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Wikipedia

Human trafficking

May 17, 2023

For the television show, see Human Trafficking (miniseries). For other uses, see Human trafficking (disambiguation).

Human trafficking is the trade of humans for the purpose of forced labour, sexual slavery, or commercial sexual exploitation.[1] Human trafficking can occur within a country or trans-nationally. It is distinct from people smuggling, which is characterized by the consent of the person being smuggled.

Human trafficking is condemned as a violation of human rights by international conventions, but legal protection varies globally. The practice has millions of victims around the world.

Definition

 
World Day Against Trafficking In Persons

The UN Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children, which has 117 signatories and 173 parties,[2] defines human trafficking as:

(a) [...] the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons, by means of threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation or the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labour or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal, manipulation or implantation of organs;

(b) The consent of a victim of trafficking in persons to the intended exploitation set forth in sub-paragraph (a) of this article shall be irrelevant where any of the means set forth in subparagraph (a) have been used;
(c) The recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of a child for the purpose of exploitation shall be considered "trafficking in persons" even if this does not involve any of the means set forth in sub-paragraph (a) of this article;

(d) "Child" shall mean any person under eighteen years of age.[3]

Prevalence

There are many different estimates of the number of victims of human trafficking.

According to scholar Kevin Bales, author of Disposable People (2004), estimates that as many as 27 million people are in "modern-day slavery" across the globe.[4][5] In 2008, the U.S. Department of State estimates that 2 million children are exploited by the global commercial sex trade.[6] In the same year, a study classified 12.3 million individuals worldwide as "forced laborers, bonded laborers or sex-trafficking victims". Approximately 1.39 million of these individuals worked as commercial sex slaves, with women and girls comprising 98% of that 1.36 million.[7]

According to the International Labour Organization (ILO), forced labour alone (one component of human trafficking) generates an estimated $150 billion in profits per annum as of 2014.[8] In 2012, the ILO estimated that 21 million victims are trapped in modern-day slavery. Of these, 14.2 million (68%) were exploited for labour, 4.5 million (22%) were sexually exploited, and 2.2 million (10%) were exploited in state-imposed forced labour.[9] The following is the breakdown of profits by sector: $99 billion from commercial sexual exploitation; $34 billion in construction, manufacturing, mining and utilities; $9 billion in agriculture, including forestry and fishing; $8 billion is saved annually by private households that employ domestic workers under conditions of forced labour. Although only 19% of victims are trafficked for sexual exploitation, it makes up 66% of the global earnings of human trafficking.[10] The average annual profits generated by each woman in forced sexual servitude ($100,000) is estimated to be six times more than the average profits generated by each trafficking victim worldwide ($21,800).[10]

Human trafficking is the third largest crime industry in the world, behind drug dealing and arms trafficking, and is the fastest-growing activity of trans-national criminal organizations.[11][12][13]

In January 2019, UNODC published the new edition of the Global Report on Trafficking in Persons.[14] The Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 2018 has revealed that 30 per cent of all victims of human trafficking officially detected globally between 2016 and 2018 are children, up 3 per cent from the period 2007–2010. The Global Report recorded victims of 137 different nationalities detected in 142 countries between 2012 and 2016, during which period, 500 different flows were identified. Around half of all trafficking took place within the same region with 42 per cent occurring within national borders. One exception is the Middle East, where most detected victims are East and South Asians. Trafficking victims from East Asia have been detected in more than 64 countries, making them the most geographically dispersed group around the world. There are significant regional differences in the detected forms of exploitation. Countries in Africa and in Asia generally intercept more cases of trafficking for forced labour, while sexual exploitation is somewhat more frequently found in Europe and in the Americas. Additionally, trafficking for organ removal was detected in 16 countries around the world. The Report raises concerns about low conviction rates – 16 per cent of reporting countries did not record a single conviction for trafficking in persons between 2007 and 2010.[2] Significant progress has been made in terms of legislation: as of 2012, 83% of countries had a law criminalizing trafficking in persons in accordance with the Protocol.[15]

Overview

 
A schematic showing global human trafficking from countries of origin and destination
Countries of origin
  • Yellow: Moderate number of persons
  • Orange: High number of persons
  • Red: Very high number of persons

Countries of destination
  • Light blue: High number of persons
  • Blue: Very high number of persons
Countries shown in grey are neither countries of origin nor countries of destination
 
A world map showing the legislative situation in different countries to prevent female trafficking as of 2009 according to WomanStats Project.
  • Gray: No data
  • Green: Trafficking is illegal and rare
  • Yellow: Trafficking is illegal but problems still exist
  • Purple: Trafficking is illegal but is still practiced
  • Blue: Trafficking is limitedly illegal and is practiced
  • Red: Trafficking is not illegal and is commonly practiced[16]

According to the 2018 and 2019 editions of the annual Trafficking in Persons Reports issued by the U.S. State Department: Belarus, Iran, Russia, and Turkmenistan remain among the worst countries when it comes to providing protection against human trafficking and forced labour.[17][18]

In 2015, the National Human Trafficking Resource Center hotline received reports of more than 5,000 potential human trafficking cases in the U.S. Children comprise up to one-third of all victims, while women make up more than half.[19] Human trafficking is a big business.[clarification needed]

Singapore appears to be a popular destination for human trafficking with women and girls from India, Thailand, the Philippines and China.[20] In November 2019, a couple of Indian nationals were convicted for exploiting migrant women, making it the first conviction in the state.[21]

Types of trafficking

Trafficking arrangements are sometimes structured as a work contract, but with no or low payment, or on terms which are highly exploitative. They may also be structured as debt bondage, with the victim not being permitted or able to pay off the debt. It may encompass providing a spouse in the context of forced marriage,[22][23][24] or the extraction of organs or tissues,[25][26] including for surrogacy and ova removal.[27]

Trafficking of children

See also: Child harvesting

Trafficking of children involves the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring, or receipt of children for the purpose of exploitation. Commercial sexual exploitation of children can take many forms, including forcing a child into prostitution[28][29] or other forms of sexual activity or child pornography. Child exploitation may also involve forced labour or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude, the removal of organs,[30] illicit international adoption, trafficking for early marriage, recruitment as child soldiers, for use in begging or as athletes (such as child camel jockeys[31] or football trafficking.)[32]

 
Young boy shines the shoes of an elderly man in the park

Child labour is a form of work that may be hazardous to the physical, mental, spiritual, moral, or social development of children and can interfere with their education. According to the International Labour Organization, the global number of children involved in child labour fell during the twelve years to 2012  – it has declined by one third, from 246 million in 2000 to 168 million children in 2012.[33] Sub-Saharan Africa is the region with the highest incidence of child labour, while the largest numbers of child-workers are found in Asia and the Pacific.[33]

IOM statistics indicate that a significant minority (35%) of trafficked persons it assisted in 2011 were less than 18 years of age, which is roughly consistent with estimates from previous years. It was reported in 2010 that Thailand and Brazil were considered to have the worst child sex trafficking records.[34]

Traffickers in children may take advantage of the parents' extreme poverty. Parents may sell children to traffickers in order to pay off debts or gain income, or they may be deceived concerning the prospects of training and a better life for their children. They may sell their children into labour, sex trafficking, or illegal adoptions, although scholars have urged a nuanced understanding and approach to the issue - one that looks at broader socio-economic and political contexts.[35][36][37]

The adoption process, legal and illegal, when abused can sometimes result in cases of trafficking of babies and pregnant women around the world.[38] In David M. Smolin's 2005 papers on child trafficking and adoption scandals between India and the United States,[39][40] he presents the systemic vulnerabilities in the inter-country adoption system that makes adoption scandals predictable.

The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child at Article 34, states, "States Parties undertake to protect the child from all forms of sexual exploitation and sexual abuse".[41] In the European Union, commercial sexual exploitation of children is subject to a directive – Directive 2011/92/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 December 2011 on combating the sexual abuse and sexual exploitation of children and child pornography.[42]

The Hague Convention on Protection of Children and Co-operation in Respect of Intercountry Adoption (or Hague Adoption Convention) is an international convention dealing with international adoption, that aims at preventing child laundering, child trafficking, and other abuses related to international adoption.[43]

The Optional Protocol on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict seeks to prevent forceful recruitment (e.g. by guerrilla forces) of children for use in armed conflicts.[44]

Sex trafficking

Main article: Sex trafficking
 
Warning of Prostitution and Human trafficking in South Korea for G.I. by United States Forces Korea
 
RealStars trafficking model

The International Labour Organization claims that forced labour in the sex industry affects 4.5 million people worldwide.[45] Most victims find themselves in coercive or abusive situations from which escape is both difficult and dangerous.[46]

Trafficking for sexual exploitation was formerly thought of as the organized movement of people, usually women, between countries and within countries for sex work with the use of physical coercion, deception and bondage through forced debt. However, the Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000 (US)[47] does not require movement for the offence. The issue becomes contentious when the element of coercion is removed from the definition to incorporate facilitation of consensual involvement in prostitution. For example, in the United Kingdom, the Sexual Offences Act 2003 incorporated trafficking for sexual exploitation but did not require those committing the offence to use coercion, deception or force, so that it also includes any person who enters the UK to carry out sex work with consent as having been "trafficked".[48] In addition, any minor involved in a commercial sex act in the US while under the age of 18 qualifies as a trafficking victim, even if no force, fraud or coercion is involved, under the definition of "Severe Forms of Trafficking in Persons" in the US Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000.[47][49]

Trafficked women and children are often promised work in the domestic or service industry, but instead are sometimes taken to brothels where they are required to undertake sex work, while their passports and other identification papers are confiscated. They may be beaten or locked up and promised their freedom only after earning – through prostitution – their purchase price, as well as their travel and visa costs.[50][51]

Forced marriage

Main article: Forced marriage

A forced marriage is a marriage where one or both participants are married without their freely given consent.[52] Servile marriage is defined as a marriage involving a person being sold, transferred or inherited into that marriage.[53] According to ECPAT, "Child trafficking for forced marriage is simply another manifestation of trafficking and is not restricted to particular nationalities or countries".[22]

 
Sena from Zambia, who was forced to marry at just 15

Forced marriages have been described as a form of human trafficking in certain situations and certain countries, such as China and its Southeast Asian neighbours from which many women are moved to China, sometimes through promises of work, and forced to marry Chinese men. Ethnographic research with women from Myanmar[54] and Cambodia[55] found that many women eventually get used to their life in China and prefer it to the one they had in their home countries. Furthermore, legal scholars have noted that transnational marriage brokering was never intended to be considered trafficking by the drafters of the Palermo Protocol.[56]

Labour trafficking

Further information: Unfree labour

Labour trafficking is the movement of persons for the purpose of forced labour and services.[57] It may involve bonded labour, involuntary servitude, domestic servitude, and child labour.[57] Labour trafficking happens most often within the domain of domestic work, agriculture, construction, manufacturing and entertainment; and migrant workers and indigenous people are especially at risk of becoming victims.[45] People smuggling is a related practice which is characterized by the consent of the person being smuggled.[58] Smuggling situations can descend into human trafficking through coercion and exploitation.[59] They are known to traffic people for the exploitation of their labour, for example, as transporters.[60]

Bonded labour, or debt bondage, is probably the least known form of labour trafficking today, and yet is the most widely used method of enslaving people. Victims become "bonded" when their labour, the labour which they themselves hired and the tangible goods they have bought are demanded as a means of repayment for a loan or service whose terms and conditions have not been defined, or where the value of the victims' services is not applied toward the liquidation of the debt. Generally, the value of their work is greater than the original sum of money "borrowed".[61]

Forced labour is a situation in which people are forced to work against their will under the threat of violence or some other form of punishment; their freedom is restricted and a degree of ownership is exerted. Men and women are at risk of being trafficked for unskilled work, which globally generates US$31 billion according to the International Labour Organization.[62] Forms of forced labour can include domestic servitude, agricultural labour, sweatshop factory labour, janitorial, food service and other service industry labour, and begging.[61] Some of the products that can be produced by forced labour are: clothing, cocoa, bricks, coffee, cotton, and gold.[63]

 
Convicts leased to harvest timber

Organ trade

Main article: Organ theft

Trafficking in organs is a form of human trafficking. It can take different forms. In some cases, the victim is compelled into giving up an organ. In other cases, the victim agrees to sell an organ in exchange of money/goods, but is not paid (or paid less). Finally, the victim may have the organ removed without the victim's knowledge (usually when the victim is treated for another medical problem/illness – real or orchestrated problem/illness). Migrant workers, homeless persons, and illiterate persons are particularly vulnerable to this form of exploitation. Trafficking of organs is an organized crime, involving several offenders:[64]

  • the recruiter
  • the transporter
  • the medical staff
  • the middlemen/contractors
  • the buyers

Trafficking for organ trade often seeks kidneys. Trafficking in organs is a lucrative trade because in many countries the waiting lists for patients who need transplants are very long.[65] Some solutions have been proposed to help counter it.

Fraud factory

Main article: Fraud factory

Most fraud factories operate in Southeast Asia (including Cambodia, Myanmar, or Laos), and are typically run by a Chinese criminal gang. Fraud factory operators lure foreign nationals to scam hubs, where they are forced to scam internet users around the world into fraudulently buying cryptocurrencies or withdrawing cash, via social media and online dating apps. Trafficking victims' passports are confiscated, and they are threatened with organ theft, organ harvesting or forced prostitution if they do not scam sufficiently successfully.

Causes

A complex set of factors fuel human trafficking, including poverty, unemployment, social norms that discriminate against women, institutional challenges, and globalization.

Poverty and globalization

Poverty and lack of educational and economic opportunities in one's hometown may lead women to voluntarily migrate and then be involuntarily trafficked into sex work.[66][67] As globalization opened up national borders to greater exchange of goods and capital, labour migration also increased. Less wealthy countries have fewer options for livable wages. The economic impact of globalization pushes people to make conscious decisions to migrate and be vulnerable to trafficking. Gender inequalities that hinder women from participating in the formal sector also push women into informal sectors.[68]

Long waiting lists for organs in the United States and Europe created a thriving international black market. Traffickers harvest organs, particularly kidneys, to sell for large profit and often without properly caring for or compensating the victims. Victims often come from poor, rural communities and see few other options than to sell organs illegally.[69] Wealthy countries' inability to meet organ demand within their own borders perpetuates trafficking. By reforming their internal donation system, Iran achieved a surplus of legal donors and provides an instructive model for eliminating both organ trafficking and shortage.[70]

Globalization and the rise of internet technology has also facilitated human trafficking. Online classified sites and social networks such as Craigslist have been under intense scrutiny for being used by clients and traffickers in facilitating sex trafficking and sex work in general. Traffickers use explicit sites (e.g. Craigslist, Backpage, MySpace) to market, recruit, sell, and exploit women. Facebook, Twitter, and other social networking sites are suspected for similar uses. According to the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children, online classified ads reduce the risks of finding prospective customers.[71] Studies have identified the Internet as the single biggest facilitator of commercial sex trade, although it is difficult to ascertain which women advertised are sex trafficking victims.[72] Traffickers and pimps use the Internet to recruit minors, since Internet and social networking sites usage have significantly increased especially among children.[73] At the same time, critical scholars have questioned the extent of the role of internet in human trafficking and have cautioned against sweeping generalisations and urged more research.[74]

While globalization fostered new technologies that may exacerbate human trafficking, technology can also be used to assist law enforcement and anti-trafficking efforts. A study was done on online classified ads surrounding the Super Bowl. A number of reports have noticed increase in sex trafficking during previous years of the Super Bowl.[75] For the 2011 Super Bowl held in Dallas, Texas, the Backpage for Dallas area experienced a 136% increase on the number of posts in the Adult section on Super Bowl Sunday; in contrast, Sundays typically have the lowest number of posts. Researchers analyzed the most salient terms in these online ads, which suggested that many escorts were traveling across state lines to Dallas specifically for the Super Bowl, and found that the self-reported ages were higher than usual. Twitter was another social networking platform studied for detecting sex trafficking. Digital tools can be used to narrow the pool of sex trafficking cases, albeit imperfectly and with uncertainty.[76]

However, there has been no evidence found actually linking the Super Bowl – or any other sporting event – to increased trafficking or prostitution.[77][78][79]

Political and institutional

Corrupt and inadequately trained police officers can be complicit in human trafficking and/or commit violence against sex workers, including trafficked victims.[80] Human traffickers often incorporate abuse of the legal system into their control tactics by making threats of deportation[81] or by turning victims into the authorities, possibly resulting in the incarceration of the victims.[82]

Anti-trafficking agendas from different groups can also be in conflict. In the movement for sex workers' rights, sex workers establish unions and organizations, which seek to eliminate trafficking. However, law enforcement also seek to eliminate trafficking and to prosecute trafficking, and their work may infringe on sex workers' rights and agency. For example, the sex workers union DMSC (Durbar Mahila Samanwaya Committee) in Kolkata, India, has "self-regulatory boards" (SRBs) that patrol the red light districts and assist girls who are underage or trafficked. The union opposes police intervention and interferes with police efforts to bring minor girls out of brothels, on the grounds that police action might have an adverse impact on non-trafficked sex workers, especially because police officers in many places are corrupt and violent in their operations.[80] A recent seven-country research by the Global Alliance Against Traffic in Women found that sex worker organizations around the world assist women in the industry who are trafficked and should be considered as allies in anti-trafficking work.[83]

Criminalization of sex work also may foster the underground market for sex work and enable sex trafficking.[66]

Difficult political situations such as civil war and social conflict are push factors for migration and trafficking. A study reported that larger countries, the richest and the poorest countries, and countries with restricted press freedom are likely to have higher levels of trafficking. Specifically, being in a transitional economy made a country nineteen times more likely to be ranked in the highest trafficking category, and gender inequalities in a country's labour market also correlated with higher trafficking rates.[84]

The annual U.S. State Department Trafficking in Persons Report for 2013 cited Russia and China as among the worst offenders in combatting forced labour and sex trafficking, raising the possibility of US sanctions being leveraged against these countries.[85] In 1997 alone as many as 175,000 young women from Russia, the former Soviet Union and Eastern and Central Europe were sold as commodities in the sex markets of the developed countries in Europe and the Americas.[86]

Commercial demand for sex

Abolitionists who seek an end to sex trafficking explain the nature of sex trafficking as an economic supply and demand model. In this model, male demand for prostitutes leads to a market of sex work, which, in turn, fosters sex trafficking, the illegal trade and coercion of people into sex work, and pimps and traffickers become 'distributors' who supply people to be sexually exploited. The demand for sex trafficking can also be facilitated by some pimps' and traffickers' desire for women whom they can exploit as workers because they do not require wages, safe working circumstances, and agency in choosing customers.[66] The link between demand for paid sex and incidences of human trafficking, as well as the "demand for trafficking" discourse more broadly, have never been proven empirically and have been seriously questioned by a number of scholars and organisations.[87][88][89][90] To this day, the idea that trafficking is fuelled by demand remains poorly conceptualised and based on assumptions rather than evidence.

Vulnerable groups

The U.S. State Department's annual Trafficking in Persons Report for 2016 stated that "refugees and migrants; lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and intersex (LGBTI) individuals; religious minorities; people with disabilities; and those who are stateless" are the most at-risk for human trafficking.[91] Additionally, in its Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, the United Nations notes that women and children are particularly at risk for human trafficking and revictimization. The Protocol requires State Parties not only to enact measures that prevent human trafficking but also to address the factors that exacerbate women and children's vulnerability, including "poverty, underdevelopment and lack of equal opportunity."[92]

Consequences

Human trafficking victims face threats of violence from many sources, including customers, pimps, brothel owners, madams, traffickers, and corrupt local law enforcement officials and even from family members who do not want to have any link with them.[93] Because of their potentially complicated legal status and their potential language barriers, the arrest or fear of arrest creates stress and other emotional trauma for trafficking victims.[94][95] The challenges facing victims often continue after their removal from coercive exploitation.[96] In addition to coping with their past traumatic experiences, former trafficking victims often experience social alienation in the host and home countries. Stigmatization, social exclusion, and intolerance often make it difficult for former victims to integrate into their host community, or to reintegrate into their former community. Accordingly, one of the central aims of protection assistance, is the promotion of reintegration.[97][98] Too often however, governments and large institutional donors offer little funding to support the provision of assistance and social services to former trafficking victims.[99] As the victims are also pushed into drug trafficking, many of them face criminal sanctions also.[100]

Psychological

Short-term impact

The use of coercion by perpetrators and traffickers involves the use of extreme control. Perpetrators expose the victim to high amounts of psychological stress induced by threats, fear, and physical and emotional violence. Tactics of coercion are reportedly used in three phases of trafficking: recruitment, initiation, and indoctrination.[101] During the initiation phase, traffickers use foot-in-the-door techniques of persuasion to lead their victims into various trafficking industries. This manipulation creates an environment where the victim becomes completely dependent upon the authority of the trafficker.[101] Traffickers take advantage of family dysfunction, homelessness, and history of childhood abuse to psychologically manipulate women and children into the trafficking industry.[102]

 
A distressed women with her mouth taped shut.

One form of psychological coercion particularly common in cases of sex trafficking and forced prostitution is Stockholm syndrome. Many women entering into the sex trafficking industry are minors who have already experienced prior sexual abuse.[103] Traffickers take advantage of young girls by luring them into the business through force and coercion, but more often through false promises of love, security, and protection. This form of coercion works to recruit and initiate the victim into the life of a sex worker, while also reinforcing a "trauma bond", also known as Stockholm syndrome. Stockholm syndrome is a psychological response where the victim becomes attached to his or her perpetrator.[103][104]

The goal of a trafficker is to turn a human being into a slave. To do this, perpetrators employ tactics that can lead to the psychological consequence of learned helplessness for the victims, where they sense that they no longer have any autonomy or control over their lives.[102] Traffickers may hold their victims captive, expose them to large amounts of alcohol or use drugs, keep them in isolation, or withhold food or sleep.[102] During this time the victim often begins to feel the onset of depression, guilt and self-blame, anger and rage, and sleep disturbances, PTSD, numbing, and extreme stress. Under these pressures, the victim can fall into the hopeless mental state of learned helplessness.[101][105][106]

For victims specifically trafficked for the purpose of forced prostitution and sexual slavery, initiation into the trade is almost always characterized by violence.[102] Traffickers employ practices of sexual abuse, torture, brainwashing, repeated rape and physical assault until the victim submits to his or her fate as a sexual slave. Victims experience verbal threats, social isolation, and intimidation before they accept their role as a prostitute.[107]

For those enslaved in situations of forced labor, learned helplessness can also manifest itself through the trauma of living as a slave. Reports indicate that captivity for the person and financial gain of their owners adds additional psychological trauma. Victims are often cut off from all forms of social connection, as isolation allows the perpetrator to destroy the victim's sense of self and increase his or her dependence on the perpetrator.[101]

Long-term impact

Human trafficking victims may experience complex trauma as a result of repeated cases of intimate relationship trauma over long periods of time including, but not limited to, sexual abuse, domestic violence, forced prostitution, or gang rape. Complex trauma involves multifaceted conditions of depression, anxiety, self-hatred, dissociation, substance abuse, self-destructive behaviors, medical and somatic concerns, despair, and revictimization. Psychology researchers report that, although similar to post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), complex trauma is more expansive in diagnosis because of the effects of prolonged trauma.[108]

Victims of sex trafficking often get "branded"[109] by their traffickers or pimps. These tattoos usually consist of bar codes or the trafficker's name or rules. Even if a victim escapes their trafficker's control or gets rescued, these tattoos are painful reminders of their past and result in emotional distress. Removing or covering these tattoos can cost hundreds of dollars.[110][111]

Psychological reviews have shown that the chronic stress experienced by many victims of human trafficking can compromise the immune system.[102] Several studies found that chronic stressors (like trauma or loss) suppressed cellular and humoral immunity.[105] Victims may develop sexually transmitted infections and HIV/AIDS.[112] Perpetrators frequently use substance abuse as a means to control their victims, which leads to compromised health, self-destructive behavior, and long-term physical harm.[113] Furthermore, victims have reported treatment similar to torture, where their bodies are broken and beaten into submission.[113][114]

Children are especially vulnerable to these developmental and psychological consequences of trafficking due to their age. In order to gain complete control of the child, traffickers often destroy the physical and mental health of the children through persistent physical and emotional abuse.[115] Victims experience severe trauma on a daily basis that devastates the healthy development of self-concept, self-worth, biological integrity, and cognitive functioning.[116] Children who grow up in environments of constant exploitation frequently exhibit antisocial behavior, over-sexualized behavior, self-harm, aggression, distrust of adults, dissociative disorders, substance abuse, complex trauma, and attention deficit disorders.[104][115][116][117] Stockholm syndrome is also a common problem for trafficked girls, which can hinder them from both trying to escape, and moving forward in psychological recovery programs.[114]

Although 98% of the sex trade is composed of women and girls,[114] there is an effort to gather empirical evidence about the psychological impact of abuse common in sex trafficking upon young boys.[116][118] Boys often will experience forms of post-traumatic stress disorder, but also additional stressors of social stigma of homosexuality associated with sexual abuse for boys, and externalization of blame, increased anger, and desire for revenge.

HIV/AIDS

 
Estimated prevalence in % of HIV among young adults (15–49) per country as of 2011.[119]

Sex trafficking increases the risk of contracting HIV/AIDS.[120] The HIV/AIDS pandemic can be both a cause and a consequence of sex trafficking. On one hand, children are sought by customers because they are perceived as being less likely to be HIV positive, and this demand leads to child sex trafficking. On the other hand, trafficking leads to the proliferation of HIV, because victims cannot protect themselves properly and get infected.[121]

Economic impacts

Organised criminal groups invest in a wide range of legitimate businesses to conceal and launder the profits earned from human trafficking. Fair competition may be undermined when human trafficking victims are exploited for cheap labour, driving down production costs, thereby indirectly causing a negative economic imbalance.[122] This can also depress wages for legal labourers.[123] According to the United Nations, human trafficking can be closely integrated into legal businesses, including the tourism industry, agriculture, hotel and airline operations, and leisure and entertainment businesses.[124][125] Related crimes associated with human trafficking reportedly include fraud, extortion, racketeering, money laundering, bribery, drug trafficking, arms trafficking, car theft, migrant smuggling, kidnapping, document forgery, and gambling.[126][125]

Other economic costs that have been associated with human trafficking include lost labour productivity, human resources, taxable revenues, and migrant remittances, as well as unlawfully redistributed wealth and heightened law enforcement and public health costs.[125]

Countermeasures

 
The Blue Campaign collaborates with law enforcement, government, non-governmental, and private organizations to end human trafficking and protect victims.[127]

In 2009, the International Organization for Migration launched the Buy Responsibly awareness raising campaign against trafficking.[128] The United Nations Organization also takes an active part in the anti-trafficking effort, particularly through the Sustainable Development Goal 5.[129] In early 2016, the Permanent Mission of the Republic of Kazakhstan to the United Nations held an interactive discussion entitled "Responding to Current Challenges in Trafficking in Human Beings".[130]

Anti-trafficking awareness and fundraising campaigns constitute a significant portion of anti-trafficking initiatives.[131] The 24 Hour Race is one such initiative that focuses on increasing awareness among high school students in Asia.[132] The Blue Campaign is another anti-trafficking initiative that works with the U.S. Department of Homeland Security to combat human trafficking and bring freedom to exploited victims.[133] However, critical commentators have pointed out that initiatives such as these aimed at "raising awareness" do little, if anything, to actually reduce instances of trafficking.[134][135][136]

The 3P Anti-trafficking Policy Index measured the effectiveness of government policies to fight human trafficking based on an evaluation of policy requirements prescribed by the United Nations Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children (2000).[137]

In 2014, for the first time in history major leaders of many religions, Buddhist, Anglican, Catholic, and Orthodox Christian, Hindu, Jewish, and Muslim, met to sign a shared commitment against modern-day slavery; the declaration they signed calls for the elimination of slavery and human trafficking by 2020.[138] The signatories were: Pope Francis, Mātā Amṛtānandamayī (also known as Amma), Bhikkhuni Thich Nu Chân Không (representing Zen Master Thích Nhất Hạnh), Datuk K Sri Dhammaratana, Chief High Priest of Malaysia, Rabbi Abraham Skorka, Rabbi David Rosen, Abbas Abdalla Abbas Soliman, Undersecretary of State of Al Azhar Alsharif (representing Mohamed Ahmed El-Tayeb, Grand Imam of Al-Azhar), Grand Ayatollah Mohammad Taqi al-Modarresi, Sheikh Naziyah Razzaq Jaafar, Special advisor of Grand Ayatollah (representing Grand Ayatollah Sheikh Basheer Hussain al Najafi), Sheikh Omar Abboud, Justin Welby, Archbishop of Canterbury, and Metropolitan Emmanuel of France (representing Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew).[138]

The UN Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) has further assisted many non-governmental organizations in their fight against human trafficking. The 2006 armed conflict in Lebanon, which saw 300,000 domestic workers from Sri Lanka, Ethiopia and the Philippines jobless and targets of traffickers, led to an emergency information campaign with NGO Caritas Migrant to raise human-trafficking awareness. Additionally, an April 2006 report, Trafficking in Persons: Global Patterns, helped to identify 127 countries of origin, 98 transit countries and 137 destination countries for human trafficking. To date, it is the second most frequently downloaded UNODC report. Continuing into 2007, UNODC supported initiatives like the Community Vigilance project along the border between India and Nepal, as well as provided subsidy for NGO trafficking prevention campaigns in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia.[139]

UNODC efforts to motivate action launched the Blue Heart Campaign Against Human Trafficking on 6 March 2009,[140] which Mexico launched its own national version of in April 2010.[141][142] The campaign encourages people to show solidarity with human trafficking victims by wearing the blue heart, similar to how wearing the red ribbon promotes transnational HIV/AIDS awareness.[143] On 4 November 2010, U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon launched the United Nations Voluntary Trust Fund for Victims of Trafficking in Persons to provide humanitarian, legal and financial aid to victims of human trafficking with the aim of increasing the number of those rescued and supported, and broadening the extent of assistance they receive.[144]

In 2013, the United Nations designated July 30 as the World Day against Trafficking in Persons.[145]

There are a number of international treaties concerning human trafficking:

United States

Main article: Human trafficking in the United States

The enactment of the Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act (TVPA) in 2000 by the United States Congress and its subsequent re-authorizations established the Department of State's Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, which engages with foreign governments to fight human trafficking and publishes a Trafficking in Persons Report annually. The Trafficking in Persons Report evaluates each country's progress in anti-trafficking and places each country onto one of three tiers based on their governments' efforts to comply with the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking as prescribed by the TVPA.[146] However, questions have been raised by critical anti-trafficking scholars about the basis of this tier system, its heavy focus on compliance with state department protocols, its overreliance on prosecutions and convictions as success in combating trafficking,[56] its use to serve US political and economic interests and lack of systemic analysis,[147] and its failure to consider "risk" and the likely prevalence of trafficking when rating the efforts of diverse countries.[148]

 
Findings of the legislative framework in place in different countries to prevent/reduce human trafficking. The findings are from the 2019 Department of State Trafficking in Persons Report[149]
  • Blue – Tier 1
  • Yellow – Tier 2
  • Orange – Tier 2½
  • Red – Tier 3
  • Brown – Tier special

In 2002, Derek Ellerman and Katherine Chon founded a non-government organization called the Polaris Project to combat human trafficking. In 2007, Polaris instituted the National Human Trafficking Resource Center (NHTRC) where[150] callers can report tips and receive information on human trafficking.[151] [152]

In 2007, the U.S. Senate designated 11 January as a National Day of Human Trafficking Awareness in an effort to raise consciousness about this global, national and local issue.[153] In 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2013, President Barack Obama proclaimed January as National Slavery and Human Trafficking Prevention Month.[154]

In 2014, DARPA funded the Memex program with the explicit goal of combating human trafficking via domain-specific searches.[155] The advanced search capacity, including its ability to reach into the dark web allows for prosecution of human trafficking cases, which can be difficult to prosecute due to the fraudulent tactics of the human traffickers.[156]

Council of Europe

On 3 May 2005, the Committee of Ministers adopted the Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings (CETS No. 197).[157] The convention was opened for signature in Warsaw on 16 May 2005 on the occasion of the 3rd Summit of Heads of State and Government of the Council of Europe. On 24 October 2007, the convention received its tenth ratification thereby triggering the process whereby it entered into force on 1 February 2008. As of June 2017, the convention has been ratified by 47 states (including Belarus, a non-Council of Europe state), with Russia being the only state to not have ratified (nor signed).[158] The convention is not restricted to Council of Europe member states; non-member states and the European Union also have the possibility of becoming Party to the convention. In 2013, Belarus became the first non-Council of Europe member state to accede to the convention.[159][160]

Complementary protection against sex trafficking of children is ensured through the Council of Europe Convention on the Protection of Children against Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse (signed in Lanzarote, 25 October 2007). The Convention entered into force on 1 July 2010.[161] As of November 2020, the convention has been ratified by 47 states, with Ireland having signed but not yet ratified.[162]

In addition, the European Court of Human Rights of the Council of Europe in Strasbourg has passed judgments concerning trafficking in human beings which violated obligations under the European Convention on Human Rights: Siliadin v. France,[163] judgment of 26 July 2005, and Rantsev v. Cyprus and Russia,[164] judgment of 7 January 2010.

Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe

Main article: Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe

In 2003, the OSCE established an anti-trafficking mechanism aimed at raising public awareness of the problem and building the political will within participating states to tackle it effectively.

The OSCE actions against human trafficking are coordinated by the Office of the Special Representative for Combating the Traffic of Human Beings.[165] In January 2010, Maria Grazia Giammarinaro became the OSCE Special Representative and Co-ordinator for Combating Trafficking in Human Beings.

India

 
Preity Zinta at ACT (Against Child Trafficking)

In India, the trafficking in persons for commercial sexual exploitation, forced labour, forced marriages and domestic servitude is considered an organized crime. The Government of India applies the Criminal Law (Amendment) Act 2013, active from 3 February 2013, as well as Section 370 and 370A IPC, which defines human trafficking and "provides stringent punishment for human trafficking; trafficking of children for exploitation in any form including physical exploitation; or any form of sexual exploitation, slavery, servitude or the forced removal of organs." Additionally, a Regional Task Force implements the SAARC Convention on the prevention of Trafficking in Women and Children.[166]

Shri R.P.N. Singh, India's Minister of State for Home Affairs, launched a government web portal, the Anti Human Trafficking Portal, on 20 February 2014. The official statement explained that the objective of the on-line resource is for the "sharing of information across all stakeholders, States/UTs [Union Territories] and civil society organizations for effective implementation of Anti Human Trafficking measures."[166] The key aims of the portal are:

  • Aid in the tracking of cases with inter-state ramifications.
  • Provide comprehensive information on legislation, statistics, court judgements, United Nations Conventions, details of trafficked people and traffickers and rescue success stories.
  • Provide connection to "Trackchild", the National Portal on Missing Children that is operational in many states.[166]

Also on 20 February, the Indian government announced the implementation of a Comprehensive Scheme that involves the establishment of Integrated Anti Human Trafficking Units (AHTUs) in 335 vulnerable police districts throughout India, as well as capacity building that includes training for police, prosecutors and judiciary. As of the announcement, 225 Integrated AHTUs had been made operational, while 100 more AHTUs were proposed for the forthcoming financial year.[166]

Singapore

As of 2016, Singapore acceded to the United Nations Trafficking in Persons Protocol and affirmed on 28 September 2015, the commitment to combat people trafficking, especially women and children.[167]

According to the U.S. State Department's 2018 Trafficking in Persons Report, Singapore is making significant efforts to eliminate human trafficking as it imposes strong sentences against convicted traffickers, improve freedom of movement for adult victims and increases migrant workers' awareness of their rights. However, it still does not meet the minimum standards as numerous migrant workers' work conditions indicate labor trafficking, but conviction is not secured.[168]

Criticism

Both the public debate on human trafficking and the actions undertaken by the anti-human traffickers have been criticized by numerous scholars and experts, including Zbigniew Dumienski, a former research analyst at the S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies.[169] The criticism touches upon statistics and data on human trafficking, the concept itself, and anti-trafficking measures.

Problems with statistics and data

According to a former Wall Street Journal columnist, figures used in human trafficking estimates rarely have identifiable sources or transparent methodologies behind them and in most (if not all) instances, they are mere guesses.[170][171][172] Dumienski and Laura Agustin argue that this is a result of the fact that it is impossible to produce reliable statistics on a phenomenon happening in the shadow economy.[169][173] According to a UNESCO Bangkok researcher, statistics on human trafficking may be unreliable due to overrepresentation of sex trafficking. As an example, he cites flaws in Thai statistics, which discount men from their official numbers because by law they cannot be considered trafficking victims due to their gender.[174]

A 2012 article in the International Communication Gazette examined the effect of two communication theories (agenda-building and agenda-setting) on media coverage on human trafficking in the United States and Britain. The article analyzed four newspapers, including the Guardian and the Washington Post, and categorized the content into various categories. Overall, the article found that sex trafficking was the most reported form of human trafficking by the newspapers that were analyzed (p. 154). Many of the other stories on trafficking were non-specific.[175]

Problems with the concept

According to Zbigniew Dumienski, the very concept of human trafficking is murky and misleading.[169] It has been argued that while human trafficking is commonly seen as a monolithic crime, in reality it may be an act of illegal migration that involves various different actions: some of them may be criminal or abusive, but others often involve consent and are legal.[169] Laura Agustin argues that not everything that might seem abusive or coercive is considered as such by the migrant. For instance, she states that: "would-be travellers commonly seek help from intermediaries who sell information, services and documents. When travellers cannot afford to buy these outright, they go into debt".[173] Dumienski says that while these debts might indeed be on very harsh conditions, they are usually incurred on a voluntary basis.[169] British scholar Julia O'Connell Davidson has advanced the same argument.[176] Furthermore, anti-trafficking actors often conflate clandestine migratory movements or voluntary sex work with forms of exploitation covered in human trafficking definitions, ignoring the fact that a migratory movement is not a requirement for human trafficking victimization.

The critics of the current approaches to trafficking say that a lot of the violence and exploitation faced by irregular migrants derives precisely from the fact that their migration and their work are illegal and not primarily because of trafficking.[177]

The international Save the Children organization also stated: "The issue, however, gets mired in controversy and confusion when prostitution too is considered as a violation of the basic human rights of both adult women and minors, and equal to sexual exploitation per se … trafficking and prostitution become conflated with each other … On account of the historical conflation of trafficking and prostitution both legally and in popular understanding, an overwhelming degree of effort and interventions of anti-trafficking groups are concentrated on trafficking into prostitution."[178]

Claudia Aradau of the Open University claims that NGOs involved in anti-sex trafficking often employ "politics of pity", which promotes that all trafficked victims are completely guiltless, fully coerced into sex work, and experience the same degrees of physical suffering. One critic identifies two strategies that gain pity: denunciation – attributing all violence and suffering to the perpetrator – and sentiment – exclusively depicting the suffering of the women. NGOs' use of images of unidentifiable women suffering physically help display sex trafficking scenarios as all the same. She points out that not all trafficking victims have been abducted, abused physically, and repeatedly raped, unlike popular portrayals.[179] A study of the relationships between individuals who are defined as sex-trafficking victims by virtue of having a procurer (especially minors) concluded that assumptions about victimization and human trafficking do not do justice to the complex and often mutual relationships that exist between sex workers and their third parties.[180]

Another common critique is that the concept of human trafficking focuses only on the most extreme forms of exploitation and diverts attention and resources away from more "everyday" but arguably much more widespread forms of exploitation and abuse that occur as part of the normal functioning of the economy. As Quirk, Robinson, and Thibos write, "It is not always possible to sharply separate human trafficking from everyday abuses, and problems arise when the former is singled out while the latter is pushed to the margins."[181] O'Connell Davidson too argues that the lines between the crimes of human trafficking/modern slavery and the legally sanctioned exploitation of migrants (such as lower wages or restrictions on freedom of movement and employment) is blurry.[176]

Problems with anti-trafficking measures

Groups like Amnesty International have been critical of insufficient or ineffective government measures to tackle human trafficking. Criticism includes a lack of understanding of human trafficking issues, poor identification of victims and a lack of resources for the key pillars of anti-trafficking – identification, protection, prosecution and prevention. For example, Amnesty International has called the UK government's new anti-trafficking measures "not fit for purpose".[182]

Collateral damage

Rights groups have called attention to the negative impact that the implementation of anti-trafficking measures have on the human rights of various groups, especially migrants, sex workers, and trafficked persons themselves. The Global Alliance Against Traffic in Women drew attention to this "collateral damage" in 2007.[183] These negative impacts include various restrictions on women's right to migrate and undertake certain jobs,[184][185] suspicion and harassment at international borders of women travelling alone,[186] raids at sex work venues and detention, fines and harassment of sex workers (see below section on the use of raids), assistance to trafficked persons made conditional on their cooperation with law enforcement and forced confinement of trafficked persons in shelters, and many more.[183]

Victim identification and protection in the UK

In the UK, human trafficking cases are processed by the same officials to simultaneously determine the refugee and trafficking victim statuses of a person. However, criteria for qualifying as a refugee and a trafficking victim differ and they have different needs for staying in a country. A person may need assistance as a trafficking victim but their circumstances may not necessarily meet the threshold for asylum. In this case, not being granted refugee status affects their status as a trafficked victim and thus their ability to receive help. Reviews of the statistics from the National Referral Mechanism (NRM), a tool created by the Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings (CoE Convention) to help states effectively identify and care for trafficking victims, found that positive decisions for non-European Union citizens were much lower than that of EU and UK citizens. According to data on the NRM decisions from April 2009 to April 2011, an average of 82.8% of UK and EU citizens were conclusively accepted as victims while an average of only 45.9% of non-EU citizens were granted the same status.[187] High refusal rates of non-EU people point to possible stereotypes and biases about regions and countries of origin which may hinder anti-trafficking efforts, since the asylum system is linked to the trafficking victim protection system.

Laura Agustin has suggested that, in some cases, "anti-traffickers" ascribe victim status to immigrants who have made conscious and rational decisions to cross the borders knowing they will be selling sex and who do not consider themselves to be victims.[188] There have been instances in which the alleged victims of trafficking have actually refused to be rescued[189] or run away from the anti-trafficking shelters.[190][191]

In a 2013 lawsuit,[192] the Court of Appeal gave guidance to prosecuting authorities on the prosecution of victims of human trafficking, and held that the convictions of three Vietnamese children and one Ugandan woman ought to be quashed as the proceedings amounted to an abuse of the court's process.[193] The case was reported by the BBC[194] and one of the victims was interviewed by Channel 4.[195]

In 2021, the European Court of Human Rights ordered the British government to compensate two victims of child trafficking for their later arrest and conviction of drug crimes.[196]

Law enforcement and the use of raids

In the U.S., services and protections for trafficked victims are related to cooperation with law enforcement. Legal procedures that involve prosecution and specifically, raids, are thus the most common anti-trafficking measures. Raids are conducted by law enforcement and by private actors and many organizations (sometimes in cooperation with law enforcement). Law enforcement perceive some benefits from raids, including the ability to locate and identify witnesses for legal processes, to dismantle "criminal networks", and to rescue victims from abuse.[94]

The problems against anti-trafficking raids are related to the problem of the trafficking concept itself, as raids' purpose of fighting sex trafficking may be conflated with fighting prostitution. The Trafficking Victims Protection Re-authorization Act of 2005 (TVPRA) gives state and local law enforcement funding to prosecute customers of commercial sex, therefore some law enforcement agencies make no distinction between prostitution and sex trafficking. One study interviewed women who have experienced law enforcement operations as sex workers and found that during these raids meant to combat human trafficking, none of the women were ever identified as trafficking victims, and only one woman was asked whether she was coerced into sex work. The conflation of trafficking with prostitution, then, does not serve to adequately identify trafficking and help the victims. Raids are also problematic in that the women involved were most likely unclear about who was conducting the raid, what the purpose of the raid was, and what the outcomes of the raid would be.[94][197] Another study found that the majority of women "rescued" in anti-trafficking raids, both voluntary and coerced sex workers, eventually returned to sex work but had amassed huge amounts of debt for legal fees and other costs while they were in detention after the raid and were, overall, in a worse situation than before the raid.[198]

Law enforcement personnel agree that raids can intimidate trafficked persons and render subsequent law enforcement actions unsuccessful. Social workers and attorneys involved in anti-sex trafficking have negative opinions about raids. Service providers report a lack of uniform procedure for identifying trafficking victims after raids. The 26 interviewed service providers stated that local police never referred trafficked persons to them after raids. Law enforcement also often use interrogation methods that intimidate rather than assist potential trafficking victims. Additionally, sex workers sometimes face violence from the police during raids and arrests and in rehabilitation centers.[94]

As raids occur to brothels that may house sex workers as well as sex trafficked victims, raids affect sex workers in general. As clients avoid brothel areas that are raided but do not stop paying for sex, voluntary sex workers will have to interact with customers underground. Underground interactions means that sex workers take greater risks, where as otherwise they would be cooperating with other sex workers and with sex worker organizations to report violence and protect each other. One example of this is with HIV prevention. Sex workers collectives monitor condom use, promote HIV testing, and cares for and monitor the health of HIV positive sex workers. Raids disrupt communal HIV care and prevention efforts, and if HIV positive sex workers are rescued and removed from their community, their treatments are disrupted, furthering the spread of AIDS.[199]

Scholars Aziza Ahmed and Meena Seshu suggest reforms in law enforcement procedures so that raids are last resort, not violent, and are transparent in its purposes and processes. Furthermore, they suggest that since any trafficking victims will probably be in contact with other sex workers first, working with sex workers may be an alternative to the raid and rescue model.[200]

"End Demand" programs

Critics argue that End Demand programs are ineffective in that prostitution is not reduced, "John schools" have little effect on deterrence and portray prostitutes negatively, and conflicts in interest arise between law enforcement and NGO service providers. A study found that Sweden's legal experiment (criminalizing clients of prostitution and providing services to prostitutes who want to exit the industry in order to combat trafficking) did not reduce the number of prostitutes, but instead increased exploitation of sex workers because of the higher risk nature of their work.[citation needed] The same study reported that johns' inclination to buy sex did not change as a result of john schools, and the programs targeted johns who are poor and colored immigrants. Some john schools also intimidate johns into not purchasing sex again by depicting prostitutes as drug addicts, HIV positive, violent, and dangerous, which further marginalizes sex workers. John schools require program fees, and police involvement in NGOs who provide these programs create conflicts of interest especially with money involved.[201][202]

However, according to a 2008 study, the Swedish approach of criminalizing demand has "led to an equality-centered approach that has drawn numerous positive reviews worldwide."[203]

Modern feminist perspectives

There are different feminist perspectives on sex trafficking. The third-wave feminist perspective of sex trafficking seeks to harmonize the dominant and liberal feminist views of sex trafficking. The dominant feminist view focuses on "sexualized domination", which includes issues of pornography, female sex labor in a patriarchal world, rape, and sexual harassment. Dominant feminism emphasizes sex trafficking as forced prostitution and considers the act exploitative. Liberal feminism sees all agents as capable of reason and choice. Liberal feminists support sex workers' rights, and argue that women who voluntarily chose sex work are autonomous. The liberal feminist perspective finds sex trafficking problematic where it overrides consent of individuals.[204][205][206]

Third-wave feminism harmonizes the thoughts that while individuals have rights, overarching inequalities hinder women's capabilities. Third-wave feminism also considers that women who are trafficked and face oppression do not all face the same kinds of oppression. For example, third-wave feminist proponent Shelley Cavalieri identifies oppression and privilege in the intersections of race, class, and gender. Women from low socioeconomic class, generally from the Global South, face inequalities that differ from those of other sex trafficking victims. Therefore, it advocates for catering to individual trafficking victim because sex trafficking is not monolithic, and therefore there is not a one-size-fits-all intervention. This also means allowing individual victims to tell their unique experiences rather than essentializing all trafficking experiences. Lastly, third-wave feminism promotes increasing women's agency both generally and individually, so that they have the opportunity to act on their own behalf.[204][205][206]

Third-wave feminist perspective of sex trafficking is loosely related to Amartya Sen's and Martha Nussbaum's visions of the human capabilities approach to development. It advocates for creating viable alternatives for sex trafficking victims. Nussbaum articulated four concepts to increase trafficking victims' capabilities: education for victims and their children, microcredit and increased employment options, labor unions for low-income women in general, and social groups that connect women to one another.[205]

The clash between the different feminist perspectives on trafficking and sex work was especially evident at the negotiations of the Palermo Protocol. One feminist group, led by the Global Alliance Against Traffic in Women, saw trafficking as the result of globalisation and restrictive labour migration policies, with force, fraud and coercion as its defining features. The other feminist group, led by the Coalition Against Trafficking in Women saw trafficking more narrowly as the result of men's demand for paid sex. Both groups tried to influence the definition of trafficking and other provisions in the Protocol. Eventually, both were only partially successful;[207][208] however, scholars have noted that this rift between feminist organisations led to the extremely weak and voluntary victim protection provisions of the Protocol.[209]

Social norms

According to modern feminists, women and girls are more prone to trafficking also because of social norms that marginalize their value and status in society. By this perspective females face considerable gender discrimination both at home and in school. Stereotypes that women belong at home in the private sphere and that women are less valuable because they do not and are not allowed to contribute to formal employment and monetary gains the same way men do further marginalize women's status relative to men. Some religious beliefs also lead people to believe that the birth of girls are a result of bad karma,[210][211] further cementing the belief that girls are not as valuable as boys. It is generally regarded by feminists that various social norms contribute to women's inferior position and lack of agency and knowledge, thus making them vulnerable to exploitation such as sex trafficking.[212]

See also

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External links

 
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May 17, 2023
human, trafficking, television, show, human, trafficking, miniseries, other, uses, disambiguation, trade, humans, purpose, forced, labour, sexual, slavery, commercial, sexual, exploitation, occur, within, country, trans, nationally, distinct, from, people, smu. For the television show see Human Trafficking miniseries For other uses see Human trafficking disambiguation Human trafficking is the trade of humans for the purpose of forced labour sexual slavery or commercial sexual exploitation 1 Human trafficking can occur within a country or trans nationally It is distinct from people smuggling which is characterized by the consent of the person being smuggled Human trafficking is condemned as a violation of human rights by international conventions but legal protection varies globally The practice has millions of victims around the world Contents 1 Definition 2 Prevalence 3 Overview 4 Types of trafficking 4 1 Trafficking of children 4 2 Sex trafficking 4 3 Forced marriage 4 4 Labour trafficking 4 5 Organ trade 4 6 Fraud factory 5 Causes 5 1 Poverty and globalization 5 2 Political and institutional 5 3 Commercial demand for sex 5 4 Vulnerable groups 6 Consequences 6 1 Psychological 6 1 1 Short term impact 6 1 2 Long term impact 6 2 HIV AIDS 6 3 Economic impacts 7 Countermeasures 7 1 United States 7 2 Council of Europe 7 3 Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe 7 4 India 7 5 Singapore 8 Criticism 8 1 Problems with statistics and data 8 2 Problems with the concept 8 3 Problems with anti trafficking measures 8 3 1 Collateral damage 8 3 2 Victim identification and protection in the UK 8 3 3 Law enforcement and the use of raids 8 3 4 End Demand programs 9 Modern feminist perspectives 9 1 Social norms 10 See also 11 References 12 External linksDefinition Edit World Day Against Trafficking In Persons The UN Protocol to Prevent Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons especially Women and Children which has 117 signatories and 173 parties 2 defines human trafficking as a the recruitment transportation transfer harbouring or receipt of persons by means of threat or use of force or other forms of coercion of abduction of fraud of deception of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person for the purpose of exploitation Exploitation shall include at a minimum the exploitation or the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation forced labour or services slavery or practices similar to slavery servitude or the removal manipulation or implantation of organs b The consent of a victim of trafficking in persons to the intended exploitation set forth in sub paragraph a of this article shall be irrelevant where any of the means set forth in subparagraph a have been used c The recruitment transportation transfer harbouring or receipt of a child for the purpose of exploitation shall be considered trafficking in persons even if this does not involve any of the means set forth in sub paragraph a of this article d Child shall mean any person under eighteen years of age 3 Prevalence EditThere are many different estimates of the number of victims of human trafficking According to scholar Kevin Bales author of Disposable People 2004 estimates that as many as 27 million people are in modern day slavery across the globe 4 5 In 2008 the U S Department of State estimates that 2 million children are exploited by the global commercial sex trade 6 In the same year a study classified 12 3 million individuals worldwide as forced laborers bonded laborers or sex trafficking victims Approximately 1 39 million of these individuals worked as commercial sex slaves with women and girls comprising 98 of that 1 36 million 7 According to the International Labour Organization ILO forced labour alone one component of human trafficking generates an estimated 150 billion in profits per annum as of 2014 8 In 2012 the ILO estimated that 21 million victims are trapped in modern day slavery Of these 14 2 million 68 were exploited for labour 4 5 million 22 were sexually exploited and 2 2 million 10 were exploited in state imposed forced labour 9 The following is the breakdown of profits by sector 99 billion from commercial sexual exploitation 34 billion in construction manufacturing mining and utilities 9 billion in agriculture including forestry and fishing 8 billion is saved annually by private households that employ domestic workers under conditions of forced labour Although only 19 of victims are trafficked for sexual exploitation it makes up 66 of the global earnings of human trafficking 10 The average annual profits generated by each woman in forced sexual servitude 100 000 is estimated to be six times more than the average profits generated by each trafficking victim worldwide 21 800 10 Human trafficking is the third largest crime industry in the world behind drug dealing and arms trafficking and is the fastest growing activity of trans national criminal organizations 11 12 13 In January 2019 UNODC published the new edition of the Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 14 The Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 2018 has revealed that 30 per cent of all victims of human trafficking officially detected globally between 2016 and 2018 are children up 3 per cent from the period 2007 2010 The Global Report recorded victims of 137 different nationalities detected in 142 countries between 2012 and 2016 during which period 500 different flows were identified Around half of all trafficking took place within the same region with 42 per cent occurring within national borders One exception is the Middle East where most detected victims are East and South Asians Trafficking victims from East Asia have been detected in more than 64 countries making them the most geographically dispersed group around the world There are significant regional differences in the detected forms of exploitation Countries in Africa and in Asia generally intercept more cases of trafficking for forced labour while sexual exploitation is somewhat more frequently found in Europe and in the Americas Additionally trafficking for organ removal was detected in 16 countries around the world The Report raises concerns about low conviction rates 16 per cent of reporting countries did not record a single conviction for trafficking in persons between 2007 and 2010 2 Significant progress has been made in terms of legislation as of 2012 83 of countries had a law criminalizing trafficking in persons in accordance with the Protocol 15 Overview Edit A schematic showing global human trafficking from countries of origin and destinationCountries of origin Yellow Moderate number of personsOrange High number of personsRed Very high number of personsCountries of destination Light blue High number of personsBlue Very high number of persons Countries shown in grey are neither countries of origin nor countries of destination A world map showing the legislative situation in different countries to prevent female trafficking as of 2009 update according to WomanStats Project Gray No dataGreen Trafficking is illegal and rareYellow Trafficking is illegal but problems still existPurple Trafficking is illegal but is still practicedBlue Trafficking is limitedly illegal and is practicedRed Trafficking is not illegal and is commonly practiced 16 According to the 2018 and 2019 editions of the annual Trafficking in Persons Reports issued by the U S State Department Belarus Iran Russia and Turkmenistan remain among the worst countries when it comes to providing protection against human trafficking and forced labour 17 18 In 2015 the National Human Trafficking Resource Center hotline received reports of more than 5 000 potential human trafficking cases in the U S Children comprise up to one third of all victims while women make up more than half 19 Human trafficking is a big business clarification needed Singapore appears to be a popular destination for human trafficking with women and girls from India Thailand the Philippines and China 20 In November 2019 a couple of Indian nationals were convicted for exploiting migrant women making it the first conviction in the state 21 Types of trafficking EditTrafficking arrangements are sometimes structured as a work contract but with no or low payment or on terms which are highly exploitative They may also be structured as debt bondage with the victim not being permitted or able to pay off the debt It may encompass providing a spouse in the context of forced marriage 22 23 24 or the extraction of organs or tissues 25 26 including for surrogacy and ova removal 27 Trafficking of children Edit See also Child harvesting Trafficking of children involves the recruitment transportation transfer harboring or receipt of children for the purpose of exploitation Commercial sexual exploitation of children can take many forms including forcing a child into prostitution 28 29 or other forms of sexual activity or child pornography Child exploitation may also involve forced labour or services slavery or practices similar to slavery servitude the removal of organs 30 illicit international adoption trafficking for early marriage recruitment as child soldiers for use in begging or as athletes such as child camel jockeys 31 or football trafficking 32 Young boy shines the shoes of an elderly man in the park Child labour is a form of work that may be hazardous to the physical mental spiritual moral or social development of children and can interfere with their education According to the International Labour Organization the global number of children involved in child labour fell during the twelve years to 2012 it has declined by one third from 246 million in 2000 to 168 million children in 2012 33 Sub Saharan Africa is the region with the highest incidence of child labour while the largest numbers of child workers are found in Asia and the Pacific 33 IOM statistics indicate that a significant minority 35 of trafficked persons it assisted in 2011 were less than 18 years of age which is roughly consistent with estimates from previous years It was reported in 2010 that Thailand and Brazil were considered to have the worst child sex trafficking records 34 Traffickers in children may take advantage of the parents extreme poverty Parents may sell children to traffickers in order to pay off debts or gain income or they may be deceived concerning the prospects of training and a better life for their children They may sell their children into labour sex trafficking or illegal adoptions although scholars have urged a nuanced understanding and approach to the issue one that looks at broader socio economic and political contexts 35 36 37 The adoption process legal and illegal when abused can sometimes result in cases of trafficking of babies and pregnant women around the world 38 In David M Smolin s 2005 papers on child trafficking and adoption scandals between India and the United States 39 40 he presents the systemic vulnerabilities in the inter country adoption system that makes adoption scandals predictable The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child at Article 34 states States Parties undertake to protect the child from all forms of sexual exploitation and sexual abuse 41 In the European Union commercial sexual exploitation of children is subject to a directive Directive 2011 92 EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 December 2011 on combating the sexual abuse and sexual exploitation of children and child pornography 42 The Hague Convention on Protection of Children and Co operation in Respect of Intercountry Adoption or Hague Adoption Convention is an international convention dealing with international adoption that aims at preventing child laundering child trafficking and other abuses related to international adoption 43 The Optional Protocol on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict seeks to prevent forceful recruitment e g by guerrilla forces of children for use in armed conflicts 44 Sex trafficking Edit Main article Sex trafficking Warning of Prostitution and Human trafficking in South Korea for G I by United States Forces Korea RealStars trafficking model The International Labour Organization claims that forced labour in the sex industry affects 4 5 million people worldwide 45 Most victims find themselves in coercive or abusive situations from which escape is both difficult and dangerous 46 Trafficking for sexual exploitation was formerly thought of as the organized movement of people usually women between countries and within countries for sex work with the use of physical coercion deception and bondage through forced debt However the Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000 US 47 does not require movement for the offence The issue becomes contentious when the element of coercion is removed from the definition to incorporate facilitation of consensual involvement in prostitution For example in the United Kingdom the Sexual Offences Act 2003 incorporated trafficking for sexual exploitation but did not require those committing the offence to use coercion deception or force so that it also includes any person who enters the UK to carry out sex work with consent as having been trafficked 48 In addition any minor involved in a commercial sex act in the US while under the age of 18 qualifies as a trafficking victim even if no force fraud or coercion is involved under the definition of Severe Forms of Trafficking in Persons in the US Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000 47 49 Trafficked women and children are often promised work in the domestic or service industry but instead are sometimes taken to brothels where they are required to undertake sex work while their passports and other identification papers are confiscated They may be beaten or locked up and promised their freedom only after earning through prostitution their purchase price as well as their travel and visa costs 50 51 Forced marriage Edit Main article Forced marriage A forced marriage is a marriage where one or both participants are married without their freely given consent 52 Servile marriage is defined as a marriage involving a person being sold transferred or inherited into that marriage 53 According to ECPAT Child trafficking for forced marriage is simply another manifestation of trafficking and is not restricted to particular nationalities or countries 22 Sena from Zambia who was forced to marry at just 15 Forced marriages have been described as a form of human trafficking in certain situations and certain countries such as China and its Southeast Asian neighbours from which many women are moved to China sometimes through promises of work and forced to marry Chinese men Ethnographic research with women from Myanmar 54 and Cambodia 55 found that many women eventually get used to their life in China and prefer it to the one they had in their home countries Furthermore legal scholars have noted that transnational marriage brokering was never intended to be considered trafficking by the drafters of the Palermo Protocol 56 Labour trafficking Edit Further information Unfree labour Labour trafficking is the movement of persons for the purpose of forced labour and services 57 It may involve bonded labour involuntary servitude domestic servitude and child labour 57 Labour trafficking happens most often within the domain of domestic work agriculture construction manufacturing and entertainment and migrant workers and indigenous people are especially at risk of becoming victims 45 People smuggling is a related practice which is characterized by the consent of the person being smuggled 58 Smuggling situations can descend into human trafficking through coercion and exploitation 59 They are known to traffic people for the exploitation of their labour for example as transporters 60 Bonded labour or debt bondage is probably the least known form of labour trafficking today and yet is the most widely used method of enslaving people Victims become bonded when their labour the labour which they themselves hired and the tangible goods they have bought are demanded as a means of repayment for a loan or service whose terms and conditions have not been defined or where the value of the victims services is not applied toward the liquidation of the debt Generally the value of their work is greater than the original sum of money borrowed 61 Forced labour is a situation in which people are forced to work against their will under the threat of violence or some other form of punishment their freedom is restricted and a degree of ownership is exerted Men and women are at risk of being trafficked for unskilled work which globally generates US 31 billion according to the International Labour Organization 62 Forms of forced labour can include domestic servitude agricultural labour sweatshop factory labour janitorial food service and other service industry labour and begging 61 Some of the products that can be produced by forced labour are clothing cocoa bricks coffee cotton and gold 63 Convicts leased to harvest timber Organ trade Edit Main article Organ theft Trafficking in organs is a form of human trafficking It can take different forms In some cases the victim is compelled into giving up an organ In other cases the victim agrees to sell an organ in exchange of money goods but is not paid or paid less Finally the victim may have the organ removed without the victim s knowledge usually when the victim is treated for another medical problem illness real or orchestrated problem illness Migrant workers homeless persons and illiterate persons are particularly vulnerable to this form of exploitation Trafficking of organs is an organized crime involving several offenders 64 the recruiter the transporter the medical staff the middlemen contractors the buyersTrafficking for organ trade often seeks kidneys Trafficking in organs is a lucrative trade because in many countries the waiting lists for patients who need transplants are very long 65 Some solutions have been proposed to help counter it Fraud factory Edit Main article Fraud factory Most fraud factories operate in Southeast Asia including Cambodia Myanmar or Laos and are typically run by a Chinese criminal gang Fraud factory operators lure foreign nationals to scam hubs where they are forced to scam internet users around the world into fraudulently buying cryptocurrencies or withdrawing cash via social media and online dating apps Trafficking victims passports are confiscated and they are threatened with organ theft organ harvesting or forced prostitution if they do not scam sufficiently successfully Causes EditA complex set of factors fuel human trafficking including poverty unemployment social norms that discriminate against women institutional challenges and globalization Poverty and globalization Edit Poverty and lack of educational and economic opportunities in one s hometown may lead women to voluntarily migrate and then be involuntarily trafficked into sex work 66 67 As globalization opened up national borders to greater exchange of goods and capital labour migration also increased Less wealthy countries have fewer options for livable wages The economic impact of globalization pushes people to make conscious decisions to migrate and be vulnerable to trafficking Gender inequalities that hinder women from participating in the formal sector also push women into informal sectors 68 Long waiting lists for organs in the United States and Europe created a thriving international black market Traffickers harvest organs particularly kidneys to sell for large profit and often without properly caring for or compensating the victims Victims often come from poor rural communities and see few other options than to sell organs illegally 69 Wealthy countries inability to meet organ demand within their own borders perpetuates trafficking By reforming their internal donation system Iran achieved a surplus of legal donors and provides an instructive model for eliminating both organ trafficking and shortage 70 Globalization and the rise of internet technology has also facilitated human trafficking Online classified sites and social networks such as Craigslist have been under intense scrutiny for being used by clients and traffickers in facilitating sex trafficking and sex work in general Traffickers use explicit sites e g Craigslist Backpage MySpace to market recruit sell and exploit women Facebook Twitter and other social networking sites are suspected for similar uses According to the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children online classified ads reduce the risks of finding prospective customers 71 Studies have identified the Internet as the single biggest facilitator of commercial sex trade although it is difficult to ascertain which women advertised are sex trafficking victims 72 Traffickers and pimps use the Internet to recruit minors since Internet and social networking sites usage have significantly increased especially among children 73 At the same time critical scholars have questioned the extent of the role of internet in human trafficking and have cautioned against sweeping generalisations and urged more research 74 While globalization fostered new technologies that may exacerbate human trafficking technology can also be used to assist law enforcement and anti trafficking efforts A study was done on online classified ads surrounding the Super Bowl A number of reports have noticed increase in sex trafficking during previous years of the Super Bowl 75 For the 2011 Super Bowl held in Dallas Texas the Backpage for Dallas area experienced a 136 increase on the number of posts in the Adult section on Super Bowl Sunday in contrast Sundays typically have the lowest number of posts Researchers analyzed the most salient terms in these online ads which suggested that many escorts were traveling across state lines to Dallas specifically for the Super Bowl and found that the self reported ages were higher than usual Twitter was another social networking platform studied for detecting sex trafficking Digital tools can be used to narrow the pool of sex trafficking cases albeit imperfectly and with uncertainty 76 However there has been no evidence found actually linking the Super Bowl or any other sporting event to increased trafficking or prostitution 77 78 79 Political and institutional Edit Corrupt and inadequately trained police officers can be complicit in human trafficking and or commit violence against sex workers including trafficked victims 80 Human traffickers often incorporate abuse of the legal system into their control tactics by making threats of deportation 81 or by turning victims into the authorities possibly resulting in the incarceration of the victims 82 Anti trafficking agendas from different groups can also be in conflict In the movement for sex workers rights sex workers establish unions and organizations which seek to eliminate trafficking However law enforcement also seek to eliminate trafficking and to prosecute trafficking and their work may infringe on sex workers rights and agency For example the sex workers union DMSC Durbar Mahila Samanwaya Committee in Kolkata India has self regulatory boards SRBs that patrol the red light districts and assist girls who are underage or trafficked The union opposes police intervention and interferes with police efforts to bring minor girls out of brothels on the grounds that police action might have an adverse impact on non trafficked sex workers especially because police officers in many places are corrupt and violent in their operations 80 A recent seven country research by the Global Alliance Against Traffic in Women found that sex worker organizations around the world assist women in the industry who are trafficked and should be considered as allies in anti trafficking work 83 Criminalization of sex work also may foster the underground market for sex work and enable sex trafficking 66 Difficult political situations such as civil war and social conflict are push factors for migration and trafficking A study reported that larger countries the richest and the poorest countries and countries with restricted press freedom are likely to have higher levels of trafficking Specifically being in a transitional economy made a country nineteen times more likely to be ranked in the highest trafficking category and gender inequalities in a country s labour market also correlated with higher trafficking rates 84 The annual U S State Department Trafficking in Persons Report for 2013 cited Russia and China as among the worst offenders in combatting forced labour and sex trafficking raising the possibility of US sanctions being leveraged against these countries 85 In 1997 alone as many as 175 000 young women from Russia the former Soviet Union and Eastern and Central Europe were sold as commodities in the sex markets of the developed countries in Europe and the Americas 86 Commercial demand for sex Edit Abolitionists who seek an end to sex trafficking explain the nature of sex trafficking as an economic supply and demand model In this model male demand for prostitutes leads to a market of sex work which in turn fosters sex trafficking the illegal trade and coercion of people into sex work and pimps and traffickers become distributors who supply people to be sexually exploited The demand for sex trafficking can also be facilitated by some pimps and traffickers desire for women whom they can exploit as workers because they do not require wages safe working circumstances and agency in choosing customers 66 The link between demand for paid sex and incidences of human trafficking as well as the demand for trafficking discourse more broadly have never been proven empirically and have been seriously questioned by a number of scholars and organisations 87 88 89 90 To this day the idea that trafficking is fuelled by demand remains poorly conceptualised and based on assumptions rather than evidence Vulnerable groups Edit The U S State Department s annual Trafficking in Persons Report for 2016 stated that refugees and migrants lesbian gay bisexual transgender and intersex LGBTI individuals religious minorities people with disabilities and those who are stateless are the most at risk for human trafficking 91 Additionally in its Protocol to Prevent Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons Especially Women and Children the United Nations notes that women and children are particularly at risk for human trafficking and revictimization The Protocol requires State Parties not only to enact measures that prevent human trafficking but also to address the factors that exacerbate women and children s vulnerability including poverty underdevelopment and lack of equal opportunity 92 Consequences EditHuman trafficking victims face threats of violence from many sources including customers pimps brothel owners madams traffickers and corrupt local law enforcement officials and even from family members who do not want to have any link with them 93 Because of their potentially complicated legal status and their potential language barriers the arrest or fear of arrest creates stress and other emotional trauma for trafficking victims 94 95 The challenges facing victims often continue after their removal from coercive exploitation 96 In addition to coping with their past traumatic experiences former trafficking victims often experience social alienation in the host and home countries Stigmatization social exclusion and intolerance often make it difficult for former victims to integrate into their host community or to reintegrate into their former community Accordingly one of the central aims of protection assistance is the promotion of reintegration 97 98 Too often however governments and large institutional donors offer little funding to support the provision of assistance and social services to former trafficking victims 99 As the victims are also pushed into drug trafficking many of them face criminal sanctions also 100 Psychological Edit Short term impact Edit The use of coercion by perpetrators and traffickers involves the use of extreme control Perpetrators expose the victim to high amounts of psychological stress induced by threats fear and physical and emotional violence Tactics of coercion are reportedly used in three phases of trafficking recruitment initiation and indoctrination 101 During the initiation phase traffickers use foot in the door techniques of persuasion to lead their victims into various trafficking industries This manipulation creates an environment where the victim becomes completely dependent upon the authority of the trafficker 101 Traffickers take advantage of family dysfunction homelessness and history of childhood abuse to psychologically manipulate women and children into the trafficking industry 102 A distressed women with her mouth taped shut One form of psychological coercion particularly common in cases of sex trafficking and forced prostitution is Stockholm syndrome Many women entering into the sex trafficking industry are minors who have already experienced prior sexual abuse 103 Traffickers take advantage of young girls by luring them into the business through force and coercion but more often through false promises of love security and protection This form of coercion works to recruit and initiate the victim into the life of a sex worker while also reinforcing a trauma bond also known as Stockholm syndrome Stockholm syndrome is a psychological response where the victim becomes attached to his or her perpetrator 103 104 The goal of a trafficker is to turn a human being into a slave To do this perpetrators employ tactics that can lead to the psychological consequence of learned helplessness for the victims where they sense that they no longer have any autonomy or control over their lives 102 Traffickers may hold their victims captive expose them to large amounts of alcohol or use drugs keep them in isolation or withhold food or sleep 102 During this time the victim often begins to feel the onset of depression guilt and self blame anger and rage and sleep disturbances PTSD numbing and extreme stress Under these pressures the victim can fall into the hopeless mental state of learned helplessness 101 105 106 For victims specifically trafficked for the purpose of forced prostitution and sexual slavery initiation into the trade is almost always characterized by violence 102 Traffickers employ practices of sexual abuse torture brainwashing repeated rape and physical assault until the victim submits to his or her fate as a sexual slave Victims experience verbal threats social isolation and intimidation before they accept their role as a prostitute 107 For those enslaved in situations of forced labor learned helplessness can also manifest itself through the trauma of living as a slave Reports indicate that captivity for the person and financial gain of their owners adds additional psychological trauma Victims are often cut off from all forms of social connection as isolation allows the perpetrator to destroy the victim s sense of self and increase his or her dependence on the perpetrator 101 Long term impact Edit Human trafficking victims may experience complex trauma as a result of repeated cases of intimate relationship trauma over long periods of time including but not limited to sexual abuse domestic violence forced prostitution or gang rape Complex trauma involves multifaceted conditions of depression anxiety self hatred dissociation substance abuse self destructive behaviors medical and somatic concerns despair and revictimization Psychology researchers report that although similar to post traumatic stress disorder PTSD complex trauma is more expansive in diagnosis because of the effects of prolonged trauma 108 Victims of sex trafficking often get branded 109 by their traffickers or pimps These tattoos usually consist of bar codes or the trafficker s name or rules Even if a victim escapes their trafficker s control or gets rescued these tattoos are painful reminders of their past and result in emotional distress Removing or covering these tattoos can cost hundreds of dollars 110 111 Psychological reviews have shown that the chronic stress experienced by many victims of human trafficking can compromise the immune system 102 Several studies found that chronic stressors like trauma or loss suppressed cellular and humoral immunity 105 Victims may develop sexually transmitted infections and HIV AIDS 112 Perpetrators frequently use substance abuse as a means to control their victims which leads to compromised health self destructive behavior and long term physical harm 113 Furthermore victims have reported treatment similar to torture where their bodies are broken and beaten into submission 113 114 Children are especially vulnerable to these developmental and psychological consequences of trafficking due to their age In order to gain complete control of the child traffickers often destroy the physical and mental health of the children through persistent physical and emotional abuse 115 Victims experience severe trauma on a daily basis that devastates the healthy development of self concept self worth biological integrity and cognitive functioning 116 Children who grow up in environments of constant exploitation frequently exhibit antisocial behavior over sexualized behavior self harm aggression distrust of adults dissociative disorders substance abuse complex trauma and attention deficit disorders 104 115 116 117 Stockholm syndrome is also a common problem for trafficked girls which can hinder them from both trying to escape and moving forward in psychological recovery programs 114 Although 98 of the sex trade is composed of women and girls 114 there is an effort to gather empirical evidence about the psychological impact of abuse common in sex trafficking upon young boys 116 118 Boys often will experience forms of post traumatic stress disorder but also additional stressors of social stigma of homosexuality associated with sexual abuse for boys and externalization of blame increased anger and desire for revenge HIV AIDS Edit Estimated prevalence in of HIV among young adults 15 49 per country as of 2011 119 No data lt 0 10 0 10 0 5 0 5 1 1 5 5 15 15 50 Sex trafficking increases the risk of contracting HIV AIDS 120 The HIV AIDS pandemic can be both a cause and a consequence of sex trafficking On one hand children are sought by customers because they are perceived as being less likely to be HIV positive and this demand leads to child sex trafficking On the other hand trafficking leads to the proliferation of HIV because victims cannot protect themselves properly and get infected 121 Economic impacts Edit Organised criminal groups invest in a wide range of legitimate businesses to conceal and launder the profits earned from human trafficking Fair competition may be undermined when human trafficking victims are exploited for cheap labour driving down production costs thereby indirectly causing a negative economic imbalance 122 This can also depress wages for legal labourers 123 According to the United Nations human trafficking can be closely integrated into legal businesses including the tourism industry agriculture hotel and airline operations and leisure and entertainment businesses 124 125 Related crimes associated with human trafficking reportedly include fraud extortion racketeering money laundering bribery drug trafficking arms trafficking car theft migrant smuggling kidnapping document forgery and gambling 126 125 Other economic costs that have been associated with human trafficking include lost labour productivity human resources taxable revenues and migrant remittances as well as unlawfully redistributed wealth and heightened law enforcement and public health costs 125 Countermeasures Edit The Blue Campaign collaborates with law enforcement government non governmental and private organizations to end human trafficking and protect victims 127 In 2009 the International Organization for Migration launched the Buy Responsibly awareness raising campaign against trafficking 128 The United Nations Organization also takes an active part in the anti trafficking effort particularly through the Sustainable Development Goal 5 129 In early 2016 the Permanent Mission of the Republic of Kazakhstan to the United Nations held an interactive discussion entitled Responding to Current Challenges in Trafficking in Human Beings 130 Anti trafficking awareness and fundraising campaigns constitute a significant portion of anti trafficking initiatives 131 The 24 Hour Race is one such initiative that focuses on increasing awareness among high school students in Asia 132 The Blue Campaign is another anti trafficking initiative that works with the U S Department of Homeland Security to combat human trafficking and bring freedom to exploited victims 133 However critical commentators have pointed out that initiatives such as these aimed at raising awareness do little if anything to actually reduce instances of trafficking 134 135 136 The 3P Anti trafficking Policy Index measured the effectiveness of government policies to fight human trafficking based on an evaluation of policy requirements prescribed by the United Nations Protocol to Prevent Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons especially Women and Children 2000 137 In 2014 for the first time in history major leaders of many religions Buddhist Anglican Catholic and Orthodox Christian Hindu Jewish and Muslim met to sign a shared commitment against modern day slavery the declaration they signed calls for the elimination of slavery and human trafficking by 2020 138 The signatories were Pope Francis Mata Amṛtanandamayi also known as Amma Bhikkhuni Thich Nu Chan Khong representing Zen Master Thich Nhất Hạnh Datuk K Sri Dhammaratana Chief High Priest of Malaysia Rabbi Abraham Skorka Rabbi David Rosen Abbas Abdalla Abbas Soliman Undersecretary of State of Al Azhar Alsharif representing Mohamed Ahmed El Tayeb Grand Imam of Al Azhar Grand Ayatollah Mohammad Taqi al Modarresi Sheikh Naziyah Razzaq Jaafar Special advisor of Grand Ayatollah representing Grand Ayatollah Sheikh Basheer Hussain al Najafi Sheikh Omar Abboud Justin Welby Archbishop of Canterbury and Metropolitan Emmanuel of France representing Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew 138 The UN Office on Drugs and Crime UNODC has further assisted many non governmental organizations in their fight against human trafficking The 2006 armed conflict in Lebanon which saw 300 000 domestic workers from Sri Lanka Ethiopia and the Philippines jobless and targets of traffickers led to an emergency information campaign with NGO Caritas Migrant to raise human trafficking awareness Additionally an April 2006 report Trafficking in Persons Global Patterns helped to identify 127 countries of origin 98 transit countries and 137 destination countries for human trafficking To date it is the second most frequently downloaded UNODC report Continuing into 2007 UNODC supported initiatives like the Community Vigilance project along the border between India and Nepal as well as provided subsidy for NGO trafficking prevention campaigns in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia 139 UNODC efforts to motivate action launched the Blue Heart Campaign Against Human Trafficking on 6 March 2009 140 which Mexico launched its own national version of in April 2010 141 142 The campaign encourages people to show solidarity with human trafficking victims by wearing the blue heart similar to how wearing the red ribbon promotes transnational HIV AIDS awareness 143 On 4 November 2010 U N Secretary General Ban Ki moon launched the United Nations Voluntary Trust Fund for Victims of Trafficking in Persons to provide humanitarian legal and financial aid to victims of human trafficking with the aim of increasing the number of those rescued and supported and broadening the extent of assistance they receive 144 In 2013 the United Nations designated July 30 as the World Day against Trafficking in Persons 145 There are a number of international treaties concerning human trafficking Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery entered into force in 1957 Protocol to Prevent Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons especially Women and Children Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land Sea and Air Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children Child Prostitution and Child Pornography ILO Forced Labour Convention 1930 No 29 ILO Abolition of Forced Labour Convention 1957 No 105 ILO Minimum Age Convention 1973 No 138 ILO Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention 1999 No 182 Inter American Convention on International Traffic in MinorsUnited States Edit Main article Human trafficking in the United States The enactment of the Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act TVPA in 2000 by the United States Congress and its subsequent re authorizations established the Department of State s Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons which engages with foreign governments to fight human trafficking and publishes a Trafficking in Persons Report annually The Trafficking in Persons Report evaluates each country s progress in anti trafficking and places each country onto one of three tiers based on their governments efforts to comply with the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking as prescribed by the TVPA 146 However questions have been raised by critical anti trafficking scholars about the basis of this tier system its heavy focus on compliance with state department protocols its overreliance on prosecutions and convictions as success in combating trafficking 56 its use to serve US political and economic interests and lack of systemic analysis 147 and its failure to consider risk and the likely prevalence of trafficking when rating the efforts of diverse countries 148 Findings of the legislative framework in place in different countries to prevent reduce human trafficking The findings are from the 2019 Department of State Trafficking in Persons Report 149 Blue Tier 1Yellow Tier 2Orange Tier 2 Red Tier 3Brown Tier special In 2002 Derek Ellerman and Katherine Chon founded a non government organization called the Polaris Project to combat human trafficking In 2007 Polaris instituted the National Human Trafficking Resource Center NHTRC where 150 callers can report tips and receive information on human trafficking 151 152 In 2007 the U S Senate designated 11 January as a National Day of Human Trafficking Awareness in an effort to raise consciousness about this global national and local issue 153 In 2010 2011 2012 and 2013 President Barack Obama proclaimed January as National Slavery and Human Trafficking Prevention Month 154 In 2014 DARPA funded the Memex program with the explicit goal of combating human trafficking via domain specific searches 155 The advanced search capacity including its ability to reach into the dark web allows for prosecution of human trafficking cases which can be difficult to prosecute due to the fraudulent tactics of the human traffickers 156 Council of Europe Edit On 3 May 2005 the Committee of Ministers adopted the Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings CETS No 197 157 The convention was opened for signature in Warsaw on 16 May 2005 on the occasion of the 3rd Summit of Heads of State and Government of the Council of Europe On 24 October 2007 the convention received its tenth ratification thereby triggering the process whereby it entered into force on 1 February 2008 As of June 2017 the convention has been ratified by 47 states including Belarus a non Council of Europe state with Russia being the only state to not have ratified nor signed 158 The convention is not restricted to Council of Europe member states non member states and the European Union also have the possibility of becoming Party to the convention In 2013 Belarus became the first non Council of Europe member state to accede to the convention 159 160 Complementary protection against sex trafficking of children is ensured through the Council of Europe Convention on the Protection of Children against Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse signed in Lanzarote 25 October 2007 The Convention entered into force on 1 July 2010 161 As of November 2020 the convention has been ratified by 47 states with Ireland having signed but not yet ratified 162 In addition the European Court of Human Rights of the Council of Europe in Strasbourg has passed judgments concerning trafficking in human beings which violated obligations under the European Convention on Human Rights Siliadin v France 163 judgment of 26 July 2005 and Rantsev v Cyprus and Russia 164 judgment of 7 January 2010 Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe Edit Main article Organization for Security and Co operation in Europe In 2003 the OSCE established an anti trafficking mechanism aimed at raising public awareness of the problem and building the political will within participating states to tackle it effectively The OSCE actions against human trafficking are coordinated by the Office of the Special Representative for Combating the Traffic of Human Beings 165 In January 2010 Maria Grazia Giammarinaro became the OSCE Special Representative and Co ordinator for Combating Trafficking in Human Beings India Edit Preity Zinta at ACT Against Child Trafficking In India the trafficking in persons for commercial sexual exploitation forced labour forced marriages and domestic servitude is considered an organized crime The Government of India applies the Criminal Law Amendment Act 2013 active from 3 February 2013 as well as Section 370 and 370A IPC which defines human trafficking and provides stringent punishment for human trafficking trafficking of children for exploitation in any form including physical exploitation or any form of sexual exploitation slavery servitude or the forced removal of organs Additionally a Regional Task Force implements the SAARC Convention on the prevention of Trafficking in Women and Children 166 Shri R P N Singh India s Minister of State for Home Affairs launched a government web portal the Anti Human Trafficking Portal on 20 February 2014 The official statement explained that the objective of the on line resource is for the sharing of information across all stakeholders States UTs Union Territories and civil society organizations for effective implementation of Anti Human Trafficking measures 166 The key aims of the portal are Aid in the tracking of cases with inter state ramifications Provide comprehensive information on legislation statistics court judgements United Nations Conventions details of trafficked people and traffickers and rescue success stories Provide connection to Trackchild the National Portal on Missing Children that is operational in many states 166 Also on 20 February the Indian government announced the implementation of a Comprehensive Scheme that involves the establishment of Integrated Anti Human Trafficking Units AHTUs in 335 vulnerable police districts throughout India as well as capacity building that includes training for police prosecutors and judiciary As of the announcement 225 Integrated AHTUs had been made operational while 100 more AHTUs were proposed for the forthcoming financial year 166 Singapore Edit As of 2016 Singapore acceded to the United Nations Trafficking in Persons Protocol and affirmed on 28 September 2015 the commitment to combat people trafficking especially women and children 167 According to the U S State Department s 2018 Trafficking in Persons Report Singapore is making significant efforts to eliminate human trafficking as it imposes strong sentences against convicted traffickers improve freedom of movement for adult victims and increases migrant workers awareness of their rights However it still does not meet the minimum standards as numerous migrant workers work conditions indicate labor trafficking but conviction is not secured 168 Criticism EditBoth the public debate on human trafficking and the actions undertaken by the anti human traffickers have been criticized by numerous scholars and experts including Zbigniew Dumienski a former research analyst at the S Rajaratnam School of International Studies 169 The criticism touches upon statistics and data on human trafficking the concept itself and anti trafficking measures Problems with statistics and data Edit According to a former Wall Street Journal columnist figures used in human trafficking estimates rarely have identifiable sources or transparent methodologies behind them and in most if not all instances they are mere guesses 170 171 172 Dumienski and Laura Agustin argue that this is a result of the fact that it is impossible to produce reliable statistics on a phenomenon happening in the shadow economy 169 173 According to a UNESCO Bangkok researcher statistics on human trafficking may be unreliable due to overrepresentation of sex trafficking As an example he cites flaws in Thai statistics which discount men from their official numbers because by law they cannot be considered trafficking victims due to their gender 174 A 2012 article in the International Communication Gazette examined the effect of two communication theories agenda building and agenda setting on media coverage on human trafficking in the United States and Britain The article analyzed four newspapers including the Guardian and the Washington Post and categorized the content into various categories Overall the article found that sex trafficking was the most reported form of human trafficking by the newspapers that were analyzed p 154 Many of the other stories on trafficking were non specific 175 Problems with the concept Edit According to Zbigniew Dumienski the very concept of human trafficking is murky and misleading 169 It has been argued that while human trafficking is commonly seen as a monolithic crime in reality it may be an act of illegal migration that involves various different actions some of them may be criminal or abusive but others often involve consent and are legal 169 Laura Agustin argues that not everything that might seem abusive or coercive is considered as such by the migrant For instance she states that would be travellers commonly seek help from intermediaries who sell information services and documents When travellers cannot afford to buy these outright they go into debt 173 Dumienski says that while these debts might indeed be on very harsh conditions they are usually incurred on a voluntary basis 169 British scholar Julia O Connell Davidson has advanced the same argument 176 Furthermore anti trafficking actors often conflate clandestine migratory movements or voluntary sex work with forms of exploitation covered in human trafficking definitions ignoring the fact that a migratory movement is not a requirement for human trafficking victimization The critics of the current approaches to trafficking say that a lot of the violence and exploitation faced by irregular migrants derives precisely from the fact that their migration and their work are illegal and not primarily because of trafficking 177 The international Save the Children organization also stated The issue however gets mired in controversy and confusion when prostitution too is considered as a violation of the basic human rights of both adult women and minors and equal to sexual exploitation per se trafficking and prostitution become conflated with each other On account of the historical conflation of trafficking and prostitution both legally and in popular understanding an overwhelming degree of effort and interventions of anti trafficking groups are concentrated on trafficking into prostitution 178 Claudia Aradau of the Open University claims that NGOs involved in anti sex trafficking often employ politics of pity which promotes that all trafficked victims are completely guiltless fully coerced into sex work and experience the same degrees of physical suffering One critic identifies two strategies that gain pity denunciation attributing all violence and suffering to the perpetrator and sentiment exclusively depicting the suffering of the women NGOs use of images of unidentifiable women suffering physically help display sex trafficking scenarios as all the same She points out that not all trafficking victims have been abducted abused physically and repeatedly raped unlike popular portrayals 179 A study of the relationships between individuals who are defined as sex trafficking victims by virtue of having a procurer especially minors concluded that assumptions about victimization and human trafficking do not do justice to the complex and often mutual relationships that exist between sex workers and their third parties 180 Another common critique is that the concept of human trafficking focuses only on the most extreme forms of exploitation and diverts attention and resources away from more everyday but arguably much more widespread forms of exploitation and abuse that occur as part of the normal functioning of the economy As Quirk Robinson and Thibos write It is not always possible to sharply separate human trafficking from everyday abuses and problems arise when the former is singled out while the latter is pushed to the margins 181 O Connell Davidson too argues that the lines between the crimes of human trafficking modern slavery and the legally sanctioned exploitation of migrants such as lower wages or restrictions on freedom of movement and employment is blurry 176 Problems with anti trafficking measures Edit Groups like Amnesty International have been critical of insufficient or ineffective government measures to tackle human trafficking Criticism includes a lack of understanding of human trafficking issues poor identification of victims and a lack of resources for the key pillars of anti trafficking identification protection prosecution and prevention For example Amnesty International has called the UK government s new anti trafficking measures not fit for purpose 182 Collateral damage Edit Rights groups have called attention to the negative impact that the implementation of anti trafficking measures have on the human rights of various groups especially migrants sex workers and trafficked persons themselves The Global Alliance Against Traffic in Women drew attention to this collateral damage in 2007 183 These negative impacts include various restrictions on women s right to migrate and undertake certain jobs 184 185 suspicion and harassment at international borders of women travelling alone 186 raids at sex work venues and detention fines and harassment of sex workers see below section on the use of raids assistance to trafficked persons made conditional on their cooperation with law enforcement and forced confinement of trafficked persons in shelters and many more 183 Victim identification and protection in the UK Edit In the UK human trafficking cases are processed by the same officials to simultaneously determine the refugee and trafficking victim statuses of a person However criteria for qualifying as a refugee and a trafficking victim differ and they have different needs for staying in a country A person may need assistance as a trafficking victim but their circumstances may not necessarily meet the threshold for asylum In this case not being granted refugee status affects their status as a trafficked victim and thus their ability to receive help Reviews of the statistics from the National Referral Mechanism NRM a tool created by the Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings CoE Convention to help states effectively identify and care for trafficking victims found that positive decisions for non European Union citizens were much lower than that of EU and UK citizens According to data on the NRM decisions from April 2009 to April 2011 an average of 82 8 of UK and EU citizens were conclusively accepted as victims while an average of only 45 9 of non EU citizens were granted the same status 187 High refusal rates of non EU people point to possible stereotypes and biases about regions and countries of origin which may hinder anti trafficking efforts since the asylum system is linked to the trafficking victim protection system Laura Agustin has suggested that in some cases anti traffickers ascribe victim status to immigrants who have made conscious and rational decisions to cross the borders knowing they will be selling sex and who do not consider themselves to be victims 188 There have been instances in which the alleged victims of trafficking have actually refused to be rescued 189 or run away from the anti trafficking shelters 190 191 In a 2013 lawsuit 192 the Court of Appeal gave guidance to prosecuting authorities on the prosecution of victims of human trafficking and held that the convictions of three Vietnamese children and one Ugandan woman ought to be quashed as the proceedings amounted to an abuse of the court s process 193 The case was reported by the BBC 194 and one of the victims was interviewed by Channel 4 195 In 2021 the European Court of Human Rights ordered the British government to compensate two victims of child trafficking for their later arrest and conviction of drug crimes 196 Law enforcement and the use of raids Edit In the U S services and protections for trafficked victims are related to cooperation with law enforcement Legal procedures that involve prosecution and specifically raids are thus the most common anti trafficking measures Raids are conducted by law enforcement and by private actors and many organizations sometimes in cooperation with law enforcement Law enforcement perceive some benefits from raids including the ability to locate and identify witnesses for legal processes to dismantle criminal networks and to rescue victims from abuse 94 The problems against anti trafficking raids are related to the problem of the trafficking concept itself as raids purpose of fighting sex trafficking may be conflated with fighting prostitution The Trafficking Victims Protection Re authorization Act of 2005 TVPRA gives state and local law enforcement funding to prosecute customers of commercial sex therefore some law enforcement agencies make no distinction between prostitution and sex trafficking One study interviewed women who have experienced law enforcement operations as sex workers and found that during these raids meant to combat human trafficking none of the women were ever identified as trafficking victims and only one woman was asked whether she was coerced into sex work The conflation of trafficking with prostitution then does not serve to adequately identify trafficking and help the victims Raids are also problematic in that the women involved were most likely unclear about who was conducting the raid what the purpose of the raid was and what the outcomes of the raid would be 94 197 Another study found that the majority of women rescued in anti trafficking raids both voluntary and coerced sex workers eventually returned to sex work but had amassed huge amounts of debt for legal fees and other costs while they were in detention after the raid and were overall in a worse situation than before the raid 198 Law enforcement personnel agree that raids can intimidate trafficked persons and render subsequent law enforcement actions unsuccessful Social workers and attorneys involved in anti sex trafficking have negative opinions about raids Service providers report a lack of uniform procedure for identifying trafficking victims after raids The 26 interviewed service providers stated that local police never referred trafficked persons to them after raids Law enforcement also often use interrogation methods that intimidate rather than assist potential trafficking victims Additionally sex workers sometimes face violence from the police during raids and arrests and in rehabilitation centers 94 As raids occur to brothels that may house sex workers as well as sex trafficked victims raids affect sex workers in general As clients avoid brothel areas that are raided but do not stop paying for sex voluntary sex workers will have to interact with customers underground Underground interactions means that sex workers take greater risks where as otherwise they would be cooperating with other sex workers and with sex worker organizations to report violence and protect each other One example of this is with HIV prevention Sex workers collectives monitor condom use promote HIV testing and cares for and monitor the health of HIV positive sex workers Raids disrupt communal HIV care and prevention efforts and if HIV positive sex workers are rescued and removed from their community their treatments are disrupted furthering the spread of AIDS 199 Scholars Aziza Ahmed and Meena Seshu suggest reforms in law enforcement procedures so that raids are last resort not violent and are transparent in its purposes and processes Furthermore they suggest that since any trafficking victims will probably be in contact with other sex workers first working with sex workers may be an alternative to the raid and rescue model 200 End Demand programs Edit Critics argue that End Demand programs are ineffective in that prostitution is not reduced John schools have little effect on deterrence and portray prostitutes negatively and conflicts in interest arise between law enforcement and NGO service providers A study found that Sweden s legal experiment criminalizing clients of prostitution and providing services to prostitutes who want to exit the industry in order to combat trafficking did not reduce the number of prostitutes but instead increased exploitation of sex workers because of the higher risk nature of their work citation needed The same study reported that johns inclination to buy sex did not change as a result of john schools and the programs targeted johns who are poor and colored immigrants Some john schools also intimidate johns into not purchasing sex again by depicting prostitutes as drug addicts HIV positive violent and dangerous which further marginalizes sex workers John schools require program fees and police involvement in NGOs who provide these programs create conflicts of interest especially with money involved 201 202 However according to a 2008 study the Swedish approach of criminalizing demand has led to an equality centered approach that has drawn numerous positive reviews worldwide 203 Modern feminist perspectives EditThere are different feminist perspectives on sex trafficking The third wave feminist perspective of sex trafficking seeks to harmonize the dominant and liberal feminist views of sex trafficking The dominant feminist view focuses on sexualized domination which includes issues of pornography female sex labor in a patriarchal world rape and sexual harassment Dominant feminism emphasizes sex trafficking as forced prostitution and considers the act exploitative Liberal feminism sees all agents as capable of reason and choice Liberal feminists support sex workers rights and argue that women who voluntarily chose sex work are autonomous The liberal feminist perspective finds sex trafficking problematic where it overrides consent of individuals 204 205 206 Third wave feminism harmonizes the thoughts that while individuals have rights overarching inequalities hinder women s capabilities Third wave feminism also considers that women who are trafficked and face oppression do not all face the same kinds of oppression For example third wave feminist proponent Shelley Cavalieri identifies oppression and privilege in the intersections of race class and gender Women from low socioeconomic class generally from the Global South face inequalities that differ from those of other sex trafficking victims Therefore it advocates for catering to individual trafficking victim because sex trafficking is not monolithic and therefore there is not a one size fits all intervention This also means allowing individual victims to tell their unique experiences rather than essentializing all trafficking experiences Lastly third wave feminism promotes increasing women s agency both generally and individually so that they have the opportunity to act on their own behalf 204 205 206 Third wave feminist perspective of sex trafficking is loosely related to Amartya Sen s and Martha Nussbaum s visions of the human capabilities approach to development It advocates for creating viable alternatives for sex trafficking victims Nussbaum articulated four concepts to increase trafficking victims capabilities education for victims and their children microcredit and increased employment options labor unions for low income women in general and social groups that connect women to one another 205 The clash between the different feminist perspectives on trafficking and sex work was especially evident at the negotiations of the Palermo Protocol One feminist group led by the Global Alliance Against Traffic in Women saw trafficking as the result of globalisation and restrictive labour migration policies with force fraud and coercion as its defining features The other feminist group led by the Coalition Against Trafficking in Women saw trafficking more narrowly as the result of men s demand for paid sex Both groups tried to influence the definition of trafficking and other provisions in the Protocol Eventually both were only partially successful 207 208 however scholars have noted that this rift between feminist organisations led to the extremely weak and voluntary victim protection provisions of the Protocol 209 Social norms Edit According to modern feminists women and girls are more prone to trafficking also because of social norms that marginalize their value and status in society By this perspective females face considerable gender discrimination both at home and in school Stereotypes that women belong at home in the private sphere and that women are less valuable because they do not and are not allowed to contribute to formal employment and monetary gains the same way men do further marginalize women s status relative to men Some religious beliefs also lead people to believe that the birth of girls are a result of bad karma 210 211 further cementing the belief that girls are not as valuable as boys It is generally regarded by feminists that various social norms contribute to women s inferior position and lack of agency and knowledge thus making them vulnerable to exploitation such as sex trafficking 212 See also EditAbusive power and control Adoption fraud Bride buying Comfort woman Human trafficking by country Human trafficking in popular culture Human Trafficking miniseries List of organizations opposing human trafficking Kidnapping Migrant sex work Serious and Organised Crime Group Sexual jihad Sexual trafficking in Kosovo She Has a Name South East Asia Court of 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2011 Retrieved 21 January 2012 a b c d Launching of Web Portal on Anti Human Trafficking Print Release Print Press Information Bureau Government of India Ministry of Home Affairs Government of India 20 February 2014 Retrieved 15 December 2014 Singapore Accedes to the United Nations Trafficking in Persons Protocol Ministry of Home Affairs Singapore Inter Agency Taskforce on Trafficking in Persons Archived from the original on 3 March 2016 Retrieved 20 February 2016 2018 Trafficking in Persons Report Singapore Refworld United States Department of State Retrieved 19 May 2020 a b c d e Dumienski Zbigniew 2011 Critical Reflections on Anti human Trafficking The Case of Timor Leste PDF NTS Alert May Issue 2 Singapore RSIS Centre for Non Traditional Security NTS Studies for NTS Asia Bialik Carl 2010 Suspect Estimates of Sex Trafficking at the World Cup The Wall Street Journal 19 June see also US Government Accountability Office 2006 Human Trafficking Better Data Strategy and Reporting Needed to Enhance U S Antitrafficking Efforts Abroad Highlights of GAO 06 825 Report Washington DC See also What s Wrong with the Global Slavery Index Anti Trafficking Review 8 27 April 2017 doi 10 14197 atr 20121786 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint others link a b Agustin Laura 2008 Sex at the Margins Migration Labour Markets and the Rescue Industry London and New York Zed Books Feingold David A 2010 Trafficking in Numbers in P Andreas and K M Greenhill eds Sex Drugs and Body Counts London Cornell University Press Marchionni D M 2012 International human trafficking An agenda building analysis of the US and British press International Communication Gazette 74 2 145 158 doi 10 1177 1748048511432600 S2CID 143717855 subscription required a b O Connell Davidson Julia 1960 30 September 2015 Modern slavery the margins of freedom Houndmills Basingstoke Hampshire ISBN 978 1 137 29727 3 OCLC 909538560 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Gulcur Leyla Ilkkaracan Pinar July August 2002 The Natasha experience Migrant sex workers from the former Soviet Union and Eastern Europe in Turkey PDF Women s Studies International Forum 25 4 411 421 doi 10 1016 S0277 5395 02 00278 9 Definition of Trafficking Save the Children Nepal Archived from the original on 20 November 2007 Retrieved 11 January 2010 Aradau Claudia March 2004 The perverse politics of four letter words risk and pity in the securitisation of human trafficking Millennium Journal of International Studies 33 2 251 277 doi 10 1177 03058298040330020101 S2CID 26554777 Marcus Anthony et al May 2014 Conflict and agency among sex workers and pimps A closer look at domestic minor sex trafficking The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 653 1 225 246 doi 10 1177 0002716214521993 S2CID 145245482 Quirk Joel Robinson Caroline Thibos Cameron 28 September 2020 Editorial From Exceptional Cases to Everyday Abuses Labour exploitation in the global economy Anti Trafficking Review 15 1 19 doi 10 14197 atr 201220151 ISSN 2287 0113 Anti trafficking measures not fit for purpose and breach international law new report Amnesty org uk a b Collateral damage the impact of anti trafficking measures on human rights around the world Global Alliance against Traffic in Women Bangkok Thailand Global Alliance Against Traffic in Women 2007 ISBN 9789748371924 OCLC 244286837 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint others link No easy exit migration bans affecting women from Nepal International Labour Office Labour Migration Branch International Labour Office Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work Branch Geneva ILO 2015 ISBN 978 92 2 130310 7 OCLC 932422315 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint others link Napier Moore Rebecca 2017 Protected or put in harm s way Bans and restrictions on women s labour migration in ASEAN countries Bangkok International Labour Organization and UN Women ISBN 9789221307624 Ham Julie Segrave Marie Pickering Sharon 1 September 2013 In the Eyes of the Beholder Border enforcement suspect travellers and trafficking victims Anti Trafficking Review 2 2 51 66 doi 10 14197 atr 20121323 Stepnitz Abigail 30 April 2015 A Lie More Disastrous than the Truth Asylum and the identification of trafficked women in the UK Anti Trafficking Review 4 doi 10 14197 atr 201216 Kerry Howley 26 December 2007 The Myth of the Migrant Reason Magazine Reason com Retrieved 21 January 2012 Chinese Prostitutes Resist Efforts to Rescue Them from Africa 2011 Times LIVE 1 January Siddharth Kumar 23 October 2010 Sex Workers Don t Want Rescue Mid day com Soderlund Gretchen 2005 Running from the Rescuers New U S Crusades against Sex Trafficking and the Rhetoric of Abolition NWSA Journal 17 3 64 87 ISSN 1040 0656 JSTOR 4317158 S2CID 143600365 case G T Stewart Solicitors 21 June 2013 Archived from the original on 7 November 2013 Courts and Tribunals Judiciary PDF judiciary gov uk Archived from the original PDF on 2 July 2013 Vietnamese trafficking victims win appeal against convictions BBC 21 June 2013 BBC News 21 June 2013 Trafficking victim s nightmare journey to UK drug farm Channel 4 Channel 4 News 21 June 2013 Guilbert Kieran 16 February 2021 Europe s rights court orders UK to compensate human trafficking victims Reuters Retrieved 16 February 2021 Hill Annie 30 September 2016 How to Stage a Raid Police media and the master narrative of trafficking Anti Trafficking Review 7 39 55 doi 10 14197 atr 20121773 Raided How anti trafficking strategies increase sex workers vulnerability to exploitative practices PDF Sangram 2018 Aziza Ahmed and Meena Seshu June 2012 We Have the Right Not to Be rescued When Anti Trafficking Programmes Undermine the Health and Well Being of Sex Workers PDF Anti Trafficking Review Global Alliance Against Traffic in Women 1 149 19 Archived from the original PDF on 12 August 2017 Ahmed Aziza Seshu Meena 30 April 2015 We have the right not to be rescued When Anti Trafficking Programmes Undermine the Health and Well Being of Sex Workers Anti Trafficking Review 4 doi 10 14197 atr 201219 S2CID 55688730 Wortley S Fischer B amp Webster C 2002 Vice lessons A survey of prostitution offenders enrolled in the Toronto John School Diversion Program Canadian Journal of Criminology 3 3 227 248 394 Monto Martin A and Steve Garcia 2001 Recidivism Among the Customers of Female Street Prostitutes Do Intervention Programs Help Western Criminology Review 3 2 Online Fischer B Wortley S Webster C Kirst M 2002 The Socio Legal Dynamics and Implications of Diversion The Case Study of the Toronto John School for Prostitution Offenders PDF Criminal Justice 2 4 385 410 doi 10 1177 17488958020020040201 S2CID 143463294 Picarelli John Jonsson Anna June 2008 Fostering Imagination in Fighting Trafficking Comparing Strategies and Policies to Fight Sex Trafficking in the U S and Sweden PDF NCJRS Retrieved 31 July 2020 a b Brenner Johanna Selling Sexual Services A Socialist Feminist Perspective Europe Solidaire Sans Frontieres Systeme de Publication pour un Internet Partage a b c CAVALIERI SHELLEY Between Victim And Agent A Third Wave Feminist Account Of Trafficking For Sex Work Indiana Law Journal86 4 2011 1409 1458 Legal Collection Web 6 March 2013 a b Feminist Manifesto in Support of Sex Workers Rights Feminists for Sex Workers Wordpress Retrieved 21 April 2018 Wijers Marjan 30 April 2015 Purity Victimhood and Agency Fifteen years of the UN Trafficking Protocol Anti Trafficking Review 4 doi 10 14197 atr 20121544 Doezema Jo 2010 Sex slaves and discourse masters the construction of trafficking London Zed Books ISBN 978 1 84813 415 7 OCLC 650365532 Chuang Janie A 2010 Rescuing Trafficking from Ideological Capture Prostitution Reform and Anti Trafficking Law and Policy University of Pennsylvania Law Review 158 6 1655 1728 ISSN 0041 9907 JSTOR 25682362 Born a girl bad karma OECD Insights Blog 8 March 2013 Retrieved 10 October 2020 Enrile Annalisa 31 August 2017 Ending Human Trafficking and Modern Day Slavery Freedom s Journey SAGE Publications ISBN 978 1 5063 1675 8 are that women are born women because of their bad karma Brown 2000 Rafferty Yvonne 2007 Children for sale Child trafficking in Southeast Asia Child Abuse Review 16 6 401 422 doi 10 1002 car 1009 External links Edit Wikinews has news related to Human trafficking Wikimedia Commons has media related to Human trafficking Trafficking of women at Curlie Global Report on Trafficking in Persons Human Trafficking Indicators HTI dataset Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Human trafficking amp oldid 1154115012, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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