fbpx
Wikipedia

Salmon

Salmon (/ˈsæmən/) is the common name for several commercially important species of euryhaline ray-finned fish from the family Salmonidae, which are native to tributaries of the North Atlantic (genus Salmo) and North Pacific (genus Oncorhynchus) basin. Other closely related fish in the same family include trout, char, grayling, whitefish, lenok and taimen.

Salmon
Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Salmoniformes
Family: Salmonidae
Subfamily: Salmoninae
Groups included
Cladistically included but traditionally excluded taxa

all other Oncorhynchus and Salmo species

Salmon are typically anadromous: they hatch in the gravel beds of shallow fresh water streams, migrate to the ocean as adults and live like sea fish, then return to fresh water to reproduce. However, populations of several species are restricted to fresh water throughout their lives. Folklore has it that the fish return to the exact spot where they hatched to spawn, and tracking studies have shown this to be mostly true. A portion of a returning salmon run may stray and spawn in different freshwater systems; the percent of straying depends on the species of salmon.[1] Homing behavior has been shown to depend on olfactory memory.[2][3]

Salmon are important food fish and are intensively farmed in many parts of the world,[4] with Norway being the world's largest producer of farmed salmon, followed by Chile.[5] They are also highly prized game fish for recreational fishing, by both freshwater and saltwater anglers. Many species of salmon have since been introduced and naturalized into non-native environments such as the Great Lakes of North America, Patagonia in South America and South Island of New Zealand.[6]

Name and etymology

The Modern English term salmon is derived from Middle English: samoun, samon, saumon, from Anglo-Norman: saumon, from Old French: saumon, from Latin: salmō. The unpronounced "l" absent from Middle English was later added as a Latinisation to make the word closer to its Latin root. The term salmon has mostly displaced its now dialectal synonym lax, in turn from Middle English: lax, from Old English: leax, from Proto-Germanic: *lahsaz from Proto-Indo-European: *lakso-.[7][8]

Species

The term "salmon" comes from the Latin salmo, which in turn might have originated from salire, meaning "to leap".[9] The seven commercially important species of salmon occur in two genera. The genus Salmo contains the Atlantic salmon, found in both sides of the North Atlantic, as well as more than 40 other species commonly named as trout. The genus Oncorhynchus contains 12 recognised species which occur naturally only in the North Pacific, six of which are known as Pacific salmon while the remainder are considered trout. Outside their native habitats, Chinook salmon have been successfully introduced in New Zealand and Patagonia, while coho, freshwater sockeye and Atlantic salmon have been established in Patagonia, as well.[10]

Atlantic and Pacific salmon
Genus Image Common name Scientific name Maximum
length
Common
length
Maximum
weight
Maximum
age
Trophic
level
Fish
Base
FAO ITIS IUCN status
Salmo
(Atlantic salmon)
  Atlantic salmon Salmo salar Linnaeus, 1758 150 cm (4 ft 11 in) 120 cm (3 ft 11 in) 46.8 kilograms (103 lb) 13 years 4.4 [11] [12] [13]   Least concern[14]
Oncorhynchus
(Pacific salmon)
  Chinook salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha (Walbaum, 1792) 150 cm (4 ft 11 in) 70 cm (2 ft 4 in) 61.4 kilograms (135 lb) 9 years 4.4 [15] [16] [17] Not assessed
  Chum salmon Oncorhynchus keta (Walbaum, 1792) 100 cm (3 ft 3 in) 58 cm (1 ft 11 in) 15.9 kilograms (35 lb) 7 years 3.5 [18] [19] [20] Not assessed
  Coho salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch (Walbaum, 1792) 108 cm (3 ft 7 in) 71 cm (2 ft 4 in) 15.2 kilograms (34 lb) 5 years 4.2 [21] [22] [23] Not assessed
  Masu salmon Oncorhynchus masou (Brevoort, 1856) 79 cm (2 ft 7 in) 50 cm (1 ft 8 in) 10.0 kilograms (22.0 lb) 3 years 3.6 [24] [25] Not assessed
  Pink salmon Oncorhynchus gorbuscha (Walbaum, 1792) 76 cm (2 ft 6 in) 50 cm (1 ft 8 in) 6.8 kilograms (15 lb) 3 years 4.2 [26] [27] [28] Not assessed
  Sockeye salmon Oncorhynchus nerka (Walbaum, 1792) 84 cm (2 ft 9 in) 58 cm (1 ft 11 in) 7.7 kilograms (17 lb) 8 years 3.7 [29] [30] [31]   Least concern[32]

    Both the Salmo and Oncorhynchus genera also contain a number of species referred to as trout. Within Salmo, additional minor taxa have been called salmon in English, i.e. the Adriatic salmon (Salmo obtusirostris) and Black Sea salmon (Salmo labrax). The steelhead anadromous form of the rainbow trout migrates to sea, but it is not termed "salmon".

Also, there are several other species which are not true salmon, as in the above list but have common names which refer to them as being salmon. Of those listed below, the Danube salmon or huchen is a large freshwater salmonid related to the salmon above, but others are marine fishes of the unrelated Perciformes order:

Some other fishes called salmon
Common name Scientific name Maximum
length
Common
length
Maximum
weight
Maximum
age
Trophic
level
Fish
Base
FAO ITIS IUCN status
Australian salmon Arripis trutta (Forster, 1801) 89 cm (2 ft 11 in) 47 cm (1 ft 7 in) 9.4 kilograms (21 lb) 26 years 4.1 [33] [34] Not assessed
Danube salmon Hucho hucho (Linnaeus, 1758) 150 cm (4 ft 11 in) 70 cm (2 ft 4 in) 52 kilograms (115 lb) 15 years 4.2 [35] [36]   Endangered[37]
Hawaiian salmon Elagatis bipinnulata (Quoy & Gaimard, 1825) 180 cm (5 ft 11 in) 90 cm (2 ft 11 in) 46.2 kilograms (102 lb) 6 years 3.6 [38] [39] [40] Not assessed
Indian salmon Eleutheronema tetradactylum (Shaw, 1804) 200 cm (6 ft 7 in) 50 cm (1 ft 8 in) 145 kilograms (320 lb) years 4.4 [41] [42] Not assessed

Eosalmo driftwoodensis, the oldest known Salmoninae fish in the fossil record, helps scientists figure how the different species of salmon diverged from a common ancestor. The British Columbian salmon fossil provides evidence that the divergence between Pacific and Atlantic salmon had not yet occurred 40 million years ago. Both the fossil record and analysis of mitochondrial DNA suggest the divergence occurred 10 to 20 million years ago. This independent evidence from DNA analysis and the fossil record indicate that salmon divergence occurred long before the glaciers (of Quaternary glaciation) began their cycle of advance and retreat.[43]

Distribution

 
Pacific salmon leaping at Willamette Falls, Oregon
 
Commercial production of salmon in million tonnes 1950–2010[44]
  • Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) reproduce in northern rivers on both coasts of the Atlantic Ocean.
    • Landlocked salmon (Salmo salar m. sebago) live in a number of lakes in eastern North America and in Northern Europe, for instance in lakes Sebago, Onega, Ladoga, Saimaa, Vänern, and Winnipesaukee. They are not a different species from the Atlantic salmon but have independently evolved a non-migratory life cycle, which they maintain even when they could access the ocean.
  • Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) are also known in the United States as king salmon or blackmouth salmon, and as spring salmon in British Columbia. Chinooks are the largest of all Pacific salmon, frequently exceeding 14 kg (30 lb).[45] The name tyee is used in British Columbia to refer to Chinook over 30 pounds, and in the Columbia River watershed, especially large Chinooks were once referred to as June hogs. Chinook salmon are known to range as far north as the Mackenzie River and Kugluktuk in the central Canadian arctic,[46] and as far south as the Central California coast.[47]
  • Chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keta) is known as dog, keta, or calico salmon in some parts of the US. This species has the widest geographic range of the Pacific species:[48] in the eastern Pacific from north of the Mackenzie River in Canada to south of the Sacramento River in California and in the western Pacific from Lena River in Siberia to the island of Kyūshū in the Sea of Japan.
  • Coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) are also known in the US as silver salmon. This species is found throughout the coastal waters of Alaska and British Columbia and as far south as Central California (Monterey Bay).[49] It is also now known to occur, albeit infrequently, in the Mackenzie River.[46]
  • Masu salmon or cherry salmon (Oncorhynchus masou) are found only in the western Pacific Ocean in Japan, Korea, and Russia. A landlocked subspecies known as the Taiwanese salmon or Formosan salmon (Oncorhynchus masou formosanus) is found in central Taiwan's Chi Chia Wan Stream.[50]
  • Pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha), known as humpies in southeast and southwest Alaska, are found in the western Pacific from Lena River in Siberia to Korea, found throughout northern Pacific, and in the eastern Pacific from the Mackenzie River in Canada[46] to northern California, usually in shorter coastal streams. It is the smallest of the Pacific species, with an average weight of 1.6 to 1.8 kg (3.5 to 4.0 lb).[51]
  • Sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) is also known in the US (especially Alaska) as red salmon.[52] This lake-rearing species is found in the eastern Pacific from Bathurst Inlet in the Canadian Arctic to Klamath River in California, and in the western Pacific from the Anadyr River in Siberia to northern Hokkaidō island in Japan. Although most adult Pacific salmon feed on small fish, shrimp, and squid, sockeye feed on plankton they filter through gill rakers.[53] Kokanee salmon are the landlocked form of sockeye salmon.
  • Danube salmon, or huchen (Hucho hucho), are the largest permanent freshwater salmonid species.

Life cycle

 
Life cycle of Pacific salmon
 
Eggs in different stages of development: In some, only a few cells grow on top of the yolk, in the lower right, the blood vessels surround the yolk, and in the upper left, the black eyes are visible, even the little lens.
 
Salmon fry hatching—the baby has grown around the remains of the yolk—visible are the arteries spinning around the yolk and small oil drops, also the gut, the spine, the main caudal blood vessel, the bladder, and the arcs of the gills.

Salmon eggs are laid in freshwater streams typically at high latitudes. The eggs hatch into alevin or sac fry. The fry quickly develop into parr with camouflaging vertical stripes. The parr stay for six months to three years in their natal stream before becoming smolts, which are distinguished by their bright, silvery colour with scales that are easily rubbed off. Only 10% of all salmon eggs are estimated to survive to this stage.[54]

The smolt body chemistry changes, allowing them to live in salt water. While a few species of salmon remain in fresh water throughout their life cycle, the majority are anadromous and migrate to the ocean for maturation: in these species, smolts spend a portion of their out-migration time in brackish water, where their body chemistry becomes accustomed to osmoregulation in the ocean. This body chemistry change is hormone-driven, causing physiological adjustments in the function of osmoregulatory organs such as the gills, which leads to large increases in their ability to secrete salt.[55] Hormones involved in increasing salinity tolerance include insulin-like growth factor I, cortisol, and thyroid hormones,[56] which permits the fish to endure the transition from a freshwater environment to the ocean.

The salmon spend about one to five years (depending on the species) in the open ocean, where they gradually become sexually mature. The adult salmon then return primarily to their natal streams to spawn. Atlantic salmon spend between one and four years at sea. When a fish returns after just one year's sea feeding, it is called a grilse in Canada, Britain, and Ireland. Grilse may be present at spawning, and go unnoticed by large males, releasing their own sperm on the eggs.[57][page needed]

Prior to spawning, depending on the species, salmon undergo changes. They may grow a hump, develop canine-like teeth, or develop a kype (a pronounced curvature of the jaws in male salmon). All change from the silvery blue of a fresh-run fish from the sea to a darker colour. Salmon can make amazing journeys, sometimes moving hundreds of miles upstream against strong currents and rapids to reproduce. Chinook and sockeye salmon from central Idaho, for example, travel over 1,400 km (900 mi) and climb nearly 2,100 m (7,000 ft) from the Pacific Ocean as they return to spawn. Condition tends to deteriorate the longer the fish remain in fresh water, and they then deteriorate further after they spawn, when they are known as kelts. In all species of Pacific salmon, the mature individuals die within a few days or weeks of spawning, a trait known as semelparity. Between 2 and 4% of Atlantic salmon kelts survive to spawn again, all females. However, even in those species of salmon that may survive to spawn more than once (iteroparity), postspawning mortality is quite high (perhaps as high as 40 to 50%).

 
Redds on riverbed

To lay her roe, the female salmon uses her tail (caudal fin), to create a low-pressure zone, lifting gravel to be swept downstream, excavating a shallow depression, called a redd. The redd may sometimes contain 5,000 eggs covering 2.8 m2 (30 sq ft).[58] The eggs usually range from orange to red. One or more males approach the female in her redd, depositing sperm, or milt, over the roe.[53] The female then covers the eggs by disturbing the gravel at the upstream edge of the depression before moving on to make another redd. The female may make as many as seven redds before her supply of eggs is exhausted.[53]

Each year, the fish experiences a period of rapid growth, often in summer, and one of slower growth, normally in winter. This results in ring formation around an earbone called the otolith (annuli), analogous to the growth rings visible in a tree trunk. Freshwater growth shows as densely crowded rings, sea growth as widely spaced rings; spawning is marked by significant erosion as body mass is converted into eggs and milt.

Freshwater streams and estuaries provide important habitat for many salmon species. They feed on terrestrial and aquatic insects, amphipods, and other crustaceans while young, and primarily on other fish when older. Eggs are laid in deeper water with larger gravel and need cool water and good water flow (to supply oxygen) to the developing embryos. Mortality of salmon in the early life stages is usually high due to natural predation and human-induced changes in habitat, such as siltation, high water temperatures, low oxygen concentration, loss of stream cover, and reductions in river flow. Estuaries and their associated wetlands provide vital nursery areas for the salmon prior to their departure to the open ocean. Wetlands not only help buffer the estuary from silt and pollutants, but also provide important feeding and hiding areas.

Salmon not killed by other means show greatly accelerated deterioration (phenoptosis, or "programmed aging") at the end of their lives. Their bodies rapidly deteriorate right after they spawn as a result of the release of massive amounts of corticosteroids.

Diet

As adults, salmon eat a variety of other sea creatures, including smaller fish such as lanternfish, herrings, sand lances, and barracudina. They also eat krill, squid, and polychaete worms.[59] They are also known to eat grasshoppers.[60]

Ecology

 
Bear cub with salmon

Bears

In the Pacific Northwest and Alaska, salmon are keystone species, supporting wildlife such as birds, bears and otters.[61] The bodies of salmon represent a transfer of nutrients from the ocean, rich in nitrogen, sulfur, carbon and phosphorus, to the forest ecosystem.

Grizzly bears function as ecosystem engineers, capturing salmon and carrying them into adjacent wooded areas. There they deposit nutrient-rich urine and feces and partially eaten carcasses. Bears are estimated to leave up to half the salmon they harvest on the forest floor,[62][63] in densities that can reach 4,000 kilograms per hectare,[64] providing as much as 24% of the total nitrogen available to the riparian woodlands. The foliage of spruce trees up to 500 m (1,600 ft) from a stream where grizzlies fish salmon have been found to contain nitrogen originating from fished salmon.[65]

Beavers

 
Sockeye salmon jumping over beaver dam

Beavers also function as ecosystem engineers; in the process of clear-cutting and damming, beavers alter their ecosystems extensively. Beaver ponds can provide critical habitat for juvenile salmon. An example of this was seen in the years following 1818 in the Columbia River Basin.

In 1818, the British government made an agreement with the U.S. government to allow U.S. citizens access to the Columbia catchment (see Treaty of 1818). At the time, the Hudson's Bay Company sent word to trappers to extirpate all furbearers from the area in an effort to make the area less attractive to U.S. fur traders. In response to the elimination of beavers from large parts of the river system, salmon runs plummeted, even in the absence of many of the factors usually associated with the demise of salmon runs. Salmon recruitment can be affected by beavers' dams because dams can:[66][67][68]

  • Slow the rate at which nutrients are flushed from the system; nutrients provided by adult salmon dying throughout the fall and winter remain available in the spring to newly hatched juveniles
  • Provide deeper water pools where young salmon can avoid avian predators
  • Increase productivity through photosynthesis and by enhancing the conversion efficiency of the cellulose-powered detritus cycle[clarification needed]
  • Create slow-water environments where juvenile salmon put the food they ingest into growth rather than into fighting currents
  • Increase structural complexity with many physical niches where salmon can avoid predators

Beavers' dams are able to nurture salmon juveniles in estuarine tidal marshes where the salinity is less than 10 ppm. Beavers build small dams of generally less than 60 cm (2 ft) high in channels in the myrtle zone[clarification needed]. These dams can be overtopped at high tide and hold water at low tide. This provides refuges for juvenile salmon so they do not have to swim into large channels where they are subject to predation.[69]

Lampreys

It has been discovered that rivers which have seen a decline or disappearance of anadromous lampreys, loss of the lampreys also affects the salmon in a negative way. Like salmon, anadromous lampreys stop feeding and die after spawning, and their decomposing bodies release nutrients into the stream. Also, along with species like rainbow trout and Sacramento sucker, lampreys clean the gravel in the rivers during spawning.[70] Their larvae, called ammocoetes, are filter feeders which contribute to the health of the waters. They are also a food source for the young salmon, and being fattier and oilier, it is assumed predators prefer them over salmon offspring, taking off some of the predation pressure on smolts.[71][unreliable source?] Adult lampreys are also the preferred prey of seals and sea lions, which can eat 30 lampreys to every salmon, allowing more adult salmon to enter the rivers to spawn without being eaten by the marine mammals.[72][73]

Parasites

According to Canadian biologist Dorothy Kieser, the myxozoan parasite Henneguya salminicola is commonly found in the flesh of salmonids. It has been recorded in the field samples of salmon returning to the Haida Gwaii Islands. The fish responds by walling off the parasitic infection into a number of cysts that contain milky fluid. This fluid is an accumulation of a large number of parasites.

 
Henneguya salminicola, a myxozoan parasite commonly found in the flesh of salmonids on the West Coast of Canada, in coho salmon

Henneguya and other parasites in the myxosporean group have complex life cycles, where the salmon is one of two hosts. The fish releases the spores after spawning. In the Henneguya case, the spores enter a second host, most likely an invertebrate, in the spawning stream. When juvenile salmon migrate to the Pacific Ocean, the second host releases a stage infective to salmon. The parasite is then carried in the salmon until the next spawning cycle. The myxosporean parasite that causes whirling disease in trout has a similar life cycle.[74] However, as opposed to whirling disease, the Henneguya infestation does not appear to cause disease in the host salmon—even heavily infected fish tend to return to spawn successfully.

According to Dr. Kieser, a lot of work on Henneguya salminicola was done by scientists at the Pacific Biological Station in Nanaimo in the mid-1980s, in particular, an overview report[75] which states, "the fish that have the longest fresh water residence time as juveniles have the most noticeable infections. Hence in order of prevalence, coho are most infected followed by sockeye, chinook, chum and pink. As well, the report says, at the time the studies were conducted, stocks from the middle and upper reaches of large river systems in British Columbia such as Fraser, Skeena, Nass and from mainland coastal streams in the southern half of B.C., "are more likely to have a low prevalence of infection." The report also states, "It should be stressed that Henneguya, economically deleterious though it is, is harmless from the view of public health. It is strictly a fish parasite that cannot live in or affect warm blooded animals, including man".

According to Klaus Schallie, Molluscan Shellfish Program Specialist with the Canadian Food Inspection Agency, "Henneguya salminicola is found in southern B.C. also and in all species of salmon. I have previously examined smoked chum salmon sides that were riddled with cysts and some sockeye runs in Barkley Sound (southern B.C., west coast of Vancouver Island) are noted for their high incidence of infestation."[citation needed]

Sea lice, particularly Lepeophtheirus salmonis and various Caligus species, including C. clemensi and C. rogercresseyi, can cause deadly infestations of both farm-grown and wild salmon.[76][77] Sea lice are ectoparasites which feed on mucus, blood, and skin, and migrate and latch onto the skin of wild salmon during free-swimming, planktonic nauplii and copepodid larval stages, which can persist for several days.[78][79][80]

Large numbers of highly populated, open-net salmon farms[A] can create exceptionally large concentrations of sea lice; when exposed in river estuaries containing large numbers of open-net farms, many young wild salmon are infected, and do not survive as a result.[82][83] Adult salmon may survive otherwise critical numbers of sea lice, but small, thin-skinned juvenile salmon migrating to sea are highly vulnerable. On the Pacific coast of Canada, the louse-induced mortality of pink salmon in some regions is commonly over 80%.[84]

Effect of pile driving

The risk of injury caused by underwater pile driving has been studied by Dr. Halvorsen and her co-workers.[85] The study concluded that the fish are at risk of injury if the cumulative sound exposure level exceeds 210 dB relative to 1 μPa2 s.[clarification needed]

Wild fisheries

 
Wild fisheries – commercial capture in tonnes of all true wild salmon species 1950–2010, as reported by the FAO[44]

Commercial

As can be seen from the production chart at the left, the global capture reported by different countries to the FAO of commercial wild salmon has remained fairly steady since 1990 at about one million tonnes per year. This is in contrast to farmed salmon (below) which has increased in the same period from about 0.6 million tonnes to well over two million tonnes.[44]

Nearly all captured wild salmon are Pacific salmon. The capture of wild Atlantic salmon has always been relatively small, and has declined steadily since 1990. In 2011 only 2,500 tonnes were reported.[12] In contrast, about half of all farmed salmon are Atlantic salmon.

Recreational

 
Angler and gillie landing a salmon in Scotland

Recreational salmon fishing can be a technically demanding kind of sport fishing, not necessarily intuitive for beginning fishermen.[86] A conflict exists between commercial fishermen and recreational fishermen for the right to salmon stock resources. Commercial fishing in estuaries and coastal areas is often restricted so enough salmon can return to their natal rivers where they can spawn and be available for sport fishing. On parts of the North American West Coast salmon sport fishing has completely replaced inshore commercial salmon fishing.[87] In most cases, the commercial value of a salmon sold as seafood can be several times less than the value attributed to the same fish caught by a sport fisherman. This is "a powerful economic argument for allocating stock resources preferentially to sport fishing".[87]

Farms

 
Aquaculture production in tonnes of all true salmon species 1950–2010, as reported by the FAO[44]
 
Salmon farming sea cage in Torskefjorden, Senja Island, Troms, Norway

Salmon aquaculture is a major contributor to the world production of farmed finfish, representing about US$10 billion annually. Other commonly cultured fish species include tilapia, catfish, sea bass, carp and bream. Salmon farming is significant in Chile, Norway, Scotland, Canada and the Faroe Islands; it is the source for most salmon consumed in the United States and Europe. Atlantic salmon are also, in very small volumes, farmed in Russia and Tasmania, Australia.

Salmon are carnivorous, and need to be fed meals produced from catching other wild forage fish and other marine organisms. Salmon farming leads to a high demand for wild forage fish. As a predator, salmon require large nutritional intakes of protein, and farmed salmon consume more fish than they generate as a final product. On a dry weight basis, 2–4 kg of wild-caught fish are needed to produce one kilogram of salmon.[88] As the salmon farming industry expands, it requires more forage fish for feed, at a time when 75% of the world's monitored fisheries are already near to or have exceeded their maximum sustainable yield.[89] The industrial-scale extraction of wild forage fish for salmon farming affects the survivability of other wild predatory fish which rely on them for food. Research is ongoing into sustainable and plant-based salmon feeds.[90]

Intensive salmon farming uses open-net cages, which have low production costs. It has the drawback of allowing disease and sea lice to spread to local wild salmon stocks.[91]

 
Artificially incubated chum salmon fries

Another form of salmon production, which is safer but less controllable, is to raise salmon in hatcheries until they are old enough to become independent. They are released into rivers in an attempt to increase the salmon population. This system is referred to as ranching. It was very common in countries such as Sweden, before the Norwegians developed salmon farming, but is seldom done by private companies. As anyone may catch the salmon when they return to spawn, a company is limited in benefiting financially from their investment.

Because of this, the ranching method has mainly been used by various public authorities and non-profit groups, such as the Cook Inlet Aquaculture Association, as a way to increase salmon populations in situations where they have declined due to overharvesting, construction of dams and habitat destruction or fragmentation. Negative consequences to this sort of population manipulation include genetic "dilution" of the wild stocks. Many jurisdictions are now beginning to discourage supplemental fish planting in favour of harvest controls, and habitat improvement and protection.

A variant method of fish stocking, called ocean ranching, is under development in Alaska. There, the young salmon are released into the ocean far from any wild salmon streams. When it is time for them to spawn, they return to where they were released, where fishermen can catch them.

An alternative method to hatcheries is to use spawning channels. These are artificial streams, usually parallel to an existing stream, with concrete or rip-rap sides and gravel bottoms. Water from the adjacent stream is piped into the top of the channel, sometimes via a header pond, to settle out sediment. Spawning success is often much better in channels than in adjacent streams due to the control of floods, which in some years can wash out the natural redds. Because of the lack of floods, spawning channels must sometimes be cleaned out to remove accumulated sediment. The same floods that destroy natural redds also clean the regular streams. Spawning channels preserve the natural selection of natural streams, as there is no benefit, as in hatcheries, to use prophylactic chemicals to control diseases.[citation needed]

Farm-raised salmon are fed the carotenoids astaxanthin and canthaxanthin to match their flesh colour to wild salmon[92] to improve their marketability.[93] Wild salmon get these carotenoids, primarily astaxanthin, from eating shellfish and krill.

One proposed alternative to the use of wild-caught fish as feed for the salmon, is the use of soy-based products. This should be better for the local environment of the fish farm, but producing soy beans has a high environmental cost for the producing region. The fish omega-3 fatty acid content would be reduced compared to fish-fed salmon.

Another possible alternative is a yeast-based coproduct of bioethanol production, proteinaceous fermentation biomass. Substituting such products for engineered feed can result in equal (sometimes enhanced) growth in fish.[94] With its increasing availability, this would address the problems of rising costs for buying hatchery fish feed.

Yet another attractive alternative is the increased use of seaweed. Seaweed provides essential minerals and vitamins for growing organisms. It offers the advantage of providing natural amounts of dietary fiber and having a lower glycemic load than grain-based fish meal.[94] In the best-case scenario, widespread use of seaweed could yield a future in aquaculture that eliminates the need for land, freshwater, or fertilizer to raise fish.[95][failed verification]


Management

 
Spawning sockeye salmon in Becharof Creek, Becharof Wilderness, Alaska
 
Significant declines in the size of many species of Pacific salmon over the past 30 years are negatively impacting salmon fecundity, nutrient transport, commercial fishery profits, and rural food security.[96]

Salmon population levels are of concern in the Atlantic and in some parts of the Pacific.[97] The population of wild salmon declined markedly in recent decades, especially North Atlantic populations, which spawn in the waters of western Europe and eastern Canada, and wild salmon in the Snake and Columbia River systems in northwestern United States.

Alaska fishery stocks are still abundant, and catches have been on the rise in recent decades, after the state initiated limitations in 1972.[98][99][citation needed] Some of the most important Alaskan salmon sustainable wild fisheries are located near the Kenai River, Copper River, and in Bristol Bay. Fish farming of Pacific salmon is outlawed in the United States Exclusive Economic Zone,[100] however, there is a substantial network of publicly funded hatcheries,[101] and the State of Alaska's fisheries management system is viewed as a leader in the management of wild fish stocks.

In Canada, returning Skeena River wild salmon support commercial, subsistence and recreational fisheries, as well as the area's diverse wildlife on the coast and around communities hundreds of miles inland in the watershed. The status of wild salmon in Washington is mixed. Of 435 wild stocks of salmon and steelhead, only 187 of them were classified as healthy; 113 had an unknown status, one was extinct, 12 were in critical condition and 122 were experiencing depressed populations.[102]

The commercial salmon fisheries in California have been either severely curtailed or closed completely in recent years, due to critically low returns on the Klamath and or Sacramento rivers, causing millions of dollars in losses to commercial fishermen.[103] Both Atlantic and Pacific salmon are popular sportfish.

Salmon populations have been established in all the Great Lakes. Coho stocks were planted by the state of Michigan in the late 1960s to control the growing population of non-native alewife. Now Chinook (king), Atlantic, and coho (silver) salmon are annually stocked in all Great Lakes by most bordering states and provinces. These populations are not self-sustaining and do not provide much in the way of a commercial fishery, but have led to the development of a thriving sport fishery.

Wild, self sustaining Pacific salmon populations have been established in New Zealand, Chile, and Argentina.[104] They are highly prized by sport fishers, but others worry about displacing native fish species.[105] Also, and especially in Chile (Aquaculture in Chile), both Atlantic and Pacific salmon are used in net pen farming.

In 2020 researchers reported widespread declines in the sizes of four species of wild Pacific salmon: Chinook, chum, coho, and sockeye. These declines have been occurring for 30 years, and are thought to be associated with climate change and competition with growing numbers of pink and hatchery salmon.[106][96]

As food

 
Salmon sashimi

Salmon is a popular food fish. Classified as an oily fish,[107] salmon is considered to be healthy due to the fish's high protein, high omega-3 fatty acids, and high vitamin D[108] content. Salmon is also a source of cholesterol, with a range of 23–214 mg/100 g depending on the species.[109] According to reports in the journal Science, farmed salmon may contain high levels of dioxins.[medical citation needed] PCB (polychlorinated biphenyl) levels may be up to eight times higher in farmed salmon than in wild salmon,[110] but still well below levels considered dangerous.[111][112] Nonetheless, according to a 2006 study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association, the benefits of eating even farmed salmon still outweigh any risks imposed by contaminants.[113] Farmed salmon has a high omega-3 fatty acid content comparable to wild salmon.[114] The type of omega-3 present may not be a factor for other important health functions.[vague]

Salmon flesh is generally orange to red, although white-fleshed wild salmon with white-black skin colour occurs. The natural colour of salmon results from carotenoid pigments, largely astaxanthin, but also canthaxanthin, in the flesh.[115] Wild salmon get these carotenoids from eating krill and other tiny shellfish.

The vast majority of Atlantic salmon available in market around the world are farmed (almost 99%),[116] whereas the majority of Pacific salmon are wild-caught (greater than 80%). Canned salmon in the US is usually wild Pacific catch, though some farmed salmon is available in canned form. Smoked salmon is another popular preparation method, and can either be hot or cold smoked. Lox can refer to either cold-smoked salmon or salmon cured in a brine solution (also called gravlax). Traditional canned salmon includes some skin (which is harmless) and bone (which adds calcium). Skinless and boneless canned salmon is also available.

Raw salmon flesh may contain Anisakis nematodes, marine parasites that cause anisakiasis. Before the availability of refrigeration, the Japanese did not consume raw salmon. Salmon and salmon roe have only recently come into use in making sashimi (raw fish) and sushi.[117]

To the Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast, salmon is considered a vital part of the diet. Specifically, the indigenous peoples of Haida Gwaii, located near former Queen Charlotte Island in British Columbia, rely on salmon as one of their main sources of food, although many other bands have fished Pacific waters for centuries.[118] Salmon are not only ancient and unique, but it is important because it is expressed in culture, art forms, and ceremonial feasts. Annually, salmon spawn in Haida, feeding on everything on the way upstream and down.[118] Within the Haida nation, salmon is referred to as "tsiin",[118] and is prepared in several ways including smoking, baking, frying, and making soup.

Historically, there has always been enough salmon, as traditional subsistence fishing methods did not result in overfishing, and people only took what they needed.[119] In 2003, a report on First Nations participation in commercial fisheries, including salmon, commissioned by BC's Ministry of Agriculture and Food found that there were 595 First Nation-owned and operated commercial vessels in the province. Of those vessels, First Nations' members owned 564.[119] However, employment within the industry has decreased overall by 50% in the last decade, with 8,142 registered commercial fishermen in 2003. This has affected employment for many fisherman, who rely on salmon as a source of income.[relevant?]

Black bears also rely on salmon as food. The leftovers the bears leave behind are considered important nutrients for the Canadian forest, such as the soil, trees and plants. In this sense, the salmon feed the forest and in return receive clean water and gravel in which to hatch and grow, sheltered from extremes of temperature and water flow in times of high and low rainfall.[118] However, the condition of the salmon in Haida has been affected in recent decades. Due to logging and development, much of the salmon's habitat (i.e., Ain River) has been destroyed, resulting in the fish being close to endangered.[118] For residents, this has resulted in limits on catches, in turn, has affected families diets, and cultural events such as feasts. Some of the salmon systems in danger include: the Davidon, Naden, Mamim, and Mathers.[118] It is clear that further protection is needed for salmon, such as their habitats, where logging commonly occurs.

History

 
Seine fishing for salmon – Wenzel Hollar, 1607–1677

The salmon has long been at the heart of the culture and livelihood of coastal dwellers, which can be traced as far back as 5,000 years when archeologists discovered Nisqually tribe remnants.[120] The original distribution of the genus Oncorhynchus covered the Pacific Rim coastline.[121] History shows salmon used tributaries, rivers and estuaries without regard to jurisdiction for 18–22 million years. Baseline data is near impossible to recreate based on the inconsistent historical data, but there has been massive depletion since the 1900s. The Pacific Northwest once sprawled with native inhabitants who ensured little degradation was caused by their actions to salmon habitats. As animists, the indigenous people relied not only for salmon for food, but spiritual guidance. The role of the salmon spirit guided the people to respect ecological systems such as the rivers and tributaries the salmon used for spawning. Natives often used the entire fish and left little waste by turning the bladder into glue, and using bones for toys and skin for clothing and shoes. The original salmon ceremony, introduced by indigenous tribes on the Pacific coast, consisted of three major parts. First was the welcoming of the first catch, and then the cooking of it. Finally the bones were returned to the sea to induce hospitality so other salmon would give their lives to the people of that village.[122]

Many tribes, such as the Yurok, had a taboo against harvesting the first fish that swam upriver in summer, but once they confirmed that the salmon had returned in abundance they would begin to catch them in plentiful.[123] The indigenous practices were guided by deep ecological wisdom, which was eradicated when Euro-American settlements began to be developed.[124] Salmon have a much grander history than what is presently shown today. The salmon that once dominated the Pacific Ocean are now just a fraction in population and size. The Pacific salmon population is now less than 1–3% of what it was when Lewis and Clark arrived at the region.[125] In his 1908 State of the Union address, U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt observed that the fisheries were in significant decline:[126][127]

The salmon fisheries of the Columbia River are now but a fraction of what they were twenty-five years ago, and what they would be now if the United States Government had taken complete charge of them by intervening between Oregon and Washington. During these twenty-five years the fishermen of each State have naturally tried to take all they could get, and the two legislatures have never been able to agree on joint action of any kind adequate in degree for the protection of the fisheries. At the moment the fishing on the Oregon side is practically closed, while there is no limit on the Washington side of any kind, and no one can tell what the courts will decide as to the very statutes under which this action and non-action result. Meanwhile very few salmon reach the spawning grounds, and probably four years hence the fisheries will amount to nothing; and this comes from a struggle between the associated, or gill-net, fishermen on the one hand, and the owners of the fishing wheels up the river.

On the Columbia River the Chief Joseph Dam completed in 1955 completely blocks salmon migration to the upper Columbia River system.

The Fraser River salmon population was affected by the 1914 slide caused by the Canadian Pacific Railway at Hells Gate. The 1917 catch was one quarter of the 1913 catch.[128]

The origin of the word for "salmon" was one of the arguments about the location of the origin of the Indo-European languages.

Mythology

 
Scales on the "Big Fish" or "Salmon of Knowledge" celebrates the return of fish to the River Lagan

The salmon is an important creature in several strands of Celtic mythology and poetry, which often associated them with wisdom and venerability. In Irish folklore, fishermen associated salmon with fairies and thought it was unlucky to refer to them by name.[129] In Irish mythology, a creature called the Salmon of Knowledge[130] plays key role in the tale The Boyhood Deeds of Fionn. In the tale, the Salmon will grant powers of knowledge to whoever eats it, and is sought by poet Finn Eces for seven years. Finally Finn Eces catches the fish and gives it to his young pupil, Fionn mac Cumhaill, to prepare it for him. However, Fionn burns his thumb on the salmon's juices, and he instinctively puts it in his mouth. In so doing, he inadvertently gains the Salmon's wisdom. Elsewhere in Irish mythology, the salmon is also one of the incarnations of both Tuan mac Cairill[131] and Fintan mac Bóchra.[132]

Salmon also feature in Welsh mythology. In the prose tale Culhwch and Olwen, the Salmon of Llyn Llyw is the oldest animal in Britain, and the only creature who knows the location of Mabon ap Modron. After speaking to a string of other ancient animals who do not know his whereabouts, King Arthur's men Cai and Bedwyr are led to the Salmon of Llyn Llyw, who lets them ride its back to the walls of Mabon's prison in Gloucester.[133]

In Norse mythology, after Loki tricked the blind god Höðr into killing his brother Baldr, Loki jumped into a river and transformed himself into a salmon to escape punishment from the other gods. When they held out a net to trap him he attempted to leap over it but was caught by Thor who grabbed him by the tail with his hand, and this is why the salmon's tail is tapered.[134]

Salmon are central spiritually and culturally to Native American mythology on the Pacific coast, from the Haida and Coast Salish peoples, to the Nuu-chah-nulth peoples in British Columbia.[135]

Notes

  1. ^ Open-net fish farms are large anchored floating net cages often located in bays and relatively sheltered areas. Each farm may have over a million fish.[81]

References

  1. ^ "NOAA/NMFS/NWFSC-TM30: Homing, Straying, and Colonization". U.S. Dept Commerce/NOAA/NMFS/NWFSC/Publications. from the original on 20 November 2018. Retrieved 11 August 2015.
  2. ^ Scholz AT, Horrall RM, Cooper JC, Hasler AD (1976). "Imprinting to chemical cues: The basis for home stream selection in salmon". Science. 192 (4245): 1247–9. Bibcode:1976Sci...192.1247S. doi:10.1126/science.1273590. PMID 1273590. S2CID 11248713.
  3. ^ Ueda H (2011). "Physiological mechanism of homing migration in Pacific salmon from behavioral to molecular biological approaches" (PDF). General and Comparative Endocrinology. 170 (2): 222–32. doi:10.1016/j.ygcen.2010.02.003. hdl:2115/44787. PMID 20144612. S2CID 205779299. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
  4. ^ Lackey, Robert; Lach, Denise; Duncan, Sally, eds. (2006). Salmon 2100: The Future of Wild Pacific Salmon. Bethesda, MD: American Fisheries Society. p. 629. ISBN 1-888569-78-6.
  5. ^ "Algas nocivas matam mais de 4,2 mil toneladas de salmão no Chile". Retrieved 4 September 2022.
  6. ^ McDowall, R. M. (1994). The origins of New Zealand's chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha. Marine Fisheries Review, 1 January 1994.
  7. ^ "salmon". Wiktionary. 31 December 2022. Retrieved 1 January 2023.
  8. ^ "lax". Wiktionary. 12 December 2022. Retrieved 1 January 2023.
  9. ^ "Salmon (n)". Online Etymology Dictionary. from the original on 2 April 2019. Retrieved 25 April 2012.
  10. ^ Heiko Schneider (25 August 2011). . Global Fly Fisher. Archived from the original on 26 April 2014. Retrieved 25 April 2014.
  11. ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2012). "Salmo salar" in FishBase. April 2012 version.
  12. ^ a b "Species Fact Sheet: Salmo salar, Linnaeus, 1758". FAO. from the original on 2 April 2019.
  13. ^ "Salmo salar". Integrated Taxonomic Information System.
  14. ^ World Conservation Monitoring Centre (1996). "Salmo salar". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 1996: e.T19855A9026693. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.1996.RLTS.T19855A9026693.en. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
  15. ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2012). "Oncorhynchus tshawytscha" in FishBase. April 2012 version.
  16. ^ "Species Fact Sheet: Oncorhynchus tshawytscha (Walbaum, 1792)". FAO. from the original on 3 April 2019.
  17. ^ "Oncorhynchus tshawytscha". Integrated Taxonomic Information System.
  18. ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2012). "Oncorhynchus keta" in FishBase. April 2012 version.
  19. ^ "Species Fact Sheet: Oncorhynchus keta (Walbaum, 1792)". FAO. from the original on 3 April 2019.
  20. ^ "Oncorhynchus keta". Integrated Taxonomic Information System.
  21. ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2012). "Oncorhynchus kisutch" in FishBase. April 2012 version.
  22. ^ "Species Fact Sheet: Oncorhynchus kisutch (Walbaum, 1792)". FAO. from the original on 3 April 2019.
  23. ^ "Oncorhynchus kisutch". Integrated Taxonomic Information System.
  24. ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2012). "Oncorhynchus masou" in FishBase. April 2012 version.
  25. ^ "Oncorhynchus masou". Integrated Taxonomic Information System.
  26. ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2012). "Oncorhynchus gorbuscha" in FishBase. April 2012 version.
  27. ^ "Species Fact Sheet: Oncorhynchus gorbuscha (Walbaum, 1792)". FAO. from the original on 3 April 2019.
  28. ^ "Oncorhynchus gorbuscha". Integrated Taxonomic Information System.
  29. ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2012). "Oncorhynchus nerka" in FishBase. April 2012 version.
  30. ^ "Species Fact Sheet: Oncorhynchus nerka (Walbaum, 1792)". FAO. from the original on 3 April 2019.
  31. ^ "Oncorhynchus nerka". Integrated Taxonomic Information System.
  32. ^ Rand, P.S. (2011). "Oncorhynchus nerka". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2011: e.T135301A4071001. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2011-2.RLTS.T135301A4071001.en. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
  33. ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2012). "Arripis trutta" in FishBase. April 2012 version.
  34. ^ "Arripis trutta". Integrated Taxonomic Information System.
  35. ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2012). "Hucho hucho" in FishBase. April 2012 version.
  36. ^ "Hucho hucho". Integrated Taxonomic Information System.
  37. ^ Freyhof, J.; Kottelat, M. (2008). "Hucho hucho". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2008: e.T10264A3186143. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T10264A3186143.en. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
  38. ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2012). "Elagatis bipinnulata" in FishBase. April 2012 version.
  39. ^ "Species Fact Sheet: Elagatis bipinnulata (Quoy & Gaimard, 1825)". FAO. from the original on 25 November 2018.
  40. ^ "Elagatis bipinnulata". Integrated Taxonomic Information System.
  41. ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2012). "Eleutheronema tetradactylum" in FishBase. April 2012 version.
  42. ^ "Eleutheronema tetradactylum". Integrated Taxonomic Information System.
  43. ^ Montgomery, David (2004). King of Fish. Cambridge, MA: Westview Press. pp. 27–28. ISBN 0813342996.
  44. ^ a b c d Based on data sourced from the relevant FAO Species Fact Sheets
  45. ^ . Alaska Department of Fish and Game. Archived from the original on 17 December 2006. Retrieved 17 November 2006.
  46. ^ a b c Stephenson, S. A. "The Distribution of Pacific Salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) in the Canadian Western Arctic" (PDF). (PDF) from the original on 12 July 2017. Retrieved 1 September 2013.
  47. ^ . NOAA Fisheries. 6 April 2012. Archived from the original on 28 May 2012.
  48. ^ . Alaska Department of Fish and Game. Archived from the original on 5 April 2007. Retrieved 17 November 2006.
  49. ^ . NOAA Fisheries. 28 June 2012. Archived from the original on 2 February 2013.
  50. ^ . Taiwan Journal. Archived from the original on 13 October 2007. Retrieved 13 December 2006.
  51. ^ . Alaska Department of Fish and Game. Archived from the original on 26 February 2007. Retrieved 17 November 2006.
  52. ^ . Alaska Department of Fish and Game. Archived from the original on 6 December 2006. Retrieved 17 November 2006.
  53. ^ a b c "Pacific Salmon, (Oncorhynchus spp.)". U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. from the original on 16 November 2018. Retrieved 17 November 2006.
  54. ^ . U.S. Bureau of Land Management. Archived from the original on 25 February 2009.
  55. ^ McCormick, Stephen D. (1 January 2012), McCormick, Stephen D.; Farrell, Anthony P.; Brauner, Colin J. (eds.), "5 - Smolt Physiology and Endocrinology", Fish Physiology, Euryhaline Fishes, Academic Press, vol. 32, pp. 199–251, doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-396951-4.00005-0, ISBN 9780123969514, retrieved 26 October 2020
  56. ^ Björnsson, Björn Th.; Hansson, Tiiu (February 1983). "Effects of hypophysectomy on the plasma ionic and osmotic balance in rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri". General and Comparative Endocrinology. 49 (2): 240–247. doi:10.1016/0016-6480(83)90140-5. ISSN 0016-6480. PMID 6840518.
  57. ^ Vladić, Tomislav; Petersson, Erik, eds. (2015). Evolutionary Biology of the Atlantic Salmon (1st ed.). CRC Press. ISBN 978-1466598485.
  58. ^ McGrath, Susan. . Audubon Society. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 17 November 2006.
  59. ^ Fisheries, NOAA (3 May 2022). "Fun Facts About Amazing Atlantic Salmon | NOAA Fisheries". NOAA. Retrieved 15 July 2022.
  60. ^ Glatz, Kyle (7 December 2021). "What Do Salmon Eat? 12 Foods in Their Diet". AZ Animals. Retrieved 15 July 2022.
  61. ^ Willson MF, Halupka KC (1995). (PDF). Conservation Biology. 9 (3): 489–497. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1995.09030489.x. JSTOR 2386604. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 November 2011.
  62. ^ Reimchen, TE (2001). "Salmon nutrients, nitrogen isotopes and coastal forests" (PDF). Ecoforestry. 16: 13. (PDF) from the original on 6 May 2003.
  63. ^ Quinn, T.; Carlson, S.; Gende, S. & Rich, H. (2009). (PDF). Canadian Journal of Zoology. 87 (3): 195–203. doi:10.1139/Z09-004. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 June 2012.
  64. ^ Reimchen TE, Mathewson DD, Hocking MD, Moran J (2002). "Isotopic evidence for enrichment of salmon-derived nutrients in vegetation, soil, and insects in riparian zones in coastal British Columbia" (PDF). American Fisheries Society Symposium. 20: 1–12. (PDF) from the original on 12 October 2003.
  65. ^ Helfield, J. & Naiman, R. (2006). "Keystone Interactions: Salmon and Bear in Riparian Forests of Alaska" (PDF). Ecosystems. 9 (2): 167–180. doi:10.1007/s10021-004-0063-5. S2CID 28989920. (PDF) from the original on 26 April 2012.
  66. ^ "Extinction". Northwest Power and Conservation Council. from the original on 1 January 2018. Retrieved 21 December 2007.
  67. ^ Hyatt, K D; McQueen, D J; Shortreed, K S; Rankin, D P (2004). (PDF). Environmental Reviews. 12 (3): 133–162. doi:10.1139/a04-008. S2CID 12930576. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 August 2020.
  68. ^ Pollock, M. M.; Pess, G. R.; Beechie, T. J. "The Importance of Beaver Ponds to Coho Salmon Production in the Stillaguamish River Basin, Washington, USA" (PDF). (PDF) from the original on 1 September 2006. Retrieved 21 December 2007.
  69. ^ Hood, W Gregory. . Archived from the original on 24 July 2008.
  70. ^ "Yuba River Steelhead Redd Surveys (preliminary draft)" (PDF). Yuba River Management Team (RMT) Web Site, Yuba County Water Agency. 19 January 2010. (PDF) from the original on 29 April 2018.
  71. ^ "Elder's devotion to ugly fish lives on after his tragic death". Al Jazeera America. 20 August 2014. from the original on 16 November 2018.
  72. ^ "Pacific Lamprey's Big Year". Redheaded Blackbelt. 18 June 2017. from the original on 16 November 2018.
  73. ^ "A Primeval Marvel" (PDF). terra. Oregon State University. 2014. (PDF) from the original on 3 May 2018.
  74. ^ Crosier, Danielle M.; Molloy, Daniel P.; Bartholomew, Jerri. (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 February 2008. Retrieved 13 December 2007.
  75. ^ Boyce, N.P.; Kabata, Z.; Margolis, L. (1985). "Investigation of the Distribution, Detection, and Biology of Henneguya salminicola (Protozoa, Myxozoa), a Parasite of the Flesh of Pacific Salmon" (PDF). Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences (1450): 55. (PDF) from the original on 12 November 2014.
  76. ^ (PDF). Watershed Watch Salmon Society. 2004. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 July 2012.
  77. ^ Bravo, S. (2003). "Sea lice in Chilean salmon farms". Bull. Eur. Assoc. Fish Pathol. 23: 197–200.
  78. ^ Morton, A.; Routledge, R; Peet, C; Ladwig, A (2004). "Sea lice (Lepeophtheirus salmonis) infection rates on juvenile pink (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) and chum (Oncorhynchus keta) salmon in the nearshore marine environment of British Columbia, Canada". Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. 61 (2): 147–157. doi:10.1139/f04-016.
  79. ^ Peet, C. R. (2007). Interactions between sea lice (Lepeophtheirus salmonis and Caligus clemensii), juvenile salmon (Oncorhynchus keta and Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) and salmon farms in British Columbia (PDF) (MSc). Victoria, British Columbia, Canada: University of Victoria. (PDF) from the original on 26 October 2016.
  80. ^ Krkošek, M; Gottesfeld, A; Proctor, B; Rolston, D; Carr-Harris, C; Lewis, M.A. (2007). "Effects of host migration, diversity and aquaculture on sea lice threats to Pacific salmon populations". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 274 (1629): 3141–9. doi:10.1098/rspb.2007.1122. PMC 2293942. PMID 17939989.
  81. ^ Morton, Alexandra. "SALMON CONFIDENTIAL: The ugly truth about Canada's open-net salmon farms". WHAT IS AFISH FARM?. from the original on 5 October 2015. Retrieved 10 May 2019.
  82. ^ Morton, Alexandra; Routledge, Rick; Krkosek, Martin (2008). (PDF). North American Journal of Fisheries Management. 28 (2): 523–532. doi:10.1577/M07-042.1. ISSN 0275-5947. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 August 2013.
  83. ^ Krkosek, M.; Lewis, M. A.; Morton, A.; Frazer, L. N.; Volpe, J. P. (2006). "Epizootics of wild fish induced by farm fish". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 103 (42): 15506–15510. Bibcode:2006PNAS..10315506K. doi:10.1073/pnas.0603525103. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 1591297. PMID 17021017.
  84. ^ Krkošek, Martin (2007). "Declining Wild Salmon Populations in Relation to Parasites from Farm Salmon". Science. 318 (5857): 1772–5. Bibcode:2007Sci...318.1772K. doi:10.1126/science.1148744. PMID 18079401. S2CID 86544687.
  85. ^ Browman, Howard; Halvorsen, Michele B.; Casper, Brandon M.; Woodley, Christa M.; Carlson, Thomas J.; Popper, Arthur N. (2012). "Threshold for Onset of Injury in Chinook Salmon from Exposure to Impulsive Pile Driving Sounds". PLOS ONE. 7 (6): e38968. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...738968H. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0038968. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3380060. PMID 22745695.
  86. ^ Weissglas, G; Appelblad, H (1997). Bengtsson, Bo; Toivonen, A-L; Tuunainen, P (eds.). Wild-spawning Baltic salmon – A natural resource redefined: From food to toys for "boys"?. Socio-economics of recreational fishery: Hotel Royal Wasa, Vaasa, Finland. Copenhagen: Nordic Council of Ministers [Nordiska ministerrådet]. pp. 89–95. ISBN 9789289301206.
  87. ^ a b Shaw, Susan; Muir, James (1987). Salmon: Economics and Marketing. Springer Netherlands. p. 250. ISBN 9780709933441.
  88. ^ Naylor, Rosamond L. (PDF). Science; 10/30/98, Vol. 282 Issue 5390, p883. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 March 2009.
  89. ^ (PDF). Seafood Choices Alliance. 2005. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 September 2015.
  90. ^ Fisheries, NOAA (30 December 2019). "Feeds for Aquaculture | NOAA Fisheries". NOAA. Retrieved 14 April 2023.
  91. ^ "Fish farms drive wild salmon populations toward extinction". SeaWeb. 13 December 2007. from the original on 25 November 2018.
  92. ^ . Archived from the original on 13 October 2007. Retrieved 26 August 2007. Astaxanthin (3,3'-hydroxy-β,β-carotene-4,4'-dione) is a carotenoid pigment, one of a large group of organic molecules related to vitamins and widely found in plants. In addition to providing red, orange, and yellow colours to various plant parts and playing a role in photosynthesis, carotenoids are powerful antioxidants, and some (notably various forms of carotene) are essential precursors to vitamin A synthesis in animals.
  93. ^ Guilford, Gwynn (12 March 2015). "Here's why your farmed salmon has color added to it". Quartz (publication). from the original on 13 March 2015. Retrieved 12 March 2015.
  94. ^ a b (PDF). NOAA/USDA Alternative Feeds Initiative. November 2010. p. 56. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 October 2011.
  95. ^ . nwr.noaa.gov. p. 57.
  96. ^ a b Oke, K. B.; Cunningham, C. J.; Westley, P. a. H.; Baskett, M. L.; Carlson, S. M.; Clark, J.; Hendry, A. P.; Karatayev, V. A.; Kendall, N. W.; Kibele, J.; Kindsvater, H. K.; Kobayashi, K. M.; Lewis, B.; Munch, S.; Reynolds, J. D.; Vick, G. K.; Palkovacs, E. P. (19 August 2020). "Recent declines in salmon body size impact ecosystems and fisheries". Nature Communications. 11 (1): 4155. Bibcode:2020NatCo..11.4155O. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-17726-z. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 7438488. PMID 32814776.   Text and images are available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
  97. ^ Lackey, Robert (1999). "Salmon policy: science, society, restoration, and reality". Environmental Science and Policy. 2 (4–5): 369–379. doi:10.1016/S1462-9011(99)00034-9.
  98. ^ "1878–2010, Historical Commercial Salmon Catches and Exvessel Values". Alaska Department of Fish and Game. Retrieved 6 August 2011.
  99. ^ Viechnicki, Joe (3 August 2011). . KRBD Public Radio in Ketchikan, Alaska. Archived from the original on 28 March 2012. Retrieved 6 August 2011.
  100. ^ Hey, Ellen; Burke, W. T.; Pnzoni, D. (1991). The Regulation of Driftnet Fishing on the High Seas: Legal Issues. Food & Agriculture Org. ISBN 978-92-5-103009-7.
  101. ^ media.aprn.org 21 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine|low fish returns in Southeast this summer have been tough on the region's hatcheries
  102. ^ Johnson, Thom H.; Lincoln, Rich; Graves, Gary R. & Gibbons, Robert G. (1997). "Status of Wild Salmon and Steelhead Stocks in Washington State". In Stouder, Deanna J.; Bisson, Peter A. & Naiman, Robert J. (eds.). Pacific Salmon and Their Ecosystems: Status and Future Options. Springer. pp. 127–144. doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-6375-4_11. ISBN 978-1-4615-6375-4.
  103. ^ Hackett, S. & D. Hansen. "Cost and Revenue Characteristics of the Salmon Fisheries in California and Oregon". Retrieved 1 June 2009.
  104. ^ Correa, Cristian; Moran, Paul (2017). "Polyphyletic ancestry of expanding Patagonian Chinook salmon populations". Scientific Reports. 14338 (1): 14338. Bibcode:2017NatSR...714338C. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-14465-y. PMC 5662728. PMID 29084997.
  105. ^ Iriarte, J. Agustin; Lobos, Gabriel A.; Jaksic, Fabian M. (2005). "Invasive vertebrate species in Chile and their control and monitoring by governmental agencies". Revista Chilena de Historia Natural. 78 (78): 143–154.
  106. ^ "Alaska's salmon are getting smaller, affecting people and ecosystems". phys.org. Retrieved 6 September 2020.
  107. ^ "What's an oily fish?". Food Standards Agency. 24 June 2004. Archived from the original on 10 December 2010.
  108. ^ . National Institutes of Health. Archived from the original on 16 July 2007. Retrieved 13 December 2007.
  109. ^ "Cholesterol: Cholesterol Content in Seafoods (Tuna, Salmon, Shrimp)". Retrieved 13 December 2007.
  110. ^ Hites, R. A.; Foran, J. A.; Carpenter, D. O.; Hamilton, M. C.; Knuth, B. A.; Schwager, S. J. (2004). (PDF). Science. 303 (5655): 226–9. Bibcode:2004Sci...303..226H. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.319.8375. doi:10.1126/science.1091447. PMID 14716013. S2CID 24058620. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 August 2017. Retrieved 27 October 2017.
  111. ^ "Farmed vs. wild salmon – which is better?". CTV News. from the original on 8 November 2018. Retrieved 28 April 2013.
  112. ^ Foran, J. A.; Carpenter, D. O.; Hamilton, M. C.; Knuth, B. A.; Schwager, S. J. (2005). "Risk-Based Consumption Advice for Farmed Atlantic and Wild Pacific Salmon Contaminated with Dioxins and Dioxin-like Compounds". Environmental Health Perspectives. 113 (5): 552–556. doi:10.1289/ehp.7626. PMC 1257546. PMID 15866762.
  113. ^ Mozaffarian, Dariush; Rimm, Eric B. (2006). "Fish Intake, Contaminants, and Human Health". JAMA. 296 (15): 1885–99. doi:10.1001/jama.296.15.1885. PMID 17047219.
  114. ^ Raatz, S. K.; Rosenberger, T. A.; Johnson, L. K.; Wolters, W. W.; Burr, G. S.; Picklo Mj, Sr (2013). "Dose-Dependent Consumption of Farmed Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar) Increases Plasma Phospholipid n-3 Fatty Acids Differentially". Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. 113 (2): 282–7. doi:10.1016/j.jand.2012.09.022. PMC 3572904. PMID 23351633.
  115. ^ (PDF). European Commission—Health & Consumer Protection Directorate. pp. 6–7. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 November 2006. Retrieved 13 November 2006.
  116. ^ Montaigne, Fen. National Geographic. Archived from the original on 1 March 2007. Retrieved 17 November 2006.
  117. ^ Jiang, Jess (18 September 2015). "How The Desperate Norwegian Salmon Industry Created A Sushi Staple". National Public Radio. from the original on 24 April 2019. Retrieved 14 January 2017.
  118. ^ a b c d e f (PDF). Council of the Haida Nation. September 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 April 2015.
  119. ^ a b Garner, Kerri; Parfitt, Ben (April 2006). (PDF). Vancouver, BC: Pacific Fisheries Resource Conservation Council. ISBN 1-897110-28-6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 April 2015.
  120. ^ Wilkinson, Charles (2000). Messages from Frank's Landing: A Story of Salmon, Treaties, and the Indian Way. University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0295980119. OCLC 44391504.
  121. ^ Nadel., Foley, Dana (1 January 2005). Atlas of pacific salmon : the first map-based status assessment of salmon in the North Pacific. California University Press. ISBN 978-0520245044. OCLC 470376738.
  122. ^ Amoss, Pamela T. (1987). "The Fish God Gave Us: The First Salmon Ceremony Revived". Arctic Anthropology. 24 (1): 56–66. JSTOR 40316132.
  123. ^ Lichatowich, Jim (1999). Salmon Without Rivers: A History of the Pacific Salmon Crisis. Island Press. ISBN 978-1559633604. OCLC 868995261.
  124. ^ E., Taylor, Joseph (2001). Making Salmon: An Environmental History of the Northwest Fisheries Crisis. Univ of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0295981147. OCLC 228275619.
  125. ^ Mcdermott, Jim (2017). . Archived from the original on 15 November 2006.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  126. ^ "Columbia River History: Commercial Fishing". Northwest Power and Conservation Council. 2010. from the original on 11 December 2010. Retrieved 26 January 2012.
  127. ^ Roosevelt, Theodore (8 December 1908). . Archived from the original on 30 January 2013. Retrieved 31 January 2012.
  128. ^ Babcock, John P (1920). Fraser River Salmon Situation a Reclamation Project. Victoria, B.C: W. H. Cullin. pp. 5.
  129. ^ Ní Fhloinn, Bairbre (2018). Cold Iron Aspects of the occupational lore of Irish fishermen. University College Dublin. pp. 105–123. ISBN 978-0-9565628-7-6.
  130. ^ "The Salmon of Knowledge. Celtic Mythology, Fairy Tale". Luminarium.org. 18 January 2007. from the original on 16 November 2018. Retrieved 1 June 2010.
  131. ^ . Maryjones.us. Archived from the original on 27 March 2010. Retrieved 18 March 2010.
  132. ^ "The Colloquy between Fintan and the Hawk of Achill". Ucc.ie. from the original on 31 December 2018. Retrieved 18 March 2010.
  133. ^ Parker, Will. "Culhwch ac Olwen: A translation of the oldest Arthurian tale". Culhwch ac Olwen. from the original on 16 November 2018. Retrieved 17 January 2018.
  134. ^ "The Poetic Edda". Translated by Henry Adams Bellows. from the original on 6 May 2019. Retrieved 27 April 2011.
  135. ^ "Tribal Salmon Culture: Salmon Culture of the Pacific Northwest Tribes". Columbia River Inter-Tribal Fish Commission. from the original on 13 May 2019.

Further reading

  • Atlas of Pacific Salmon, Xanthippe Augerot and the State of the Salmon Consortium, University of California Press, 2005, hardcover, 152 pages, ISBN 0-520-24504-0
  • Making Salmon: An Environmental History of the Northwest Fisheries Crisis, Joseph E. Taylor III, University of Washington Press, 1999, 488 pages, ISBN 0-295-98114-8
  • Trout and Salmon of North America, Robert J. Behnke, Illustrated by Joseph R. Tomelleri, The Free Press, 2002, hardcover, 359 pages, ISBN 0-7432-2220-2
  • Come back, salmon, By Molly Cone, Sierra Club Books, 48 pages, ISBN 0-87156-572-2 – A book for juveniles describes the restoration of 'Pigeon Creek'.
  • The salmon: their fight for survival, By Anthony Netboy, 1973, Houghton Mifflin Co., 613 pages, ISBN 0-395-14013-7
  • A River Lost, by Blaine Harden, 1996, WW Norton Co., 255 pages, ISBN 0-393-31690-4. (Historical view of the Columbia River system).
  • River of Life, Channel of Death, by Keith C. Peterson, 1995, Confluence Press, 306 pages, ISBN 978-0-87071-496-2. (Fish and dams on the Lower Snake River.)
  • Salmon, by Dr Peter Coates, 2006, ISBN 1-86189-295-0
  • Lackey, Robert T (2000) "Restoring Wild Salmon to the Pacific Northwest: Chasing an Illusion?" In: Patricia Koss and Mike Katz (Eds) What we don't know about Pacific Northwest fish runs: An inquiry into decision-making under uncertainty, Portland State University, Portland, Oregon. Pages 91–143.
  • Mills D (2001) "Salmonids" In: pp. 252–261, Steele JH, Thorpe SA and Turekian KK (2010) Marine Biology: A Derivative of the Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences, Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-08-096480-5.
  • NEWS January 31, 2007: U.S. Orders Modification of Klamath River – Dams Removal May Prove More Cost-Effective for allowing the passage of Salmon
  • Salmon age and sex composition and mean lengths for the Yukon River area, 2004 / by Shawna Karpovich and Larry DuBois. Hosted by Alaska State Publications Program.
  • "Studies in the Natural History of the Sacramento Salmon" . Popular Science Monthly. Vol. 61. July 1902.
  • Trading Tails: Linkages Between Russian Salmon Fisheries and East Asian Markets. Shelley Clarke. (November 2007). 120pp. ISBN 978-1-85850-230-4.
  • The Salmons Tale, one of the twelve Ionan Tales by Jim MacCool

External links

  • G. Bruce Knecht for Men's Journal
  • Plea for the Wanderer, an NFB documentary on West Coast salmon
  • Arctic Salmon on Facebook research project studying Pacific salmon in the Arctic and potential links to climate change
  • University of Washington Libraries Digital Collections – Salmon Collection A collection of documents describing salmon of the Pacific Northwest.
  • Salmon Nation A movement to create a bioregional community, based on the historic spawning area of Pacific salmon (CA to AK).
  • Arctic Salmon Pacific salmon distribution and abundance seems to be increasing in the Arctic. Links to a Canadian research project documenting changes in Pacific salmon and studying Pacific salmon ecology in the Arctic.

salmon, this, article, about, particular, kind, fish, food, food, other, uses, disambiguation, common, name, several, commercially, important, species, euryhaline, finned, fish, from, family, idae, which, native, tributaries, north, atlantic, genus, salmo, nor. This article is about a particular kind of fish For the food see Salmon as food For other uses see Salmon disambiguation Salmon ˈ s ae m e n is the common name for several commercially important species of euryhaline ray finned fish from the family Salmonidae which are native to tributaries of the North Atlantic genus Salmo and North Pacific genus Oncorhynchus basin Other closely related fish in the same family include trout char grayling whitefish lenok and taimen SalmonAtlantic salmon Salmo salarScientific classificationKingdom AnimaliaPhylum ChordataClass ActinopterygiiOrder SalmoniformesFamily SalmonidaeSubfamily SalmoninaeGroups included Eosalmo driftwoodensis Wilson 1977 Oncorhynchus gorbuscha Walbaum 1792 Oncorhynchus keta Walbaum 1792 Oncorhynchus kisutch Walbaum 1792 Oncorhynchus masou Brevoort 1856 Oncorhynchus nerka Walbaum 1792 Oncorhynchus tshawytscha Walbaum 1792 Salmo salar Linnaeus 1758Cladistically included but traditionally excluded taxaall other Oncorhynchus and Salmo speciesSalmon are typically anadromous they hatch in the gravel beds of shallow fresh water streams migrate to the ocean as adults and live like sea fish then return to fresh water to reproduce However populations of several species are restricted to fresh water throughout their lives Folklore has it that the fish return to the exact spot where they hatched to spawn and tracking studies have shown this to be mostly true A portion of a returning salmon run may stray and spawn in different freshwater systems the percent of straying depends on the species of salmon 1 Homing behavior has been shown to depend on olfactory memory 2 3 Salmon are important food fish and are intensively farmed in many parts of the world 4 with Norway being the world s largest producer of farmed salmon followed by Chile 5 They are also highly prized game fish for recreational fishing by both freshwater and saltwater anglers Many species of salmon have since been introduced and naturalized into non native environments such as the Great Lakes of North America Patagonia in South America and South Island of New Zealand 6 Contents 1 Name and etymology 2 Species 3 Distribution 4 Life cycle 5 Diet 6 Ecology 6 1 Bears 6 2 Beavers 6 3 Lampreys 6 4 Parasites 6 5 Effect of pile driving 7 Wild fisheries 7 1 Commercial 7 2 Recreational 8 Farms 9 Management 10 As food 11 History 12 Mythology 13 Notes 14 References 15 Further reading 16 External linksName and etymologyThe Modern English term salmon is derived from Middle English samoun samon saumon from Anglo Norman saumon from Old French saumon from Latin salmō The unpronounced l absent from Middle English was later added as a Latinisation to make the word closer to its Latin root The term salmon has mostly displaced its now dialectal synonym lax in turn from Middle English lax from Old English leax from Proto Germanic lahsaz from Proto Indo European lakso 7 8 SpeciesThe term salmon comes from the Latin salmo which in turn might have originated from salire meaning to leap 9 The seven commercially important species of salmon occur in two genera The genus Salmo contains the Atlantic salmon found in both sides of the North Atlantic as well as more than 40 other species commonly named as trout The genus Oncorhynchus contains 12 recognised species which occur naturally only in the North Pacific six of which are known as Pacific salmon while the remainder are considered trout Outside their native habitats Chinook salmon have been successfully introduced in New Zealand and Patagonia while coho freshwater sockeye and Atlantic salmon have been established in Patagonia as well 10 Atlantic and Pacific salmonGenus Image Common name Scientific name Maximumlength Commonlength Maximumweight Maximumage Trophiclevel FishBase FAO ITIS IUCN statusSalmo Atlantic salmon Atlantic salmon Salmo salar Linnaeus 1758 150 cm 4 ft 11 in 120 cm 3 ft 11 in 46 8 kilograms 103 lb 13 years 4 4 11 12 13 Least concern 14 Oncorhynchus Pacific salmon Chinook salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha Walbaum 1792 150 cm 4 ft 11 in 70 cm 2 ft 4 in 61 4 kilograms 135 lb 9 years 4 4 15 16 17 Not assessed Chum salmon Oncorhynchus keta Walbaum 1792 100 cm 3 ft 3 in 58 cm 1 ft 11 in 15 9 kilograms 35 lb 7 years 3 5 18 19 20 Not assessed Coho salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch Walbaum 1792 108 cm 3 ft 7 in 71 cm 2 ft 4 in 15 2 kilograms 34 lb 5 years 4 2 21 22 23 Not assessed Masu salmon Oncorhynchus masou Brevoort 1856 79 cm 2 ft 7 in 50 cm 1 ft 8 in 10 0 kilograms 22 0 lb 3 years 3 6 24 25 Not assessed Pink salmon Oncorhynchus gorbuscha Walbaum 1792 76 cm 2 ft 6 in 50 cm 1 ft 8 in 6 8 kilograms 15 lb 3 years 4 2 26 27 28 Not assessed Sockeye salmon Oncorhynchus nerka Walbaum 1792 84 cm 2 ft 9 in 58 cm 1 ft 11 in 7 7 kilograms 17 lb 8 years 3 7 29 30 31 Least concern 32 Both the Salmo and Oncorhynchus genera also contain a number of species referred to as trout Within Salmo additional minor taxa have been called salmon in English i e the Adriatic salmon Salmo obtusirostris and Black Sea salmon Salmo labrax The steelhead anadromous form of the rainbow trout migrates to sea but it is not termed salmon Also there are several other species which are not true salmon as in the above list but have common names which refer to them as being salmon Of those listed below the Danube salmon or huchen is a large freshwater salmonid related to the salmon above but others are marine fishes of the unrelated Perciformes order Some other fishes called salmonCommon name Scientific name Maximumlength Commonlength Maximumweight Maximumage Trophiclevel FishBase FAO ITIS IUCN statusAustralian salmon Arripis trutta Forster 1801 89 cm 2 ft 11 in 47 cm 1 ft 7 in 9 4 kilograms 21 lb 26 years 4 1 33 34 Not assessedDanube salmon Hucho hucho Linnaeus 1758 150 cm 4 ft 11 in 70 cm 2 ft 4 in 52 kilograms 115 lb 15 years 4 2 35 36 Endangered 37 Hawaiian salmon Elagatis bipinnulata Quoy amp Gaimard 1825 180 cm 5 ft 11 in 90 cm 2 ft 11 in 46 2 kilograms 102 lb 6 years 3 6 38 39 40 Not assessedIndian salmon Eleutheronema tetradactylum Shaw 1804 200 cm 6 ft 7 in 50 cm 1 ft 8 in 145 kilograms 320 lb years 4 4 41 42 Not assessedEosalmo driftwoodensis the oldest known Salmoninae fish in the fossil record helps scientists figure how the different species of salmon diverged from a common ancestor The British Columbian salmon fossil provides evidence that the divergence between Pacific and Atlantic salmon had not yet occurred 40 million years ago Both the fossil record and analysis of mitochondrial DNA suggest the divergence occurred 10 to 20 million years ago This independent evidence from DNA analysis and the fossil record indicate that salmon divergence occurred long before the glaciers of Quaternary glaciation began their cycle of advance and retreat 43 Distribution Pacific salmon leaping at Willamette Falls Oregon Commercial production of salmon in million tonnes 1950 2010 44 Atlantic salmon Salmo salar reproduce in northern rivers on both coasts of the Atlantic Ocean Landlocked salmon Salmo salar m sebago live in a number of lakes in eastern North America and in Northern Europe for instance in lakes Sebago Onega Ladoga Saimaa Vanern and Winnipesaukee They are not a different species from the Atlantic salmon but have independently evolved a non migratory life cycle which they maintain even when they could access the ocean Chinook salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha are also known in the United States as king salmon or blackmouth salmon and as spring salmon in British Columbia Chinooks are the largest of all Pacific salmon frequently exceeding 14 kg 30 lb 45 The name tyee is used in British Columbia to refer to Chinook over 30 pounds and in the Columbia River watershed especially large Chinooks were once referred to as June hogs Chinook salmon are known to range as far north as the Mackenzie River and Kugluktuk in the central Canadian arctic 46 and as far south as the Central California coast 47 Chum salmon Oncorhynchus keta is known as dog keta or calico salmon in some parts of the US This species has the widest geographic range of the Pacific species 48 in the eastern Pacific from north of the Mackenzie River in Canada to south of the Sacramento River in California and in the western Pacific from Lena River in Siberia to the island of Kyushu in the Sea of Japan Coho salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch are also known in the US as silver salmon This species is found throughout the coastal waters of Alaska and British Columbia and as far south as Central California Monterey Bay 49 It is also now known to occur albeit infrequently in the Mackenzie River 46 Masu salmon or cherry salmon Oncorhynchus masou are found only in the western Pacific Ocean in Japan Korea and Russia A landlocked subspecies known as the Taiwanese salmon or Formosan salmon Oncorhynchus masou formosanus is found in central Taiwan s Chi Chia Wan Stream 50 Pink salmon Oncorhynchus gorbuscha known as humpies in southeast and southwest Alaska are found in the western Pacific from Lena River in Siberia to Korea found throughout northern Pacific and in the eastern Pacific from the Mackenzie River in Canada 46 to northern California usually in shorter coastal streams It is the smallest of the Pacific species with an average weight of 1 6 to 1 8 kg 3 5 to 4 0 lb 51 Sockeye salmon Oncorhynchus nerka is also known in the US especially Alaska as red salmon 52 This lake rearing species is found in the eastern Pacific from Bathurst Inlet in the Canadian Arctic to Klamath River in California and in the western Pacific from the Anadyr River in Siberia to northern Hokkaidō island in Japan Although most adult Pacific salmon feed on small fish shrimp and squid sockeye feed on plankton they filter through gill rakers 53 Kokanee salmon are the landlocked form of sockeye salmon Danube salmon or huchen Hucho hucho are the largest permanent freshwater salmonid species Life cycleSee also Salmon run and Juvenile salmon Life cycle of Pacific salmon Eggs in different stages of development In some only a few cells grow on top of the yolk in the lower right the blood vessels surround the yolk and in the upper left the black eyes are visible even the little lens Salmon fry hatching the baby has grown around the remains of the yolk visible are the arteries spinning around the yolk and small oil drops also the gut the spine the main caudal blood vessel the bladder and the arcs of the gills Salmon eggs are laid in freshwater streams typically at high latitudes The eggs hatch into alevin or sac fry The fry quickly develop into parr with camouflaging vertical stripes The parr stay for six months to three years in their natal stream before becoming smolts which are distinguished by their bright silvery colour with scales that are easily rubbed off Only 10 of all salmon eggs are estimated to survive to this stage 54 The smolt body chemistry changes allowing them to live in salt water While a few species of salmon remain in fresh water throughout their life cycle the majority are anadromous and migrate to the ocean for maturation in these species smolts spend a portion of their out migration time in brackish water where their body chemistry becomes accustomed to osmoregulation in the ocean This body chemistry change is hormone driven causing physiological adjustments in the function of osmoregulatory organs such as the gills which leads to large increases in their ability to secrete salt 55 Hormones involved in increasing salinity tolerance include insulin like growth factor I cortisol and thyroid hormones 56 which permits the fish to endure the transition from a freshwater environment to the ocean The salmon spend about one to five years depending on the species in the open ocean where they gradually become sexually mature The adult salmon then return primarily to their natal streams to spawn Atlantic salmon spend between one and four years at sea When a fish returns after just one year s sea feeding it is called a grilse in Canada Britain and Ireland Grilse may be present at spawning and go unnoticed by large males releasing their own sperm on the eggs 57 page needed Prior to spawning depending on the species salmon undergo changes They may grow a hump develop canine like teeth or develop a kype a pronounced curvature of the jaws in male salmon All change from the silvery blue of a fresh run fish from the sea to a darker colour Salmon can make amazing journeys sometimes moving hundreds of miles upstream against strong currents and rapids to reproduce Chinook and sockeye salmon from central Idaho for example travel over 1 400 km 900 mi and climb nearly 2 100 m 7 000 ft from the Pacific Ocean as they return to spawn Condition tends to deteriorate the longer the fish remain in fresh water and they then deteriorate further after they spawn when they are known as kelts In all species of Pacific salmon the mature individuals die within a few days or weeks of spawning a trait known as semelparity Between 2 and 4 of Atlantic salmon kelts survive to spawn again all females However even in those species of salmon that may survive to spawn more than once iteroparity postspawning mortality is quite high perhaps as high as 40 to 50 Redds on riverbed To lay her roe the female salmon uses her tail caudal fin to create a low pressure zone lifting gravel to be swept downstream excavating a shallow depression called a redd The redd may sometimes contain 5 000 eggs covering 2 8 m2 30 sq ft 58 The eggs usually range from orange to red One or more males approach the female in her redd depositing sperm or milt over the roe 53 The female then covers the eggs by disturbing the gravel at the upstream edge of the depression before moving on to make another redd The female may make as many as seven redds before her supply of eggs is exhausted 53 Each year the fish experiences a period of rapid growth often in summer and one of slower growth normally in winter This results in ring formation around an earbone called the otolith annuli analogous to the growth rings visible in a tree trunk Freshwater growth shows as densely crowded rings sea growth as widely spaced rings spawning is marked by significant erosion as body mass is converted into eggs and milt Freshwater streams and estuaries provide important habitat for many salmon species They feed on terrestrial and aquatic insects amphipods and other crustaceans while young and primarily on other fish when older Eggs are laid in deeper water with larger gravel and need cool water and good water flow to supply oxygen to the developing embryos Mortality of salmon in the early life stages is usually high due to natural predation and human induced changes in habitat such as siltation high water temperatures low oxygen concentration loss of stream cover and reductions in river flow Estuaries and their associated wetlands provide vital nursery areas for the salmon prior to their departure to the open ocean Wetlands not only help buffer the estuary from silt and pollutants but also provide important feeding and hiding areas Salmon not killed by other means show greatly accelerated deterioration phenoptosis or programmed aging at the end of their lives Their bodies rapidly deteriorate right after they spawn as a result of the release of massive amounts of corticosteroids Juvenile salmon parr grow up in the relatively protected natal river The parr lose their camouflage bars and become smolt as they become ready for the transition to the ocean Male ocean phase adult sockeye Male spawning phase adult sockeyeDietAs adults salmon eat a variety of other sea creatures including smaller fish such as lanternfish herrings sand lances and barracudina They also eat krill squid and polychaete worms 59 They are also known to eat grasshoppers 60 Ecology Bear cub with salmon Bears See also Salmon run In the Pacific Northwest and Alaska salmon are keystone species supporting wildlife such as birds bears and otters 61 The bodies of salmon represent a transfer of nutrients from the ocean rich in nitrogen sulfur carbon and phosphorus to the forest ecosystem Grizzly bears function as ecosystem engineers capturing salmon and carrying them into adjacent wooded areas There they deposit nutrient rich urine and feces and partially eaten carcasses Bears are estimated to leave up to half the salmon they harvest on the forest floor 62 63 in densities that can reach 4 000 kilograms per hectare 64 providing as much as 24 of the total nitrogen available to the riparian woodlands The foliage of spruce trees up to 500 m 1 600 ft from a stream where grizzlies fish salmon have been found to contain nitrogen originating from fished salmon 65 Beavers Sockeye salmon jumping over beaver dam Beavers also function as ecosystem engineers in the process of clear cutting and damming beavers alter their ecosystems extensively Beaver ponds can provide critical habitat for juvenile salmon An example of this was seen in the years following 1818 in the Columbia River Basin In 1818 the British government made an agreement with the U S government to allow U S citizens access to the Columbia catchment see Treaty of 1818 At the time the Hudson s Bay Company sent word to trappers to extirpate all furbearers from the area in an effort to make the area less attractive to U S fur traders In response to the elimination of beavers from large parts of the river system salmon runs plummeted even in the absence of many of the factors usually associated with the demise of salmon runs Salmon recruitment can be affected by beavers dams because dams can 66 67 68 Slow the rate at which nutrients are flushed from the system nutrients provided by adult salmon dying throughout the fall and winter remain available in the spring to newly hatched juveniles Provide deeper water pools where young salmon can avoid avian predators Increase productivity through photosynthesis and by enhancing the conversion efficiency of the cellulose powered detritus cycle clarification needed Create slow water environments where juvenile salmon put the food they ingest into growth rather than into fighting currents Increase structural complexity with many physical niches where salmon can avoid predatorsBeavers dams are able to nurture salmon juveniles in estuarine tidal marshes where the salinity is less than 10 ppm Beavers build small dams of generally less than 60 cm 2 ft high in channels in the myrtle zone clarification needed These dams can be overtopped at high tide and hold water at low tide This provides refuges for juvenile salmon so they do not have to swim into large channels where they are subject to predation 69 Lampreys It has been discovered that rivers which have seen a decline or disappearance of anadromous lampreys loss of the lampreys also affects the salmon in a negative way Like salmon anadromous lampreys stop feeding and die after spawning and their decomposing bodies release nutrients into the stream Also along with species like rainbow trout and Sacramento sucker lampreys clean the gravel in the rivers during spawning 70 Their larvae called ammocoetes are filter feeders which contribute to the health of the waters They are also a food source for the young salmon and being fattier and oilier it is assumed predators prefer them over salmon offspring taking off some of the predation pressure on smolts 71 unreliable source Adult lampreys are also the preferred prey of seals and sea lions which can eat 30 lampreys to every salmon allowing more adult salmon to enter the rivers to spawn without being eaten by the marine mammals 72 73 Parasites Main article Diseases and parasites in salmon According to Canadian biologist Dorothy Kieser the myxozoan parasite Henneguya salminicola is commonly found in the flesh of salmonids It has been recorded in the field samples of salmon returning to the Haida Gwaii Islands The fish responds by walling off the parasitic infection into a number of cysts that contain milky fluid This fluid is an accumulation of a large number of parasites Henneguya salminicola a myxozoan parasite commonly found in the flesh of salmonids on the West Coast of Canada in coho salmon Henneguya and other parasites in the myxosporean group have complex life cycles where the salmon is one of two hosts The fish releases the spores after spawning In the Henneguya case the spores enter a second host most likely an invertebrate in the spawning stream When juvenile salmon migrate to the Pacific Ocean the second host releases a stage infective to salmon The parasite is then carried in the salmon until the next spawning cycle The myxosporean parasite that causes whirling disease in trout has a similar life cycle 74 However as opposed to whirling disease the Henneguya infestation does not appear to cause disease in the host salmon even heavily infected fish tend to return to spawn successfully According to Dr Kieser a lot of work on Henneguya salminicola was done by scientists at the Pacific Biological Station in Nanaimo in the mid 1980s in particular an overview report 75 which states the fish that have the longest fresh water residence time as juveniles have the most noticeable infections Hence in order of prevalence coho are most infected followed by sockeye chinook chum and pink As well the report says at the time the studies were conducted stocks from the middle and upper reaches of large river systems in British Columbia such as Fraser Skeena Nass and from mainland coastal streams in the southern half of B C are more likely to have a low prevalence of infection The report also states It should be stressed that Henneguya economically deleterious though it is is harmless from the view of public health It is strictly a fish parasite that cannot live in or affect warm blooded animals including man According to Klaus Schallie Molluscan Shellfish Program Specialist with the Canadian Food Inspection Agency Henneguya salminicola is found in southern B C also and in all species of salmon I have previously examined smoked chum salmon sides that were riddled with cysts and some sockeye runs in Barkley Sound southern B C west coast of Vancouver Island are noted for their high incidence of infestation citation needed Sea lice particularly Lepeophtheirus salmonis and various Caligus species including C clemensi and C rogercresseyi can cause deadly infestations of both farm grown and wild salmon 76 77 Sea lice are ectoparasites which feed on mucus blood and skin and migrate and latch onto the skin of wild salmon during free swimming planktonic nauplii and copepodid larval stages which can persist for several days 78 79 80 Large numbers of highly populated open net salmon farms A can create exceptionally large concentrations of sea lice when exposed in river estuaries containing large numbers of open net farms many young wild salmon are infected and do not survive as a result 82 83 Adult salmon may survive otherwise critical numbers of sea lice but small thin skinned juvenile salmon migrating to sea are highly vulnerable On the Pacific coast of Canada the louse induced mortality of pink salmon in some regions is commonly over 80 84 Effect of pile driving The risk of injury caused by underwater pile driving has been studied by Dr Halvorsen and her co workers 85 The study concluded that the fish are at risk of injury if the cumulative sound exposure level exceeds 210 dB relative to 1 mPa2 s clarification needed Wild fisheries Wild fisheries commercial capture in tonnes of all true wild salmon species 1950 2010 as reported by the FAO 44 Commercial Seine fishing for salmon Prince William Sound Alaska As can be seen from the production chart at the left the global capture reported by different countries to the FAO of commercial wild salmon has remained fairly steady since 1990 at about one million tonnes per year This is in contrast to farmed salmon below which has increased in the same period from about 0 6 million tonnes to well over two million tonnes 44 Nearly all captured wild salmon are Pacific salmon The capture of wild Atlantic salmon has always been relatively small and has declined steadily since 1990 In 2011 only 2 500 tonnes were reported 12 In contrast about half of all farmed salmon are Atlantic salmon Recreational Angler and gillie landing a salmon in Scotland Recreational salmon fishing can be a technically demanding kind of sport fishing not necessarily intuitive for beginning fishermen 86 A conflict exists between commercial fishermen and recreational fishermen for the right to salmon stock resources Commercial fishing in estuaries and coastal areas is often restricted so enough salmon can return to their natal rivers where they can spawn and be available for sport fishing On parts of the North American West Coast salmon sport fishing has completely replaced inshore commercial salmon fishing 87 In most cases the commercial value of a salmon sold as seafood can be several times less than the value attributed to the same fish caught by a sport fisherman This is a powerful economic argument for allocating stock resources preferentially to sport fishing 87 FarmsThis section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Salmon news newspapers books scholar JSTOR April 2023 Learn how and when to remove this template message Aquaculture production in tonnes of all true salmon species 1950 2010 as reported by the FAO 44 Salmon farming sea cage in Torskefjorden Senja Island Troms Norway Main article Aquaculture of salmon Salmon aquaculture is a major contributor to the world production of farmed finfish representing about US 10 billion annually Other commonly cultured fish species include tilapia catfish sea bass carp and bream Salmon farming is significant in Chile Norway Scotland Canada and the Faroe Islands it is the source for most salmon consumed in the United States and Europe Atlantic salmon are also in very small volumes farmed in Russia and Tasmania Australia Salmon are carnivorous and need to be fed meals produced from catching other wild forage fish and other marine organisms Salmon farming leads to a high demand for wild forage fish As a predator salmon require large nutritional intakes of protein and farmed salmon consume more fish than they generate as a final product On a dry weight basis 2 4 kg of wild caught fish are needed to produce one kilogram of salmon 88 As the salmon farming industry expands it requires more forage fish for feed at a time when 75 of the world s monitored fisheries are already near to or have exceeded their maximum sustainable yield 89 The industrial scale extraction of wild forage fish for salmon farming affects the survivability of other wild predatory fish which rely on them for food Research is ongoing into sustainable and plant based salmon feeds 90 Intensive salmon farming uses open net cages which have low production costs It has the drawback of allowing disease and sea lice to spread to local wild salmon stocks 91 Artificially incubated chum salmon fries Another form of salmon production which is safer but less controllable is to raise salmon in hatcheries until they are old enough to become independent They are released into rivers in an attempt to increase the salmon population This system is referred to as ranching It was very common in countries such as Sweden before the Norwegians developed salmon farming but is seldom done by private companies As anyone may catch the salmon when they return to spawn a company is limited in benefiting financially from their investment Because of this the ranching method has mainly been used by various public authorities and non profit groups such as the Cook Inlet Aquaculture Association as a way to increase salmon populations in situations where they have declined due to overharvesting construction of dams and habitat destruction or fragmentation Negative consequences to this sort of population manipulation include genetic dilution of the wild stocks Many jurisdictions are now beginning to discourage supplemental fish planting in favour of harvest controls and habitat improvement and protection A variant method of fish stocking called ocean ranching is under development in Alaska There the young salmon are released into the ocean far from any wild salmon streams When it is time for them to spawn they return to where they were released where fishermen can catch them An alternative method to hatcheries is to use spawning channels These are artificial streams usually parallel to an existing stream with concrete or rip rap sides and gravel bottoms Water from the adjacent stream is piped into the top of the channel sometimes via a header pond to settle out sediment Spawning success is often much better in channels than in adjacent streams due to the control of floods which in some years can wash out the natural redds Because of the lack of floods spawning channels must sometimes be cleaned out to remove accumulated sediment The same floods that destroy natural redds also clean the regular streams Spawning channels preserve the natural selection of natural streams as there is no benefit as in hatcheries to use prophylactic chemicals to control diseases citation needed Farm raised salmon are fed the carotenoids astaxanthin and canthaxanthin to match their flesh colour to wild salmon 92 to improve their marketability 93 Wild salmon get these carotenoids primarily astaxanthin from eating shellfish and krill One proposed alternative to the use of wild caught fish as feed for the salmon is the use of soy based products This should be better for the local environment of the fish farm but producing soy beans has a high environmental cost for the producing region The fish omega 3 fatty acid content would be reduced compared to fish fed salmon Another possible alternative is a yeast based coproduct of bioethanol production proteinaceous fermentation biomass Substituting such products for engineered feed can result in equal sometimes enhanced growth in fish 94 With its increasing availability this would address the problems of rising costs for buying hatchery fish feed Yet another attractive alternative is the increased use of seaweed Seaweed provides essential minerals and vitamins for growing organisms It offers the advantage of providing natural amounts of dietary fiber and having a lower glycemic load than grain based fish meal 94 In the best case scenario widespread use of seaweed could yield a future in aquaculture that eliminates the need for land freshwater or fertilizer to raise fish 95 failed verification Management Spawning sockeye salmon in Becharof Creek Becharof Wilderness Alaska Significant declines in the size of many species of Pacific salmon over the past 30 years are negatively impacting salmon fecundity nutrient transport commercial fishery profits and rural food security 96 Main article Environmental issues with salmon See also Salmon conservation and Aquaculture of salmon Issues Salmon population levels are of concern in the Atlantic and in some parts of the Pacific 97 The population of wild salmon declined markedly in recent decades especially North Atlantic populations which spawn in the waters of western Europe and eastern Canada and wild salmon in the Snake and Columbia River systems in northwestern United States Alaska fishery stocks are still abundant and catches have been on the rise in recent decades after the state initiated limitations in 1972 98 99 citation needed Some of the most important Alaskan salmon sustainable wild fisheries are located near the Kenai River Copper River and in Bristol Bay Fish farming of Pacific salmon is outlawed in the United States Exclusive Economic Zone 100 however there is a substantial network of publicly funded hatcheries 101 and the State of Alaska s fisheries management system is viewed as a leader in the management of wild fish stocks In Canada returning Skeena River wild salmon support commercial subsistence and recreational fisheries as well as the area s diverse wildlife on the coast and around communities hundreds of miles inland in the watershed The status of wild salmon in Washington is mixed Of 435 wild stocks of salmon and steelhead only 187 of them were classified as healthy 113 had an unknown status one was extinct 12 were in critical condition and 122 were experiencing depressed populations 102 The commercial salmon fisheries in California have been either severely curtailed or closed completely in recent years due to critically low returns on the Klamath and or Sacramento rivers causing millions of dollars in losses to commercial fishermen 103 Both Atlantic and Pacific salmon are popular sportfish Salmon populations have been established in all the Great Lakes Coho stocks were planted by the state of Michigan in the late 1960s to control the growing population of non native alewife Now Chinook king Atlantic and coho silver salmon are annually stocked in all Great Lakes by most bordering states and provinces These populations are not self sustaining and do not provide much in the way of a commercial fishery but have led to the development of a thriving sport fishery Wild self sustaining Pacific salmon populations have been established in New Zealand Chile and Argentina 104 They are highly prized by sport fishers but others worry about displacing native fish species 105 Also and especially in Chile Aquaculture in Chile both Atlantic and Pacific salmon are used in net pen farming In 2020 researchers reported widespread declines in the sizes of four species of wild Pacific salmon Chinook chum coho and sockeye These declines have been occurring for 30 years and are thought to be associated with climate change and competition with growing numbers of pink and hatchery salmon 106 96 As foodMain article Salmon as food Salmon sashimi Salmon is a popular food fish Classified as an oily fish 107 salmon is considered to be healthy due to the fish s high protein high omega 3 fatty acids and high vitamin D 108 content Salmon is also a source of cholesterol with a range of 23 214 mg 100 g depending on the species 109 According to reports in the journal Science farmed salmon may contain high levels of dioxins medical citation needed PCB polychlorinated biphenyl levels may be up to eight times higher in farmed salmon than in wild salmon 110 but still well below levels considered dangerous 111 112 Nonetheless according to a 2006 study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association the benefits of eating even farmed salmon still outweigh any risks imposed by contaminants 113 Farmed salmon has a high omega 3 fatty acid content comparable to wild salmon 114 The type of omega 3 present may not be a factor for other important health functions vague Salmon flesh is generally orange to red although white fleshed wild salmon with white black skin colour occurs The natural colour of salmon results from carotenoid pigments largely astaxanthin but also canthaxanthin in the flesh 115 Wild salmon get these carotenoids from eating krill and other tiny shellfish The vast majority of Atlantic salmon available in market around the world are farmed almost 99 116 whereas the majority of Pacific salmon are wild caught greater than 80 Canned salmon in the US is usually wild Pacific catch though some farmed salmon is available in canned form Smoked salmon is another popular preparation method and can either be hot or cold smoked Lox can refer to either cold smoked salmon or salmon cured in a brine solution also called gravlax Traditional canned salmon includes some skin which is harmless and bone which adds calcium Skinless and boneless canned salmon is also available Raw salmon flesh may contain Anisakis nematodes marine parasites that cause anisakiasis Before the availability of refrigeration the Japanese did not consume raw salmon Salmon and salmon roe have only recently come into use in making sashimi raw fish and sushi 117 To the Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast salmon is considered a vital part of the diet Specifically the indigenous peoples of Haida Gwaii located near former Queen Charlotte Island in British Columbia rely on salmon as one of their main sources of food although many other bands have fished Pacific waters for centuries 118 Salmon are not only ancient and unique but it is important because it is expressed in culture art forms and ceremonial feasts Annually salmon spawn in Haida feeding on everything on the way upstream and down 118 Within the Haida nation salmon is referred to as tsiin 118 and is prepared in several ways including smoking baking frying and making soup Historically there has always been enough salmon as traditional subsistence fishing methods did not result in overfishing and people only took what they needed 119 In 2003 a report on First Nations participation in commercial fisheries including salmon commissioned by BC s Ministry of Agriculture and Food found that there were 595 First Nation owned and operated commercial vessels in the province Of those vessels First Nations members owned 564 119 However employment within the industry has decreased overall by 50 in the last decade with 8 142 registered commercial fishermen in 2003 This has affected employment for many fisherman who rely on salmon as a source of income relevant Black bears also rely on salmon as food The leftovers the bears leave behind are considered important nutrients for the Canadian forest such as the soil trees and plants In this sense the salmon feed the forest and in return receive clean water and gravel in which to hatch and grow sheltered from extremes of temperature and water flow in times of high and low rainfall 118 However the condition of the salmon in Haida has been affected in recent decades Due to logging and development much of the salmon s habitat i e Ain River has been destroyed resulting in the fish being close to endangered 118 For residents this has resulted in limits on catches in turn has affected families diets and cultural events such as feasts Some of the salmon systems in danger include the Davidon Naden Mamim and Mathers 118 It is clear that further protection is needed for salmon such as their habitats where logging commonly occurs HistorySee also Salmon cannery Seine fishing for salmon Wenzel Hollar 1607 1677 The salmon has long been at the heart of the culture and livelihood of coastal dwellers which can be traced as far back as 5 000 years when archeologists discovered Nisqually tribe remnants 120 The original distribution of the genus Oncorhynchus covered the Pacific Rim coastline 121 History shows salmon used tributaries rivers and estuaries without regard to jurisdiction for 18 22 million years Baseline data is near impossible to recreate based on the inconsistent historical data but there has been massive depletion since the 1900s The Pacific Northwest once sprawled with native inhabitants who ensured little degradation was caused by their actions to salmon habitats As animists the indigenous people relied not only for salmon for food but spiritual guidance The role of the salmon spirit guided the people to respect ecological systems such as the rivers and tributaries the salmon used for spawning Natives often used the entire fish and left little waste by turning the bladder into glue and using bones for toys and skin for clothing and shoes The original salmon ceremony introduced by indigenous tribes on the Pacific coast consisted of three major parts First was the welcoming of the first catch and then the cooking of it Finally the bones were returned to the sea to induce hospitality so other salmon would give their lives to the people of that village 122 Many tribes such as the Yurok had a taboo against harvesting the first fish that swam upriver in summer but once they confirmed that the salmon had returned in abundance they would begin to catch them in plentiful 123 The indigenous practices were guided by deep ecological wisdom which was eradicated when Euro American settlements began to be developed 124 Salmon have a much grander history than what is presently shown today The salmon that once dominated the Pacific Ocean are now just a fraction in population and size The Pacific salmon population is now less than 1 3 of what it was when Lewis and Clark arrived at the region 125 In his 1908 State of the Union address U S President Theodore Roosevelt observed that the fisheries were in significant decline 126 127 The salmon fisheries of the Columbia River are now but a fraction of what they were twenty five years ago and what they would be now if the United States Government had taken complete charge of them by intervening between Oregon and Washington During these twenty five years the fishermen of each State have naturally tried to take all they could get and the two legislatures have never been able to agree on joint action of any kind adequate in degree for the protection of the fisheries At the moment the fishing on the Oregon side is practically closed while there is no limit on the Washington side of any kind and no one can tell what the courts will decide as to the very statutes under which this action and non action result Meanwhile very few salmon reach the spawning grounds and probably four years hence the fisheries will amount to nothing and this comes from a struggle between the associated or gill net fishermen on the one hand and the owners of the fishing wheels up the river On the Columbia River the Chief Joseph Dam completed in 1955 completely blocks salmon migration to the upper Columbia River system The Fraser River salmon population was affected by the 1914 slide caused by the Canadian Pacific Railway at Hells Gate The 1917 catch was one quarter of the 1913 catch 128 The origin of the word for salmon was one of the arguments about the location of the origin of the Indo European languages Mythology Scales on the Big Fish or Salmon of Knowledge celebrates the return of fish to the River Lagan The salmon is an important creature in several strands of Celtic mythology and poetry which often associated them with wisdom and venerability In Irish folklore fishermen associated salmon with fairies and thought it was unlucky to refer to them by name 129 In Irish mythology a creature called the Salmon of Knowledge 130 plays key role in the tale The Boyhood Deeds of Fionn In the tale the Salmon will grant powers of knowledge to whoever eats it and is sought by poet Finn Eces for seven years Finally Finn Eces catches the fish and gives it to his young pupil Fionn mac Cumhaill to prepare it for him However Fionn burns his thumb on the salmon s juices and he instinctively puts it in his mouth In so doing he inadvertently gains the Salmon s wisdom Elsewhere in Irish mythology the salmon is also one of the incarnations of both Tuan mac Cairill 131 and Fintan mac Bochra 132 Salmon also feature in Welsh mythology In the prose tale Culhwch and Olwen the Salmon of Llyn Llyw is the oldest animal in Britain and the only creature who knows the location of Mabon ap Modron After speaking to a string of other ancient animals who do not know his whereabouts King Arthur s men Cai and Bedwyr are led to the Salmon of Llyn Llyw who lets them ride its back to the walls of Mabon s prison in Gloucester 133 In Norse mythology after Loki tricked the blind god Hodr into killing his brother Baldr Loki jumped into a river and transformed himself into a salmon to escape punishment from the other gods When they held out a net to trap him he attempted to leap over it but was caught by Thor who grabbed him by the tail with his hand and this is why the salmon s tail is tapered 134 Salmon are central spiritually and culturally to Native American mythology on the Pacific coast from the Haida and Coast Salish peoples to the Nuu chah nulth peoples in British Columbia 135 Notes Open net fish farms are large anchored floating net cages often located in bays and relatively sheltered areas Each farm may have over a million fish 81 References NOAA NMFS NWFSC TM30 Homing Straying and Colonization U S Dept Commerce NOAA NMFS NWFSC Publications Archived from the original on 20 November 2018 Retrieved 11 August 2015 Scholz AT Horrall RM Cooper JC Hasler AD 1976 Imprinting to chemical cues The basis for home stream selection in salmon Science 192 4245 1247 9 Bibcode 1976Sci 192 1247S doi 10 1126 science 1273590 PMID 1273590 S2CID 11248713 Ueda H 2011 Physiological mechanism of homing migration in Pacific salmon from behavioral to molecular biological approaches PDF General and Comparative Endocrinology 170 2 222 32 doi 10 1016 j ygcen 2010 02 003 hdl 2115 44787 PMID 20144612 S2CID 205779299 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Lackey Robert Lach Denise Duncan Sally eds 2006 Salmon 2100 The Future of Wild Pacific Salmon Bethesda MD American Fisheries Society p 629 ISBN 1 888569 78 6 Algas nocivas matam mais de 4 2 mil toneladas de salmao no Chile Retrieved 4 September 2022 McDowall R M 1994 The origins of New Zealand s chinook salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha Marine Fisheries Review 1 January 1994 salmon Wiktionary 31 December 2022 Retrieved 1 January 2023 lax Wiktionary 12 December 2022 Retrieved 1 January 2023 Salmon n Online Etymology Dictionary Archived from the original on 2 April 2019 Retrieved 25 April 2012 Heiko Schneider 25 August 2011 Patagonian salmonids This is the history and present state of salmonid introduction in Patagonia Global Fly Fisher Archived from the original on 26 April 2014 Retrieved 25 April 2014 Froese Rainer Pauly Daniel eds 2012 Salmo salar in FishBase April 2012 version a b Species Fact Sheet Salmo salar Linnaeus 1758 FAO Archived from the original on 2 April 2019 Salmo salar Integrated Taxonomic Information System World Conservation Monitoring Centre 1996 Salmo salar IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 1996 e T19855A9026693 doi 10 2305 IUCN UK 1996 RLTS T19855A9026693 en Retrieved 12 November 2021 Froese Rainer Pauly Daniel eds 2012 Oncorhynchus tshawytscha in FishBase April 2012 version Species Fact Sheet Oncorhynchus tshawytscha Walbaum 1792 FAO Archived from the original on 3 April 2019 Oncorhynchus tshawytscha Integrated Taxonomic Information System Froese Rainer Pauly Daniel eds 2012 Oncorhynchus keta in FishBase April 2012 version Species Fact Sheet Oncorhynchus keta Walbaum 1792 FAO Archived from the original on 3 April 2019 Oncorhynchus keta Integrated Taxonomic Information System Froese Rainer Pauly Daniel eds 2012 Oncorhynchus kisutch in FishBase April 2012 version Species Fact Sheet Oncorhynchus kisutch Walbaum 1792 FAO Archived from the original on 3 April 2019 Oncorhynchus kisutch Integrated Taxonomic Information System Froese Rainer Pauly Daniel eds 2012 Oncorhynchus masou in FishBase April 2012 version Oncorhynchus masou Integrated Taxonomic Information System Froese Rainer Pauly Daniel eds 2012 Oncorhynchus gorbuscha in FishBase April 2012 version Species Fact Sheet Oncorhynchus gorbuscha Walbaum 1792 FAO Archived from the original on 3 April 2019 Oncorhynchus gorbuscha Integrated Taxonomic Information System Froese Rainer Pauly Daniel eds 2012 Oncorhynchus nerka in FishBase April 2012 version Species Fact Sheet Oncorhynchus nerka Walbaum 1792 FAO Archived from the original on 3 April 2019 Oncorhynchus nerka Integrated Taxonomic Information System Rand P S 2011 Oncorhynchus nerka IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011 e T135301A4071001 doi 10 2305 IUCN UK 2011 2 RLTS T135301A4071001 en Retrieved 12 November 2021 Froese Rainer Pauly Daniel eds 2012 Arripis trutta in FishBase April 2012 version Arripis trutta Integrated Taxonomic Information System Froese Rainer Pauly Daniel eds 2012 Hucho hucho in FishBase April 2012 version Hucho hucho Integrated Taxonomic Information System Freyhof J Kottelat M 2008 Hucho hucho IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2008 e T10264A3186143 doi 10 2305 IUCN UK 2008 RLTS T10264A3186143 en Retrieved 12 November 2021 Froese Rainer Pauly Daniel eds 2012 Elagatis bipinnulata in FishBase April 2012 version Species Fact Sheet Elagatis bipinnulata Quoy amp Gaimard 1825 FAO Archived from the original on 25 November 2018 Elagatis bipinnulata Integrated Taxonomic Information System Froese Rainer Pauly Daniel eds 2012 Eleutheronema tetradactylum in FishBase April 2012 version Eleutheronema tetradactylum Integrated Taxonomic Information System Montgomery David 2004 King of Fish Cambridge MA Westview Press pp 27 28 ISBN 0813342996 a b c d Based on data sourced from the relevant FAO Species Fact Sheets Chinook Salmon Alaska Department of Fish and Game Archived from the original on 17 December 2006 Retrieved 17 November 2006 a b c Stephenson S A The Distribution of Pacific Salmon Oncorhynchus spp in the Canadian Western Arctic PDF Archived PDF from the original on 12 July 2017 Retrieved 1 September 2013 Chinook Salmon NOAA Fisheries 6 April 2012 Archived from the original on 28 May 2012 Chum Salmon Alaska Department of Fish and Game Archived from the original on 5 April 2007 Retrieved 17 November 2006 Coho Salmon NOAA Fisheries 28 June 2012 Archived from the original on 2 February 2013 Formosan salmon Taiwan Journal Archived from the original on 13 October 2007 Retrieved 13 December 2006 Pink Salmon Alaska Department of Fish and Game Archived from the original on 26 February 2007 Retrieved 17 November 2006 Sockeye Salmon Alaska Department of Fish and Game Archived from the original on 6 December 2006 Retrieved 17 November 2006 a b c Pacific Salmon Oncorhynchus spp U S Fish and Wildlife Service Archived from the original on 16 November 2018 Retrieved 17 November 2006 A Salmon s Life An Incredible Journey U S Bureau of Land Management Archived from the original on 25 February 2009 McCormick Stephen D 1 January 2012 McCormick Stephen D Farrell Anthony P Brauner Colin J eds 5 Smolt Physiology and Endocrinology Fish Physiology Euryhaline Fishes Academic Press vol 32 pp 199 251 doi 10 1016 B978 0 12 396951 4 00005 0 ISBN 9780123969514 retrieved 26 October 2020 Bjornsson Bjorn Th Hansson Tiiu February 1983 Effects of hypophysectomy on the plasma ionic and osmotic balance in rainbow trout Salmo gairdneri General and Comparative Endocrinology 49 2 240 247 doi 10 1016 0016 6480 83 90140 5 ISSN 0016 6480 PMID 6840518 Vladic Tomislav Petersson Erik eds 2015 Evolutionary Biology of the Atlantic Salmon 1st ed CRC Press ISBN 978 1466598485 McGrath Susan Spawning Hope Audubon Society Archived from the original on 27 September 2007 Retrieved 17 November 2006 Fisheries NOAA 3 May 2022 Fun Facts About Amazing Atlantic Salmon NOAA Fisheries NOAA Retrieved 15 July 2022 Glatz Kyle 7 December 2021 What Do Salmon Eat 12 Foods in Their Diet AZ Animals Retrieved 15 July 2022 Willson MF Halupka KC 1995 Anadromous Fish as Keystone Species in Vertebrate Communities PDF Conservation Biology 9 3 489 497 doi 10 1046 j 1523 1739 1995 09030489 x JSTOR 2386604 Archived from the original PDF on 28 November 2011 Reimchen TE 2001 Salmon nutrients nitrogen isotopes and coastal forests PDF Ecoforestry 16 13 Archived PDF from the original on 6 May 2003 Quinn T Carlson S Gende S amp Rich H 2009 Transportation of Pacific Salmon Carcasses from Streams to Riparian Forests by Bears PDF Canadian Journal of Zoology 87 3 195 203 doi 10 1139 Z09 004 Archived from the original PDF on 16 June 2012 Reimchen TE Mathewson DD Hocking MD Moran J 2002 Isotopic evidence for enrichment of salmon derived nutrients in vegetation soil and insects in riparian zones in coastal British Columbia PDF American Fisheries Society Symposium 20 1 12 Archived PDF from the original on 12 October 2003 Helfield J amp Naiman R 2006 Keystone Interactions Salmon and Bear in Riparian Forests of Alaska PDF Ecosystems 9 2 167 180 doi 10 1007 s10021 004 0063 5 S2CID 28989920 Archived PDF from the original on 26 April 2012 Extinction Northwest Power and Conservation Council Archived from the original on 1 January 2018 Retrieved 21 December 2007 Hyatt K D McQueen D J Shortreed K S Rankin D P 2004 Sockeye salmon Oncorhynchus nerka nursery lake fertilization Review and summary of results PDF Environmental Reviews 12 3 133 162 doi 10 1139 a04 008 S2CID 12930576 Archived from the original PDF on 7 August 2020 Pollock M M Pess G R Beechie T J The Importance of Beaver Ponds to Coho Salmon Production in the Stillaguamish River Basin Washington USA PDF Archived PDF from the original on 1 September 2006 Retrieved 21 December 2007 Hood W Gregory AN OVERLOOKED ECOLOGICAL WEB Archived from the original on 24 July 2008 Yuba River Steelhead Redd Surveys preliminary draft PDF Yuba River Management Team RMT Web Site Yuba County Water Agency 19 January 2010 Archived PDF from the original on 29 April 2018 Elder s devotion to ugly fish lives on after his tragic death Al Jazeera America 20 August 2014 Archived from the original on 16 November 2018 Pacific Lamprey s Big Year Redheaded Blackbelt 18 June 2017 Archived from the original on 16 November 2018 A Primeval Marvel PDF terra Oregon State University 2014 Archived PDF from the original on 3 May 2018 Crosier Danielle M Molloy Daniel P Bartholomew Jerri Whirling Disease Myxobolus cerebralis PDF Archived from the original PDF on 16 February 2008 Retrieved 13 December 2007 Boyce N P Kabata Z Margolis L 1985 Investigation of the Distribution Detection and Biology of Henneguya salminicola Protozoa Myxozoa a Parasite of the Flesh of Pacific Salmon PDF Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 1450 55 Archived PDF from the original on 12 November 2014 Sea Lice and Salmon Elevating the dialogue on the farmed wild salmon story PDF Watershed Watch Salmon Society 2004 Archived from the original PDF on 13 July 2012 Bravo S 2003 Sea lice in Chilean salmon farms Bull Eur Assoc Fish Pathol 23 197 200 Morton A Routledge R Peet C Ladwig A 2004 Sea lice Lepeophtheirus salmonis infection rates on juvenile pink Oncorhynchus gorbuscha and chum Oncorhynchus keta salmon in the nearshore marine environment of British Columbia Canada Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 61 2 147 157 doi 10 1139 f04 016 Peet C R 2007 Interactions between sea lice Lepeophtheirus salmonisandCaligus clemensii juvenile salmon Oncorhynchus ketaandOncorhynchus gorbuscha and salmon farms in British Columbia PDF MSc Victoria British Columbia Canada University of Victoria Archived PDF from the original on 26 October 2016 Krkosek M Gottesfeld A Proctor B Rolston D Carr Harris C Lewis M A 2007 Effects of host migration diversity and aquaculture on sea lice threats to Pacific salmon populations Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences 274 1629 3141 9 doi 10 1098 rspb 2007 1122 PMC 2293942 PMID 17939989 Morton Alexandra SALMON CONFIDENTIAL The ugly truth about Canada s open net salmon farms WHAT IS AFISH FARM Archived from the original on 5 October 2015 Retrieved 10 May 2019 Morton Alexandra Routledge Rick Krkosek Martin 2008 Sea Louse Infestation in Wild Juvenile Salmon and Pacific Herring Associated with Fish Farms off the East Central Coast of Vancouver Island British Columbia PDF North American Journal of Fisheries Management 28 2 523 532 doi 10 1577 M07 042 1 ISSN 0275 5947 Archived from the original PDF on 29 August 2013 Krkosek M Lewis M A Morton A Frazer L N Volpe J P 2006 Epizootics of wild fish induced by farm fish Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103 42 15506 15510 Bibcode 2006PNAS 10315506K doi 10 1073 pnas 0603525103 ISSN 0027 8424 PMC 1591297 PMID 17021017 Krkosek Martin 2007 Declining Wild Salmon Populations in Relation to Parasites from Farm Salmon Science 318 5857 1772 5 Bibcode 2007Sci 318 1772K doi 10 1126 science 1148744 PMID 18079401 S2CID 86544687 Browman Howard Halvorsen Michele B Casper Brandon M Woodley Christa M Carlson Thomas J Popper Arthur N 2012 Threshold for Onset of Injury in Chinook Salmon from Exposure to Impulsive Pile Driving Sounds PLOS ONE 7 6 e38968 Bibcode 2012PLoSO 738968H doi 10 1371 journal pone 0038968 ISSN 1932 6203 PMC 3380060 PMID 22745695 Weissglas G Appelblad H 1997 Bengtsson Bo Toivonen A L Tuunainen P eds Wild spawning Baltic salmon A natural resource redefined From food to toys for boys Socio economics of recreational fishery Hotel Royal Wasa Vaasa Finland Copenhagen Nordic Council of Ministers Nordiska ministerradet pp 89 95 ISBN 9789289301206 a b Shaw Susan Muir James 1987 Salmon Economics and Marketing Springer Netherlands p 250 ISBN 9780709933441 Naylor Rosamond L Nature s Subsidies to Shrimp and Salmon Farming PDF Science 10 30 98 Vol 282 Issue 5390 p883 Archived from the original PDF on 26 March 2009 It s all about salmon PDF Seafood Choices Alliance 2005 Archived from the original PDF on 24 September 2015 Fisheries NOAA 30 December 2019 Feeds for Aquaculture NOAA Fisheries NOAA Retrieved 14 April 2023 Fish farms drive wild salmon populations toward extinction SeaWeb 13 December 2007 Archived from the original on 25 November 2018 Pigments in Salmon Aquaculture How to Grow a Salmon colored Salmon Archived from the original on 13 October 2007 Retrieved 26 August 2007 Astaxanthin 3 3 hydroxy b b carotene 4 4 dione is a carotenoid pigment one of a large group of organic molecules related to vitamins and widely found in plants In addition to providing red orange and yellow colours to various plant parts and playing a role in photosynthesis carotenoids are powerful antioxidants and some notably various forms of carotene are essential precursors to vitamin A synthesis in animals Guilford Gwynn 12 March 2015 Here s why your farmed salmon has color added to it Quartz publication Archived from the original on 13 March 2015 Retrieved 12 March 2015 a b The Future of Aquafeeds DRAFT for public comment PDF NOAA USDA Alternative Feeds Initiative November 2010 p 56 Archived from the original PDF on 15 October 2011 Salmon Recovery Planning nwr noaa gov p 57 a b Oke K B Cunningham C J Westley P a H Baskett M L Carlson S M Clark J Hendry A P Karatayev V A Kendall N W Kibele J Kindsvater H K Kobayashi K M Lewis B Munch S Reynolds J D Vick G K Palkovacs E P 19 August 2020 Recent declines in salmon body size impact ecosystems and fisheries Nature Communications 11 1 4155 Bibcode 2020NatCo 11 4155O doi 10 1038 s41467 020 17726 z ISSN 2041 1723 PMC 7438488 PMID 32814776 Text and images are available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4 0 International License Lackey Robert 1999 Salmon policy science society restoration and reality Environmental Science and Policy 2 4 5 369 379 doi 10 1016 S1462 9011 99 00034 9 1878 2010 Historical Commercial Salmon Catches and Exvessel Values Alaska Department of Fish and Game Retrieved 6 August 2011 Viechnicki Joe 3 August 2011 Pink salmon numbers record setting in early season KRBD Public Radio in Ketchikan Alaska Archived from the original on 28 March 2012 Retrieved 6 August 2011 Hey Ellen Burke W T Pnzoni D 1991 The Regulation of Driftnet Fishing on the High Seas Legal Issues Food amp Agriculture Org ISBN 978 92 5 103009 7 media aprn org Archived 21 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine low fish returns in Southeast this summer have been tough on the region s hatcheries Johnson Thom H Lincoln Rich Graves Gary R amp Gibbons Robert G 1997 Status of Wild Salmon and Steelhead Stocks in Washington State In Stouder Deanna J Bisson Peter A amp Naiman Robert J eds Pacific Salmon and Their Ecosystems Status and Future Options Springer pp 127 144 doi 10 1007 978 1 4615 6375 4 11 ISBN 978 1 4615 6375 4 Hackett S amp D Hansen Cost and Revenue Characteristics of the Salmon Fisheries in California and Oregon Retrieved 1 June 2009 Correa Cristian Moran Paul 2017 Polyphyletic ancestry of expanding Patagonian Chinook salmon populations Scientific Reports 14338 1 14338 Bibcode 2017NatSR 714338C doi 10 1038 s41598 017 14465 y PMC 5662728 PMID 29084997 Iriarte J Agustin Lobos Gabriel A Jaksic Fabian M 2005 Invasive vertebrate species in Chile and their control and monitoring by governmental agencies Revista Chilena de Historia Natural 78 78 143 154 Alaska s salmon are getting smaller affecting people and ecosystems phys org Retrieved 6 September 2020 What s an oily fish Food Standards Agency 24 June 2004 Archived from the original on 10 December 2010 Dietary Supplement Fact Sheet Vitamin D National Institutes of Health Archived from the original on 16 July 2007 Retrieved 13 December 2007 Cholesterol Cholesterol Content in Seafoods Tuna Salmon Shrimp Retrieved 13 December 2007 Hites R A Foran J A Carpenter D O Hamilton M C Knuth B A Schwager S J 2004 Global Assessment of Organic Contaminants in Farmed Salmon PDF Science 303 5655 226 9 Bibcode 2004Sci 303 226H CiteSeerX 10 1 1 319 8375 doi 10 1126 science 1091447 PMID 14716013 S2CID 24058620 Archived from the original PDF on 11 August 2017 Retrieved 27 October 2017 Farmed vs wild salmon which is better CTV News Archived from the original on 8 November 2018 Retrieved 28 April 2013 Foran J A Carpenter D O Hamilton M C Knuth B A Schwager S J 2005 Risk Based Consumption Advice for Farmed Atlantic and Wild Pacific Salmon Contaminated with Dioxins and Dioxin like Compounds Environmental Health Perspectives 113 5 552 556 doi 10 1289 ehp 7626 PMC 1257546 PMID 15866762 Mozaffarian Dariush Rimm Eric B 2006 Fish Intake Contaminants and Human Health JAMA 296 15 1885 99 doi 10 1001 jama 296 15 1885 PMID 17047219 Raatz S K Rosenberger T A Johnson L K Wolters W W Burr G S Picklo Mj Sr 2013 Dose Dependent Consumption of Farmed Atlantic Salmon Salmo salar Increases Plasma Phospholipid n 3 Fatty Acids Differentially Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics 113 2 282 7 doi 10 1016 j jand 2012 09 022 PMC 3572904 PMID 23351633 Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Animal Nutrition on the use of canthaxanthin in feedingstuffs for salmon and trout laying hens and other poultry PDF European Commission Health amp Consumer Protection Directorate pp 6 7 Archived from the original PDF on 16 November 2006 Retrieved 13 November 2006 Montaigne Fen Everybody Loves Atlantic Salmon Here s the Catch National Geographic Archived from the original on 1 March 2007 Retrieved 17 November 2006 Jiang Jess 18 September 2015 How The Desperate Norwegian Salmon Industry Created A Sushi Staple National Public Radio Archived from the original on 24 April 2019 Retrieved 14 January 2017 a b c d e f Haida Gwaii Strategic Land Use Agreement PDF Council of the Haida Nation September 2007 Archived from the original PDF on 2 April 2015 a b Garner Kerri Parfitt Ben April 2006 First Nations Salmon Fisheries and the Rising Importance of Conservation Prepared for the Pacific Fisheries Resource Conservation Council PDF Vancouver BC Pacific Fisheries Resource Conservation Council ISBN 1 897110 28 6 Archived from the original PDF on 2 April 2015 Wilkinson Charles 2000 Messages from Frank s Landing A Story of Salmon Treaties and the Indian Way University of Washington Press ISBN 978 0295980119 OCLC 44391504 Nadel Foley Dana 1 January 2005 Atlas of pacific salmon the first map based status assessment of salmon in the North Pacific California University Press ISBN 978 0520245044 OCLC 470376738 Amoss Pamela T 1987 The Fish God Gave Us The First Salmon Ceremony Revived Arctic Anthropology 24 1 56 66 JSTOR 40316132 Lichatowich Jim 1999 Salmon Without Rivers A History of the Pacific Salmon Crisis Island Press ISBN 978 1559633604 OCLC 868995261 E Taylor Joseph 2001 Making Salmon An Environmental History of the Northwest Fisheries Crisis Univ of Washington Press ISBN 978 0295981147 OCLC 228275619 Mcdermott Jim 2017 Endangered Salmon Archived from the original on 15 November 2006 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link Columbia River History Commercial Fishing Northwest Power and Conservation Council 2010 Archived from the original on 11 December 2010 Retrieved 26 January 2012 Roosevelt Theodore 8 December 1908 State of the Union Address Part II by Theodore Roosevelt Archived from the original on 30 January 2013 Retrieved 31 January 2012 Babcock John P 1920 Fraser River Salmon Situation a Reclamation Project Victoria B C W H Cullin pp 5 Ni Fhloinn Bairbre 2018 Cold Iron Aspects of the occupational lore of Irish fishermen University College Dublin pp 105 123 ISBN 978 0 9565628 7 6 The Salmon of Knowledge Celtic Mythology Fairy Tale Luminarium org 18 January 2007 Archived from the original on 16 November 2018 Retrieved 1 June 2010 The Story of Tuan mac Cairill Maryjones us Archived from the original on 27 March 2010 Retrieved 18 March 2010 The Colloquy between Fintan and the Hawk of Achill Ucc ie Archived from the original on 31 December 2018 Retrieved 18 March 2010 Parker Will Culhwch ac Olwen A translation of the oldest Arthurian tale Culhwch ac Olwen Archived from the original on 16 November 2018 Retrieved 17 January 2018 The Poetic Edda Translated by Henry Adams Bellows Archived from the original on 6 May 2019 Retrieved 27 April 2011 Tribal Salmon Culture Salmon Culture of the Pacific Northwest Tribes Columbia River Inter Tribal Fish Commission Archived from the original on 13 May 2019 Further readingAtlas of Pacific Salmon Xanthippe Augerot and the State of the Salmon Consortium University of California Press 2005 hardcover 152 pages ISBN 0 520 24504 0 Making Salmon An Environmental History of the Northwest Fisheries Crisis Joseph E Taylor III University of Washington Press 1999 488 pages ISBN 0 295 98114 8 Trout and Salmon of North America Robert J Behnke Illustrated by Joseph R Tomelleri The Free Press 2002 hardcover 359 pages ISBN 0 7432 2220 2 Come back salmon By Molly Cone Sierra Club Books 48 pages ISBN 0 87156 572 2 A book for juveniles describes the restoration of Pigeon Creek The salmon their fight for survival By Anthony Netboy 1973 Houghton Mifflin Co 613 pages ISBN 0 395 14013 7 A River Lost by Blaine Harden 1996 WW Norton Co 255 pages ISBN 0 393 31690 4 Historical view of the Columbia River system River of Life Channel of Death by Keith C Peterson 1995 Confluence Press 306 pages ISBN 978 0 87071 496 2 Fish and dams on the Lower Snake River Salmon by Dr Peter Coates 2006 ISBN 1 86189 295 0 Lackey Robert T 2000 Restoring Wild Salmon to the Pacific Northwest Chasing an Illusion In Patricia Koss and Mike Katz Eds What we don t know about Pacific Northwest fish runs An inquiry into decision making under uncertainty Portland State University Portland Oregon Pages 91 143 Mills D 2001 Salmonids In pp 252 261 Steele JH Thorpe SA and Turekian KK 2010 Marine Biology A Derivative of the Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences Academic Press ISBN 978 0 08 096480 5 NEWS January 31 2007 U S Orders Modification of Klamath River Dams Removal May Prove More Cost Effective for allowing the passage of Salmon Salmon age and sex composition and mean lengths for the Yukon River area 2004 by Shawna Karpovich and Larry DuBois Hosted by Alaska State Publications Program Studies in the Natural History of the Sacramento Salmon Popular Science Monthly Vol 61 July 1902 Trading Tails Linkages Between Russian Salmon Fisheries and East Asian Markets Shelley Clarke November 2007 120pp ISBN 978 1 85850 230 4 The Salmons Tale one of the twelve Ionan Tales by Jim MacCoolExternal links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Salmon Wikiquote has quotations related to Salmon Look up salmon in Wiktionary the free dictionary Wikisource has the text of the 1905 New International Encyclopedia article Salmon Last Stand of the American Salmon G Bruce Knecht for Men s Journal Plea for the Wanderer an NFB documentary on West Coast salmon Arctic Salmon on Facebook research project studying Pacific salmon in the Arctic and potential links to climate change University of Washington Libraries Digital Collections Salmon Collection A collection of documents describing salmon of the Pacific Northwest Salmon Nation A movement to create a bioregional community based on the historic spawning area of Pacific salmon CA to AK Arctic Salmon Pacific salmon distribution and abundance seems to be increasing in the Arctic Links to a Canadian research project documenting changes in Pacific salmon and studying Pacific salmon ecology in the Arctic Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Salmon amp oldid 1149841533, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.