 Bibcode 2006JApEc 43 1056C doi 10 1111 j 1365 2664 2006 01237 x Wang T M Yang H T Xiao W H Feng L M Mou P amp Ge J P 2014 Camera traps reveal Amur tiger breeding in NE China Cat News 61 18 19 Wang T Feng L Mou P Wu J Smith J L Xiao W Yang H Dou H Zhao X Cheng Y amp Zhou B 2016 Amur tigers and leopards returning to China direct evidence and a landscape conservation plan Landscape Ecology 31 3 491 503 Bibcode 2016LaEco 31 491W doi 10 1007 s10980 015 0278 1 S2CID 10597364 Vaughan A 2014 Siberian tiger video suggests species is returning to China conservationists say Guardian News and Media Limited Ning Y Kostyria A V Ma J Chayka M I Guskov V Y Qi J Sheremetyeva I N Wang M amp Jiang G 2019 Dispersal of Amur tiger from spatial distribution and genetics within the eastern Changbai mountain of China Ecology and Evolution 9 5 2415 2424 Bibcode 2019EcoEv 9 2415N doi 10 1002 ece3 4832 PMC 6405893 PMID 30891189 Qi J Gu J Ning Y Miquelle D G Holyoak M Wen D Liang X Liu S Roberts N Yang E Lang J Wang F Li C Liang Z Liu P Ren Y Zhou S Zhang M Ma J Chang J amp Jiang G 2021 Integrated assessments call for establishing a sustainable meta population of Amur tigers in Northeast Asia Biological Conservation 261 12 109250 Bibcode 2021BCons 26109250Q doi 10 1016 j biocon 2021 109250 Smirnov E N amp Miquelle D G 1999 Population 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Feasibility Study on the Possible Restoration of the Caspian Tiger in Central Asia PDF Report WWF Russia Archived from the original PDF on 2016 03 04 Retrieved 2014 10 03 a b Khosravifard S 2010 Russia Iran exchange tigers for leopards but some experts express doubts Payvand News Archived from the original on 15 October 2020 Retrieved 6 August 2011 Iran world political sport economic news and headlines MehrNews Archived from the original on 2011 07 14 Retrieved 6 August 2011 Zimov S A 2005 Pleistocene Park Return of the Mammoth s Ecosystem Science 308 5723 796 798 doi 10 1126 science 1113442 PMID 15879196 Zimov S 2007 Mammoth Steppes and Future Climate PDF Science in Russia Archived from the original PDF on 29 October 2013 Retrieved 5 May 2013 Nowell K Ling X 2007 Taming the tiger trade China s markets for wild and captive tiger products since the 1993 domestic trade ban Archived 2012 01 17 at the Wayback Machine TRAFFIC East Asia Hong Kong China Wildlife Watch Group 2011 Less than 3 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我国首次抢救重伤野生东北虎纪实 News sina com cn Retrieved 6 August 2011 走遍中国2009年06月20日B 寻踪东北虎系列之人虎情仇 下 YouTube 20 June 2009 Retrieved 6 August 2011 吉林两男子欲捕东北虎 其中一人反被虎咬伤 News sina com cn Retrieved 6 August 2011 走遍中国2009年06月20日C 寻踪东北虎系列之人虎情仇 下 YouTube 20 June 2009 Retrieved 6 August 2011 From hunter to protector Chinadaily com cn Retrieved 6 August 2011 Tiger attack victim admits taunting police say The Associated Press 17 January 2008 2008 01 18 Siberian tiger kills zookeeper Archived 2012 08 18 at the Wayback Machine TRHK News 16 August 2010 Shahid A 2011 Siberian tiger attacks kills bus driver in China Archived 2015 02 06 at the Wayback Machine Associated Press 5 January 2011 Tiger kills zookeeper during feeding time Archived 2020 09 15 at the Wayback Machine The Local 20 September 2013 Siberian tiger kills zookeeper in Zurich Reuters 4 July 2020 Retrieved 4 July 2020 Prichard J C 1836 Distribution of the species comprised in the most numerous families of quadrupeds Researches into the Physical History of Mankind Vol 1 London Sherwood Gilbert amp Piper pp 85 94 Goodwin G G 1933 Mammals collected in the Maritime Province of Siberia by the Morden Graves North Asiatic Expedition with the description of a new hare from the Amur River PDF American Museum Novitates 681 1 18 Sasaki S 2011 Sacred Places and Masters of Hunting Luck in the Forest Worlds of the Udege People of the Russian Far East In Jordan P ed Landscape amp Culture in Northern Eurasia Walnut Creek CA Left Coast Press ISBN 9781315425658 External links nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Panthera tigris altaica category nbsp Wikispecies has information related to Panthera tigris altaica IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group Tiger Panthera tigris IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group Amur P t altaica 21st Century Tiger Amur Leopard and Tiger Alliance ALTA Conserving Amur leopards and tigers in the Russian Far East and China World Wide Fund for Nature Amur tiger National Geographic Animals Siberian Tiger Panthera tigris altaica Wildlife Conservation Society s Siberian Tiger Project Amur org uk Preserving leopards and tigers in the wild USDA Information Resources on Tigers Panthera tigris The Amur Tiger Programme Two Adult Tigers Tagged in the Ussuri Nature Reserve Walker M 2009 Amur tigers on genetic brink BBC Earth News Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Siberian tiger amp oldid 1216108015, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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