Slavery in ancient Rome
Slavery in ancient Rome played an important role in society and the economy. Besides manual labour, slaves performed many domestic services and might be employed at highly skilled jobs and professions. Accountants and physicians were often slaves. Slaves of Greek origin in particular might be highly educated. Unskilled slaves, or those sentenced to slavery as punishment, worked on farms, in mines, and at mills.
Slaves were considered property under Roman law and had no legal personhood. Most slaves would never be freed. Unlike Roman citizens, they could legally be subjected to corporal punishment, sexual exploitation (prostitutes were often slaves), torture and summary execution. Over time, however, slaves gained increased legal protection, including the right to file complaints against their masters.
One major source of slaves had been Roman military expansion during the Republic. The use of former enemy soldiers as slaves led perhaps inevitably to a series of en masse armed rebellions, the Servile Wars, the last of which was led by Spartacus. During the Pax Romana of the early Roman Empire (1st–2nd centuries AD), the emphasis was placed on maintaining stability, and the lack of new territorial conquests dried up this supply line of human trafficking. To maintain an enslaved workforce, increased legal restrictions on freeing slaves were put into place. Escaped slaves would be hunted down and returned (often for a reward).
Origins Edit
The Roman jurist Gaius described slavery as "the state that is recognized by the ius gentium in which someone is subject to the dominion of another person contrary to nature" (Institutiones 1.3.2, 161 AD).[2] Ulpian (2nd century AD) also regarded slavery as an aspect of the ius gentium, the customary international law held in common among all peoples (gentes).
In Ulpian's tripartite division of law, the "law of nations" was considered neither natural law, thought to exist in nature and govern animals as well as humans, nor civil law, the legal code particular to a people or nation.[3] All human beings are born free (liberi) under natural law, but since slavery was held to be a universal practice, individual nations would develop their own civil laws pertaining to slaves.[3] In ancient warfare, the victor had the right under the ius gentium to enslave a defeated population; however, if a settlement had been reached through diplomatic negotiations or formal surrender, the people were by custom to be spared violence and enslavement. The ius gentium was not a legal code,[4] and any force it had depended on "reasoned compliance with standards of international conduct".[5]
Although Rome’s earliest wars were defensive,[6] a Roman victory would still result in the enslavement of the defeated under these circumstances, as is recorded at the conclusion of the war with the Etruscan city of Veii in 396 BC.[7] Defensive wars also drained manpower for agriculture, increasing the demand for labor—a demand that could be met by the availability of war captives.[8] From the sixth through the third centuries BC, Rome gradually became a “slave society,”[9] with the first two Punic Wars (265–201 BC) producing the most dramatic surge in the number of slaves.[10]
Some legal and religious developments pertaining to slavery can be discerned even in Rome's earliest institutions. The growing role of slavery in Roman society was reflected in the earliest Roman legal code, the Twelve Tables, dated traditionally to 451/450 BC. The Tables do not contain law defining or pertaining to slavery as such. Specific provisions apply to manumission and the status of freedmen, who are referred to as cives Romani liberti, "freedmen who are Roman citizens," indicating that as early as the fifth century BC, former slaves were a significant demographic that the law needed to address, with a legal path to freedom and the opportunity to participate in the legal and political system.[11]
In contrast to Greek city-states, Rome was an ethnically diverse population and incorporated former slaves as citizens. Myths of Rome's founding sought to account for both this heterogeneity[12] and the role of freedmen in Roman society.[13] The legendary founding by Romulus began with his establishment of a place of refuge that, according to the Augustan-era historian Livy, attracted "mostly former slaves, vagabonds, and runaways all looking for a fresh start" as citizens of the new city, which Livy considers a source of Rome's strength.[14] Servius Tullius, the semi-legendary sixth king of Rome, was said to have been the son of a slave woman,[15] and the cultural role of slavery is embedded in some religious festivals and temples that the Romans associated with his reign.
From the earliest historical period, domestic slaves were part of a familia, the body of a household's dependents—a word especially, or sometimes limited to, referring to the slaves collectively.[16] Pliny (2nd century AD) was nostalgic for a time when "the ancients" lived more intimately in a household with no need for "legions of slaves"—but still imagined this simpler domestic life as supported by the possession of a slave.[17] All those belonging to the familia were subject to the paterfamilias, the "father" or head of household and more precisely the estate owner. According to Seneca, the early Romans coined paterfamilias as a euphemism for the relationship of a master to his slaves.[18] The word for "master" was dominus as the one who controlled the domain of the domus (household);[19] dominium was the word for his control over the slaves.[20] The paterfamilias held the power of life and death (vitae necisque potestas) over all members of the extended household except his wife, the materfamilias,[21] including his sons and daughters as well as slaves.[22]
The Greek historian Dionysius (1st century AD) asserts that this right dated back to the legendary time of Romulus,[23] but historically, the right of the father to kill or sell his offspring was moderated by both laws and social censure. The exercise of this power over the familia was expected ideally to be just and occasioned by an extreme offense; those who killed a member of the household arbitrarily were criticized as acting without self-discipline.[24] However, the legal right of the master to kill his slave at will remained in effect into the late Republic[25] and began to be mitigated only in the imperial era. In consolidating his powers as the first Roman emperor, Augustus styled himself the father of the Roman people and subsumed the power of life and death, with the whole of the Roman state as his domus; the senatorial order resented being placed in a servile role,[26] with slaves and freedmen of the imperial house enjoying expanded privileges.
Throughout the Roman world, slave ownership was most widespread from the Second Punic War (218–201 BC) to the 4th century AD. Slavery with the possibility of manumission was so embedded in Roman society that by the 2nd century AD, most free citizens in the city of Rome are likely to have had slaves "somewhere in their ancestry."[27]
Legal status Edit
The general Latin word for "slave" was servus. In Roman law, the far more common term for the slave as chattel was mancipium[28] ("one held in hand", from which derives the word emancipatio as the opposite condition). Other words used in Roman law to refer to the slave include homo (human being of any gender), famulus (referring to the slave's role within the familia), ancilla (a female slave; serva was less common), and puer (boy). Although the slave was a human being (homo), he was not considered a person (Latin persona) in the legal sense.[29] Persona, in the observation of Marcel Mauss, gradually became "synonymous with the true nature of the individual" in the Roman world, but "servus non habet personam ('a slave has no persona'). He has no personality. He does not own his body; he has no ancestors, no name, no cognomen, no goods of his own."[30] He belonged to the master as a thing (res). In early Rome, the master was free to dispose of a slave as property as he saw fit, including killing him. Owing to a growing body of laws, in the imperial period a master could face penalties for killing a slave without just cause and could be compelled to sell a slave on grounds of mistreatment.[29]
Because he lacked legal standing as a person, a slave could not be sued or be the plaintiff in a lawsuit.[29] The testimony of a slave could not be accepted in a court of law[31] unless the slave was tortured—a practice based on the belief that slaves in a position to be privy to their masters' affairs would be too virtuously loyal to reveal damaging evidence unless coerced.[citation needed] A slave was not permitted to testify against his master unless the charge was treason (crimen maiestatis). Slaves could not enter into legal forms of marriage (matrimonium), though some might be permitted to cohabit less formally in the arrangement known as contubernium. When a slave committed a crime, the punishment exacted was likely to be far more severe than for the same crime committed by a free person.[29]
Roman slaves could be allowed to hold property, which they could use as if it were their own, even though it belonged to their master.[32] Skilled or educated slaves were sometimes allowed to earn their own money, and might hope to save enough to buy their freedom.[33][34] Such slaves were often freed by the terms of their master's will, or for services rendered.
Legal protection of slaves grew as the empire expanded. Claudius announced that if a slave was abandoned by his master, he became free. Nero granted slaves the right to complain against their masters in a court. And under Antoninus Pius, a master who killed a slave without just cause could be tried for homicide.[35] It became common throughout the mid to late 2nd century AD to allow slaves to complain of cruel or unfair treatment by their owners.[36] Attitudes changed in part because of the influence among the educated elite of the Stoics, whose egalitarian views of humanity extended to slaves.[citation needed]
Slavery was not abolished under the Christian emperors, but laws were passed limiting or regulating slavery. Under Constantine II, Jews were barred from owning Christian slaves, converting their slaves to Judaism, or circumcising their slaves. Laws in late antiquity discouraging the subjection of Christians to Jewish owners suggest that they were aimed at protecting Christian identity,[37] since Christian households continued to have slaves who were Christian.[38]
Enslavement of Roman citizens Edit
The only means of enslaving a freeborn Roman citizen that the Romans recognized as legal was military defeat and capture under the ius gentium.
The Carthaginian leader Hannibal enslaved Roman war captives in large numbers during the Second Punic War. Following the Roman defeat at the Battle of Lake Trasimene (217 BC), the treaty included terms for ransoming prisoners of war. The Roman senate declined to do so, and their commander ended up paying the ransom himself. After the disastrous Battle of Cannae the following year, Hannibal again stipulated a redemption of captives, but the senate after debate again voted not to pay, preferring to send a message that soldiers should fight to victory or die. Hannibal then sold these prisoners of war to the Greeks, and they remained slaves until the Second Macedonian War,[39] when Flamininus recovered 1,200 men who had survived some twenty years of slavery after Cannae. The war that most dramatically escalated the number of slaves brought into Roman society at the same time had exposed an unprecedented number of Roman citizens to enslavement.[40]
In AD 9, when the Germans under Arminius captured Romans after the Battle of Teutoburg Forest, the terms of return were also politicized. Mistrusting the loyalty of the army of the Rhine, which would have preferred Germanicus as emperor, Tiberius permitted these prisoners of war to be ransomed, but with the unusual provision that they were banned from Italy.[41]
In the Roman East, thousands of soldiers, citizens, and civilians already of slave status were enslaved by the Parthians or later within the Sasanian Empire.[42] The Parthians captured 10,000 survivors after the defeat of Marcus Crassus at the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC, and marched them 1,500 miles to Margiana in Bactria, where their fate is unknown.[43] While thoughts of returning the Roman military standards lost at Carrhae motivated military minds for decades, “considerably less official concern was expressed about the liberation of Roman prisoners.”[44] Writing about thirty years after the battle, the Augustan poet Horace imagined them married to "barbarian" women and serving the Parthian army, too dishonored to be restored to Rome.[45]
Valerian became the first emperor to be held captive after his defeat by Shapur I at the Battle of Edessa in AD 260. According to hostile Christian sources, the aging emperor was treated as a slave and subjected to a grotesque array of humiliations.[47] Reliefs and inscriptions located at the sacred Zoroastrian site of Naqsh-e Rostam, southwest Iran, celebrate the victories of Shapur I and his successor over the Romans, with emperors in subjection and legionaries paying tribute.[48] Shapur’s inscriptions record that the Roman troops he had enslaved came from all reaches of the empire.[49]
A Roman enslaved in war under such circumstances lost his citizen rights at home. His right to own property was forfeited, his marriage was dissolved, and if he was head of a household his legal power (potestas) over his dependents was suspended. If he was released from slavery, his citizen status might be restored along with his property and potestas. His marriage, however, was not automatically renewed; another agreement of consent by both parties had to be arranged.[50] The loss of citizenship was a consequence of submitting to an enemy sovereign state; freeborn people kidnapped by bandits or pirates were regarded as seized illegally, and therefore they could be ransomed, or their sale into slavery rendered void, without compromising their citizen status. This contrast between the consequences for status from war (bellum) and from banditry (latrocinium) may be reflected in the similar Jewish distinction between a “captive of a kingdom” and a “captive of banditry,” in what would be a rare example of Roman law influencing the language and formulation of rabbinic law.[51]
The legal process originally developed for reintegrating war captives[52] was postliminium, a return after passing out of Roman jurisdiction and then crossing back over one’s own “threshold” (limen).[53] Not all war captives were eligible for reintegration; the terms of a treaty might permit the other side to retain captives[54] as servi hostium, “slaves of the enemy.”[55] A ransom could be paid to redeem a captive individually or as a group; an individual ransomed by someone outside his family was required to pay back the money before his full rights could be restored, and although he was a freeborn person, his status was ambiguous until the lien was lifted.[56]
An investigative procedure was put in place under the emperor Hadrian to determine whether returned soldiers had been captured or surrendered willingly. Traitors, deserters, and those who had a chance to escape but made no attempt were not eligible for postliminium restoration of their citizenship.[57]
Because postliminium law also applied to enemy seizure of mobile property,[58] it was the means by which military-support slaves taken by the enemy were brought back into possession and restored to their former slave status under their Roman owners.[59]
Manumission Edit
Manumissio ("manumission"), meaning "releasing from the hand", was the legal act of releasing a slave from his master's power.[60] The English word "emancipation", in contrast, derives from the Latin legal term emancipatio for the releasing of a son or daughter from their father's legal power (patria potestas).[a][62] Manumission was sometimes a public ceremony, manumissio vindicta, performed before a high-ranking magistrate[b]; a Roman citizen declared the slave free, the owner did not contest it, the citizen touched the slave with a staff and pronounced a formula, and the magistrate confirmed it.[63] Other slaves were freed in their owner's will (manumissio testamento), sometimes on condition of service or payment before or after freedom.[64] Informal manumission (inter amicos) became legal under Augustus;[65] this might consist of the owner proclaiming a slave's freedom in front of friends and family, or just a simple invitation to recline with the family at dinner.[citation needed] A felt cap called the pileus was given to the former slave as symbol of manumission.
Scholars have differed on the rate of manumission.[66] The hope was always greater than the reality, though it may have motivated some slaves to work harder and conform to the ideal of the "faithful servant." Dangling liberty as a reward, slaveholders could navigate the moral issues of enslaving people through placing the burden of merit on slaves—"good" slaves deserved freedom, and others did not.[67]
Neither age nor length of service was automatic grounds for manumission.[68] A young woman in her reproductive years seems to have had the greatest chance for manumission, allowing her to marry and bear legitimate, free children.[69] Slaves were freed for a variety of reasons; for a particularly good deed toward the slave's owner, or out of friendship or respect. Sometimes, a slave who had enough money could buy his freedom and the freedom of a fellow slave, frequently a spouse. However, few slaves had enough money to do so, and many slaves were not allowed to hold money. Slaves were also freed through testamentary manumission, by a provision in an owner's will at his death.
In 2 BC, Augustus restricted the number of slaves that could be freed at once from a single household, depending on the number of slaves belonging to the household; in a household with three to ten slaves, no more than half could be freed; in a household with ten to thirty slaves, no more than a third could be freed; in a household with thirty to one hundred slaves, no more than a quarter could be freed; in a household with over one hundred slaves, no more than one-fifth could be freed, and under no circumstances was it permitted to free more than one hundred slaves at a time. [70] In 4 AD, another law prohibited the manumission of slaves younger than thirty years of age, with some exceptions.[71]
Slaves of the emperor's own household were among those most likely to receive manumission, and the usual legal requirements did not apply. Imperial slaves were routinely manumitted between the ages of 30 and 35—an age that should not be taken as standard for other slaves.[72]
By the early 4th century AD, when the Empire was becoming Christianized, slaves could be freed by a ritual in a church, officiated by an ordained bishop or priest. Constantine I promulgated edicts authorizing manumissio in ecclesia, manumission within a church, in AD 316 and 323, though the law was not put into effect in Africa till AD 401. Churches were allowed to manumit slaves among their membership, and clergy could free their own slaves by simple declaration without filing documents or the presence of witnesses.[73] Laws such as the Novella 142 of Justinian in the 6th century gave bishops the power to free slaves.[74]
Freedmen Edit
After manumission, a male slave who had belonged to a Roman citizen enjoyed not only passive freedom from ownership, but active political freedom (libertas), including the right to vote.[75] A slave who had acquired libertas was thus a libertus ("freed person", feminine liberta) in relation to his former master, who then became his patron (patronus). Freedmen and patrons had mutual obligations to each other within the traditional patronage network, and freedmen also had the ability to “network” with other patrons as well.[76]
As a social class, freed slaves were libertini, though later writers used the terms libertus and libertinus interchangeably.[77][78] Libertini were not entitled to hold public office or state priesthoods, nor could they achieve senatorial rank.[79] Among the laws Augustus issued pertaining to marriage and sexual morality was one permitting legal marriage between a freedwoman and a freeborn man of any rank below the senatorial, and legitimizing their heirs.[80] Also by Augustus' legislation, a freedwoman could not refuse to marry her previous owner or divorce him.[81]
During the early Imperial period, some freedmen became very powerful. Those who were part of the emperor's household (familia Caesaris) could become key functionaries in the government bureaucracy. Some rose to positions of great influence, such as Narcissus, a former slave of the emperor Claudius. Their influence grew to such an extent under the Julio-Claudian emperors that Hadrian limited their participation by law.[79]
More typical among freedmen success stories would be the cloak dealership of Lucius Arlenus Demetrius, enslaved from Cilicia, and Lucius Arlenus Artemidorus, from Paphlagonia, whose shared family name suggests that their partnership toward a solid, profitable business began during enslavement.[82] A few freedmen became very wealthy. The brothers who owned the House of the Vettii, one of the biggest and most magnificent houses in Pompeii, are thought to have been freedmen.[83] Building impressive tombs and monuments for themselves and their families was another way for freedmen to demonstrate their achievements.[84] Despite their wealth and influence, they might still be looked down on by the traditional aristocracy as a vulgar nouveau riche. In the Satyricon, the character Trimalchio is a caricature of such a freedman.[85]
Dediticii Edit
Although in general freed slaves could become citizens, those categorized as dediticii suffered permanent disbarment from citizenship. The dediticii were mainly slaves whose masters had punished them for serious misconduct by placing them in chains, branding them, torturing them to confess a crime, imprisoning them or sending them involuntarily to a gladiatorial school (ludus), or condemning them to fight with gladiators or wild beasts. Dediticii were regarded as a threat to society, regardless of whether their master's punishments had been justified, and if they came within a hundred miles of Rome, they were subject to reenslavement.[86]
Enslavement Edit
"Slaves are either born or made" (servi aut nascuntur aut fiunt):[87] in the ancient Roman world, people might become enslaved as a result of warfare, piracy and kidnapping, or child abandonment. A significant number of the enslaved population were vernae, born to a slave woman within a household (domus) or on a family farm or agricultural estate (villa). A few scholars have suggested that citizens selling themselves into slavery was a more frequent occurrence than literary sources alone would indicate.[88] The relative proportion of these sources of enslavement within the slave population is hard to determine and remains a subject of scholarly debate.[89]
War captives Edit
The fear of falling into slavery as a result of war and piracy, expressed frequently in Roman literature, was not just rhetorical exaggeration.[90] Captives were enslaved during every war the Romans engaged in from the Regal period to the Imperial period.[91] Ancient sources record anywhere from hundreds to tens of thousands of captives resulting from each major battle.[92][93] The newly enslaved were bought wholesale by dealers who followed the Roman armies.[94] During the Gallic Wars, Julius Caesar once sold the entire population of a conquered oppidum (walled town), numbering 53,000 people, to slave dealers on the spot.[95] During the Republic, warfare was arguably the greatest source of slaves,[96] and certainly accounted for the marked increase in the number of slaves held by Romans during the Middle and Late Republic.[97]
Warfare continued to produce slaves for Rome throughout the Imperial period,[98] though war captives arguably became less important as a source after the major campaigns of Augustus concluded later in his life.[99] The market adjusted to meet demand from available sources,[100] and the smaller-scale, less continual warfare of the so-called Pax Romana of the 1st and 2nd centuries still produced slaves “in more than trivial numbers.”[101]
As an example of the impact on one community, it was during this period that the greatest numbers of slaves from the province of Judaea were traded, as a result of the Jewish–Roman wars (AD 66–135).[102] Josephus reports that the first Jewish revolt of AD 66–70 alone resulted in the enslavement of 97,000 people.[103] The future emperor Vespasian enslaved 30,000 in Tarichea after executing those who were old or infirm.[104] When his son and future successor Titus captured the city of Japha, he killed all the males and sold 2,130 women and children into slavery.[105] What appears to have been a unique instance of over-supply in the Roman market for slaves occurred in AD 137 after the Bar Kokhba revolt was quashed and more than 100,000 slaves were put on the market. A Jewish slave for a time could be bought at Hebron or Gaza for the same price as a horse.[106]
The demand for slaves may account for some expansionist actions that seem to have no other profit or political motive—Britain, Mauretania, and Dacia may have been desirable conquests primarily as sources of manpower, and so too Roman campaigns across the frontiers of their African provinces.[107]
The cultural assumption that enslavement was a natural result of defeat in war is reflected in the ubiquity of Imperial art depicting captives, an image that appears not only in public contexts that serve overt purposes of propaganda and triumphalism but also on objects that seem intended for household and personal display, such as figurines, lamps, Arretine pottery, and gems.[108]
Piracy and kidnapping Edit
Piracy has a long history in human trafficking.[109] The primary goal of kidnapping was not enslavement but maximizing profit,[110] as the relatives of captives were expected to pay ransom.[111] If a slave was kidnapped, the owner might or might not decide that the amount of ransom was worthwhile.[112] Although people who cared about getting the captive back were motivated to pay more than a stranger would for a slave at auction, where the captive’s individual qualities would determine pricing, they were sometimes unable to come up with the amount demanded. If multiple people from the same city were taken at the same time and demands for payment could not be met privately, the home city might try to pay the ransom from public funds, but these efforts too might come up short.[113] The captive could then resort to borrowing the ransom money from profiteering lenders, in effect putting himself into debt bondage to them. Selling the kidnap victim on the open market was a last but not infrequent resort.[114]
No traveler was safe; Julius Caesar himself was captured by Cilician pirates as a young man. When the pirates realized his high value, they set his ransom at twenty talents. As the story came to be told, Caesar insisted that they raise it to fifty. He spent thirty-eight days in captivity as they waited for the ransom to be delivered.[115] Upon release, he is said to have returned and subjected his captors to the form of execution by custom reserved for slaves, crucifixion.[116]
Within the Jewish community, rabbis usually encouraged buying back enslaved Jews, but advised that “one should not ransom captives for more than their value, for the good order of the world” because inflated ransoms would only “motivate Romans to enslave even more Jews”.[117] In the early Church, ransoming captives was considered a work of charity (caritas), and after the Empire came under Christian rule, churches spent “enormous funds” to buy back Christian prisoners.[118]
Systematic piracy for the purpose of human trafficking was most rampant in the 2nd century BC, when the city of Side in Pamphylia (present-day Turkey) was a center of the trade.[119] Pompey was credited with eradicating piracy from the Mediterranean in 67 BC,[120] but actions were taken against Illyrian pirates in 31 BC following Actium,[121] and piracy was still a concern addressed during the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius. While large-scale piracy was largely controlled during the Pax Romana, piratical kidnapping continued to contribute to the Roman slave supply into the later Imperial era, though it may not have been a major source of new slaves.[122] In the early 5th century AD, Augustine of Hippo was still lamenting wide-scale kidnapping in North Africa.[123] The Christian missionary Patricius, from Roman Britain, was kidnapped by pirates around AD 400 and taken as a slave to Ireland, where he continued work that eventually led to his canonization as Saint Patrick.[124]
Vernae Edit
Vernae (singular verna) were slaves born within a household (familia) or on a family farm or agricultural estate (villa). There was a stronger social obligation to care for vernae, whose epitaphs sometimes identify them as such, and at times they would have been the biological children of free males of the household.[125][126] Frequent mention of vernae in literary sources indicates that home-reared slaves not only were preferred to those obtained in slave markets but received preferential treatment. Vernae were more likely to be allowed to cohabit as a couple (contubernium) and rear their own children.[127] A child verna might be reared alongside the owner's own child of the same age, even sharing the same wet-nurse.[128] They had greater opportunities for education and might be educated along with the freeborn children of the household.[129] A dedicatory inscription dating to AD 198 lists the names of twenty-four imperial freedmen who were teachers (paedagogi); six are identified as vernae.[130]
Some scholars think that the majority of slaves in the Imperial period were vernae or that domestic reproduction was the single most important source of slaves; modern estimates depend on the interpretation of often uncertain data, including the overall number of slaves.[131]
Child abandonment, infant exposure, and the sale of children Edit
Scholarly views vary on the extent to which child abandonment in its several forms was a significant source for potential slaves.[132] The children of poor citizens who were left orphaned were vulnerable to enslavement, as there was a fine line between fosterage and slavery. These children may be referred to in inscriptions as alumni (plural; feminine alumnae), "those who have been nurtured," a term that is not used to refer to infants or foundlings.[133] Of attested alumni, only about a quarter can be securely identified as slaves.[134]
Child abandonment, whether through the death of family or intentionally, is to be distinguished from infant exposure, which the Romans seem to have practiced widely and which is embedded the founding myth of the exposed twins Romulus and Remus suckling at the she-wolf. At a time when infant mortality might have been as high as 40 percent,[135] the newborn was thought in its first week of life to be in a perilous liminal state between biological existence and social birth. It was especially during this time that parents and midwives would make "heartrending decisions" about whether a child could or should be reared; a serious birth defect was considered grounds for exposure even among the upper classes.[136] Families who could not afford to raise a child might expose an unwanted infant—abandon it under outdoor conditions that were likely to cause its death.[137] One view is that healthy infants who survived exposure were usually enslaved and were a significant source of slaves.[138]
A healthy exposed infant might be taken in for fosterage or adoption by a family, but even this practice could treat the child as an investment: if the birth family later wished to reclaim their offspring, they were entitled to do so but had to reimburse expenses for nurturance.[139] Slave traders also could pick up surviving infants and rear them with training as slaves,[140] but since children under the age of five are unlikely to provide much labor of value,[141] it is unclear how investing the five years of adult labor in nurturing would be profitable.[142] Child slaves often cost less than adults.[143][144]
The Christianization of the later empire shifted priorities. Constantine, the first Christian emperor, legalized the buying and selling of newborn children in what has been interpreted as an effort to stop the practice of infant exposure, and later abolished the "power of life and death" the paterfamilias had held.[145] The Constantinian law has also been called simply "an insurance policy on behalf of individual slave-owners"[146] designed to protect the property of those who, unknowingly or not, had bought an infant later claimed or shown to have been born free.[147]
Debt slavery Edit
Nexum was a debt bondage contract in the early Roman Republic. Within the Roman legal system, it was a form of mancipatio. Though the terms of the contract would vary, essentially a free man pledged himself as a bond slave (nexus) as surety for a loan. He might also hand over his son as collateral. Although the bondsman could expect to face humiliation and some abuse, as a legal citizen he was supposed to be exempt from corporal punishment. Nexum was abolished by the Lex Poetelia Papiria in 326 BC.
Roman historians illuminated the abolition of nexum with a traditional story that varied in its particulars; basically, a nexus who was a handsome but upstanding youth suffered sexual harassment by the holder of the debt. The cautionary tale highlighted the incongruities of subjecting one free citizen to another's use, and the legal response was aimed at establishing the citizen's right to liberty (libertas), as distinguished from the slave or social outcast (infamis).[148] Cicero, however, considered the abolition of nexum primarily a political maneuver to appease the common people (plebs): the law was passed during the Conflict of the Orders, when plebeians were struggling to establish their rights in relation to the hereditary privileges of the patricians. Although nexum was abolished as a way to secure a loan, debt bondage might still result after a debtor defaulted.[149]
Self-sales Edit
The liberty of the Roman citizen was a “cornerstone” of Roman law, and therefore it was illegal for a freeborn person to sell himself—in theory. In practice, self-enslavement might be overlooked unless one of the parties took issue with the terms of the contract.[150] "Self-sales" are not well represented in Roman literature, presumably because they were shameful and against the law.[151] The limited evidence is primarily to be found in Imperial legal sources, which indicate that “self-sale” as a path to enslavement was as well recognized as being captured in war or being born to an enslaved mother.[152]
Self-sales are in evidence mainly when challenged in court on grounds of fraud. A case for fraud could be made if the seller or the buyer knew that the enslaved person was freeborn (ingenuus) at the time of sale when the trafficked person himself did not. Fraud could also be alleged if the person sold had been under the age of twenty. Legal argumentation makes it clear that protecting the buyer’s investment was a priority, but if either of these circumstances was proved, the liberty of the enslaved person could be reclaimed.[153]
Since it was difficult to prove who knew what when, the most solid evidence for voluntary enslavement was whether the formerly free person had consented by receiving a share of the proceeds from the sale. A person who knowingly surrendered the rights of Roman citizenship was thought unworthy of holding them, and permanent enslavement was thus considered an appropriate consequence.[154] A Roman soldier who sold himself as a slave faced execution.[155] Enslaved Roman prisoners of war were similarly deemed ineligible to have their citizenship restored if they had surrendered their liberty without fighting hard enough to keep it (see the enslavement of Roman citizens above); as the Roman Republic devolved, political rhetoric feverishly urged citizens to resist the shame of falling into "slavery" under one-man rule.[156]
However, self-sale cases that made it to the level of imperial appeal often resulted in voiding the contract,[154] even if the enslaved person had consented, as a private contract did not override the state’s interest in regulating citizenship, which carried tax obligations.[157]
The slave economy Edit
During the period of Roman imperial expansion, the increase in wealth amongst the Roman elite and the substantial growth of slavery transformed the economy.[158] Although the economy was dependent on slavery, Rome was not the most slave-dependent culture in history. Among the Spartans, for instance, the slave class of helots outnumbered the free by about seven to one, according to Herodotus.[159] Economic historian Peter Temin has argued that "Rome had a functioning labor market and a unified labor force" in which slavery played an integral role. The condition of mobility required for market dynamism was met by the number of free workers seeking wages and skilled slaves with an incentive to earn.[160] Wages could be earned by both free and some enslaved workers, and fluctuated in response to labor shortages;[161] Romans of the governing class regarded wage-earning as equivalent to slavery.[162] In any case, scholars differ on how the particulars of Roman slavery as an institution can be framed within theories of labor markets in the overall economy.[163][164][165]
Multitudes of slaves who were brought to Italy were purchased by wealthy landowners in need of large numbers of slaves to labour on their estates. Historian Keith Hopkins noted that it was land investment and agricultural production which generated great wealth in Italy, and considered that Rome's military conquests and the subsequent introduction of vast wealth and slaves into Italy had effects comparable to widespread and rapid technological innovations.[166]
The slave trade Edit
What the Roman jurist Papinian referred to as "the regular, daily traffic in slaves"[167] involved every part of the Roman Empire and occurred across borders as well. Slave markets seem to have existed in most cities of the Empire, but outside Rome the largest center was Ephesus.[168] The major centers of the Imperial slave trade were in Italy, the north Aegean, Asia Minor, and Syria. Mauretania and Alexandria were also significant.[169]
The largest market on the Italian peninsula, as might be expected, was the city of Rome;[170] Puteoli may have been the second busiest.[171] Trading also occurred at Brundisium,[172] Capua,[173] and Pompeii.[174] Slaves were imported from across the Alps to Aquileia.[175]
The rise and fall of Delos is an example of the volatility and disruptions of the slave trade. In the eastern Mediterranean, policing by the Ptolemaic Kingdom and Rhodes had kept some check on piratical kidnapping and illegal slave trading until Rome, on the wave of their unexpected success against Carthage, expanded trade and exerted dominance eastward.[176] The long-established port of Rhodes, known as a "law and order" state, had legal and regulatory barriers to exploitation by the new Italian "entrepreneurs",[177] who got a more porous reception in Delos as they set up shop in the latter 3rd century BC.[178] To disadvantage Rhodes, and ultimately devastating its economy,[179] in 166 BC the Romans declared Delos a free port, meaning that merchants there would no longer have to pay the 2 percent customs tax.[180] The piratical slave trade then flooded into Delos "with no questions asked" about the source and status of captives.[181] While the geographer Strabo's figure of 10,000 slaves traded daily is more hyperbole than statistic,[182] slaves became the number one Delian commodity.[183] The large commercial agricultural operations in Sicily (latifundia) likely received great numbers of Delian-traded Syrian and Cilician slaves, who went on to lead the years-long slave rebellions of 135 and 104 BC.[184]
But as the Romans established better-located and more sophisticated trading centers in the East, Delos lost its privilege as a free port and was left to be sacked in 88 and 69 BC during the Mithridatic Wars, from which it never recovered.[185] Other cities such as Mytilene may have taken up the slack.[186] The Delian slave economy had been artificially exuberant,[187] and by averting their gaze the Romans exacerbated the piracy problem that would vex them for centuries.[188]
Major sources of slaves from the East include Lydia, Caria, Phrygia, Galatia, and Cappadocia, for which Ephesus was a center of trade.[189] Aesop, the Phrygian writer of fables, was supposed to have been sold at Ephesus.[190] Pergamum is likely to have had "regular and heavy" slave trading,[191] as is the prosperous city of Acmonia in Phrygia.[192] Strabo (1st century AD) describes Apameia in Phrygia as ranking second in trade only to Ephesus in the region, observing that it was “the common warehouse for those from Italy and from Greece”—a center for imports from the west, with slaves the most likely commodity for export trade.[193] Markets are also likely to have existed in Syria and Judaea, though direct evidence is thin.[194]
In the north Aegean, a large memorial to a slave trader in Amphipolis suggests that this might have been a location where Thracian slaves were traded.[195] Byzantium was a market for slaves obtained along the coasts of the Black Sea.[196] Slaves coming from Bithynia, Pontus, and Paphlagonia would have been traded in the cities of the Propontis.[197]
Roman coin hoards dating from the 60s BC are found in unusual abundance in Dacia (present-day Romania), and have been interpreted as evidence that Pompey’s success in shutting down piracy caused an increase in the slave trade in the lower Danube basin to meet demand. The hoards drop off in frequency for the 50s BC, when Julius Caesar’s campaigns in Gaul were resulting in large lots of new slaves brought to market, and resurge in the 40s and 30s.[199] Archaeology into the 21st century has continued to produce evidence of slave trafficking in parts of the Empire where it had been little attested, such as Roman London.[200]
Slaves were traded from outside Roman borders at several points, as mentioned by literary sources such as Strabo and Tacitus and attested by epigraphical evidence in which slaves are listed among commodities subject to tariffs.[201] Diodorus Siculus says that in pre-conquest Gaul, wine merchants could trade an amphora for a slave; Cicero mentions a slave trader from Gaul in 83 BC.[202] Walter Scheidel conjectured that "enslavables" were traded across borders from present-day Ireland, Scotland, eastern Germany, southern Russia, the Caucasus, the Arab peninsula, and what used to be referred to as "the Sudan"; the Parthian Empire would have consumed most supply to the east.[203]
Auctions and sales Edit
William V. Harris outlines four market venues for slave trading:
- small-scale transactions owner-to-owner in which a single slave might be traded;
- the “opportunistic market”, such as the slave traders who followed the army and handled large numbers of slaves;
- fairs and markets in small towns, where slaves would’ve been among various goods exchanged;
- slave markets in major cities, where auctions were held on a regular basis.[204]
Slaves who were purchased on the market were empticii ("purchased ones"), as distinguished from home-reared slaves born within the familia. Empticii were most often bought cheap for everyday tasks or labor, but some were thought of as a kind of luxury good and brought high prices, if they possessed a sought-after, specialized skill or a special quality such as beauty.[205]
Although race was not an indicator of whether someone was enslaved or a descendant of slaves, Roman law required that the slave's place of origin (natio) be declared at the time of sale. Slaves from certain "nations" were thought to perform better at tasks that might be of value to the prospective buyer.[207]
Slaves for sale were often placed on a stand[c] and a type of plaque hung on each one describing their origin, health, character, intelligence, education, and other information pertinent to purchasers. Prices varied with age and quality, with the most valuable slaves fetching high prices. Potential buyers could ask to have a slave undressed to make sure the dealer wasn't concealing a physical defect.[210] Initially the buyer took all risks, unless the seller fraudulently concealed defects, but by the end of the republic, the dealer was required for six months to take a slave back and refund the price if the slave had defects that were not declared or manifest at the sale, or for twelve months to make a partial refund.[211][212] Slaves to be sold with no guarantee were made to wear a cap at the sale.[213][214]
Taxes and tariffs Edit
During the Republic, the only regular revenue from slaveholding collected by the state was a tax placed on manumissions starting in 357 BC, amounting to 5 percent of the slave's estimated value.[215] In 183 BC, Cato the Elder as censor placed a sumptuary tax on slaves that had cost 10,000 asses or more, calculated at a rate of 3 denarii per 1,000 asses on an assessed value ten times the purchase price.[216] In 40 BC, the triumvirs attempted to impose a tax on slave ownership, which was squelched by "bitter opposition."[217]
In AD 7, Augustus imposed the first tax on Roman citizens as purchasers of slaves,[218] at a rate of 2 percent, estimated to generate annual revenues of about 5 million sesterces—a figure that may indicate some 250,000 sales.[168] By comparison, the sales tax on slaves in Ptolemaic Egypt had been 20 percent.[219] The slave-sales tax was increased under Nero to 4 percent,[220] with a misguided attempt to divert the burden to the seller, which only increased prices.[221]
Tariffs on slaves imported to or exported from Italy were taken at harbor customs, as they were all around the Empire.[222] At Zaraï in Roman Numidia, for example, the tariff for a slave was the same as for a horse or mule.[223]
Types of work Edit
Slaves worked in a wide range of occupations that can be roughly divided into five categories: household or domestic, imperial or public, urban crafts and services, agriculture, and mining.[224]
Household slaves Edit
Epitaphs record at least 55 different jobs a household slave might have,[224] including barber, butler, cook, hairdresser, handmaid (ancilla), launderer, wet nurse or nursery attendant, teacher, secretary, seamstress, accountant, and physician.[166] For large households, job descriptions indicate a high degree of specialization: handmaids might be assigned to the upkeep, storage, and readiness of the mistress's wardrobe or specifically mirrors or jewelry.[225]
In Roman Egypt, papyri preserve apprenticeship contracts written in Greek that indicate the training a worker might require to become skilled, usually for a full year. A beautician (ornatrix) required a three-year apprenticeship; in one Roman legal case, it was ruled that a slave who had studied for only two months could not be considered an ornatrix as a matter of law.[226]
In the Imperial era, a large elite household (a domus in town, or a villa in the countryside) might be supported by a staff of hundreds;[224] or on the lower end of scholarly estimates, perhaps an average of 100 slaves per domus during the time of Augustus. Possibly half the slaves in the city of Rome served in the houses of the senatorial order and of the richer equestrians.[227] The living conditions of the familia urbana—slaves attached to a domus—were sometimes superior to those of many free urban poor in Rome,[228] though even in the grandest houses, they would have lived "packed in to basement rooms and odd crannies."[229] Still, household slaves likely enjoyed the highest standard of living among Roman slaves, next to publicly owned slaves in administration, who were not subject to the whims of a single master.[211]
Urban crafts and services Edit
Of slaves in the city of Rome not attached to a domus, most were engaged in trades and manufacturing. Occupations included fullers, engravers, shoemakers, bakers, and mule drivers. The Roman domus itself should not be thought of as a "private" home in the modern sense, as business was often conducted there, and even commerce—the first-floor rooms facing the street might be shops used or rented out as commercial spaces.[230] The work done or the goods made and sold by enslaved labor from these storefronts complicates the distinction between household and general urban labor.
Through the end of the 2nd century BC, skilled labor throughout Italy, such as pottery design and manufacture, was still predominated by free workers, whose corporations or guilds (collegia) might own a few slaves.[231] In the Imperial era, as many of 90 percent of workers in these areas might be slaves or former slaves.[232]
Training programs and apprenticeships are well if briefly documented. Slaves whose ability was noticed might be trained from a young age in trades requiring a high degree of artistry or expertise; for example, an epitaph mourns the premature death of a talented boy, only age 12, who was already apprenticing as a goldsmith.[233] Girls might be apprenticed particularly in the textile industry; contracts specify apprenticeships of varying durations. One four-year contract from Roman Egypt that apprentices an underage girl to a master weaver shows how detailed terms could be. The owner is to feed and clothe the girl, who is to receive periodic pay raises from the weaver as her skills level up, along with eighteen holidays a year. Sick days are to be tacked onto her term of service, and the weaver is responsible for taxes.[234] The contractual aspect of benefits and obligations seems "distinctly modern"[235] and indicates that a slave on a skills track might have opportunities, bargaining power, and relative social security nearly on a par with or exceeding free but low-skill workers living at a subsistence level. The widely attested success of freedmen might have been one possible motivation for contractual self-sale, as a well-connected owner might be able to obtain training for the slave and market access later as a patron to the new freedman.[236]
In the city of Rome, working people and their slaves lived in insulae, multistory buildings with shops on the ground floor and apartments above.[232] Most apartments in Rome lacked proper kitchens and might have only a charcoal brazier.[237] Food therefore was widely prepared and sold by free and slave labor at pubs and bars, inns, and food stalls (tabernae, cauponae, popinae, thermopolia).[238] But carryout and dining-in establishments were for the lower classes; fine dining was offered in wealthy homes with an enslaved kitchen staff comprising a head chef (archimagirus), sous chef (vicarius supra cocos), and assistants (coci).[239] Columella decries the extravagance of culinary workshops that produce chefs and professional servers when schools for agriculture don't exist.[240] Seneca mentions the specialized training required for poultry-carving, and the habitually indignant Juvenal rails about a carver (cultellus) who rehearses dance-like moves and knife-wielding to meet the exacting standards of his teacher.[241]
In the Roman world, architects were usually freeborn men for hire or freedmen, but the names of some high-profile enslaved architects are known, including Corumbus, the slave of Caesar's friend Balbus,[242] and Tychicus, whom the emperor Domitian owned.[243]
Agriculture Edit
Farm slaves (familia rustica) may have lived in more healthful conditions than their urban counterparts in trade and manufacturing. Roman agricultural writers expect that the workforce of a farm will be mostly slaves,[224] who are regarded as speaking versions[244] of the animals they tend. Cato advises farm owners to dispose of old and sickly slaves just as they would worn-out oxen,[245] and Columella finds it convenient to house slaves next to the cattle or sheep they tend.[246] Roman law was explicit that farm slaves were to be equated with quadrupeds kept in herds.[247] They were far less likely to be manumitted than either skilled urban or household slaves.[248]
Large farms employing slaves for planting and harvesting are found in the eastern empire as well as Europe, and are alluded to in the Christian Gospels.[249]
The ratio of male slaves to female on a farm was likely to be even more disproportionate than in a household (perhaps as high as 80 percent). The relatively few women would spin and weave wool, make clothes, and work in the kitchen.[250] The slaves on a farm were managed by a vilicus, who was often a slave himself.[224] Male slaves who had proven their loyalty and ability to manage others might be allowed to form a long-term relationship with a female fellow slave (conserva) and have children. It was especially desirable for the vilicus to have a quasi marriage (contubernia).[251] The vilica who supervised food preparation and textile production for the estate[252] held her position on her own merit and only infrequently was the woman who lived with the vilicus as his wife.[253]
From the Middle Republic on, unmanageable slaves might be punished by confinement to an ergastulum, a work barracks for those subjected to chaining; Columella says every farm needs one.[254]
Hard labor Edit
In the Republican era, a punishment that slaves feared was hard labor in chains at mill and bakery operations (pistrina) or work farms (ergastula).[255]
Prison sentences for citizens were not a part of the Roman criminal justice system; jails were meant for holding prisoners transitionally. Instead, in the Imperial era the convicted would be sentenced to hard labor and sent to camps where they would be put to work in the mines, quarries, and mills.[256] Damnati in metallum ("those condemned to the mine", or metallici) lost their freedom as citizens (libertas), forfeited their property (bona) to the state, and became servi poenae, slaves as a legal penalty. Their status under the law differed from that of other slaves; they could not buy their freedom, be sold, or be set free. They were expected to live and often die in the mines.[257] In the later Empire, the permanence of their status was indicated by a tattooing of the forehead.[258]
Convicts numbering in the tens of thousands were condemned to enslavement in the mines or quarries, where conditions were notoriously brutal.[224] Christians felt that their community was particularly subject to this penalty.[259] The condemnation of free inhabitants of the Empire to conditions of slavery was among the punishments that degraded the citizenship status of the lower classes—the humiliores who had not held office at the level of deucurion or higher and were most of the populace—in ways that would have been intolerable during the Republic.[260] Slaves could also end up in the mines as punishment, and even in the mines were subject to harsher discipline than the formerly free convicts.[261] Women could be sentenced to lighter work at the mines.[262] Some provinces did not have mines, so those condemned as metallici might have to be transported great distances to serve their sentence.[263]
Convict labor played a role in public works in the municipalities; the quarrying of building stone and fine stone such as alabaster and porphyry; the mining of metals and minerals (such as lime and sulphur), and perhaps in salt works. In the 3rd and 4th centuries, convicts began to be sentenced to pistrina in Rome, a punishment formerly reserved for slaves, and to the new state-owned factories that made clothing for the military and imperial household.[264] The Imperial novelty of sentencing free people to hard labor may have compensated for a declining supply of war captives to enslave, though ancient sources don't discuss the economic impact as such, which was secondary to demonstrating the "coercive capacities of the state"—the cruelty was the point.[265]
Not all mining labor was unfree, as indicated for example by an employment contract dating to AD 164. The employee agrees to provide "healthy and vigorous labor" at a gold mine for wages of 70 denarii and a term of service from May to November; if he chooses to quit before that time, 5 sesterces for each day not worked will be deducted from the total.[266] There is no evidence that convict labor was used in the major mining district in Lusitania, the Imperial gold mines in Dacia, or Imperial quarries in Phrygia; these would have employed the usual combination of free and slave labor.[267] Mine administration and management was often handled by imperial slaves and freedmen of the familia Caesaris.[268]
Contrary to modern popular imagery, the Roman navy did not employ galley slaves except in wartime when there was a shortage of free oarsman.[269] While it’s likely that merchants regularly used enslaved oarsmen for shipping, the practice is not well attested.[270]
Servus publicus Edit
A servus publicus (public slave) was a slave owned not by a private individual, but by the Roman people or by a municipality. Imperial slaves were those attached to the emperor's extended household, the familia Caesaris.[224] Imperial and municipal slaves are better documented than most slaves because their higher status prompted them to identify themselves as such in inscriptions.[271]
Public slaves at Rome worked in temples and other public buildings. Most performed general, basic tasks as servants to the College of Pontiffs, magistrates, and other officials. Some well-qualified public slaves did skilled office work such as accounting and secretarial services. Often entrusted with managerial roles, they were permitted to earn money for their own use.[272]
Because they had an opportunity to prove their merit, public slaves could acquire a reputation and influence, and their chances for manumission were higher. During the Republic, a public slave could be freed by a magistrate's declaration, with the prior authorization of the senate; in the Imperial era, liberty would be granted by the emperor. Municipal public slaves could be freed by their municipal council.[272] Vast numbers of imperial slaves helped drive the large-scale public works of the Roman Empire; for example, Frontinus (1st century AD) says that personnel for the city of Rome's aqueducts alone numbered 700.[273]
Business managers and agents Edit
A slave whose master gave him “free administration” (libera administratio) could travel and act independently on business.[274] A slave entrusted in this way was given money or property which he controlled but did not technically own. It was through this mechanism, called peculium, that slaves could earn profit accounted toward buying their freedom.
Isidore of Seville, looking back from the early 7th century, offered this definition: “peculium is in the proper sense something which belongs to minors or slaves. For peculium is what a father or master allows his child or slave to manage as his own.”[275] Property otherwise could not be owned by the dependents of a household, defined as someone subordinate to a father’s power, including adult sons and daughters as well as slaves; all wealth belonged to the paterfamilias.[d] The legal dodge of peculium enabled both adult unemancipated sons and capable slaves to manage property, turn a profit, and negotiate contracts.[276] With this business acumen, certain freedmen went on to amass considerable fortunes. [277]
There was a risk to the still-enslaved person who anticipated manumission that the master would renege and take back the earnings, but one of the expanded protections for slaves in the Imperial era was that a manumission agreement between the slave and his master could be enforced.[278]
In effect, the owner who set aside a peculium for the slave to manage had created a company with limited liability.[279] But the agency of slaves in conducting business could raise complex legal issues, with hazards for the slave and potential blowback for the master. If a slave was accused of fraud, for example, or was sued in civil court, the master faced a dilemma: he could acknowledge his ownership and defend the slave, making himself liable for paying damages if they lost the case, or he could decline to defend the slave and transfer ownership to the party claiming injury. The slave was therefore vulnerable to the master’s calculations on the relative advantages of defending him or not. This situation was more than hypothetical; some local laws in the provinces seem aimed at dealing with the legal peculiarities of the relative freedom Romans gave slaves at this operational level. A city in Caria, for example, spelled out that if a Roman slave violated local banking regulations, the owner could either pay a fine or punish the slave; the punishment was specified as fifty blows and six months of prison.[280]
Households that are settings for narratives in the Christian Gospels show privileged slaves acting as estate managers and agents, collecting rent and produce from tenant farmers, or investing money and conducting business on behalf of their master.[281] They also serve as oikonomoi (household managers or "economists") in charge of allocating and disbursing food and funds to other members of the familia.[282]
Gladiators, entertainers, and prostitutes Edit
Gladiators, entertainers such as actors and dancers, and prostitutes were among those persons in Rome who existed in the social limbo of infamia or disrepute, regardless of whether they were enslaved or technically free. Like slaves, they could not bring a case in court nor have someone represent them; like freedmen, they were not eligible to hold public office.[283] In a legal sense, infamia was an official loss of standing for a freeborn person as a result of misconduct, and could be imposed by a censor or praetor as a legal penalty.[284] Those who displayed themselves to entertain others had surrendered the right of citizens not to subject their body to use: "They lived by providing sex, violence, and laughter for the pleasure of the public."[285]
Those deemed infames had few legal protections even if they were Roman citizens who were not subject to being traded as slaves.[286] They were liable to corporal punishment of the kinds usually reserved for slaves.[287] Their daily life probably differed little from that of a slave within the same area of employment, though they had control of their income and more freedom to make decisions about their living arrangements. Their lack of legal standing arose from the kind of work they did—perceived as a morally suspect manipulation of and simultaneous surrender to others' desires for pleasure—not the fact that they worked alongside slaves, since that would be true of nearly all forms of labor in Rome. Lenones (pimps) and lanistae (trainers or managers of gladiators) shared the disreputable status of their workers.[288]
Actors were moreover subversive because the theatre was a place for free speech. Actors were known to mock politicians from the stage, and there was established law from the 4th century BC and into the late Republic that they could be subjected to physical punishment as slaves were.[289] The comic playwright known in English as Terence was a slave who was manumitted because of his literary abilities.[290]
In the Late Republic, about half the gladiators who fought in Roman arenas were slaves, though the most skilled were often free volunteers.[291] Freeborn gladiators erased the distinction between citizen and slave by taking an oath to subject their bodies to physical abuse, including being branded and beaten, both marks of slavery.[292] Enslaved gladiators who enjoyed success in the arena were occasionally rewarded with manumission but remained in a state of infamia.
Most prostitutes were slaves or freedwomen; male prostitutes also existed. Prostitutes in the city of Rome were registered with the aediles,[293] and prostitution was legal throughout the Roman Empire in all periods before Christian hegemony.[294] Sexual slavery was forbidden by the Church, and Christian pressure curtailed or altogether ended traditional spectacles and games (ludi) such as gladiator matches and public theatrical performances.[295]
Serfdom Edit
By the 3rd century AD, the Roman Empire faced a labour shortage. Large Roman landowners increasingly relied on Roman freemen, acting as tenant farmers, instead of slaves to provide labour.[296] The status of these tenant farmers (coloni), steadily eroded. Because the tax system implemented by Diocletian assessed taxes based on both land and the inhabitants of that land, it became administratively inconvenient for peasants to leave the land where they were counted in the census.[296] In 332 AD Constantine issued legislation that greatly restricted the rights of the coloni and tied them to the land. Some[who?] see these laws as the beginning of medieval serfdom in Europe.
Demography Edit
Estimates for the prevalence of slavery in the Roman Empire vary. Estimates of the percentage of the population of Italy who were slaves by the end of the 1st century BC range upwards of one to two million slaves in Italy, about 20% to 30% of Italy's population.[297][298][299][300] One study estimated that for the empire as a whole during the period 260–425 AD, the slave population was just under five million, representing 10–15% of the total population of 50–60 million inhabitants. An estimated 49% of all slaves were owned by the elite, who made up less than 1.5% of the empire's population. About half of all slaves worked in the countryside where they were a small percentage of the population except on some large agricultural, especially imperial, estates; the remainder of the other half were a significant percentage – 25% or more – in towns and cities as domestics and workers in commercial enterprises and manufacturers.[301]
Roman slavery was not based on ideas of race.[302][303] Slaves were drawn from all over Europe and the Mediterranean, including but not limited to Gaul, Hispania, North Africa, Syria, Germany, Britannia, the Balkans, and Greece. Those from outside Europe were predominantly of Greek descent, while Jews never fully assimilated into Roman society, remaining an identifiable minority.[clarification needed][304] The slaves (especially the foreigners) had higher mortality rates and lower birth rates than natives and were sometimes even subjected to mass expulsions.[304] The average recorded age at death for the slaves of the city of Rome was extraordinarily low: seventeen and a half years (17.2 for males; 17.9 for females).[305] By comparison, life expectancy at birth for the population as a whole was in the mid-twenties.[306]
| Region | Citizens (per cent) | Noncitizen residents (per cent) | Slaves (per cent) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Rome | 55 | 15 | 30 |
| Italy | 70 | 5 | 25 |
| Spain and Gaul | 10 | 70 | 20 |
| Other Western Provinces | 3 | 80 | 17 |
| Greece and Asia Minor | 3 | 70 | 27 |
| North African Provinces | 2 | 70 | 28 |
| Other Eastern Provinces | 1 | 80 | 19 |
Treatment and daily life Edit
The "gross power differential" inherent in slavery is not peculiar to Rome, but as a universal characteristic of the institution, it defines Roman practice as it does that of other slave cultures: "slaves stood powerless before their masters' or mistresses' whims and presumably remained in a perpetual state of unease, not necessarily able to anticipate when the next act of cruelty or degradation would come yet certain it would."[308] Many if not most slaves could expect to be subjected to relentless labor; corporal punishment or physical abuse in varying degrees of severity; sexual exploitation; or the caprices of owners in selling or threatening to sell them.[309] Cato the Elder was a particularly harsh "slave-driver" whose exploitation was "unmitigated by any consideration of the needs of the slave as a human being."[310]
The enslaved who were traded on the open market might find themselves transported great distances across the empire: the epitaph of a slave woman in Roman Spain records her home as having been in Northern Italy;[311] a Cretan woman was traded between two Romans in Dacia;[312] a ten-year-old girl named Abaskantis, taken from Galatia, was sold to a buyer from Alexandria, Egypt, a destination about 1,500 miles from her home. The conditions experienced by the hundreds of thousands traded in Roman antiquity have been described as "personal degradation and humiliation, cultural disorientation, material deprivation, severance of familial bonds, emotional and psychological trauma."[313]
Literary sources were written by or for slaveholders, and inscriptions set up by slaves and freedmen preserve only glimpses of how they saw themselves.[314] Elite literature indicates that how a Roman treated a slave was viewed as evidence of the master's character. The type of the saeva domina (cruel slave mistress) emerges from Roman literature as the woman who flies into a rage at her handmaids' minor faults, stabbing them with pins or biting them and then punishing them with a beating.[315] Plutarch writes approvingly that Cato bought slaves for their robust utility and never paid extra for mere good looks; but he finds fault with Cato for using his slaves like "beasts of burden" and then selling them off when they started to age "instead of feeding them when they were useless"—the implication being that a "good" master would provide care.[316][317] In one of the Moral Epistles, Seneca expressed the utilitarian view that a slave who was treated well would perform a better job than a poorly treated slave.
Healthcare Edit
Mentions in ancient literature of medical care for slaves are infrequent. The medical writer Rufus of Ephesus has one title among his works that stands out as not self-evidently medical: On the Purchase of Slaves, which presumably gave advice to the trade on assessing slave fitness and possibly their care,[318] since health defects could invalidate a sale.[319] Ongoing care would have depended on the utility of keeping workers healthy to maximize production, and at times on the owner’s humane impulses or attachment to a particular slave. Pliny the Younger indicates that slaves did receive care from medici (medical attendants or physicians), but he observes that while “slaves and free persons differ not at all when they are in ill health, the free receive gentler and more merciful treatment.”[320]
Pliny himself had sent his slave Zosimus, for whom he expresses his affection and esteem at length, to Egypt to seek therapy for a lung disease that had him coughing up blood. Zosimus was restored to health and at some point was manumitted, but the symptoms later returned. Pliny then wrote to ask if he could send Zosimus for rehab in the more healthful climate of a friend’s country estate in the part of Gaul that is today the south of France.[321]
Individual acts of compassion by slaveholders stand apart as exceptions. The practice of abandoning sick slaves on Rome's Tiber Island, where a temple to the healing god Aesculapius was located, led to such homelessness and contagion that the emperor Claudius decreed any slave who survived abandonment could not be reclaimed by his owner and was automatically free. Law was also enacted under Claudius that criminalized the killing of a sick or disabled slave as murder even by his owner.[322]
Physicians Edit
Medicine was held in higher regard in Greece as a technē (art or skill) than it was in Rome. The best Greek medical schools did not admit slaves, and some city-states restricted slaves to practicing medicine only on fellow slaves. Though denied advanced theoretical study, slaves were part of a two-tier system to deliver care to the lower classes, and could receive often extensive training as physicians' assistants, becoming well versed in practical medicine.[323]
At Rome, medicine was considered an unsuitable occupation for the upper classes because it requires tending to the needs of another’s body.[324] Elite households were attended by Greek physicians, either one of great prestige enticed to Rome with privileges and an offer of citizenship,[325] or a staff of freedmen or enslaved medici.[326] The celebrated Publius Decimus Eros Merula, in Assisi, was an enslaved clinical physician, surgeon, and eye specialist in the time of Augustus who eventually bought his freedom for 50,000 sesterces and left a fortune of 800,000.[327] There were also free itinerant doctors who could be hired to provide care to households that lacked the means or desire to have a full-time medical attendant. Some slaves might assist with healthcare as nurses, midwives, medics, or orderlies.[328] During the Imperial era, the desire of freedmen to acquire medical training was such that it was exploited by scam medical schools.[329]
The physician Galen, who came to Rome from Pergamum, developed his surgical techniques attending to the injuries of enslaved gladiators, and recorded a case study of one gladiator who had suffered a grievous wound to the abdomen but made a complete recovery after a high-risk omentectomy.[330] From the perspective of the physician, the diversity of the city of Rome and its slave population made it an “exceptional field of observation”.[331]
Cicero and Tiro Edit
Among Cicero's collected letters are those he wrote to one of his administrative slaves, the well-educated Tiro. Cicero remarked that he wrote to Tiro "for the sake of keeping to [his] established practice"[332] and occasionally revealed personal care and concern for his slave, whose education he had taken into his own hands.[333] He sought Tiro's opinions and seems to have expected him to speak with exceptional freedom,[334] though in collecting Cicero's papers for publication, Tiro chose not to publish his own replies along with those of other correspondents. While these letters suggest a personal connection between master and slave, each letter contains a direct command, suggesting that Cicero relied on familiarity to ensure performance and loyalty from Tiro.[335]
As an administrative slave, Tiro enjoyed better living and working conditions than most slaves. He was freed before his master's death and was successful enough to retire on his own country estate, where he died at the age of 99.[336][337][338]
Names Edit
As a freedman, Cicero's slave Tiro became Marcus Tullius Tiro, adopting Cicero's family name. The use of a single male name in an inscription or legal document usually indicates that the person was a slave.[339] By the Late Republic, the nomenclature of freeborn Roman men had become normalized as the tria nomina: praenomen, first name; gentilicium, the name of the family or clan (gens); and cognomen, a distinguishing last name that originally was earned by an individual but then might be passed down, added to, or replaced.[340] When a slave was manumitted, he was renamed as free by the use of the tria nomina, most often appending his single name to the praenomen and gentilic name of his former master, now his patron.[341]
For example, the silversmith Publius Curtilius Agatho (d. early 1st century AD), known from his funerary monument, would been called by his Greek name Agatho (“the Good”) as a slave. Upon manumission he appended his patron’s Latin names, Publius Curtilius, to create his full citizen name.[342] Naturalized citizens followed this same convention, which might result in a tria nomina construction with two Latin names and a strikingly non-Latin cognomen.[343]
Throughout the Republican era, slaves in the city of Rome might bear a name that was also in use by free Italians or was common as a Roman praenomen, such as Marcus, or diminutives of the name (Marcio, Marcellus).[344] Salvius, for example, was a very common name for slaves that was also in wide use as a free praenomen in Rome and throughout Italy during this time, morphing into names for freedpersons such as Salvianus, Salvillus (feminine Salvilla), and possibly Salvitto.[345]
Ancient Roman scholars thought that in earliest times slaves had been given the first name of their master suffixed with -por, perhaps to be taken as a form of puer, “boy.”[346] Male slaves were often addressed as puer[347] regardless of age; a slave was one who was never emancipated into adulthood and thus never allowed to become fully a man (vir). Names such as Marcipor, sometimes contracted to Marpor, are attested,[348] but rather than being suffixed to the master’s name, the -por may have marked someone as a slave when his name was also in common use for free men.[349]
In the Late Republic and Early Empire, more differentiation between slave and free names seems to have been desired.[350] In Cicero’s day, Greek names were the trend.[351] Fanciful Greek names such as Hermes, Narcissus, and Eros were popular among the Romans but had not been used among free Greeks for either themselves or their slaves.[352] Several of Cicero’s slaves are known by name, mainly from the extensive collection of his letters; those with Greek names include the readers (anagnostes) Sositheus and Dionysius; Pollex, a footman; and Acastus.[353] The slaves and freedmen Cicero mentions by name are most often his secretaries and literary assistants; he rarely refers by name to slaves whose duties were humbler.[354]
Slave names at times may reflect ethnic origin; in the early Republic, Oscan names such as Paccius and Papus occur.[355] But the distribution of slave names as recorded by inscriptions and papyri are cautions against assuming a slave’s ethnicity based on the linguistic origin of their name.[356] The first-century BC scholar Varro noted that some slaves had geographical names, such as Iona from Ionia, and was likely right to think these names indicated places where they were traded and not their ethnic origin, which by law had to be stated separately in sales documents.[357]
Among the mismatched appellations found in surviving documents are the Greek names Hermes for a German, Paramone for a Jewish woman whose child was named Jacob, Argoutis for a Gaul, and Aphrodisia for a Sarmatian woman.[358] In late antiquity, Christians might bear Greek names expressing a willing servility as a religious value, such as Theodoulos, “God’s slave” (theos, "god"; doulos, "slave").[359] German slaves memorialized in the family tomb of the Statilii in Rome mostly have Latin names such as Felix, Castus, Clemens, Urbanus, and Strenuus; two are named Nothus and Pothus, Latinized forms of Greek names.[360] Greek names became so common for slaves that they began to be regarded as inherently servile; this taint may be why home-reared vernae, who generally had enhanced opportunities, are statistically more likely to have received a Latin name that would help them “pass” if they were manumitted.[361]
Gladiators are sometimes memorialized by what appear to be “stage names,” such as Pardus ("the Leopard") or Smaragdus ("Emerald").[362] A slave who took a path other than citizen integration might also adopt a new name. The “Salvius” who was the first leader of the Sicilian slave revolt in 104 BC restyled himself as Tryphon.[363]
In Latin epitaphs, a slave commemorating his deceased master sometimes refers to him as “our Marcus” (praenomen with the pronoun noster). In speaking of himself to a person of higher status, a slave might identify by his role in relation to his master’s first name; Cicero records a conversation in which a slave owned by Mark Antony is asked “Who are you?” (Quis tu?) and replies “The tabellarius [courier] from Marcus” (a Marco tabellarius).[364] The enslaved potters who made the earliest Arretine ware signed their work with their name and the possessive form of their master’s name; for example, Cerdo M. Perenni, “Marcus Perennius’s Cerdo”.[365] A standard phrase in sales contracts refers to the slave “named so-and-so, or by whatever name he/she is called”[366]—the slave's name was subject to the master’s whim.
Clothing Edit
Certain items of clothing or adornment were restricted by law to freeborn people entitled to wear them as markers of high status; “slave clothing” (vestis servilis) was clothing of lesser quality that lacked distinguishing features[367]—slaves did not wear clothing meant to identify them as such.[368] The clothing of slaves was determined primarily by the kind of work they did and secondarily by the wealth of the household they belonged to.[369] Most working slaves would have been given clothing that looked like that of free people who did similar work; Diocletian’s edict on price controls (301 AD) lists clothes for “common people or slaves” as a single category.[370] In a crowd, slaves would not have been immediately legible as unfree,[371] as the everyday attire of most people was a tunic. Men wore a shorter tunic, while the tunics of women covered the legs.[372]
In depictions of domestic scenes, tunics of handmaids are sometimes shorter, reaching to mid-calf, while the mistress’s tunic falls to her feet.[373] Ankle boots are worn by the handmaids in the “toilette” mosaic from Sidi Ghrib (see "Household slaves" above),[374] and ancillary hairstyles are simpler than those of the centrally depicted mistress.[375] Female slaves tucked in the loose fabric of their tunics under the bust and shaped the sleeves with belting to give themselves more freedom of movement for their tasks.[376]
Domestic slaves who would be visible to the family and their guests were given garments that met their owners’ standards for pleasing appearance and quality.[369] Presentability was desired for slaves who served as personal attendants. Slaves wore few accessories but were themselves an extension of their masters’ accessories. Because Roman clothing lacked structured pockets, the slaves who always accompanied the well-to-do on excursions carried anything needed.[378] They might hold parasols or wield fans to shield the privileged from the heat.[379] They went with them to the public baths to watch over their valuable clothing, since theft was common in the dressing areas. At dinner parties, guests took off their outdoor shoes and put on light house shoes (soleas), so a rich attendee would bring a slave to wrangle their footwear.[380]
Clothing for laborers was meant to be economical, durable, and practical. A relief from Roman Germany shows mine workers wearing a tunic and an apron of leather “feathers” (pteruges).[381] Columella recommended weather-resistant clothing of leather, patchwork, and “thick shoulder capes” for farm workers.[382] A male farm slave working for the stern and frugal Cato could expect to be issued a tunic and a cloak (sagum) every other year, and would have to turn in the old outfit so it could be recycled for patchwork.[383] The fragility of textiles makes them rare in the archaeological record, but a store of regularly cut pieces measuring about 10 by 15 centimeters from Roman Egypt, found at the Mons Claudianus quarry, is evidence of organized patchworking.[384]
One of the causes of the Sicilian slave rebellion of 135 BC, which broke out among rural workers, was the master’s refusal to accept responsibility for providing clothing. When the enslaved herdsmen came asking, the master, Damophilos, told them to get their own clothes, so they did—by banding together to raid small farms and waylay travelers. When violence escalated to full-scale insurrection, Damophilos was among the first to be killed.[385]
At one point, the Roman senate debated whether to require slaves to wear a sort of uniform to distinguish them as such, but eventually decided that was a bad idea: it would make the enslaved more conscious of having a group identity, and they would see how strong their numbers were.[386]
Resistance and control Edit
Open rebellion and mass violence arose among the large population of the enslaved only sporadically across the millennium of ancient Roman history.[387] A more persistent form of resistance was escape; as Moses Finley remarked, "Fugitive slaves are almost an obsession in the sources." Runaway slaves were considered criminals and were harshly punished.
Resistance might occur on a daily basis at a low-grade, even comic level. Plutarch tells the story of how one Pupius Piso, having ordered his slave not to speak unless spoken to, waited in embarrassment and in vain for the guest of honor to arrive at his dinner party. The slave had received the guest's regrets, but the master didn't ask him to speak, so he didn't.[388]
Rebellions Edit
The 1st century BC Greek historian Diodorus Siculus chronicled the three major slave rebellions of the Roman Republic known as the Servile Wars, the first two of which originated in Rome's first province, Sicily.[389] Diodorus gives the total number of slaves participating in the first rebellion as 200,000 (elsewhere, the figure is given as 60,000–70,000), and 40,000 in the second. Some scholars question whether Sicilian grain production or ranching was extensive enough at this time to sustain such large-scale slaveholding, or the extent to which the rebellions might also have attracted poorer or disadvantaged free persons.[390] While these large round numbers in ancient sources seem inflated, their significance here lies in indicating the scope of rebellion.[391]
First Servile War (135–132 BC) Edit
The First Servile War began as a protest by enslaved herdsmen against deprivation and mistreatment, localized on the "ranch" (latifundium)[392] of Damophilos in Enna, but soon spread to include slaves in the thousands.[393] They attained a major strategic objective in controlling both Enna and Agrigentum, two towns key to holding Sicily that Rome and Carthage had fought over repeatedly during the first two Punic Wars.[394] To assure a food supply, they refrained from laying waste to the farms around their strongholds and did not target small farmers.[395] They were militarily capable of mounting direct confrontations with Roman troops, which were brought to bear speedily.[396]
The leader, Eunus, maintained communal cohesion and motivation on the model of the Hellenistic kings, even restyling himself by name as Antiochus and minting coins.[397] Slave families formed a community at the stronghold of Tauromenium.[398] The rebel slaves were able to sustain their movement within the difficult Sicilian environment[399] for four years—eight or more, in some accounts[400]—before Roman forces managed a decisive defeat, primarily by besieging and starving out Tauromenium.
Second Servile War (104–100 BC) Edit
The Second Servile War had its roots in the piratical kidnapping that subjected freeborn people to random seizure and enslavement mostly in the eastern Mediterranean.[401] People who had been enslaved illegally in this way had a right to reclaim their freedom under the recently passed Lex de Plagiariis, a law concerning piracy and the slave trade associated with it.[402] The praetor assigned to Sicily, Licinius Nerva, had been holding hearings and releasing the enslaved in numbers great enough to offend the privilege of the slaveholding landowners, who pressured him to desist—whereupon the slaves revolted.[403] The rebellion started in two households and soon encompassed 22,000 slaves.[404]
Their leader, whose slave name was Salvius, adopted the name Tryphon, perhaps in honor of Diodotus Tryphon to rally the many enslaved Cilicians among the rebels.[405] He organized the slaves into cavalry and infantry units, besieged Morgantina, and along with the slave general Athenion[406] had a string of early successes against Roman troops as the number of rebels grew to "immense proportions".[407] Unlike the first rebellion, however, they were unable to hold towns or maintain supply lines, and seem to have lacked the long-term strategic objectives of Eunus; the less focused, at times incompetent Roman response enabled them to prolong the rebellion.[408]
Eunus and Salvius each had held a privileged place in his household when enslaved; both Eunus and Athenion are noted as having been born into freedom. These experiences may have enhanced their ability to lead through articulating a vision of life beyond slavery.[409]
Third Servile War (73–71 BC) Edit
The so-called Third Servile War was briefer; the cause, "to break the bonds of their own grievous oppression".[411] But its leader, Spartacus, arguably the most famous slave from all antiquity and idealized by Marxist historians and creative artists, has captured the popular imagination over the centuries to such an extent that an understanding of the rebellion beyond his tactical victories is hard to retrieve from the various ideologies it has served.[412]
The rebellion broke out on a relatively trivial scale, only seventy-four gladiators from a training school in Capua. The two best-known leaders are the Thracian fighter Spartacus, who in some accounts is said to have served formerly in the Roman auxiliary troops, and the Gaul Crixus. They entrenched themselves at Vesuvius and quickly dispatched the forces of three successive praetors as the insurgency grew to 70,000 men "with alarming speed," both slaves and free herdsmen joining up,[413] ultimately reaching a force of 120,000.[414]
Spartacus's plan seems to have been to head to northern Italy, where the men could disperse and head to their countries of origin, free; but the Gauls were keen on plundering first and spent weeks ravaging southern Italy, giving the Romans a more urgent reason and time[415] to make up for their "tardy and ineffective" initial response.[416] Crixus and his Gauls were soon dealt with, but Spartacus got as far as north as Cisalpine Gaul before turning back for a possible assault on Rome, about which he then changed his mind. After more rebel military successes without clear objectives, the senate gave Marcus Crassus special command of the consular forces, and the tide of the war turned.[417]
Spartacus headed south, hoping to cross to Sicily and "resuscitate the embers" of the slave rebellion three decades earlier; instead, the pirates who had accepted payment for transport set sail without him.[418] After some weeks of increasingly successful fighting, Crassus obtained a victory in which Spartacus was said to have died, though his body was not identified; 5,000 fugitives fled north and ran into Pompey, who "annihilated" them; and Crassus concluded his victory by crucifying 6,000 captured rebels along the Appian Way.[419] Crucifixion was the capital punishment meted out specifically to slaves, traitors, and bandits.[420][421][422][423]
Later uprisings Edit
The last slave rebellion of the Republic was put down at Thurii in southern Italy by Gaius Octavius, the father of the future emperor Augustus. In 60 BC, Octavius received a commission from the senate to hunt down fugitives who were alleged (emphasis on "alleged") to be the remnants of Spartacus's men and slaves who had been drawn into the Catilinarian conspiracy.[424]
Though they failed, the Servile Wars left Romans with a deep-seated fear of slave uprisings[425] that resulted in stricter laws regulating the keeping of slaves and harsher measures and punishments to keep enslaved people under control.[426] In AD 10, the senate decreed that if a master was killed by one or a group of his slaves, all the slaves "under the same roof" were to be tortured and executed.[427] In the early Imperial period, the slave uprisings against Lucius Pedanius Secundus, who was killed by one of his household slaves (all 400 were executed), and Larcius Maceo, a praetor who was murdered in his private bath, occasioned panic among slaveholders but failed to catch fire as the Sicilian rebellions had.[428] None of the sporadic attempts at rebellion over the next centuries encompassed nearly as much territory as that led by Spartacus.
Fugitives Edit
Fugitive slaves were considered criminals, whose crime was the stealing of the owner's property—themselves.[429] The harboring of fugitive slaves was against the law, and professional slave-catchers (fugitivarii) were hired to hunt down runaways. Advertisements were posted with precise descriptions of escaped slaves, and offered rewards.[430] Augustus himself boasted in his official record of achievements of having 30,000 fugitive slaves rounded up and returned for punishment to their owners.[431]
Although the Apostle Paul expresses sympathy for runaway slaves, and some Christians seem to have taken in runaways, fugitives were still a concern as the Empire was Christianized. The Synod of Gangra in the mid-4th century placed any Christian who encouraged slaves to escape under anathema.[432]
In a society where slavery was not based on race, a slave who escaped could hope to blend in and go unnoticed among the free.[433] One of Cicero's slaves on his literary staff, named Dionysius, ran away and took several books with him. Although the eventual fate of this Dionysius is unknown, two years later he remained free.[434]
Punishments Edit
As the Romans increased the numbers of slaves they held, their fear of them grew, as did the severity of discipline. [435] Cato the Elder whipped the household slaves for even small mistakes and kept his enslaved agricultural workers in chains during the winter.[436] The physician Galen observed slaves being kicked, beaten with fists, and having their teeth knocked out or their eyes gouged out, witnessing the impromptu blinding of one slave by means of a reed pen. Galen himself had been taught not to strike a slave with his hand but always to use a reed whip or strap.[437] The future emperor Commodus at age 12 is supposed to have ordered one of his bath attendants to be thrown into the furnace, though this order was not carried out.[438]
These casual acts of cruelty are perhaps to be distinguished from the head of household’s ancient right to pass sentence on a dependent for perceived wrongdoing[citation needed] or penalties prescribed by law for actual crimes. But when slaves did commit a crime, the punishments inflicted on them by law were more severe than for free persons. For instance, the regular penalty for counterfeiting was deportation and confiscation of property, but a slave was put to death.[439]
In Imperial Rome, the status of "convict" versus "slave" often becomes a distinction without a practical difference[440] as free people of lower social status were increasingly subjected to more severe legal penalties once reserved for slaves.[441]
Tattooing and branding Edit
Fugitive slaves might be marked by letters tattooed on their forehead, called stigmata in Greek and Latin sources,[442] a practice most attested as a consequence of condemnation to hard labor.[443] The Romans picked up slave tattooing from the Greeks, who in turn had acquired it from the Persians.[444] Attic comedy frequently mentions slave stigmata, and the most notable passage in Latin literature comes in the Satyricon when Encolpius and Giton fake tattooing as an absurd form of disguise.[445] Tattooing slaves with text to mark them as previous fugitives is most abundantly attested among the Greeks, and there is "no direct evidence for what was inscribed on runaways' foreheads in Rome,"[446] though criminals were labeled with the name of their crime.[447] Literature alludes to the practice, as when the epigrammatist Martial satirizes a luxuriously attired freedman at the theater who keeps his inscribed forehead under wraps, and Libanius mentions a slave growing out bangs to cover his stigmata.[448]
At the Temple of Asclepius in Ephesus, archeologists have found tablets from escaped slaves asking this Greek god of healing to make the tattoos on their foreheads disappear.[449] Less miraculous means might also be sought, as sources record medical procedures for removing stigmata.[450]
The evidence for Roman branding of slaves is less certain.[451] The scars left by whipping might also mark slaves.[452]
Collaring Edit
What appears to be a distinctly Roman practice is the riveting of a humiliating metal collar around the former fugitive's neck.[453] Because of the role the hope of manumission played in motivating the industry of slaves, the Romans may have preferred removable collars to permanent disfigurement,[454] or for keeping open the possibility of resale.
Some forty-five examples of Roman slave collars have been documented, most found in Rome and central Italy, with three from cities in Roman North Africa. All date from the Christian era of the 4th and 5th centuries,[455] and some have the Christian chi-rho symbol or a palm frond.[456] Some were found still on the necks of human skeletons or with remains, suggesting that the collars might be worn for life and not just as a temporary ID tag; others seem to have been removed, lost, or discarded.[457] In circumference, they are about the same size as Roman neck shackles (see relief under "Enslavement of war captives"), tight enough to keep them from slipping over the head but not so tight as to restrict breathing.[458]
Fugitive slave collars have been found in urban environments rather than settings for hard labor.[459] The tags are typically inscribed with the owner's name, status, and occupation, and the "address" to which the slave should be returned.[460] The most common instructional text is tene me ("hold me") with either ne fugiam ("so I don't run away") or quia fugi ("because I've run away").[461] The tag on the most intact example of these collars reads "I have escaped, catch me; when you return me to my master Zoninus, you'll receive a gold coin."[462]
Suicide Edit
Reports of mass suicide or suicide by an individual to avoid enslavement or submission as a result of war are not rare in the Roman world.[464] In one incident, a group of captive Germanic women told Caracalla that they would rather be executed than enslaved. When he ordered them sold anyway, they committed suicide en masse, some of them first killing their children.[465]
Such an act could be considered honorable or rational in antiquity, and a slave might commit suicide for the same reasons a free person would, such as an agonizing health condition, religious fanaticism, or mental health crisis.[466] But suicide among the enslaved might also be the ultimate way to resist and escape the master’s control or abuse. One of Cato’s slaves was so distraught after doing something he thought his master would disapprove of that he killed himself.[467] An inscription from Moguntiacum records the killing of a freedman by one of his slaves, who then committed suicide by drowning himself in a river.[468]
Roman law recognized that slaves might be driven to suicidal despair. A suicide attempt was one of the pieces of information about a slave that had to be disclosed on a bill of sale, indicating that such attempts occurred often enough to be of concern. However, the law did not always regard slaves as criminally fugitive if they ran away in despair and attempted suicide. The jurist Paulus wrote, “A slave acts to commit suicide when he seeks death out of wickedness or evil ways or because of some crime that he has committed, but not when he is able no longer to bear his bodily pain.”[469]
Slavery and Roman religion Edit
Slaves in classical Roman religion Edit
Religious practices attest to the presence of slaves in Roman society from the earliest period.[470] The Matralia was a women's festival held June 11 in connection with the goddess Mater Matuta,[471] whose temple was among Rome's oldest.[472] According to tradition, it was established in the sixth century BC by the slave-born king Servius Tullius.[473] The observance featured the ceremonial beating of a slave girl by free women, who brought her into the temple and then drove her from it. Slave women were otherwise forbidden from participation.[474] It has been conjectured that this scapegoat ritual reflected the wives' anxiety about the introduction of slave girls into the household as sexual usurpers.[475]
Another slaves' holiday (servorum dies festus) was held August 13[476] in honor of Servius Tullius himself. Like the Saturnalia, the holiday involved a role reversal: the matron of the household washed the heads of her slaves, as well as her own.[477][478] Following the Matronalia on March 1, matrons gave slaves of their household a feast, a custom that also evokes Saturnalian role reversal. Each matron feasted her own slaves in her capacity as domina or slave mistress. Both Solinus and Macrobius see the feast as a way to manipulate obedience, indicating that physical compulsion was not the only technique for domination; social theory suggests that the communal meal also promotes household cohesion and norms by articulating the hierarchy through its temporary subversion.[479]
The temple of Feronia at Terracina in Latium was the site of special ceremonies pertaining to manumission. The goddess was identified with Libertas, the personification of liberty,[480] and was a tutelary goddess of freedmen (dea libertorum). A stone at her temple was inscribed "let deserving slaves sit down so that they may stand up free."[481]
But the Roman festival most famously celebrated by slaves was the Saturnalia, a December observance of role reversals during which time slaves enjoyed a rich banquet, gambling, free speech and other forms of license not normally available to them. To mark their temporary freedom, they wore the pilleus, the cap of freedom, as did free citizens, who normally went about bareheaded.[482][483] Some ancient sources suggest that master and slave dined together,[484][485] while others indicate that the slaves feasted first, or that the masters actually served the food. The practice may have varied over time.[486] Macrobius (5th century AD) describes the occasion thus:
Meanwhile, the head of the slave household, whose responsibility it was to offer sacrifice to the Penates, to manage the provisions and to direct the activities of the domestic servants, came to tell his master that the household had feasted according to the annual ritual custom. For at this festival, in houses that keep to proper religious usage, they first of all honor the slaves with a dinner prepared as if for the master; and only afterwards is the table set again for the head of the household. So, then, the chief slave came in to announce the time of dinner and to summon the masters to the table.[487][488]
Saturnalian license also permitted slaves to enjoy a pretense of disrespect for their masters, and exempted them from punishment. The Augustan poet Horace calls their freedom of speech "December liberty" (libertas Decembri).[489][490] In two satires set during the Saturnalia, Horace portrays a slave as offering sharp criticism to his master.[491][492][493] But everyone knew that the leveling of the social hierarchy was temporary and had limits; no social norms were ultimately threatened, because the holiday would end.[494]
The Festival of Handmaids Edit
Slave women were honored at the Ancillarum Feriae on July 7.[495][496] The holiday is explained as commemorating the service rendered to Rome by a group of ancillae (female slaves or "handmaids") during the war with the Fidenates in the late 4th century BC.[497][498] Weakened by the Gallic sack of Rome in 390 BC, the Romans next had suffered a stinging defeat by the Fidenates, who demanded that they hand over their wives and virgin daughters as hostages to secure a peace. A handmaid named either Philotis or Tutula came up with a plan to deceive the enemy: the ancillae would put on the apparel of the free women, spend one night in the enemy camp, and send a signal to the Romans about the most advantageous time to launch a counterattack.[471][499] Although the historicity of the underlying tale may be doubtful, it indicates that the Romans thought they had already had a significant slave population before the Punic Wars.[500]
Temple slaves Edit
Among the public slaves (servi publici) were those who served Rome's traditional religious practices. The cult of Hercules at the Ara Maxima was transferred to the keeping of public slaves in 312 BC when the patrician families originally charged with its maintenance died out.[501]
The calator was a public slave who assisted the flamens, the senior priests of the state, and carried out their day-to-day business.[502] The popa, depicted in sacrificial processions as carrying a mallet or axe with which to strike the sacrificial animal, is said in sources from late antiquity to have been a public slave.[503]
In the East, especially during the first century BC, large numbers of “holy” slaves (Greek hierodouloi) served in temples such as those of Ma in Comana, where 6,000 male and female slaves served, and a local Zeus in Morimene, both in Cappadocia;[504] the Men of Pharnaces at Cabeira; Anaitis at Zela (modern-day Zile, Turkey);[505] and especially the Great Mother at Pessinus in Galatia.[506] These slaves were not treated as chattel, [507] and the Romans, given their instinct for religion as a source of social order, tended not to capitalize on them as such. Strabo states that the chief priest of the Temple of Ma at Comana did not have the right to sell hierodouloi; however, the sites of such temples are often associated with trading centers, and they appear to have played some role in the slave trade.[508]
Mithraic cult Edit
The Mithraic mysteries were open to slaves and freedmen, and at some cult sites most or all votive offerings are made by slaves, sometimes for the sake of their masters' wellbeing.[509] The slave Vitalis is known from three inscriptions involving the cult of Mithras at Apulum (Alba Iulia in present-day Romania).The best preserved is the dedication of an altar to Sol Invictus for the wellbeing of a free man, possibly his master or a fellow Mithraic initiate.[510] Vitalis was an arcarius, a treasurer probably in the administration of imperial customs (portorium); his position gave him the opportunity to earn the wealth required for setting up stone monuments.[511]
Numerous Mithraic inscriptions from the reaches of the empire record the names of both privately held slaves and imperial slaves, and even one Pylades in Roman Gaul who was the slave of an imperial slave.[512] Mithraic cult, which valued submission to authority and promotion through a hierarchy, was in harmony with the structure of Roman society, and thus the participation of slaves posed no threat to social order.[513]
Early Christian church Edit
Christianity gave slaves an equal place within the religion, allowing them to participate in the liturgy. According to tradition, Pope Clement I (term c. 92–99), Pope Pius I (158–167), and Pope Callixtus I (c. 217–222) were former slaves.[514]
Commemoration Edit
Epitaphs are one of the most common forms of Roman writing to survive, arising from the intersection of two salient activities of Roman culture: the care of the dead and what Ramsay MacMullen called the “epigraphic habit.”[515] One of the ways that Roman epitaphs differ from those of the Greeks is that the name of the commemorator is typically given along with that of the deceased.[516] Commemorations are found both for slaves and by slaves.
Simple epitaphs for domestic slaves might be set up in the communal tomb of their household. This inclusion perpetuated the domus by enlarging the number of survivors and descendants who might carry out tomb maintenance and the many ritual observances for the dead on the Roman religious calendar.[517]
The commemoration of slaves often included their job—cook, jeweler, hairdresser—or an emblem of their work such as tools.[518] The funerary relief of the freed silversmith Publius Curtilius Agatho (see under “Naming” above) shows him in the process of working a cup that lies incomplete by his left hand. He holds a hammer in his right hand, and a punch or graver in his left. Despite these realistic details of his craft, Agatho is depicted wearing a toga—which Getty Museum curator Kenneth Lapatin compares to going to work in a tuxedo—that expresses his pride in his citizen status,[519] just as the choice of marble as the medium rather than the more common limestone gives evidence of his level of success.[520]
Although not required on tombstones,[521] the deceased's status at times can be identified by Latin abbreviations such as SER for a slave; VERN or VER specifically for vernae, slaves born into a familia (see funerary bust above); or LIB for a freedperson. This legal status is usually absent for gladiators, who were social outcasts regardless of having been freeborn, manumitted, or enslaved at the time of death; instead they were identified by their fighting specialty such as retiarius or murmillo or less often as a freeborn man, LIBER, a status which was not typically asserted.[522] Gladiators who had become celebrities might also be remembered by fans (amatores) in popular media—images of gladiators, sometimes labeled by name, appeared widely on everyday items such as oil lamps and vessels that could long survive them.
Epitaphs represent only slaves who were more highly favored or esteemed within their household or who belonged to communities or social organizations (such as collegia) that offered care of the dead. Most slaves did not have the opportunity to develop a personal relationship with a free person or participate in social networking and were disposed of in mass graves along with "free" people who were destitute.[523] The Augustan poet Horace, himself the son of a freedman, wrote of "a fellow slave contracted to transport the castaway corpses to narrow rooms on a cheap chest; here lay the common grave of the wretched masses."[524]
Although slaves were denied the right to make contracts or conduct other legal matters in their own name, it was possible for a master to allow his slave to make less formal arrangements that functioned like a will. In a letter to a friend, Pliny said that he permitted his slaves to write up a “sort of will” (quasi testamenta) so that their last wishes could be carried out, including who should receive their possessions or other gifts and bequests. The beneficiaries have to be other members of the household (domus), which Pliny frames as the "republic" within which slaves hold a kind of citizenship (quasi civitas).[525]
Slavery and Roman morality Edit
Ancient authors rarely discussed slavery in terms of morals, because their society did not view slavery as a moral dilemma.[526] But slaves and the treatment of slaves might be discussed in order to shed light on other topics—history, economy, an individual's character—or to entertain and amuse. Texts mentioning slaves include histories, personal letters, dramas, and satires, including Petronius' Banquet of Trimalchio, in which the eponymous freedman asserts "Slaves too are men. The milk they have drunk is just the same even if an evil fate has oppressed them."[527] Many literary works may have served to help educated Roman slave owners navigate acceptability in the master-slave relationships in terms of slaves' behavior and punishment. Literary examples often focus on extreme cases, such as the crucifixion of hundreds of slaves for the murder of their master, and while such instances are exceptional, the underlying problems must have concerned the authors and audiences.[528]
Slavery as an institution was practiced within every community of the Greco-Roman world, including Jewish and Christian communities who at times struggled to reconcile the practice within their beliefs. Some Jewish sects, such as the Essenes and Therapeutae, articulated anti-slavery principles—which is one of the things that "made them look like fringe utopians" for their time.[529]
Stoic philosophy Edit
The Stoics taught that all men were manifestations of the same universal spirit, and thus by nature equal.[citation needed] Cicero, who had Stoic inclinations, did not think that slaves were by nature inferior.[530] Stoicism also held that external circumstances such as being enslaved did not truly impede a person from practicing the Stoic ideal of inner self-mastery.[citation needed]
One of the major Roman Stoic philosophers, Epictetus, spent his youth as a slave.
Early Christian attitudes toward slavery Edit
In the Christian scriptures, fair treatment of slaves was enjoined upon owners, and slaves were advised to obey their earthly masters, even if they were unjust, and to obtain freedom lawfully if possible.[531][532][533][534] In the theology of the Apostle Paul, slavery is an everyday reality that must be accepted, but as a condition of this world, it is ultimately rendered meaningless by salvation. Roman Christians preached that slaves were human beings and not things (res),[535] but while slaves were regarded as human beings with souls that needed to be saved, Jesus of Nazareth said nothing toward abolishing slavery, nor were religionists of the faith admonished against owning slaves in the first two centuries of Christianity's existence.[536]
There is little evidence that Christian theologians of the Roman Imperial era problematized slavery as morally indefensible. Certain senior Christian leaders (such as Gregory of Nyssa and John Chrysostom) called for good treatment for slaves and condemned slavery, while others supported it.[citation needed] That Christians might be susceptible to accusations of hypocrisy from outside the faith was anticipated in Christian apologetics, such as Lactantius's defense that both slave and free were inherently equal before God.[537] Writing after the legalization of Christianity by Roman authorities, Saint Augustine, who came from an aristocratic background and likely grew up in home where slave labor was utilized, described slavery as being against God's intention and resulting from sin.[538]
Sexual ethics and attitudes Edit
Because slaves were regarded as property under Roman law, the slaveholder had license to use them for sex or to hire them out to service other people.[539] However, traditional Roman morality had some moderating influence, and upper-class slaveholders who exploited their familia for sex were criticized if this use became known as indiscreet or excessive. Social censure was not so much indignation at the owner’s abuse of the slave as disdain for his lack of self-mastery.[540] It reflected poorly on an upper-class male to resort sexually to a female slave of his household, but a right to consent or refuse did not exist for her.[541] The treatment of slaves and their own conduct within the elite domus contributed to the perception of the household’s respectability. The materfamilias in particular was judged by her female slaves' sexual behavior, which was expected to be moral or at least discreet. This decorum may have helped alleviate the sexual exploitation of ancillae within the household,[542] along with men having easy, even ubiquitous access outside the home to legal, inexpensive, and often highly specialized services from professional sex workers.
A slave's own sexuality was closely controlled. An estate owner usually restricted the heterosexual activities of his male slaves to females he also owned; any children born from these unions added to his wealth.[543] Because home-reared slaves were valued, female slaves on an estate were encouraged to have children with approved male partners. The agricultural writer Columella rewarded especially fecund women with extra time off for a mother of three, and early manumission for a mother of four or more.[544] There is little or no evidence that estate owners bought women for the purpose of “breeding,” since the useful proportion of male to female slaves was constrained by the fewer number of tasks for which women were employed.[545]
Despite the controls and restrictions placed on a slave's sexuality, Roman art and literature often perversely portray slaves as lascivious, voyeuristic, and sexually knowing, indicating a deep ambivalence about master-slave relations.[547] Roman art connoisseurs did not shy away from displaying explicit sexuality in their collections at home,[548] but when figures identifiable as slaves appear in erotic paintings within a domestic scenario, they are either hovering in the background or performing routine peripheral tasks, not engaging in sex.[549] However, most prostitutes were slaves or freedwomen, and paintings found in Roman brothels feature prostitutes performing sex acts.
Some specifically sexual concerns and protections were extended to slaves. The dynamics of Roman phallocentric sex were such that an adult male was free to enjoy same-sex relations without compromising his perceived virility, but only as an exercise of dominance and not with his adult peers or their underage sons—in effect, he was to limit his male sexual partners, whatever the desired age, to prostitutes or slaves. The Imperial poet Martial describes a specialized market to meet this demand, located at the Julian Saepta in the Campus Martius.[550] Seneca expressed Stoic indignation that a male slave should be groomed effeminately and used sexually, because a slave's human dignity should not be debased.[551] The trade in eunuch slaves during the reign of Hadrian prompted legislation prohibiting the castration of a slave against his will "for lust or gain".[552]
The contract when a slave was sold might include a ne serva prostituatur covenant that prohibited the employment of the slave as a prostitute. The restriction remained in force for the term of enslavement and throughout subsequent sales, and if it was violated, the illegally prostituted slave was granted freedom, regardless of whether the buyer had known the covenant was originally attached.[553]
No laws prohibited a Roman from exploiting slaves he owned for sex, but he was not entitled to compel any enslaved person he chose to have sex; doing so might be regarded as a form of theft, since the owner always retained the right to his property.[554] If a free man did force himself on someone else's slave for sex, he could not be charged with rape because the slave lacked legal personhood. But an owner who wanted to press charges against a man who raped someone in his familia might do so under the Lex Aquilia, a law that allowed him to seek property damages.[555]
Slaves in Roman comedy Edit
In Roman comedy, servi or slaves make up the majority of the stock characters, and generally fall into two basic categories: loyal slaves and tricksters. Loyal slaves often help their master in their plan to woo or obtain a lover (the most popular plot-driving element in Roman comedy). They are often dim, timid, and worried about what punishments may befall them. Trickster slaves are more numerous and often use their masters' unfortunate situation to create a "topsy-turvy" world in which they are the masters and their masters are subservient to them. The master will often ask the slave for a favor and the slave only complies once the master has made it clear that the slave is in charge, beseeching him and calling him lord, sometimes even a god.[556] These slaves are threatened with numerous punishments for their treachery, but always escape the fulfillment of these threats through their wit.[556]
Depictions of slaves in Roman comedies can be seen in the work of Plautus and Publius Terentius Afer. Dartmouth associate professor Roberta Stewart has stated that Plautus’ plays represent slavery "as a complex institution that raised perplexing problems in human relationships involving masters and slaves".[557] Terence added a new element to how slaves were portrayed in his plays, due to his personal background as a former slave. In the work Andria, slaves are central to the plot. In this play, Simo, a wealthy Athenian wants his son, Pamphilius, to marry one girl but Pamphilius has his sights set on another. Much of the conflict in this play revolves around schemes with Pamphilius's slave, Davos, and the rest of the characters in the story. Many times throughout the play, slaves are allowed to engage in activity, such as the inner and personal lives of their owners, that would not normally be seen with slaves in every day society. This is a form of satire by Terence due to the unrealistic nature of events that occurs between slaves and citizens in his plays.[558]
See also Edit
Notes Edit
- ^ Emancipatio was based on the provision in the Twelve Tables that if a father sold his offspring and the owner later released them, they reverted to the father's potestas, but if this was done three times, they became free. Eventually the process of three sales and releases became a single procedure.[61])
- ^ The magistrate must be one with imperium.
- ^ The stand has sometimes been described as revolving, following a first-century AD poetic mention.[208][209]
- ^ In early Rome, marriage contracted in manu put wives in this subordinate position as well; by the time of Augustus, women remained part of their birth family and retained their own property.
References Edit
- ^ Described by Mikhail Rostovtzev, The Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire (Tannen, 1900), p. 288.
- ^ Fields, Nic. Spartacus and the Slave War 73–71 BC: A Gladiator Rebels against Rome. (Osprey 2009) p. 17–18.
- ^ a b Brian Tierney, The Idea of Natural Rights (Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2002, originally published 1997 by Scholars Press for Emory University), p. 136.
- ^ R. W. Dyson, Natural Law and Political Realism in the History of Political Thought (Peter Lang, 2005), vol. 1, p. 127.
- ^ David J. Bederman, International Law in Antiquity (Cambridge University Press, 2004), p. 85.
- ^ Keith R. Bradley, "The Early Development of Slavery at Rome," Historical Reflections / Réflexions Historiques 12:1 (1985), p. 7.
- ^ Bradley, "The Early Development of Slavery at Rome," p. 6, citing Livy 5.22.1.
- ^ Bradley, "The Early Development of Slavery at Rome," pp. 7–8.
- ^ Bradley, "The Early Development of Slavery at Rome," p. 1, especially n. 2, citing Keith Hopkins, Conquerors and Slaves (Cambridge 1978), pp. 99–100 on the criteria for "slave society."
- ^ William L. Westermann, The Slave Systems of Greek and Roman Antiquity (American Philosophical Society 1955), p. 60.
- ^ Bradley, "The Early Development of Slavery at Rome," p. 4.
- ^ Kathryn Lomas, Andrew Gardner, and Edward Herring, "Creating Ethnicities and Identities in the Roman World," Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies suppl. 120 (2013), p. 4.
- ^ Parshia Lee-Stecum, "Roman refugium: refugee narratives in Augustan versions of Roman prehistory," Hermathena 184 (2008), p. 78, specifically on the relation of Livy's account of the asylum to the Augustan program of broadening the political participation of freedmen and provincials.
- ^ Rex Stem, "The Exemplary Lessons of Livy's Romulus," Transactions of the American Philological Association 137:2 (2007), p. 451, citing Livy 1.8.5–6; see also T. P. Wiseman, "The Wife and Children of Romulus," Classical Quarterly 33:3 (1983), p. 445, on Greek attitudes that therefore "the Romans were simply robbers and bandits, strangers to the laws of gods or men," citing Dionysius 1.4.1–3. 1.89–90.<
- ^ J. N. Bremmer and N. M. Horsfall, Roman Myth and Mythography (University of London Institute of Classical Studies, 1987), p. 32.
- ^ Richard P. Saller, "Familia, Domus, and the Roman Conception of the Family," Phoenix 38:4 (1984), p. 343.
- ^ Clive Cheesman, "Names in -por and Slave Naming in Republican Rome," Classical Quarterly 59:2 (2009), p. 515, citing Pliny, Natural History 33.26.
- ^ Richard P. Saller, "Pater Familias, Mater Familias, and the Gendered Semantics of the Roman Household," Classical Philology 94:2 1999), pp. 182–184, 192 (citing on paterfamilias Seneca, Epistula 47.14), 196.
- ^ Saller, "Familia, Domus, and the Roman Conception of the Family," pp. 342–343.
- ^ Benedetto Fontana, "Tacitus on Empire and Republic," History of Political Thought 14:1 (1993), p. 28.
- ^ Raymond Westbrook, "Vitae Necisque Potestas," Historia 48:2 (1999), p. 208: the phrase vitae necisque potestas is not used to express a husband's power over his wife, though summary execution of a wife was considered justifiable under some circumstances, such as adultery or drunkenness, that varied by historical period. From the time of Augustus, a married woman remained under her own father's power, granting Roman women an unusual degree of independence from their husband compared to some ancient societies.
- ^ Westbrook, "Vitae Necisque Potestas," pp. 203–204.
- ^ Westbrook, "Vitae Necisque Potestas," p. 205.
- ^ A range of moral considerations and social pressures are reviewed by Westbrook, "Vitae Necisque Potestas," pp. 205–208, and Ido Israelowich, "The extent of the patria potestas during the High Empire: Roman midwives and the decision of non tollere as a case in point," Museum Helveticum 74:2 (2017) 213-229.
- ^ Westbrook, "Vitae Necisque Potestas," p. 223.
- ^ Fontana, "Tacitus on Empire and Republic," pp. 28, 33–34.
- ^ Mary Beard, SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome (W. W. Norton, 2015), pp. 68–69, qualifying this statement as the view of "some historians."
- ^ Westerman, Slave Systems, p. 58.
- ^ a b c d Berger, entry on servus, Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law, p. 704
- ^ Marcel Mauss. 1979. "A Category of the human mind: the notion of the person, the notion of 'self'". In: Marcel Mauss. 1979. Sociology and psychology. Essays. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. p. 81.
- ^ Ingram, John Kells (1911). . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 25 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 216–227.
- ^ Gamauf (2009)
- ^ Kehoe, Dennis P. (2011). "Law and Social Function in the Roman Empire". The Oxford Handbook of Social Relations in the Roman World. Oxford University Press. pp. 147–8.
- ^ Bradley (1994), pp. 2–3
- ^ Matthew Dillon and Lynda Garland, Ancient Rome: From the Early Republic to the Assassination of Julius Caesar (Routledge, 2005), p. 297
- ^ Thomas McGinn, Prostitution, Sexuality, and the Law in Ancient Rome (Oxford University Press, 2003), p. 309.
- ^ Dale B. Martin, “Slavery and the Ancient Jewish Family,” The Jewish Family in Antiquity (Brown Judaic Studies 2020), p. 118, citing the extensive collection of legal texts by Amnon Linder, The Jews in Imperial Roman Legislation (Wayne State UP 1987).
- ^ Westerman, Slave Systems, p. 150.
- ^ Ernst Levy, “Captivus Redemptus,” Classical Philology 38:3 (1943), p. 161, citing Livy 22.23.6–8, 22.60.3–4, 22. 61.3, 7, and 34.50.3–7; Plutarch, Fabius 7.4–5.
- ^ Matthew Leigh, Comedy and the Rise of Rome (Oxford University Press, 2004), p. 96, in connection with the Captivi of Plautus.
- ^ Vasile Lica, "Clades Variana and Postliminium," Historia 50:4 (2001), pp. 598 and 601, especially n. 31, noting that the soldiers should have been eligible for postliminium restoration but “politics was more important than the lex [law].”
- ^ Jon Coulston, “Courage and Cowardice in the Roman Imperial Army,” War in History 20:1 (2013), p. 26.
- ^ In 36 BC, during a failed attempt to recover the standards lost, Mark Antony is supposed to have been guided by a survivor of Carrhae who had served under Parthians: Velleius Paterculus 2.82; Florus 2.20.4; Plutarch, Antony 41.1. in the 1940s, American sinologist Homer H. Dubs stirred up both scholarly imagination and scholarly indignation in a series of articles and finally a book arguing that enslaved Roman survivors of Carrhae were traded, or escaped and settled, as far as China. See for instance Dubs, “An Ancient Military Contact between Romans and Chinese,” American Journal of Philology 62:3 (1941) 322-330.
- ^ Coulston, “Courage and Cowardice,” p. 27.
- ^ Horace, Odes 3.5.6; Jake Nabel, "Horace and the Tiridates Episode," Rheinisches Museum für Philologie 158: 3/4 (2015), pp. 319–322. Some captives from Carrhae and from two later attempts to avenge the defeat may have been restored in 20 BC when Augustus negotiated the return of the standards; see J. M. Alonso-Núñez, “An Augustan World History: The Historiae Philippicae of Pompeius Trogus,” Greece & Rome 34:1 (1987), pp.60–61, citing Pompeius Trogus in the epitome of Justinus.
- ^ Marjorie C. Mackintosh, "Roman Influences on the Victory Reliefs of Shapur I of Persia," California Studies in Classical Antiquity 6 (1973), pp. 183–184, citing Persian author Firdausi, The Epic of Kings, tr. by Reuben Levy (1967) 284, on Shapur's use of Roman engineers and labor.
- ^ Laura Betzig, “Suffodit inguina: Genital attacks on Roman emperors and other primates,” Politics and the Life Sciences 33:1 (2014), pp. 64–65, citing Orosius, Contra Paganos 7.22..4; Lactantius, On the Deaths of the Persecutors 5.5–6; Agathias, Histories 4.23.2–7.
- ^ Coulston, “Courage and Cowardice,” p. 26.
- ^ M. Sprengling, “Shahpuhr I the Great on the Kaabah of Zoroaster,” American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures 57:4 (1940), pp. 371–372; W. B. Henning, “The Great Inscription of Šāpūr I,” Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies 9;4 (1939), pp. 898ff.
- ^ Westerman, Slave Systems, p. 81; and specifically on potestas, Orit Malka and Yakir Paz, “Ab hostibus captus et a latronibus captus: The Impact of the Roman Model of Citizenship on Rabbinic Law,” Jewish Quarterly Review 109:2 (2019), p. 153, citing Gaius 1.129 and Ulpian 10.4, and pp. 159 and 161 on renewal as a second marriage.
- ^ Malka and Paz, “Rabbinic Law,” pp. 154–155 et passim.
- ^ Stanly H. Rauh, “The Tradition of Suicide in Rome's Foreign Wars,” Transactions of the American Philological Association 145:2 (2015), p. 400.
- ^ Clifford Ando, “Aliens, Ambassadors, and the Integrity of the Empire,” Law and History Review 26:3 (2008), pp. 503–505.
- ^ W. W. Buckland, The Roman Law of Slavery: The Condition of the Slave in Private Law from Augustus to Justinian (Cambridge, 1908), pp. 305–307.
- ^ Lica, "Clades Variana,” p. 498, citing Cicero, De officiis 3.13.
- ^ Ernst Levy, “Captivus Redemptus,” Classical Philology 38:3 (1943), p. 161.
- ^ Lica, "Clades Variana,” p. 498.
- ^ Specified as “a horse or a mule or a ship” by Aelius Gallus (as quoted by Festus p. 244L), because these could evade possession without dishonoring the owner: a horse could bolt, but weapons could only be lost through the failure of their possessor and therefore could not be restored—as explained by Leigh, Comedy and the Rise of Rome, p. 60.
- ^ Leigh, Comedy and the Rise of Rome, pp. 60–62.
- ^ Berger, entry on manumissio, Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law, p. 476.
- ^ Johnston, Roman Law in Context, p 39
- ^ Berger, entry on emancipatio, Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law, p. 451.
- ^ Mouritsen (2011), p. 11
- ^ Mouritsen (2011), pp. 180–182
- ^ Mouritsen (2011), p. 85–86
- ^ As discussed by Thomas E. J. Wiedemann, "The Regularity of Manumission at Rome," Classical Quarterly 35:1 (1985) 162–175.
- ^ Wiedemann, "The Regularity of Manumission at Rome," pp. 165, 175.
- ^ Wiedemann, "The Regularity of Manumission at Rome," pp. 173–174.
- ^ William V. Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 36 (1980), p. 120.
- ^ Bradley (1994), p. 10.
- ^ Bradley (1994), p. 156.
- ^ Wiedemann, "The Regularity of Manumission at Rome," p. 163.
- ^ Westerman, Slave Systems, pp. 154–155.
- ^ Youval Rotman, "Byzantine Slavery and the Mediterranean World", Harvard University Press, 2009 p. 139
- ^ Fergus Millar, The Crowd in Rome in the Late Republic (University of Michigan, 1998, 2002), pp. 23, 209.
- ^ Gardner, Jane F. (1989). "The Adoption of Roman Freedmen". Phoenix. 43 (3): 236–257. doi:10.2307/1088460. ISSN 0031-8299. JSTOR 1088460.
- ^ Mouritsen (2011), p. 36
- ^ Adolf Berger, entry on libertus, Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law (American Philological Society, 1953, 1991), p. 564.
- ^ a b Berger, entry on libertinus, Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law, p. 564.
- ^ Thomas A.J. McGinn, "Missing Females? Augustus' Encouragement of Marriage between Freeborn Males and Freedwomen," Historia 53:2 (2004) 200-208.
- ^ Mouritsen, Henrik (2015). The Freedman in the Roman World (paperback ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 43. ISBN 978-1-107-51908-4.
- ^ Keith Bradley, "'The Regular, Daily Traffic in Slaves': Roman History and Contemporary History," Classical Journal 87:2 (Dec. 1991–Jan. 1992), p. 131.
- ^ Hackworth Petersen, Lauren (2006). The Freedman in Roman Art and Art History. Cambridge University Press.
- ^ Mouritsen (2011)
- ^ Schmeling, Gareth L; Arbiter, Petronius; Seneca, Lucius Annaeus (2020). Satyricon. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-99737-0. OCLC 1141413691.
- ^ Jane F. Gardner. 2011. "Slavery and Roman Law", in The Cambridge World History of Slavery. Cambridge University Press. vol. 1, p. 429.
- ^ Institutiones 1.3, as cited by John Madden, "Slavery in the Roman Empire: Numbers and Origins," Classics Ireland 3 (1996), p. 113.
- ^ Alice Rio, "Self-Sale and Voluntary Entry into Unfreedom, 300-1100," Journal of Social History 45:3 (2012), p. p. 662, calling attention to Jacques Ramin and Paul Veyne, "Droit romain et sociéte: les hommes libres qui passent pour esclaves et l'esclavage volontaire," Historia 30:4 (1981), as deserving of more scholarly interest (p. 662).
- ^ Walter Scheidel, "Quantifying the Sources of Slaves in the Early Roman Empire," Journal of Roman Studies 87 (1997), pp. 156–169.
- ^ Keith Bradley, "Animalizing the Slave: The Truth of Fiction," Journal of Roman Studies 90 (2000), p. 112.
- ^ W.V. Harris. 1979. War and Imperialism in Republican Rome 327–70 B.C.. Oxford, p. 59 n. 4.
- ^ Tim Cornell 'The Recovery of Rome' in CAH2 7.2 F.W. Walbank et al. (eds.) Cambridge.
- ^ Wickham (2014), pp. 210–217
- ^ Wickham (2014), pp. 180–184
- ^ Joshel, Sandra Rae (2010). Slavery in the Roman World. Cambridge Introduction to Roman Civilization. Cambridge University Press. p. 55. ISBN 9780521535014. ISSN 1755-6058.
- ^ K.R. Bradley. 2004. 'On Captives under the Principate', Phoenix 58, 3/4:, 299; Brunt 1971 Italian Manpower, Oxford, p. 707; Hopkins 1978, pp. 8–15. This view has been challenged more recently by Wickham (2014).
- ^ William V. Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 36 (1980), p. 121.
- ^ Bradley 2004, pp. 298–318.
- ^ Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," pp. 118, 122.
- ^ Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 125.
- ^ Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 122.
- ^ Catherine Hezser, “The Social Status of Slaves in the Talmud Yerushalmi and in Graeco-Roman Society,” in The Talmud Yerushalmi and Graeco-Roman Culture (Mohr, 2002), p. 96.
- ^ Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 122, citing Josephus, The Jewish War 6.420; Hezser, “The Social Status of Slaves,” p. 96 (Hezer is skeptical of Josephus’s numbers).
- ^ Hezser, “The Social Status of Slaves,” p. 96, citing Josephus, Jewish War 3.10.10, 539ff.
- ^ Hezser, “The Social Status of Slaves,” p. 96, citing Josephus, Jewish War 3.7.31, 303–304.
- ^ Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 122, citing Chronicon Paschale 1.474 ed. Dindorf.
- ^ Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 122.
- ^ Keith Bradley, "On Captives under the Principate," Phoenix 58:3/4 (2004), pp. 298–300, 313–314 et passim.
- ^ Vincent Gabrielsen, "Piracy and the Slave-Trade," in A. Erskine (ed.) A Companion to the Hellenistic World (Blackwell, 2003, 2005) pp. 389–404.
- ^ Gabrielsen, “Piracy and the Slave Trade,” p. 393.
- ^ Gabrielsen, “Piracy and the Slave Trade,” p. 392, citing Livy 34.50.5; Appian, Hannibalic Wars 28.
- ^ Gabrielsen, “Piracy and the Slave Trade,” p. 393.
- ^ Gabrielsen, “Piracy and the Slave Trade,” pp. 393–393.
- ^ Gabrielsen, “Piracy and the Slave Trade,” p. 393.
- ^ Gabrielsen, “Piracy and the Slave Trade,” p. 393, citing Plutarch, Caesar 2.
- ^ Bradley, "Animalizing the Slave," p. 112, citing Plutarch, Caesar 1.4–2.4 and Suetonius, Julius Caesar 74.1
- ^ Catherine Hezser, “Seduced by the Enemy or Wise Strategy? The Presentation of Non-Violence and Accommodation with Foreign Powers in Ancient Jewish Literary Sources,” in Between Cooperation and Hostility: Multiple Identities in Ancient Judaism and the Interaction with Foreign Powers (Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2013), p. 246, citing m. Git. 4:2; t. Mo’ed Qat. 1:12. The reference to paying ransom to Romans may suggest war captives.
- ^ Levy, “Captivus Redumptus,” p. 173.
- ^ Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 128, citing Strabo 14.664.
- ^ Plutarch, Pompey 24-8.
- ^ Madden, "Slavery in the Roman Empire," p. 121.
- ^ Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 124, citing mentions in Apuleius, Metamorphoses 7.9; Philostratus, Life of Apollonius of Tyana 8.7.12; Strabo 11.496; Xenophon of Ephesus 1.13–14; Dio Chrysostom 15.25; Lucian, De mercede conductis 24.
- ^ St. Augustine Letter 10.
- ^ Fuhrmann, Policing the Roman Empire, p. 25, especially note 26.
- ^ Bradley (1994), pp. 33–34, 48–49
- ^ Mouritsen (2011), p. 100
- ^ John Madden "Slavery in the Roman Empire: Numbers and Origins," Classics Ireland 3 (1996), p. 115, citing Columella, De re rustica 1.8.19 and Varro, De re rustica 1.17.5, 7 and 2.126.
- ^ Beryl Rawson, Children and Childhood in Roman Italy (Oxford University Press, 2003), p. 256.
- ^ S. L. Mohler, "Slave Education in the Roman Empire," Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, 71 (1940), p. 272 et passim.
- ^ Mohler, "Slave Education," p. 272, citing CIL 6.1052.
- ^ McKeown, Niall (2007). The Invention of Modern Slavery?. London: Bristol Classical Press. pp. 139–140. ISBN 978-0-7156-3185-0.
- ^ See discussions amongst Walter Scheidel, "Quantifying the Sources of Slaves in the Roman Empire," Journal of Roman Studies 87 (1997) 159–169; W. V. Harris, "Demography, Geography and the Sources of Roman Slaves," Journal of Roman Studies 89 (1999), 62–75; Christian Laes, "Child Slaves at Work in Roman Antiquity," Ancient Society 38 (2008), especially p. 267; Elio lo Cascio, "Thinking Slave and Free in Coordinates," Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies suppl. 109 (2010), p. 28.
- ^ Jane Bellemore and Beryl Rawson, "Alumni: The Italian Evidence," Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 83 (1990), pp. 4–5.
- ^ Bellemore and Rawon, "Alumni," p. 7.
- ^ On maternal and neonatal mortality in the Roman world, see for example M. Golden, "Did the Ancients Care When Their Children Died?" Greece & Rome 35 (1988) 152–163; Keith R. Bradley, "Wet-nursing at Rome: A Study in Social Relations," in The Family in Ancient Rome: New Perspectives (Cornell University Press, 1986, 1992), p. 202; Beryl Rawson, Children and Childhood in Roman Italy (Oxford University Press, 2003), p. 104.
- ^ Christian Laes, "Infants between Biological and Social Birth in Antiquity: A Phenomenon of the longue durée," Historia 63:3 (2014), pp. 364–383, especially pp. 371–372 on decision-making.
- ^ Ville Vuolanto, "Selling a Freeborn Child: Rhetoric and Social Realities in the Late Roman World," Ancient Society 33 (2003), pp. 199–202.
- ^ (Harris 1994, p. 9)
- ^ Neil W. Bernstein, "Adoptees and Exposed Children in Roman Declamation: Commodification, Luxury, and the Threat of Violence," Classical Philology 104:3 (2009), citing Seneca, Controversiae 9.3; Quintilian, Institutiones 7.1.14, 9.2.89; Declamationes Minores 278, 338, 376.
- ^ Laes, "Child Slaves at Work," p. 267.
- ^ Laes, "Child Slaves at Work," p. 241 et passim.
- ^ Vuolanto, "Selling a Freeborn Child," p. 198, asserting that "The selling of children had very little to do with child-exposure from the perspective of social history" (p. 206).
- ^ William L. Westermann, The Slave Systems of Greek and Roman Antiquity (American Philosophical Society 1955), p. 101.
- ^ Laes, Christian (2008). "Child Slaves at Work in Roman Antiquity". Ancient Society. 38: 235–283. doi:10.2143/AS.38.0.2033278. JSTOR 44080270.
- ^ Ido Israelowich, "The extent of the patria potestas during the High Empire: Roman midwives and the decision ofnon tollere as a case in point," Museum Helveticum 74:2 (2017), pp. 227–228, citing the Theodosian Code 11.15.1.
- ^ Laes, "Infants Between," p. 376, citing K. Harper, Slavery in the Late Roman World AD 275–425 (Cambridge 2011), pp. 404–409.
- ^ Laes, "Infants Between," p. 375, citing Codex Theodosianus 5.10.1.
- ^ P.A. Brunt, Social Conflicts in the Roman Republic (Chatto & Windus, 1971), pp. 56–57.
- ^ Brunt, Social Conflicts in the Roman Republic, pp. 56–57.
- ^ Rio, “Self-sale,” drawing extensively on Ramin and Veyne, “Droit romain et société," pp. 472–497.
- ^ Rio, "Self-Sale," p. 662.
- ^ Rio, “Self-sale,” p. 664, citing Justinian, Institutes 1.3.4, 1.16.1; Digest 1.5.5.1, 1.5.21, and 28.3.6.5.
- ^ Rio, “Self-sale,” pp. 663–664.
- ^ a b Rio, “Self-sale,” p. 664.
- ^ Rio, “Self-sale,” p. 680, n. 18, citing Digest 48.19.14.
- ^ Mary Nyquist, Arbitrary Rule: Slavery, Tyranny, and the Power of Life and Death (University of Chicago Press, 2013), pp. 51–53, citing mainly the works of Cicero.
- ^ Rio, “Self-sale,” p. 665.
- ^ Hopkins, Keith. Conquerors and Slaves: Sociological Studies in Roman History. Cambridge University Press, New York. Pgs. 4–5
- ^ Herodotus, Histories 9.10.
- ^ Peter Temin, "The Labor Market of the Early Roman Empire," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 34:4 (2004), pp. 514–515, 518.
- ^ Temin, "The Labor Market of the Early Roman Empire," pp. 519 and 522–524.
- ^ Temin, "The Labor Market of the Early Roman Empire," p. 519, citing Cicero, De officiis 21.1.150–151.
- ^ Finley, Moses I. (1960). Slavery in classical Antiquity. Views and controversies. Cambridge.
- ^ Finley, Moses I. (1980). Ancient Slavery and Modern Ideology. Chatto & Windus.
- ^ Montoya Rubio, Bernat (2015). L'esclavitud en l'economia antiga: fonaments discursius de la historiografia moderna (Segles XV-XVIII). Presses universitaires de Franche-Comté. pp. 15–25. ISBN 978-2-84867-510-7.
- ^ a b Moya K. Mason, "Roman Slavery: The Social, Cultural, Political, and Demographic Consequences", accessed 17 March 2021
- ^ Adsidua et cottidiana comparatio servorum: Keith Bradley, "'The Regular, Daily Traffic in Slaves': Roman History and Contemporary History," Classical Journal 87:2 (Dec. 1991–Jan. 1992), p. 126.
- ^ a b Harris (2000), p. 721
- ^ Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 126.
- ^ Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 126, citing Seneca, De const. 13.5 and indirectly Plautus, Curculio 481
- ^ Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 126, documented for instance by wax tablets from the Villa of Murecine.
- ^ Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 126, citing Suetonius, De gramm. 25.
- ^ Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 126.
- ^ Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," pp. 126, 138 n. 93.
- ^ Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 126, citing CIL 10.8222.
- ^ Eleanor G. Huzar, "Egyptian Relations in Delos," Classical Journal 57:4 (1962), p. 170. The policing action of Rhodes has also been seen as a "naval protection racket" that allowed it to exercise control over shipping in the name of suppressing "piracy": Philip de Souza, "Rome's Contribution to the Development of Piracy," Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 6 (2008), p. 76, drawing on V. Gabrielsen, "Economic Activity, Maritime Trade and Piracy in the Hellenistic Aegean," Revue des Études Anciennes 103:1/2 (2001) pp. 219-240.
- ^ Huzar, "Roman-Egyptian Relations in Delos," pp. 170–171.
- ^ Huzar, "Roman-Egyptian Relations in Delos," pp. 170, 176, citing a number of inscriptions on the Italian presence at an earlier date than had conventionally been thought.
- ^ Huzar, "Roman-Egyptian Relations in Delos," p. 169, citing Polybius 30,29, 31.7; Livy 33.30; Strabo 10.5.4, and p. 171, noting that "it is evident that Rome had no real understanding of the economic implications of her actions."
- ^ Huzar, "Roman-Egyptian Relations in Delos," p. 170.
- ^ Huzar, "Roman-Egyptian Relations in Delos," pp. 171, 175, 176.
- ^ Strabo 14.5.2, as cited and tamped down by Huzar, "Roman-Egyptian Relations in Delos," pp. 169, 175.
- ^ Huzar, "Roman-Egyptian Relations in Delos," p. 175.
- ^ Aaron L. Beek, "The Pirate Connection: Roman Politics, Servile Wars, and the East," Transactions of the American Philological Association 146:1 (2016), p. 105.
- ^ Huzar, "Roman-Egyptian Relations in Delos," pp. 169, 175.
- ^ Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," pp. 126–127.
- ^ Huzar, "Roman-Egyptian Relations in Delos," pp. 175–176.
- ^ Westerman, Slave Systems, pp. 66–65, calling the Romans "criminally negligent" and callously indifferent because of their appetite for slaves.
- ^ Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 127, citing Varro, De lingua Latina 9.21.
- ^ Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 127.
- ^ Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 127.
- ^ A. B. Bosworth, "Vespasian and the Slave Trade," Classical Quarterly 52:1 (2002), pp. 354–355, citing MAMA 6.260; Cicero, Pro Flacco 34–38 on Acmoninan prosperity; Appian, Mithridatic Wars 77.334; Memnon of Heracleia, FGrH 434 F 1 (28.5–6); and Plutarch, Lucullus 17.1, 24.1, 30.3, 35.1.
- ^ Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 127.
- ^ Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 128.
- ^ Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 126.
- ^ Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 126, citing Strabo 11.493, 495–496
- ^ Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," pp. 126, 138 n. 97 (with numerous citations of primary sources).
- ^ Ralph Jackson, "Roman Bound Captives: Symbol of Slavery?" in Image, Craft, and the Classical World: Essays in Honour of Donald Bailey and Catherine Johns (Montagnac, 2005), pp. 143–156.
- ^ Michael H. Crawford, “Republican Denarii in Romania: The Suppression of Piracy and the Slave-Trade,” Journal of Roman Studies 67 (1977), pp. 117-124.
- ^ Jackson, "Roman Bound Captives: Symbols of Slavery?" p. 151.
- ^ Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 124, citing Strabo 5.214 and 11.493; Tacitus, Agricola 28.3; and Periplous Maris Erythraei 13, 31, 36.
- ^ Crawford, “Republican Denarii in Romania,” p. 121, citing Diodorus 5.26 and Cicero, Pro Quinctio 24.
- ^ Walter Scheidel, "Quantifying the Sources of Slaves in the Early Roman Empire," Journal of Roman Studies 87 (1997), p. 159.
- ^ Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," pp. 125–126.
- ^ Harris,“Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade,” p. 121.
- ^ Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," pp. 126, 138 n. 93.
- ^ Jane Rowlands, "Dissing the Egyptians: Legal, Ethnic, and Cultural Identities in Roman Egypt," Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 120 (2013), p. 235.
- ^ "Harry Thurston Peck, Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities (1898), Catasta". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2023-07-16.
- ^ "Statius, P. Papinius, Silvae, book 2, Glauctas Atedii melioris delicatus". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2023-07-16.
- ^ Bradley, "'The Regular, Daily Traffic in Slaves'," p. 128.
- ^ a b Johnston, Mary. Roman Life. Chicago: Scott, Foresman and Company, 1957, p. 158–177
- ^ Johnston, David (2022). Roman Law in Context (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 96. ISBN 978-1-108-70016-0. The actio redhibitoria for 6 months and the actio quanto minoris for 12, applying to sales of slaves and cattle in the market.
- ^ Smith, William, ed. (1890). A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. London: John Murray. Pilleus.
- ^ Gellius, Aulus. Attic Nights. 6.4.1.
- ^ Westerman, Slave Systems, p. 71.
- ^ Westerman, Slave Systems, p. 71, citing Plutarch, Cato the Elder 18.2, and remarking on "Cato's bitter statement that handsome slaves cost more than a farm" (Diodorus Siculus 31.24).
- ^ Westerman, Slave Systems, p. 71.
- ^ Westerman, Slave Systems, p. 95.
- ^ Westerman, Slave Systems, p. 95.
- ^ Harris (2000), p. 722
- ^ Westerman, Slave Systems, p. 95, citing Tacitus, Annales 13.31.2.
- ^ Westerman, Slave Systems, p. 95.
- ^ Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," pp. 124, 138 n. 81, citing CIL 8.4508.
- ^ a b c d e f g "Slavery in Rome," in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome (Oxford University Press, 2010), p. 323.
- ^ Marice E. Rose, "The Construction of Mistress and Slave Relationships in Late Antique Art," Woman's Art Journal 29:2 (2008), p. 41
- ^ Clarence A. Forbes, "The Education and Training of Slaves in Antiquity," Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 86 (1955), pp. 332–333.
- ^ Ramsay MacMullen, "The Unromanized in Rome," in Diasporas in Antiquity (Brown Judaic Studies 2020), pp. 49–50, basing his guess of one hundred per household on his earlier demographic work in Changes in the Roman Empire (1990).
- ^ Roman Civilization 2009-02-03 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ MacMullen, "The Unromanized in Rome," p. 49.
- ^ John R. Clarke, The Houses of Roman Italy, 100 B.C.-A.D. 250: Ritual, Space, and Decoration (University of California Press, 1991), p. 2.
- ^ Westerman, Slave Systems, p. 73.
- ^ a b MacMullen, "The Unromanized in Rome," p. 51.
- ^ Forbes, "The Education and Training of Slaves," p. 334, citing ILS 7710.
- ^ Forbes, “Education and Training of Slaves,” pp. 331–332.
- ^ Temin, "The Labor Market of the Early Roman Empire," p. 514.
- ^ Temin, "The Labor Market of the Early Roman Empire," pp. 525–526, 528.
- ^ John E. Stambaugh, The Ancient Roman City (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988), p. 144, 144, 178; Kathryn Hinds, Everyday Life in the Roman Empire (Marshall Cavendish, 2010) ,p. 90.
- ^ Claire Holleran, Holleran, Shopping in Ancient Rome: The Retail Trade in the Late Republic and the Principate (Oxford Universwity Press, 2012), p. 136ff.
- ^ J. Mira Seo, "Cooks and Cookbooks," in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome (Oxford University, 2010), pp. 298–299.
- ^ Forbes, "The Education and Training of Slaves," p. 335, citing Columella, 1 praef. 5 ("workshop" is officina).
- ^ Forbes, "The Education and Training of Slaves," pp. 335-336, citing Seneca, Moral Epistle 47.6, and Juvenal 5.121.
- ^ Forbes, "The Education and Training of Slaves," p. 334, citing Cicero, Letter to Atticus 14.3.1
- ^ Forbes, "The Education and Training of Slaves," p. 334, citing ILS 7733a.
- ^ Keith Bradley, "Animalizing the Slave: The Truth of Fiction," Journal of Roman Studies 90 (2000), p. 110, citing Varro, De re rustica 1.17.1.
- ^ Bradley, "Animalizing the Slave," p. 110, citing Cato, De agricultura 2.7.
- ^ Bradley, "Animalizing the Slave," p. 110, citing Columella, De re rustica 1.6.8.
- ^ Bradley, "Animalizing the Slave," p. 111, citing the jurist Gaius interpreting the Lex Aquilia at Digest 9.2.2.2.
- ^ William V. Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 36 (1980), p. 118.
- ^ Martin, “Slavery and the Ancient Jewish Family,” p. 128, citing for example the parable in Matthew 13:24–30.
- ^ Harris, "Towards a Study of the Slave Trade," p. 119.
- ^ Harris, "Towards a Study of the Slave Trade," p. 120, citing Columella 1.8.4.
- ^ Ulrike Roth, "Thinking Tools: Agricultural Slavery between Evidence and Models," Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 92 (2007), pp. 3, 17, 36, citing Columella 12.1.5, 12.3.3, and 12.3.8 and Cato, De agricultura 143.3.
- ^ Roth, "Thinking Tools," p. 49, citing Cato, De agricultura 143.1.
- ^ Miroslava Mirković, "The Later Roman Colonate and Freedom," Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 87:2 (1997), p. 42, noting that in other contexts, the ergastulum seems to be a penal workhouse not necessarily for agricultural labor, as when Livy (2.2.6) contrasts a debtor who is led non in servitium sed in ergastulum, "not into slavery but into the workhouse."
- ^ Fergus Millar, "Condemnation to Hard Labour in the Roman Empire, from the Julio-Claudians to Constantine," Papers of the British School at Rome 52 (1984), pp. 143–144.
- ^ Millar, "Condemnation to Hard Labour in the Roman Empire, from the Julio-Claudians to Constantine," pp. 131–132.
- ^ Alfred Michael Hirt, Imperial Mines and Quarries in the Roman World: Organizational Aspects 27–BC AD 235 (Oxford University Press, 2010), sect. 3.3.
- ^ W. Mark Gustafson, "Inscripta in Fronte: Penal Tattooing in Late Antiquity," Classical Antiquity 16:1 (1997), p. 81.
- ^ Millar, "Condemnation to Hard Labour in the Roman Empire," pp. 124–125.
- ^ Millar, "Condemnation to Hard Labour in the Roman Empire," pp. 127–128, 132, 137–138, 146.
- ^ Millar, "Condemnation to Hard Labour in the Roman Empire," pp. 128, 138.
- ^ Millar, "Condemnation to Hard Labour in the Roman Empire," p. 139.
- ^ Millar, "Condemnation to Hard Labour in the Roman Empire," pp. 139–140.
- ^ Millar, "Condemnation to Hard Labour in the Roman Empire," pp. 140, 145–146.
- ^ Eusebius, writing of those who were subjected to mutilations that reduced their capacity to work and were then sent to the copper mines "not so much for service as for the sake of ill treatment and hardship" (Historia Ecclesiastica 8.12.10), as referenced in this context by Millar, "Condemnation to Hard Labour in the Roman Empire," pp. 141, 147.
- ^ Temin, "The Labor Market of the Early Roman Empire," p. 520.
- ^ Millar, "Condemnation to Hard Labour in the Roman Empire," p. 141–142.
- ^ Hirt, Imperial Mines and Quarries, sect. 4.2.1.
- ^ Christian G. De Vito and Alex Lichtenstein, “Writing a Global History of Convict Labour,” in Global Histories of Work (De Gruyter, 2016), p. 58.
- ^ Lionel Casson, "Galley Slaves," Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 97 (1966), p. 35.
- ^ Marianne Béraud, Nicolas Mathieu, Bernard Rémy, "Esclaves et affranchis chez les Voconces au Haut-Empire: L'apport des inscriptions," Gallia 74:2 (2017), p. 80.
- ^ a b Adolf Berger. 1991. Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law. American Philosophical Society (reprint). p. 706.
- ^ John Madden, "Slavery in the Roman Empire Numbers and Origins," Classics Ireland 3 (1996), citing Frontinus, De aquaeductu 116–117.
- ^ Westerman, Slave Systems, p. 83.
- ^ Arjava, "Paternal Power in Late Antiquity," p. 164, citing Origines 5.25.5 in connection with the survival of emancipatio in Visigothic law.
- ^ Jane Gardner, Women in Roman Law and Society (Taylor & Frances, 2008), n.p.
- ^ Westerman, Slave Systems, p. 83.
- ^ Westerman, Slave Systems, p. 83.
- ^ Willem Zwalye, Valerius Patruinus' Case Contracting in the Name of the Emperor," in The Representation and Perception of Roman Imperial Power: Proceedings of the Third Workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire (Roman Empire, c. 200 B.C.–A.D. 476), Rome, March 20-23, 2002 (Brill, 2003), p. 160.
- ^ Westerman, Slave Systems, p. 82.
- ^ Martin, “Slavery and the Ancient Jewish Family,” p. 128, citing Matthew 21:34 and 25:14–30.
- ^ Martin, “Slavery and the Ancient Jewish Family,” p. 128, citing Matthew 24:45 and Mark 13:35.
- ^ Catherine Edwards, "Unspeakable Professions: Public Performance and Prostitution in Ancient Rome," in Roman Sexualities (Princeton UP 1997), pp. 72–73, citing the Tabula Heracleensis on some restrictions outside the city of Rome.
- ^ Thomas A.J. McGinn, Prostitution, Sexuality and the Law in Ancient Rome (Oxford UP 1998) p. 65ff.
- ^ Edwards, "Unspeakable Professions," pp. 66–67.
- ^ Edwards, "Unspeakable Professions," p. 66.
- ^ Edwards, "Unspeakable Professions," p. 73.
- ^ Edwards, "Unspeakable Professions," pp. 76, 82–83.
- ^ Edwards, "Unspeakable Professions," pp. 74–75, citing Livy 7.2.12; Augustus mitigated the practice.
- ^ D. Selden, "How the Ethiopian Changed His Skin," Classical Antiquity 32:2 (2013), p. 329, citing Donatus, Vita Terenti 1.
- ^ Alison Futrell, A Sourcebook on the Roman Games (Blackwell, 2006), p. 124.
- ^ Edwards, "Unspeakable Professions," p. 82.
- ^ Edwards, "Unspeakable Professions," p. 81.
- ^ Amy Richlin, "Sexuality in the Roman Empire," in A Companion to the Roman Empire (John Wiley & Sons, 2009), p. 350.
- ^ Codex Theodosianus 9.40.8 and 15.9.1; Symmachus, Relatio 8.3.
- ^ a b Mackay, Christopher (2004). Ancient Rome: A Military and Political History. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 298. ISBN 978-0521809184.
- ^ Rosenstein, Nathan (2005-12-15). Rome at War: Farms, Families, and Death in the Middle Republic. Univ of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-6410-4.
Recent studies of Italian demography have further increased doubts about a rapid expansion of the peninsula's servile population in this era. No direct evidence exists for the number of slaves in Italy at any time. Brunt has little trouble showing that Beloch's estimate of 2 million during the reign of Augustus is without foundation. Brunt himself suggests that there were about 3 million slaves out of a total population in Italy of about 7.5 million at this date, but he readily concedes that this is no more than a guess. As Lo Cascio has cogently noted, that guess in effect is a product of Brunt's low estimate of the free population
- ^ a b Goldhill, Simon (2006). Being Greek Under Rome: Cultural Identity, the Second Sophistic and the Development of Empire. Cambridge University Press.
- ^ Walter Scheidel. 2005. 'Human Mobility in Roman Italy, II: The Slave Population', Journal of Roman Studies 95: 64–79. Scheidel, p. 170, has estimated between 1 and 1.5 million slaves in the 1st century BC.
- ^ Wickham (2014), p. 198 notes the difficulty in estimating the size of the slave population and the supply needed to maintain and grow the population.
- ^ No contemporary or systematic census of slave numbers is known; in the Empire, under-reporting of male slave numbers would have reduced the tax liabilities attached to their ownership. See Kyle Harper, Slavery in the Late Roman World, AD 275–425. Cambridge University Press, 2011, pp. 58–60, and footnote 150. ISBN 978-0-521-19861-5
- ^ Bruce W. Frier and Thomas A. J. McGinn. 2004. A Casebook on Roman Family Law. Oxford University Press: American Philological Association. p. 15
- ^ Stefan Goodwin. 2009. Africa in Europe: Antiquity into the Age of Global Expansion. Lexington Books. vol. 1, p. 41, noting that "Roman slavery was a nonracist and fluid system".
- ^ a b Noy, David (2000). Foreigners at Rome: Citizens and Strangers. Duckworth with the Classical Press of Wales. ISBN 978-0-7156-2952-9.
- ^ Harper, James (1972). Slaves and Freedmen in Imperial Rome. Am J Philol.
- ^ Frier, "Demography", 789; Scheidel, "Demography", 39.
- ^ "Estimated Distribution of Citizenship in the Roman Empire". byustudies.byu.edu.
- ^ Fanny Dolansky, "Reconsidering the Matronalia and Women's Rites," Classical World 104:2 (2011), p. 206.
- ^ Bradley, "Animalizing the Slave," p. 117.
- ^ Westerman, Slave Systems, p. 76.
- ^ Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 128, citing Eph. Ep. 8 (1899) 524 no. 311.
- ^ Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 128, citing FIRA 3 no. 89.
- ^ Bradley, "'The Regular Daily Traffic in Slaves'," p. 133.
- ^ Sandra R. Joshel, "Nurturing the Master's Child: Slavery and the Roman Child-Nurse," Signs 12:1 (1986), p. 4, with reference to the classic work of Moses Finley, Ancient Slavery and Modern Ideology.
- ^ Dolansky, "Reconsidering the Matronalia," pp.205–206.
- ^ Gerard B. Lavery, "Training, Trade and Trickery: Three Lawgivers in Plutarch," Classical World 67:6 (1974), p. 377; Plutarch, Life of Cato 4.4–5.1.
- ^ Mellor, Ronald. The Historians of Ancient Rome. New York: Routledge, 1997. (467).
- ^ Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 127.
- ^ Westerman, Slave Systems, pp. 99–100.
- ^ Westerman, Slave Systems, p. 107, citing Pliny, Epistle 8.24.5
- ^ Westerman, Slave Systems, p. 107, citing Pliny, Epistle 5.19.1–4.
- ^ Westerman, Slave Systems, pp. 107 and 114, citing Suetonius, Claudius 25 and the Digest of Justinian 40.8.2.
- ^ Clarence A. Forbes, "The Education and Training of Slaves in Antiquity," Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 86 (1955), pp. 343–344; also Westerman, Slave Systems, p. 114, using the word technē.
- ^ Forbes, "The Education and Training of Slaves," p. 344, noting Cicero's tactful if condescending dismissal that "professions such as medicine, architecture, and teaching of the liberal arts which either involve higher learning or are utilitarian to no small degree are honorable for those whose social status they are suited" (De officiis 1.42.151)—that status not being senatorial.
- ^ Ramsay MacMullen, "Social Ethic Models: Roman, Greek, 'Oriental'," Historia 64:4 (2015), p. 491.
- ^ Westerman, Slave Systems, p. 114; Forbes, "The Education and Training of Slaves," p. 344–345.
- ^ George C. Boon, "Potters, Oculists and Eye-Troubles," Britannia 14 (1983), p. 6, citing CIL 11.5400, ILS 7812; on the size of his estate, Cornelia M. Roberts, "Roman Slaves," Classical Outlook 43:9 (1966), p. 97, gives 400,00, and Forbes, "The Education and Training of Slaves," the larger sum (p. 347); floruit of Merula from Barbara Kellum, review of Rome's Cultural Revolution by Andrew Wallace-Hadrill, American Journal of Philology 132:2 (2011), p. 334.
- ^ Westerman, Slave Systems, p. 74, citing Suetonius, Augustus 11; CIL 10.388; Cicero, Pro Cluentio 47.
- ^ Westerman, Slave Systems, p. 114, citing Galen, Therapeutikē technē 1 (Kühn) and Pliny, Natural History 29.1.4 (9).
- ^ Véronique Boudon-Millot, “Greek and Roman Patients under Galen’s Gaze: A Doctor at the Crossroads of Two Cultures,” in "Greek" and "Roman" in Latin Medical Texts: Studies in Cultural Change and Exchange in Ancient Medicine (Koninklijke Brill, 2014), pp. 7, 10.
- ^ Boudon-Millot, “Greek and Roman Patients,” p. 9.
- ^ Cicero. Ad familiares 16.6
- ^ Cicero. Ad familiares 16.3
- ^ Bankston (2012), p. 209
- ^ Bankston (2012), p. 215
- ^ Cicero, Ad familiares 16.21
- ^ Jerome, Chronological Tables 194.1
- ^ William Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology vol. 3, p. 1182 2006-12-07 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Valerie Hope, “Fighting for Identity: The Funerary Commemoration of Italian Gladiators,” Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 73 (2000), p. 101.
- ^ Because of the cultural importance of carrying on family lineage, Roman names are of limited variety, so that members of the same gens are often readily confused with one another in the historical sources.
- ^ Christer Bruun, “Greek or Latin? The owner’s choice of names for vernae in Rome,” in Roman Slavery and Roman Material Culture (University of Toronto Press, 2013), pp. 21–22.
- ^ “Grave Relief of a Silversmith,” Getty Museum Collection, object number 96.AA.40, https://www.getty.edu/art/collection/object/104034. See more on Publius Curtilius Agatho under “Commemoration” below.
- ^ For example, Gaius Julius Vercondaridubnus was an Aeduan Gaul who held the first high priesthood in the imperial cult at the Sanctuary of the Three Gauls in the first century BC; his cognomen is distinctively Celtic, and his praenomen and gens name may indicate that Julius Caesar himself granted his family’s citizenship; see J.F. Drinkwater, “The Rise and Fall of the Gallic Julii: Aspects of the Development of the Aristocracy of the Three Gauls under the Early Empire,” Latomus 37 (1978) 817–850.
- ^ Clive Cheesman, "Names in -por and Slave Naming in Republican Rome," Classical Quarterly 59:2 (2009), pp. 516, 523.
- ^ Cheesman, “Names in -por,” p. 516.
- ^ Cheesman, “Names in -por,” pp. 511, 519, 521, et passim.
- ^ Cheesman, “Names in -por,” pp. 521, 527.
- ^ Cheesman, “Names in -por,” p. 524. Marcipor is also the name of a Menippean satire by Varro.
- ^ Cheesman, “Names in -por,” p. 528.
- ^ Cheesman, “Names in -por,” p. 512.
- ^ Cheesman, “Names in -por,” p. 517.
- ^ Cheesman, “Names in -por,” p. 524.
- ^ Susan Treggiari, "The Freedmen of Cicero," Greece & Rome 16.2 (1969), p. 196.
- ^ The status of some servants he names is not clear from context; they could be either slaves or freedmen still working for him; Treggiari, "The Freedmen of Cicero," p. 196.
- ^ Cheesman, “Names in -por,” p. 517.
- ^ Westerman, Slave Systems, p. 96.
- ^ Westerman, Slave Systems, p. 96, citing Varro, De lingua latina 8.21.
- ^ Westerman, Slave Systems, p. 96 and especially n. 2.
- ^ Cheesman, “Names in -por,” p. 518. See also “Temple slaves”.
- ^ Westerman, Slave Systems, p. 96.
- ^ So argued by Bruun, “Greek or Latin? The owner’s choice of names for vernae in Rome.” Bruun also argues that naming your own children might have been one of the perks of being a verna.
- ^ Hope, “Fighting for Identity,” p. 101, citing inscriptions EAOR 1.63 and EAOR 2.41 = AE (1908) 222.
- ^ Cheesman, “Names in -por,” p. 516, citing Diodorus Siculus 36.4.4.
- ^ Cheesman, “Names in -por,” p. 518, citing Cicero, Philippics 2.77: “Quis tu?” “A Marco tabellarius.”
- ^ Westerman,Slave Systems, p. 92 and n. 34.
- ^ Westerman, Slave Systems, p. 96.
- ^ Michele George, “Slave Disguise,” in Representing the Body of the Slave (Routledge, 2002, 2013), p. 42 et passim.
- ^ Thomas Wiedemann and Jane Gardner, introduction to Representing the Body of the Slave, p. 4; George, “Slave Disguise,” p. 43.
- ^ a b Rose, “The Construction of Mistress and Slave,” p. 43, with reference to George, “Slave Disguise,” p. 44.
- ^ Alexandra Croom, Roman Clothing and Fashion (Amberley 201), n.p.
- ^ Wiedemann and Gardner, introduction to Representing, p. 4; George, “Slave Disguise,” p. 44.
- ^ George, “Slave Disguise,” p. 43.
- ^ George, “Slave Disguise,” p. 38.
- ^ Sandra R. Joshel, Slavery in the Roman World (Cambridge UP, 2010), p. 133
- ^ Croom, Roman Clothing, p. 56.
- ^ Croom, Roman Clothing, p. 39.
- ^ Joshel, “Slavery in the Roman World,” pp. 133, 137. The scene may suggest a sequential narrative—changing into party shoes, drinking, the aftermath upon departure—rather than the simultaneous actions of two different guests.
- ^ Croom, Roman Clothing, p. 8.
- ^ Croom, Roman Clothing, pp. 68–69.
- ^ Croom, Roman Clothing, pp. 8–9.
- ^ Joshel, Slavery in the Roman World, pp. 133, 135.
- ^ Croom, Roman Clothing, citing Columella 1.8.9 (sic).
- ^ Croom, Roman Clothing, citing Cato, On agriculture 59.
- ^ Croom, Roman Clothing, n.p.
- ^ R. T. Pritchard, “Land Tenure in Sicily in the First Century B.C.,” Historia 18:5 (1969), pp. 349–350, citing Diodorus Siculus 34.2.34.
- ^ George, “Slave Disguise,” p. 44, 51, n. 14 citing Seneca.
- ^ Keith R. Bradley, "Slave Kingdoms and Slave Rebellions in Ancient Sicily," Historical Reflections / Réflexions Historiques 10:3 (1983), p. 435.
- ^ Keith Bradley, "The Problem of Slavery in Classical Culture" (review article), Classical Philology 92:3 (1997), pp. 278–279, citing Plutarch, Moralia 511d–e.
- ^ Diodorus Siculus, The Civil Wars; Siculus means "the Sicilian".
- ^ Gerald P. Verbrugghe, "Sicily 210-70 B.C.: Livy, Cicero and Diodorus," Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 103 (1972), pp. 535-559, and "The Elogium from Polla and the First Slave War," Classical Philology 68:1 (1973), pp. 25–35; R. T. Pritchard, "Land Tenure in Sicily in the First Century B.C.," Historia 18:5 (1969), pp. 545–556 on latifundia pushing out small farmers in favor of ranching operations employing slaves.
- ^ Keith R. Bradley, "Slave Kingdoms and Slave Rebellions in Ancient Sicily," Historical Reflections / Réflexions Historiques 10:3 (1983), p. 443.
- ^ Verbrugghe, "Sicily 210-70 B.C.," p. 540; on a certain type of latifundium functioning as a ranch, K. D. White, "Latifundia," Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 14 (1967), p. 76.
- ^ Bradley, "Slave Kingdoms and Slave Rebellions," pp. 441–442.
- ^ Peter Morton, "The Geography of Rebellion: Strategy and Supply in the Two 'Sicilian Slave Wars'," Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 57:1 (2014), pp. 26.
- ^ Morton, "The Geography of Rebellion," pp. 28–29.
- ^ Morton, "The Geography of Rebellion," pp. 29, 35.
- ^ Bradley, "Slave Kingdoms and Slave Rebellions," pp. 436–437 (reviewing other scholars on the subject) and moderating views of Eunus's actual monarchical ambitions pp. 439–440
- ^ Bradley, "Slave Kingdoms and Slave Rebellions," p. 447.
- ^ Morton, "The Geography of Rebellion," p. 22ff., from the logistical perspective of "terrain";
- ^ Bradley, "Slave Kingdoms and Slave Rebellions," p. 441.
- ^ Aaron L. Beek, "The Pirate Connection: Roman Politics, Servile Wars, and the East," TAPA 146:1 (2016), p. 100.
- ^ Beek, "The Pirate Connection," p. 100.
- ^ Beek, "The Pirate Connection," p. 100, citing Diodorus 36.3.2.
- ^ Bradley, "Slave Kingdoms and Slave Rebellions," p. 442.
- ^ Beek, "The Pirate Connection," pp. 104–106.
- ^ Athenion's name is inscribed on several sling bullets found at multiple sites in Sicily; Beek, "The Pirate Connection," pp. 31–32.
- ^ Bradley, "Slave Kingdoms and Slave Rebellions," p. 442.
- ^ Beek, "The Pirate Connection," pp. 32–34.
- ^ Bradley, "Slave Kingdoms and Slave Rebellions," pp. 449–550.
- ^ Anne Searcy, "The Recomposition of Aram Khachaturian’s Spartacus at the Bolshoi Theater, 1958–1968," Journal of Musicology 33:3 (2016), pp. 362-400, citing the 2013 production as an example of the "heavily revised version … [that] has become canonical" (p. 398) and describing it as "no longer … an exploration of musical national diversity" but nationalist (p. 399) and devoid of the ethnic diversity of Spartacus's followers as originally conceived by the composer (p. 365).
- ^ Erich S. Gruen,The Last Generation of the Roman Republic (University of California Press, 1974), p. 20.
- ^ Gruen, The Last Generation, p. 20.
- ^ Robin Seager, "The Rise of Pompey," The Cambridge Ancient History (Cambridge University Press, 1994), p. 221.
- ^ Gruen, The Last Generation, p. 20.
- ^ Seager, "The Rise of Pompey," pp. 221–222.
- ^ Gruen, The Last Generation, p. 21.
- ^ Seager, "The Rise of Pompey," p. 222.
- ^ T. Corey Brennan, The Praetorship in the Roman Republic, vol. 2 (Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 489, citing Plutarch.
- ^ Seager, "The Rise of Pompey," pp. 222–233.
- ^ Strauss, pp. 190–194, 204
- ^ Fields, pp. 79–81
- ^ Losch, p. 56, n. 1
- ^ Philippians 2:5–8.
- ^ Christopher J. Furhmann, Policing the Roman Empire: Soldiers, Administration, and Public Order (Oxford University Press, 2012), p. 24.
- ^ Naerebout and Singor, "De Oudheid", p. 296
- ^ Furhmann, Policing the Roman Empire, p. 24.
- ^ Bradley, "Roman Slavery and Roman Law," p. 488, citing Digest 29.5.1.27 (Ulpian).
- ^ Bradley, "Slave Kingdoms and Slave Rebellions," p. 443; "Roman Slavery and Roman Law," p. 488 on the number executed.
- ^ A legal principle reaching "the level of the preposterous" notes Keith R. Bradley, "Roman Slavery and Roman Law, Historical Reflections / Réflexions Historiques 15:3 (1988), p. 489.
- ^ Bradley, Keith Resisting Slavery in Ancient Rome
- ^ Christopher J. Furhmann, Policing the Roman Empire: Soldiers, Administration, and Public Order (Oxford University Press, 2012), p. 24.
- ^ Fuhrmann, Policing the Roman Empire, p. 28, note 28.
- ^ Bradley, "Animalizing the Slave," p. 124.
- ^ Susan Treggiari, "The Freedmen of Cicero," Greece & Rome 16.2 (1969), p. 196, citing Cicero Ad familiares 13.77.3 and 5.9–11.
- ^ Westerman, Slave Systems, p. 75.
- ^ Westerman, Slave Systems, pp. 76–77, citing Plutarch, Cato the Elder 21.3, and Cato, On agriculture 56.
- ^ Westerman, Slave Systems, p. 105, citing Galen, De animi morbis 4 (Kühn 5:17).
- ^ Westerman, Slave Systems, p. 105, Script. Hist. Aug., Commodus 1.9.
- ^ Bradley, "Roman Slavery and Roman Law," pp. 491–492.
- ^ W. Mark Gustafson, "Inscripta in Fronte: Penal Tattooing in Late Antiquity," Classical Antiquity 16:1 (1997), p. 79.
- ^ Bradley, "Roman Slavery and Roman Law," pp. 492–493.
- ^ Fuhrmann, Policing the Roman Empire, p. 29.
- ^ Gustafson, "Inscripta in Fronte," p. 79.
- ^ C. P. Jones, "Stigma: Tattooing and Branding in Graeco-Roman Antiquity," Journal of Roman Studies 77 (1987), p. 155.
- ^ Jones, "Stigma," pp. 139–140, 147.
- ^ Deborah Kamen, "A Corpus of Inscriptions: Representing Slave Marks in Antiquity," Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 55 (2010), p. 101.
- ^ Such as FUR for "thief"; Gustafson, "Inscripta in Fronte," p. 93.
- ^ Kamen, "A Corpus of Inscriptions," p. 104, citing Martial, 2.29.9–10 and Libanius 25.3.
- ^ Maylor, The Poison King, pp. 20–21.
- ^ Jones, "Stigma," p. 143.
- ^ Jones, "Stigma," p. 154–155.
- ^ Kamen, "A Corpus of Inscriptions," pp. 96–97, 99/
- ^ Fuhrmann,Policing the Roman Empire, pp. 29–30, for the word "humiliating".
- ^ Kamen, "A Corpus of Inscriptions," p. 101.
- ^ Jennifer Trimble, "The Zoninus Collar and the Archaeology of Roman Slavery," American Journal of Archaeology 120:3 (2016), pp. 447–448, 459. Some collars have been lost after being documented in the early modern era.
- ^ Trimble, "The Zoninus Collar," p. 448.
- ^ Trimble, "The Zoninus Collar," pp. 457–458.
- ^ Trimble, "The Zoninus Collar," p. 460.
- ^ Trimble, "The Zoninus Collar," p. 459.
- ^ Trimble, "The Zoninus Collar," pp. 455–456. The owners range in rank from a linen manufacturer to a consul.
- ^ Trimble, "The Zoninus Collar," pp. 460–461.
- ^ Kamen, "A Corpus of Inscriptions," p. 101: Fugi, tene me | cum revocu|veris me d(omino) m(eo) | Zonino accipis | solidum (CIL 15.7194).
- ^ Michael P. Speidel, "The Suicide of Decebalus on the Tropaeum of Adamklissi," Revue Archéologique 1 (1971), pp. 75-78.
- ^ Bradley, Slavery and Society at Rome (Cambridge University Press, 1994), pp. 44, 111.
- ^ Keith Bradley, ‘On Captives under the Principate,” Phoenix 58:3/4 (2004), p. 314, citing Cassius Dio 77.14.2.
- ^ Bradley, Slavery and Society, p. 122.
- ^ Bradley, Slavery and Society, p. 111, citing Plutarch, Cato the Elder 10.5.
- ^ Bradley, Slavery and Society, pp. 111–112, citing CIL 13.7070.
- ^ Bradley, Slavery and Society, p. 112., citing Digest 21.1.17.4 (Vivianus), 21.1.17.6 (Caelius), and 21.1.43.4 (Paulus).
- ^ Bradley, "The Early Development of Roman Slavery," pp. 2–3.
- ^ a b Bradley (1994), p. 18
- ^ Bradley, "The Early Development of Roman Slavery," pp. 2–3, noting the existence of archaeological evidence.
- ^ Bradley, "The Early Development of Roman Slavery," p. 3.
- ^ Plutarch, Moralia 267D (Quaestiones Romanae 16).
- ^ Angela N. Parker, "One Womanist's View of Racial Reconciliation in Galatians," Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion, 34:2 (2018), p. 36, citing Jennifer Glancy, Slavery in Early Christiantiy (Fortress 2006), p. 23.
- ^ Richard P. Saller, "Symbols of Gender and Status Hierarchies in the Roman Household," in Women and Slaves in Greco-Roman Culture (Routledge, 1998; Taylor & Francis, 2005), p. 90.
- ^ Plutarch, Roman Questions 100
- ^ Saller, "Symbols of Gender and Status Hierarchies," p. 91.
- ^ Fanny Dolansky, "Reconsidering the Matronalia and Women's Rites," Classical World 104:2 (2011), pp. 197, 201–204 (and especially n. 40), citing Solinus 1.35; Macrobius, Saturnalia 1.12.7; Ioannes Lydus, De mensibus 3.22, 4.22. On social theory, Dolansky cites C. Grignon, "Commensality and Social Morphology: An Essay of Typology," in Food, Drink, and Identity, ed.P. Scholliers (Oxford 2001), pp. 23–33, and Seneca, Epistle 47.14.
- ^ Servius, in his note to Aeneid 8.564, citing Varro.
- ^ Peter F. Dorcey, The Cult of Silvanus: A Study in Roman Folk Religion (Brill, 1992), p. 109, citing Livy, 22.1.18.
- ^ H.S. Versnel, "Saturnus and the Saturnalia," in Inconsistencies in Greek and Roman Religion: Transition and Reversal in Myth and Ritual (Brill, 1993, 1994), p. 147
- ^ Dolansky (2010), p. 492
- ^ Seneca, Epistulae 47.14
- ^ Barton (1993), p. 498
- ^ Dolansky (2010), p. 484
- ^ Macrobius, Saturnalia 1.24.22–23
- ^ Mary Beard, J.A. North, and S.R.F. Price, Religions of Rome: A Sourcebook (Cambridge University Press, 1998), vol. 2, p. 124.
- ^ Horace, Satires 2.7.4
- ^ Hans-Friedrich Mueller, "Saturn", in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome (Oxford University Press, 2010), pp. 221,222.
- ^ Horace, Satires, Book 2, poems 3 and 7
- ^ Catherine Keane, Figuring Genre in Roman Satire (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 90
- ^ Maria Plaza, The Function of Humour in Roman Verse Satire: Laughing and Lying (Oxford University Press, 2006), pp. 298–300 et passim.
- ^ Barton (1993), passim
- ^ The calendar of Polemius Silvius is the only one to record the holiday.
- ^ William Warde Fowler, The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic (London, 1908), p. 176.
- ^ Plutarch, Life of Camillus 33, as well as Silvius.
- ^ By Macrobius, Saturnalia 1.11.36
- ^ Jennifer A. Glancy, Slavery in Early Christianity (Oxford University Press, 2002; First Fortress Press, 2006), p. 27
- ^ K.R. Bradley, "On the Roman Slave Supply and Slavebreeding," in Classical Slavery (Frank Cass Publishers, 1987, 1999, 2003), p. 63.
- ^ These were the Potitia and the Pinaria gentes; Rüpke, Religion of the Romans, p. 26.
- ^ Jörg Rüpke, Religion of the Romans (Polity Press, 2007, originally published in German 2001), p. 227, citing Festus, p. 354 L2 = p. 58 M.
- ^ Marietta Horster, "Living on Religion: Professionals and Personnel", in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), pp. 332–334.
- ^ Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 128, citing Strabo 12.535, 537.
- ^ Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 128, citing Strabo 12.557, 558, 559.
- ^ Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 128, citing Strabo 12.567.
- ^ Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 128.
- ^ Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 128, citing Strabo 12.558 on the chief priest of Ma at Comana.
- ^ Clauss (2001), pp. 33, 37–39
- ^ Mariana Egri, Matthew M. McCarty, Aurel Rustoiu, and Constantin Inel, "A New Mithraic Community at Apulum (Alba Iulia, Romania)" Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 205 (2018), pp. 268–276. The other two are dedicated to Mithraic torch-bearers (p. 272).
- ^ Egri et al., "A New Mithraic Community," pp. 269–270.
- ^ Andrew Fear, Mithras (Routledge 2022), p. 40 et passim.
- ^ Clauss (2001), pp. 40, 143
- ^ Catholic Encyclopedia, s.v. "Slavery and Christianity."
- ^ Ramsay MacMullen, “The Epigraphic Habit in the Roman Empire,” American Journal of Philology 103:3 (1982), pp. 233–246, pp. 238–239 on epitaphs in particular.
- ^ Elizabeth A. Meyer, “Explaining the Epigraphic Habit in the Roman Empire: The Evidence of Epitaphs,” Journal of Roman Studies 80 (1990), p. 75.
- ^ David Noy, review of Roman Death by V.M. Hope, Classical Review 60:2 (2010), p. 535.
- ^ Valerie Hope, “Fighting for Identity: The Funerary Commemoration of Italian Gladiators,” Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 73 (2000), p. 108, citing G. Zimmer, Römische Berufdarstellungen (Berlin 1982); see also the tabulation made by Richard P. Saller and Brent D. Shaw, “Tombstones and Roman Family Relations in the Principate: Civilians, Soldiers and Slaves,” Journal of Roman Studies 74 (1984), pp. 147–156, which includes commemorative inscriptions by masters for slaves.
- ^ “Grave Relief of Silversmith, feat. Kenneth Lapatin” (audio file), Getty Museum Collection, https://www.getty.edu/art/collection/object/104034.
- ^ Funerary Relief of Publius Curtilius Agatho, Silversmith, feat. Kenneth Lapatin (audio file), Getty Museum Collection, https://www.getty.edu/art/collection/object/104034
- ^ Dale B. Martin, “Slavery and the Ancient Jewish Family,” The Jewish Family in Antiquity (Brown Judaic Studies 2020), p. 114.
- ^ Hope, “Fighting for Identity," pp. 101–102.
- ^ MacMullen, "The Unromanized in Rome," p. 53.
- ^ MacMullen, "The Unromanized in Rome," p. 53, citing Horace, Satire 1.8.
- ^ Meyer, “Explaining the Epigraphic Habit,” p. 80, citing Pliny, Epistle 8.16.
- ^ Isaac, Benjamin (2006). "Proto-Racism in Graeco-Roman Antiquity". World Archaeology. 38 (1): 32–47. doi:10.1080/00438240500509819. S2CID 145069116.
- ^ Westermann, William Linn (1942). "Industrial Slavery in Roman Italy". The Journal of Economic History. 2 (2): 161. doi:10.1017/S0022050700052542. S2CID 154607039.
- ^ Hopkins, Keith (1993). "Novel Evidence for Roman Slavery". Past & Present. 138: 6, 8. doi:10.1093/past/138.1.3.
- ^ Fuhrmann, Policing the Roman Empire, p. 27, n. 27.
- ^ Susan Treggiari, "The Freedmen of Cicero," Greece & Rome 16.2 (1969), p. 195, citing Cicero's Paradoxa Stoicorum (46 BC), 5.33 ff.
- ^ Ephesians 6:5–9
- ^ Colossians 4:1
- ^ 1Corinthians 7:21.
- ^ "1 Peter 2:18 Slaves, in reverent fear of God submit yourselves to your masters, not only to those who are good and considerate, but also to those who are harsh". biblehub.com. Retrieved 2016-02-17.
- ^ Westerman, Slavery Systems, p. 150.
- ^ Western, Slave Systems, p. 150, and especially notes 5–7 for further discussion.
- ^ Westerman, Slave Systems, p. 151, citing Lactantius, Institutiones divinae 5.10.
- ^ Augustine of Hippo. ""Chapter 15 - Of the Liberty Proper to Man's Nature, and the Servitude Introduced by Sin—A Servitude in Which the Man Whose Will is Wicked is the Slave of His Own Lust, Though He is Free So Far as Regards Other Men." in City of God (Book 19 )". Retrieved 11 February 2016.
God ... did not intend that His rational creature, who was made in His image, should have dominion over anything but the irrational creation - not man over man, but man over the beasts ... the condition of slavery is the result of sin ... It [slave] is a name .. introduced by sin and not by nature ... circumstances [under which men could become slaves] could never have arisen save [i.e. except] through sin ... The prime cause, then, of slavery is sin, which brings man under the dominion of his fellow [sinful man] ... But by nature, as God first created us, no one is the slave either of man or of sin.
- ^ Elaine Fantham, “Stuprum: Public Attitudes and Penalties for Sexual Offences in Republican Rome,” in Roman Readings: Roman Responses to Greek Literature from Plautus to Statius and Quintilian (Walter de Gruyter, 2011), pp. 118, 128.
- ^ Neil W. Bernstein, "Adoptees and Exposed Children in Roman Declamation: Commodification, Luxury, and the Threat of Violence," Classical Philology 104:3 (2009), 338–339.
- ^ Martha C. Nussbaum, "The Incomplete Feminism of Musonius Rufus, Platonist, Stoic, and Roman" in The Sleep of Reason: Erotic Experience and Sexual Ethics in Ancient Greece and Rome (University of Chicago Press, 2002), pp. 307–308. See also Holt Parker, "Free Women and Male Slaves, or Mandingo meets the Roman Empire," in Fear of Slaves—Fear of Enslavement in the Ancient Mediterranean (Presses universitaires de Franche-Comté, 2007), p. 286, observing that having sex with one's own slaves was considered only "one step up from masturbation".
- ^ Kyle Harper, Slavery in the Late Roman Mediterranean, AD 275–425 (Cambridge University Press, 2011), pp. 294–295.
- ^ Eva Cantarella, Bisexuality in the Ancient World (Yale University Press, 1992), p. 103.
- ^ Harris, “Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade,” p. 120, n. 33, citing Columella 1.8.19 on feminae fecundiores.
- ^ Harris, “Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade,” pp. 120, 135 (n. 36).
- ^ John R. Clarke, Looking at Lovemaking: Constructions of Sexuality in Roman Art 100 B.C.–A.D. 250 (University of California Press, 2001), pp. 99–101.
- ^ Harper, Slavery, pp. 203–204.
- ^ Clarke, Looking at Lovemaking, p. 93.
- ^ Parker, "Free Women and Male Slaves," p. 283.
- ^ Harris, “Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade,” p. 138, n. 90, citing Martial 9.59.1–6.
- ^ Nussbaum, The Sleep of Reason, p. 308, citing Seneca, Epistula 47; see also Bernstein, “Adoptees,” p. 339, n. 32, citing Seneca, Controversia 10.4.17 on the cruelty of castrating male slaves to prolong their appeal to pederasts.
- ^ Ra'anan Abusch, "Circumcision and Castration under Roman Law in the Early Empire," in The Covenant of Circumcision: New Perspectives on an Ancient Jewish Rite (Brandeis University Press, 2003), pp. 77–78.
- ^ Thomas A. J. McGinn, Prostitution, Sexuality and the Law in Ancient Rome (Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 288ff., especially p. 297 on manumission.
- ^ Cantarella, Bisexuality, p. 103.
- ^ McGinn, Prostitution, p. 314; see also Jane F. Gardner, Women in Roman Law and Society (Indiana University Press, 1991), p. 119.
- ^ a b Segal, Erich. Roman Laughter: The Comedy of Plautus. New York: Oxford University Press, 1968. (99–169).
- ^ Stewart, Roberta (2012). Plautus and Roman Slavery. Malden, MA: Oxford.
- ^ Terence (2002). Andria. Bristol Classical Press.
Bibliography Edit
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enslavement was much the commonest fate of foundlings […] Exposure was well integrated into the Roman economy, for it contributed on a substantial scale to the supply of slaves
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Further reading Edit
- Bosworth, A. B. 2002. "Vespasian and the Slave Trade." Classical Quarterly 52:350–357.
- Bradley, Keith. 1994. Slavery and Society at Rome. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
- Fitzgerald, William. 2000. Slavery and the Roman Literary Imagination. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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