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Hebron

January 26, 2023

"Al-Khalil" redirects here. For other uses, see Al-Khalil (disambiguation) and Hebron (disambiguation).

Hebron (Arabic: الخليل al-Khalīl or اَلْخَلِيل الرَّحْمَن al-Khalīl al-Raḥmān;[4] Hebrew: חֶבְרוֹן Ḥevrōn) is a Palestinian[5][6][7][8] city in the southern West Bank, 30 kilometres (19 mi) south of Jerusalem. Nestled in the Judaean Mountains, it lies 930 metres (3,050 ft) above sea level. The second-largest city in the West Bank (after East Jerusalem),[9][10] and the third-largest in the Palestinian territories (after East Jerusalem and Gaza), it has a population of over 215,000 Palestinians (2016),[11] and seven hundred Jewish settlers concentrated on the outskirts of its Old City.[12] It includes the Cave of the Patriarchs, which Jewish, Christian, and Islamic traditions all designate as the burial site of three key patriarchal/matriarchal couples.[12] The city is often considered one of the four holy cities in Judaism[13][14][15] as well as in Islam.[16][17][18][19]

Hebron
Municipality type A (City)
Arabic transcription(s)
 • Arabicالخليل
 • LatinḤebron (ISO 259-3)
Al-Khalīl (official)
Al-Ḫalīl (unofficial)
Hebrew transcription(s)
 • Hebrewחברון
Downtown Hebron
Municipal Seal of Hebron
Nickname: 
City of the Patriarchs
Hebron
Location of Hebron within Palestine
Coordinates: 31°32′00″N 35°05′42″E / 31.53333°N 35.09500°E / 31.53333; 35.09500Coordinates: 31°32′00″N 35°05′42″E / 31.53333°N 35.09500°E / 31.53333; 35.09500
Palestine grid159/103
StateState of Palestine
GovernorateHebron
Government
 • TypeCity (from 1997)
 • Head of MunicipalityTayseer Abu Sneineh[1]
Area
[2]
 • Total74,102 dunams (74.102 km2 or 28.611 sq mi)
Population
 (2016)[3]
 • Total215,452
 • Density2,900/km2 (7,500/sq mi)
Websitewww.hebron-city.ps
Official nameHebron/Al-Khalil Old Town
CriteriaCultural: ii, iv, vi
Reference1565
Inscription2017 (41st Session)
Endangered2017–
Area20.6 ha
Buffer zone152.2 ha

Hebron is considered one of the oldest cities in the Levant. According to the Bible, Abraham settled in Hebron and bought the Cave of the Patriarchs as a burial place for his wife Sarah. Biblical tradition holds that the patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, along with their wives Sarah, Rebecca, and Leah, were buried in the cave. Hebron is also recognized in the Bible as the place where David was anointed king of Israel.[20] Following the Babylonian captivity, the Edomites settled in Hebron. During the first century BCE, Herod the Great built the wall which still surrounds the Cave of the Patriarchs, which later became a church, and then a mosque.[20] With the exception of a brief Crusader control, successive Muslim dynasties ruled Hebron from the 6th century CE until the Ottoman Empire's dissolution following World War I, when the city became part of British Mandatory Palestine.[20] A massacre in 1929 and the Arab uprising of 1936–39 led to the emigration of the Jewish community from Hebron.[20] The 1948 Arab–Israeli War saw the entire West Bank, including Hebron, occupied and annexed by Jordan, and since the 1967 Six-Day War, the city has been under Israeli military occupation. Following Israeli occupation, Jewish presence was reestablished at the city.[20] Since the 1997 Hebron Protocol, most of Hebron has been governed by the Palestinian National Authority.

The city is often described as a "microcosm" of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and the Israeli occupation of the West Bank.[21] The Hebron Protocol of 1997 divided the city into two sectors: H1, controlled by the Palestinian National Authority, and H2, roughly 20% of the city, including 35,000 Palestinians, under Israeli military administration.[22] All security arrangements and travel permits for local residents are coordinated between the Palestinian National Authority and Israel via the Israeli military administration of the West Bank (COGAT). The Jewish settlers have their own governing municipal body, the Committee of the Jewish Community of Hebron.

Today, Hebron is the capital of the Hebron Governorate, the largest governorate of the State of Palestine, with an estimated population of around 782,227 as of 2021.[23] It is a busy hub of West Bank trade, generating roughly a third of the area's gross domestic product, largely due to the sale of limestone from quarries in its area.[24] It has a local reputation for its grapes, figs, limestone, pottery workshops and glassblowing factories. The old city of Hebron features narrow, winding streets, flat-roofed stone houses, and old bazaars. The city is home to Hebron University and the Palestine Polytechnic University.[25][26]

Etymology

The name "Hebron" appears to trace back to two Semitic roots,[a] which coalesce in the form ḥbr, having reflexes in Hebrew and Amorite, with a basic sense of 'unite' and connoting a range of meanings from "colleague" to "friend". In the proper name Hebron, the original sense may have been alliance.[28]

The Arabic term derives from the Qur'anic epithet for Abraham, Khalil al-Rahman (إبراهيم خليل الرحمن) "Beloved of the Merciful" or "Friend of God".[29][30] Arabic Al-Khalil thus precisely translates the ancient Hebrew toponym Ḥebron, understood as ḥaber (friend).[31]

History

See also: Timeline of Hebron

Bronze Age

Archaeological excavations reveal traces of strong fortifications dated to the Early Bronze Age, covering some 24–30 dunams centered around Tel Rumeida. The city flourished in the 17th–18th centuries BCE before being destroyed by fire, and was resettled in the late Middle Bronze Age.[32][33] This older Hebron was originally a Canaanite royal city.[34] Abrahamic legend associates the city with the Hittites. It has been conjectured that Hebron might have been the capital of Shuwardata of Gath, an Indo-European contemporary of Jerusalem's regent, Abdi-Kheba,[35] although the Hebron hills were almost devoid of settlements in the Late Bronze Age.[36] The Abrahamic traditions associated with Hebron are nomadic. This may also reflect a Kenite element, since the nomadic Kenites are said to have long occupied the city,[37] and Heber is the name for a Kenite clan.[38] In the narrative of the later Hebrew conquest, Hebron was one of two centres under Canaanite control. They were ruled by the three sons of Anak (benê/yelîdê hā'ănaq).[39] or may reflect some Kenite and Kenizzite migration from the Negev to Hebron, since terms related to the Kenizzites appear to be close to Hurrian. This suggests that behind the Anakim legend lies some early Hurrian population.[40] In Biblical lore they are represented as descendants of the Nephilim.[41] The Book of Genesis mentions that it was formerly called Kirjath-arba, or "city of four", possibly referring to the four pairs or couples who were buried there, or four tribes, or four quarters,[42] four hills,[43] or a confederated settlement of four families.[44]

The story of Abraham's purchase of the Cave of the Patriarchs from the Hittites constitutes a seminal element in what was to become the Jewish attachment to the land[45] in that it signified the first "real estate" of Israel long before the conquest under Joshua.[46] In settling here, Abraham is described as making his first covenant, an alliance with two local Amorite clans who became his ba’alei brit or masters of the covenant.[47]

Iron Age

 
Excavations at Tel Rumeida

The Hebron of the Israelites was centered on what is now known as Tel Rumeida, while its ritual centre was located at Elonei Mamre.[48]

Hebrew Bible narrative

 
Samson removes gates of Gaza (left) and brings them to Mount Hebron (right). Strassburg (1160–1170), Württemberg State Museum in Stuttgart

It is said to have been wrested from the Canaanites by either Joshua, who is said to have wiped out all of its previous inhabitants, "destroying everything that drew breath, as the Lord God of Israel had commanded",[49] or the Tribe of Judah as a whole, or specifically Caleb the Judahite.[50] The town itself, with some contiguous pasture land, is then said to have been granted to the Levites of the clan of Kohath, while the fields of the city, as well as its surrounding villages were assigned to Caleb (Joshua 21:3–12; 1 Chronicles 6:54–56),[51] who expels the three giants, Sheshai, Ahiman, and Talmai, who ruled the city. Later, the biblical narrative has King David called by God to relocate to Hebron and reign from there for some seven years (2 Samuel 2:1–3).[52] It is there that the elders of Israel come to him to make a covenant before Elohim and anoint him king of Israel.[53] It was in Hebron again that Absalom has himself declared king and then raises a revolt against his father David (2 Samuel 15:7–10). It became one of the principal centers of the Tribe of Judah and was classified as one of the six traditional Cities of Refuge.[54]

Archaeology

As is shown by the discovery at Lachish, the second most important city in the Kingdom of Judah after Jerusalem,[55] of seals with the inscription lmlk Hebron (to the king Hebron),[31] Hebron continued to constitute an important local economic centre, given its strategic position on the crossroads between the Dead Sea to the east, Jerusalem to the north, the Negev and Egypt to the south, and the Shepelah and the coastal plain to the west.[56] Lying along trading routes, it remained administratively and politically dependent on Jerusalem for this period.[57]

Classic antiquity

After the destruction of the First Temple, most of the Jewish inhabitants of Hebron were exiled, and according to the conventional view,[58] some researchers found traces of Edomite presence after the 5th–4th centuries BCE, as the area became Achaemenid province,[59] and, in the wake of Alexander the Great's conquest, Hebron was throughout the Hellenistic period under the influence of Idumea (as the new area inhabited by the Edomites was called during the Persian, Hellenistic and Roman periods), as is attested by inscriptions for that period bearing names with the Edomite God Qōs.[60] Jews also appear to have lived there after the return from the Babylonian exile (Nehemiah 11:25). During the Maccabean revolt, Hebron was burnt and plundered by Judah Maccabee who fought against the Edomites in 167 BCE.[61][62] The city appears to have long resisted Hasmonean dominance, however, and indeed as late as the First Jewish–Roman War was still considered Idumean.[63]

The present day city of Hebron was settled in the valley downhill from Tel Rumeida at the latest by Roman times.[64]

Herod the Great, king of Judea, built the wall which still surrounds the Cave of the Patriarchs. During the First Jewish–Roman War, Hebron was captured and plundered by Simon Bar Giora, a leader of the Zealots, without bloodshed. The "little town" was later laid to waste by Vespasian's officer Sextus Vettulenus Cerialis.[65] Josephus wrote that he "slew all he found there, young and old, and burnt down the town." After the suppression of the Bar Kokhba revolt in 135 CE, innumerable Jewish captives were sold into slavery at Hebron's Terebinth slave-market.[66][67]

The city was part of the Byzantine Empire in Palaestina Prima province at the Diocese of the East. The Byzantine emperor Justinian I erected a Christian church over the Cave of Machpelah in the 6th century CE, which was later destroyed by the Sassanid general Shahrbaraz in 614 when Khosrau II's armies besieged and took Jerusalem.[68] Jews were not permitted to reside in Hebron under Byzantine rule.[15] The sanctuary itself however was spared by the Persians, in deference to the Jewish population, who were numerous in the Sassanid army.[69]

Muslim conquest and Rashidun caliphate

Hebron was one of the last cities of Palestine to fall to the Islamic invasion in the 7th century, possibly the reason why Hebron is not mentioned in any traditions of the Arab conquest.[70] When the Rashidun Caliphate established its rule over Hebron in 638, the Muslims converted the Byzantine church at the site of Abraham's tomb into a mosque.[15] It became an important station on the caravan trading route from Egypt, and also as a way-station for pilgrims making the yearly hajj from Damascus.[71] After the fall of the city, Jerusalem's conqueror, Caliph Omar ibn al-Khattab permitted Jewish people to return and to construct a small synagogue within the Herodian precinct.[72]

Umayyad period

Catholic bishop Arculf, who visited the Holy Land during the Umayyad period, described the city as unfortified and poor. In his writings he also mentioned camel caravans transporting firewood from Hebron to Jerusalem, which implies there was a presence of Arab nomads in the region at that time.[73] Trade greatly expanded, in particular with Bedouins in the Negev (al-Naqab) and the population to the east of the Dead Sea (Baḥr Lūṭ). According to Anton Kisa, Jews from Hebron (and Tyre) founded the Venetian glass industry in the 9th century.[74]

Fatimid and Seljuk periods

Islam did not view the town as significant before the 10th century, it being almost absent in Muslim literature of the period.[75] Jerusalemite geographer al-Muqaddasi, writing in 985 described the town as follows:

Habra (Hebron) is the village of Abraham al-Khalil (the Friend of God)...Within it is a strong fortress...being of enormous squared stones. In the middle of this stands a dome of stone, built in Islamic times, over the sepulchre of Abraham. The tomb of Isaac lies forward, in the main building of the mosque, the tomb of Jacob to the rear; facing each prophet lies his wife. The enclosure has been converted into a mosque, and built around it are rest houses for the pilgrims, so that they adjoin the main edifice on all sides. A small water conduit has been conducted to them. All the countryside around this town for about half a stage has villages in every direction, with vineyards and grounds producing grapes and apples called Jabal Nahra...being fruit of unsurpassed excellence...Much of this fruit is dried, and sent to Egypt. In Hebron is a public guest house continuously open, with a cook, a baker and servants in regular attendance. These offer a dish of lentils and olive oil to every poor person who arrives, and it is set before the rich, too, should they wish to partake. Most men express the opinion this is a continuation of the guest house of Abraham, however, it is, in fact from the bequest of the sahaba (companion) of the prophet Muhammad Tamim-al Dari and others.... The Amir of Khurasan...has assigned to this charity one thousand dirhams yearly, ...al-Shar al-Adil bestowed on it a substantial bequest. At present time I do not know in all the realm of al-Islam any house of hospitality and charity more excellent than this one.[76]

The custom, known as the 'table of Abraham' (simāt al-khalil), was similar to the one established by the Fatimids, and in Hebron's version, it found its most famous expression. The Persian traveller Nasir-i-Khusraw who visited Hebron in 1047 records in his Safarnama that

... this Sanctuary has belonging to it very many villages that provide revenues for pious purposes. At one of these villages is a spring, where water flows out from under a stone, but in no great abundance; and it is conducted by a channel, cut in the ground, to a place outside the town (of Hebron), where they have constructed a covered tank for collecting the water...The Sanctuary (Mashad), stands on the southern border of the town....it is enclosed by four walls. The Mihrab (or niche) and the Maksurah (or enclosed space for Friday prayers) stand in the width of the building (at the south end). In the Maksurah are many fine Mihrabs.[77] He further recorded that "They grow at Hebron for the most part barley, wheat being rare, but olives are in abundance. The [visitors] are given bread and olives. There are very many mills here, worked by oxen and mules, that all day long grind the flour, and further, there are working girls who, during the whole day are baking bread. The loaves are [about three pounds] and to every persons who arrives they give daily a loaf of bread, and a dish of lentils cooked in olive-oil, also some raisins....there are some days when as many as five hundred pilgrims arrive, to each of whom this hospitality is offered."[78][79]

Geniza documents from this period refer only to "the graves of the patriarchs" and reveal there was an organised Jewish community in Hebron who had a synagogue near the tomb, and were occupied with accommodating Jewish pilgrims and merchants. During the Seljuk period, the community was headed by Saadia b. Abraham b. Nathan, who was known as the "haver of the graves of the patriarchs."[80]

Crusader/Ayyubid period

See also: Vassals of the Kingdom of Jerusalem

The Caliphate lasted in the area until 1099, when the Christian Crusader Godfrey de Bouillon took Hebron and renamed it "Castellion Saint Abraham".[81] It was designated capital of the southern district of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem[82] and given, in turn,[83] as the fief of Saint Abraham, to Geldemar Carpinel, the bishop Gerard of Avesnes,[84] Hugh of Rebecques, Walter Mohamet and Baldwin of Saint Abraham. As a Frankish garrison of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, its defence was precarious being 'little more than an island in a Moslem ocean'.[85] The Crusaders converted the mosque and the synagogue into a church. In 1106, an Egyptian campaign thrust into southern Palestine and almost succeeded the following year in wresting Hebron back from the Crusaders under Baldwin I of Jerusalem, who personally led the counter-charge to beat the Muslim forces off. In the year 1113 during the reign of Baldwin II of Jerusalem, according to Ali of Herat (writing in 1173), a certain part over the cave of Abraham had given way, and "a number of Franks had made their entrance therein". And they discovered "(the bodies) of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob", "their shrouds having fallen to pieces, lying propped up against a wall...Then the King, after providing new shrouds, caused the place to be closed once more". Similar information is given in Ibn at Athir's Chronicle under the year 1119; "In this year was opened the tomb of Abraham, and those of his two sons Isaac and Jacob ...Many people saw the Patriarch. Their limbs had nowise been disturbed, and beside them were placed lamps of gold and of silver."[86] The Damascene nobleman and historian Ibn al-Qalanisi in his chronicle also alludes at this time to the discovery of relics purported to be those of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, a discovery which excited eager curiosity among all three communities in Palestine, Muslim, Jewish, and Christian.[87][88] Towards the end of the period of Crusader rule, in 1166 Maimonides visited Hebron and wrote,

On Sunday, 9 Marheshvan (17 October), I left Jerusalem for Hebron to kiss the tombs of my ancestors in the Cave. On that day, I stood in the cave and prayed, praise be to God, (in gratitude) for everything.[89]

A royal domain, Hebron was handed over to Philip of Milly in 1161 and joined with the Seigneurie of Transjordan. A bishop was appointed to Hebron in 1168 and the new cathedral church of St Abraham was built in the southern part of the Haram.[90] In 1167, the episcopal see of Hebron was created along with that of Kerak and Sebastia (the tomb of John the Baptist).[91]

In 1170, Benjamin of Tudela visited the city, which he called by its Frankish name, St. Abram de Bron. He reported:

Here there is the great church called St. Abram, and this was a Jewish place of worship at the time of the Mohammedan rule, but the Gentiles have erected there six tombs, respectively called those of Abraham and Sarah, Isaac and Rebekah, Jacob and Leah. The custodians tell the pilgrims that these are the tombs of the Patriarchs, for which information the pilgrims give them money. If a Jew comes, however, and gives a special reward, the custodian of the cave opens unto him a gate of iron, which was constructed by our forefathers, and then he is able to descend below by means of steps, holding a lighted candle in his hand. He then reaches a cave, in which nothing is to be found, and a cave beyond, which is likewise empty, but when he reaches the third cave behold there are six sepulchres, those of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, respectively facing those of Sarah, Rebekah and Leah.[92]

The Kurdish Muslim Saladin retook Hebron in 1187 – again with Jewish assistance according to one late tradition, in exchange for a letter of security allowing them to return to the city and build a synagogue there.[93] The name of the city was changed back to Al-Khalil. A Kurdish quarter still existed in the town during the early period of Ottoman rule.[94] Richard the Lionheart retook the city soon after. Richard of Cornwall, brought from England to settle the dangerous feuding between Templars and Hospitallers, whose rivalry imperiled the treaty guaranteeing regional stability stipulated with the Egyptian Sultan As-Salih Ayyub, managed to impose peace on the area. But soon after his departure, feuding broke out and in 1241 the Templars mounted a damaging raid on what was, by now, Muslim Hebron, in violation of agreements.[95]

In 1244, the Khwarazmians destroyed the town, but left the sanctuary untouched.[69]

Mamluk period

In 1260, after Mamluk Sultan Baibars defeated the Mongol army, the minarets were built onto the sanctuary. Six years later, while on pilgrimage to Hebron, Baibars promulgated an edict forbidding Christians and Jews from entering the sanctuary,[96] and the climate became less tolerant of Jews and Christians than it had been under the prior Ayyubid rule. The edict for the exclusion of Christians and Jews was not strictly enforced until the middle of the 14th-century and by 1490, not even Muslims were permitted to enter the caverns.[97]

The mill at Artas was built in 1307, and the profits from its income were dedicated to the hospital in Hebron.[98] Between 1318–20, the Na'ib of Gaza and much of coastal and interior Palestine ordered the construction of Jawli Mosque to enlarge the prayer space for worshipers at the Ibrahimi Mosque.[99]

Hebron was visited by some important rabbis over the next two centuries, among them Nachmanides (1270) and Ishtori HaParchi (1322) who noted the old Jewish cemetery there. Sunni imam Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya (1292–1350) was penalised by the religious authorities in Damascus for refusing to recognise Hebron as a Muslim pilgrimage site, a view also held by his teacher Ibn Taymiyyah.[100]

The Italian traveller, Meshulam of Volterra (1481) found not more that twenty Jewish families living in Hebron.[101][102] and recounted how the Jewish women of Hebron would disguise themselves with a veil in order to pass as Muslim women and enter the Cave of the Patriarchs without being recognized as Jews.[103]

Minute descriptions of Hebron were recorded in Stephen von Gumpenberg's Journal (1449), by Felix Fabri (1483) and by Mejr ed-Din[104] It was in this period, also, that the Mamluk Sultan Qa'it Bay revived the old custom of the Hebron "table of Abraham," and exported it as a model for his own madrasa in Medina.[105] This became an immense charitable establishment near the Haram, distributing daily some 1,200 loaves of bread to travellers of all faiths.[106] The Italian rabbi Obadiah ben Abraham Bartenura wrote around 1490:

I was in the Cave of Machpelah, over which the mosque has been built; and the Arabs hold the place in high honour. All the Kings of the Arabs come here to repeat their prayers, but neither a Jew nor an Arab may enter the Cave itself, where the real graves of the Patriarchs are; the Arabs remain above, and let down burning torches into it through a window, for they keep a light always burning there. . Bread and lentil, or some other kind of pulse (seeds of peas or beans), is distributed (by the Muslims) to the poor every day without distinction of faith, and this is done in honour of Abraham.[107]

Early Ottoman period

The expansion of the Ottoman Empire along the southern Mediterranean coast under sultan Selim I coincided with the establishment of Inquisition commissions by the Catholic Monarchs in Spain in 1478, which ended centuries of the Iberian convivencia (coexistence). The ensuing expulsions of the Jews drove many Sephardi Jews into the Ottoman provinces, and a slow influx of Jews to the Holy Land took place, with some notable Sephardi kabbalists settling in Hebron.[108][109] Over the following two centuries, there was a significant migration of Bedouin tribal groups from the Arabian Peninsula into Palestine. Many settled in three separate villages in the Wādī al-Khalīl, and their descendants later formed the majority of Hebron.[110]

The Jewish community fluctuated between 8–10 families throughout the 16th century, and suffered from severe financial straits in the first half of the century.[111] In 1540, renowned kabbalist Malkiel Ashkenazi bought a courtyard from the small Karaite community, in which he established the Sephardic Abraham Avinu Synagogue.[112] In 1659, Abraham Pereyra of Amsterdam founded the Hesed Le'Abraham yeshiva in Hebron, which attracted many students.[113] In the early 18th century, the Jewish community suffered from heavy debts, almost quadrupling from 1717–1729,[114] and were "almost crushed" from the extortion practiced by the Turkish pashas. In 1773 or 1775, a substantial amount of money was extorted from the Jewish community, who paid up to avert a threatened catastrophe, after a false allegation was made accusing them of having murdered the son of a local sheikh and throwing his body into a cesspit.[citation needed]> Emissaries from the community were frequently sent overseas to solicit funds.[115][116]

During the Ottoman period, the dilapidated state of the patriarchs' tombs was restored to a semblance of sumptuous dignity.[117] Ali Bey who, under Muslim disguise, was one of the few Westerners to gain access, reported in 1807 that,

all the sepulchres of the patriarchs are covered with rich carpets of green silk, magnificently embroidered with gold; those of the wives are red, embroidered in like manner. The sultans of Constantinople furnish these carpets, which are renewed from time to time. Ali Bey counted nine, one over the other, upon the sepulchre of Abraham.[118]

Hebron also became known throughout the Arab world for its glass production, abetted by Bedouin trade networks which brought up minerals from the Dead Sea, and the industry is mentioned in the books of 19th century Western travellers to Palestine. For example, Ulrich Jasper Seetzen noted during his travels in Palestine in 1808–09 that 150 persons were employed in the glass industry in Hebron,[119] based on 26 kilns.[120] In 1833, a report on the town appearing in a weekly paper printed by the London-based Religious Tract Society wrote that Hebron's population had 400 Arab families, had numerous well-provisioned shops and that there was a manufactory of glass lamps, which were exported to Egypt.[121] Early 19th-century travellers also noticed Hebron's flourishing agriculture. Apart from glassware, it was a major exporter of dibse, grape sugar,[122] from the famous Dabookeh grapestock characteristic of Hebron.[123]

 
Northern Hebron in the mid-19th century (1850s)

An Arab peasants' revolt broke out in April 1834 when Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt announced he would recruit troops from the local Muslim population.[124] Hebron, headed by its nazir Abd ar-Rahman Amr, declined to supply its quota of conscripts for the army and suffered badly from the Egyptian campaign to crush the uprising. The town was invested and, when its defences fell on 4 August, it was sacked by Ibrahim Pasha's army.[125][126][127] An estimated 500 Muslims from Hebron were killed in the attack and some 750 were conscripted. 120 youths were abducted and put at the disposal of Egyptian army officers. Most of the Muslim population managed to flee beforehand to the hills. Many Jews fled to Jerusalem, but during the general pillage of the town at least five were killed.[128] In 1838, the total population was estimated at 10,000.[126] When the government of Ibrahim Pasha fell in 1841, the local clan leader Abd ar-Rahman Amr once again resumed the reins of power as the Sheik of Hebron. Due to his extortionate demands for cash from the local population, most of the Jewish population fled to Jerusalem.[129] In 1846, the Ottoman Governor-in-chief of Jerusalem (serasker), Kıbrıslı Mehmed Emin Pasha, waged a campaign to subdue rebellious sheiks in the Hebron area, and while doing so, allowed his troops to sack the town. Though it was widely rumoured that he secretly protected Abd ar-Rahman,[130] the latter was deported together with other local leaders (such as Muslih al-'Azza of Bayt Jibrin), but he managed to return to the area in 1848.[131]

According to Hillel Cohen, the attacks on Jews in this particular period are an exception that proves the rule, that one of the easiest place for Jews to live in the world were in the various countries of the Ottoman Empire. In the mid-eighteenth century, rabbi Abraham Gershon of Kitov wrote from Hebron that:"the gentiles here very much love the Jews. When there is a brit milah (circumcision ceremony) or any other celebration, their most important men come at night and rejoice with the Jews and clap hands and dance with the Jews, just like the Jews'."[132]

Late Ottoman period

 
A display of Hebron glass

By 1850, the Jewish population consisted of 45–60 Sephardic families, some 40 born in the town, and a 30-year-old Ashkenazic community of 50 families, mainly Polish and Russian,[133][134] the Lubavitch Hasidic movement having established a community in 1823.[135] The ascendency of Ibrahim Pasha devastated for a time the local glass industry for, aside from the loss of life, his plan to build a Mediterranean fleet led to severe logging in Hebron's forests, and firewood for the kilns grew rarer. At the same time, Egypt began importing cheap European glass, the rerouting of the hajj from Damascus through Transjordan eliminated Hebron as a staging point, and the Suez canal (1869) dispensed with caravan trade. The consequence was a steady decline in the local economy.[136]

At this time, the town was divided into four quarters: the Ancient Quarter (Harat al-Kadim) near the Cave of Machpelah; to its south, the Quarter of the Silk Merchant (Harat al-Kazaz), inhabited by Jews; the Mamluk-era Sheikh's Quarter (Harat ash Sheikh) to the north-west;and further north, the Dense Quarter (Harat al-Harbah).[137][138] In 1855, the newly appointed Ottoman pasha ("governor") of the sanjak ("district") of Jerusalem, Kamil Pasha, attempted to subdue the rebellion in the Hebron region. Kamil and his army marched towards Hebron in July 1855, with representatives from the English, French and other Western consulates as witnesses. After crushing all opposition, Kamil appointed Salama Amr, the brother and strong rival of Abd al Rachman, as nazir of the Hebron region. After this relative quiet reigned in the town for the next 4 years.[139][140] Hungarian Jews of the Karlin Hasidic court settled in another part of the city in 1866.[141] According to Nadav Shragai Arab-Jewish relations were good, and Alter Rivlin, who spoke Arabic and Syrian-Aramaic, was appointed Jewish representative to the city council.[141] Hebron suffered from a severe drought during 1869–71 and food sold for ten times the normal value.[142] From 1874 the Hebron district as part of the Sanjak of Jerusalem was administered directly from Istanbul.[143] By 1874, during C.R. Conder's visit to Hebron under the auspices of the Palestine Exploration Fund, the city's Jewish community had swollen to about 600, compared to 17,000 Muslims.[144] The Jews were confined to the Quarter of the Corner Gate.[144]

Late in the 19th century the production of Hebron glass declined due to competition from imported European glass-ware, however, the products of Hebron continued to be sold, particularly among the poorer populace and travelling Jewish traders from the city.[145] At the World Fair of 1873 in Vienna, Hebron was represented with glass ornaments. A report from the French consul in 1886 suggests that glass-making remained an important source of income for Hebron, with four factories earning 60,000 francs yearly.[146] While the economy of other cities in Palestine was based on solely on trade, Hebron was the only city in Palestine that combined agriculture, livestock herding and trade, including the manufacture of glassware and processing of hides. This was because the most fertile lands were situated within the city limits.[147] The city, nevertheless, was considered unproductive and had a reputation "being an asylum for the poor and the spiritual."[148] Differing in architectural style from Nablus, whose wealthy merchants built handsome houses, Hebron's main characteristic was its semi-urban, semi-peasant dwellings.[147]

 
Jews in Hebron, 1921

Hebron was 'deeply Bedouin and Islamic',[149] and 'bleakly conservative' in its religious outlook,[150] with a strong tradition of hostility to Jews.[151][152] It had a reputation for religious zeal in jealously protecting its sites from Jews and Christians, but both the Jewish and Christian communities were apparently well integrated into the town's economic life.[110] As a result of its commercial decline, tax revenues diminished significantly, and the Ottoman government, avoiding meddling in complex local politics, left Hebron relatively undisturbed, to become 'one of the most autonomous regions in late Ottoman Palestine.'.[153]

The Jewish community was under French protection until 1914. The Jewish presence itself was divided between the traditional Sephardi community, whose members spoke Arabic and adopted Arab dress, and the more recent influx of Ashkenazi Jews. They prayed in different synagogues, sent their children to different schools, lived in different quarters and did not intermarry. The community was largely Orthodox and anti-Zionist.[154][155]

British Mandate

 
British loyalty meeting in Hebron, July 1940

The British occupied Hebron on 8 December 1917; governance transited to a mandate in 1920. Most of Hebron was owned by old Islamic charitable endowments (waqfs), with about 60% of all the land in and around Hebron belonging to the Tamīm al-Dārī waqf.[156] In 1922, its population stood at 16,577, of which 16,074 (97%) were Muslim, 430 (2.5%) were Jewish and 73 (0.4%) were Christian.[157][158] During the 1920s, Abd al-Ḥayy al-Khaṭīb was appointed Mufti of Hebron. Before his appointment, he had been a staunch opponent of Haj Amin, supported the Muslim National Associations and had good contacts with the Zionists.[159] Later, al-Khaṭīb became one of the few loyal followers of Haj Amin in Hebron.[160] During the late Ottoman period, a new ruling elite had emerged in Palestine. They later formed the core of the growing Arab nationalist movement in the early 20th century. During the Mandate period, delegates from Hebron constituted only 1 per cent of the political leadership.[161] The Palestinian Arab decision to boycott the 1923 elections for a Legislative Council was made at the fifth Palestinian Congress, after it was reported by Murshid Shahin (an Arab pro-Zionist activist) that there was intense resistance in Hebron to the elections.[162] Almost no house in Hebron remained undamaged when an earthquake struck Palestine on July 11, 1927.[163]

The Cave of the Patriarchs continued to remain officially closed to non-Muslims, and reports that entry to the site had been relaxed in 1928 were denied by the Supreme Muslim Council.[164]

At this time following attempts by the Lithuanian government to draft yeshiva students into the army, the Lithuanian Hebron Yeshiva (Knesses Yisroel) relocated to Hebron, after consultations between Rabbi Nosson Tzvi Finkel, Yechezkel Sarna and Moshe Mordechai Epstein.[165][166] and by 1929 had attracted some 265 students from Europe and the United States.[167] The majority of the Jewish population lived on the outskirts of Hebron along the roads to Be'ersheba and Jerusalem, renting homes owned by Arabs, a number of which were built for the express purpose of housing Jewish tenants, with a few dozen within the city around the synagogues.[168] During the 1929 Hebron massacre, Arab rioters slaughtered some 64 to 67 Jewish men, women and children[169][170] and wounded 60, and Jewish homes and synagogues were ransacked; 435 Jews survived by virtue of the shelter and assistance offered them by their Arab neighbours, who hid them.[171] Some Hebron Arabs, including Ahmad Rashid al-Hirbawi, president of Hebron chamber of commerce, supported the return of Jews after the massacre.[172] Two years later, 35 families moved back into the ruins of the Jewish quarter, but on the eve of the Palestinian Arab revolt (April 23, 1936) the British Government decided to move the Jewish community out of Hebron as a precautionary measure to secure its safety. The sole exception was the 8th generation Hebronite Ya'akov ben Shalom Ezra, who processed dairy products in the city, blended in well with its social landscape and resided there under the protection of friends. In November 1947, in anticipation of the UN partition vote, the Ezra family closed its shop and left the city.[173] Yossi Ezra has since tried to regain his family's property through the Israeli courts.[174]

Jordanian period

At the beginning of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Egypt took control of Hebron. Between May and October, Egypt and Jordan tussled for dominance in Hebron and its environs. Both countries appointed military governors in the town, hoping to gain recognition from Hebron officials. The Egyptians managed to persuade the pro-Jordanian mayor to support their rule, at least superficially, but local opinion turned against them when they imposed taxes. Villagers surrounding Hebron resisted and skirmishes broke out in which some were killed.[175] By late 1948, part of the Egyptian forces from Bethlehem to Hebron had been cut off from their lines of supply and Glubb Pasha sent 350 Arab Legionnaires and an armoured car unit to Hebron to reinforce them there. When the Armistice was signed, the city thus fell under Jordanian military control. The armistice agreement between Israel with Jordan intended to allow Israeli Jewish pilgrims to visit Hebron, but, as Jews of all nationalities were forbidden by Jordan into the country, this did not occur.[176][177]

In December 1948, the Jericho Conference was convened to decide the future of the West Bank which was held by Jordan. Hebron notables, headed by mayor Muhamad 'Ali al-Ja'bari, voted in favour of becoming part of Jordan and to recognise Abdullah I of Jordan as their king. The subsequent unilateral annexation benefited the Arabs of Hebron, who during the 1950s, played a significant role in the economic development of Jordan.[178][179]

Although a significant number of people relocated to Jerusalem from Hebron during the Jordanian period,[180] Hebron itself saw a considerable increase in population with 35,000 settling in the town.[181] During this period, signs of the previous Jewish presence in Hebron were removed.[182]

Israeli occupation

 
Constructed in 1893, this former Jewish clinic in central Hebron now forms part of an Israeli neighbourhood.

After the Six-Day War in June 1967, Israel occupied Hebron along with the rest of the West Bank, establishing a military government to rule the area. In an attempt to reach a land for peace deal, Yigal Allon proposed that Israel annex 45% of the West Bank and return the remainder to Jordan.[183] According to the Allon Plan, the city of Hebron would lie in Jordanian territory, and in order to determine Israel's own border, Allon suggested building a Jewish settlement adjacent to Hebron.[184] David Ben-Gurion also considered that Hebron was the one sector of the conquered territories that should remain under Jewish control and be open to Jewish settlement.[185] Apart from its symbolic message to the international community that Israel's rights in Hebron were, according to Jews, inalienable,[186] settling Hebron also had theological significance in some quarters.[187] For some, the capture of Hebron by Israel had unleashed a messianic fervor.[188]

 
2018 United Nations map of the area, showing the Israeli occupation arrangements.

Survivors and descendants of the prior community are mixed. Some support the project of Jewish redevelopment, others commend living in peace with Hebronite Arabs, while a third group recommend a full pullout.[189] Descendants supporting the latter views have met with Palestinian leaders in Hebron.[190] In 1997 one group of descendants dissociated themselves from the settlers by calling them an obstacle to peace.[190] On May 15, 2006, a member of a group who is a direct descendant of the 1929 refugees[191] urged the government to continue its support of Jewish settlement, and allow the return of eight families evacuated the previous January from homes they set up in emptied shops near the Avraham Avinu neighborhood.[189] Beit HaShalom, established in 2007 under disputed circumstances, was under court orders permitting its forced evacuation.[192][193][194][195] All the Jewish settlers were expelled on December 3, 2008.[196]

 
Israeli soldiers patrol an open-air market.

Immediately after the 1967 war, mayor al-Ja'bari had unsuccessfully promoted the creation of an autonomous Palestinian entity in the West Bank, and by 1972, he was advocating for a confederal arrangement with Jordan instead. al-Ja'bari nevertheless consistently fostered a conciliatory policy towards Israel.[197] He was ousted by Fahad Qawasimi in the 1976 mayoral election, which marked a shift in support towards pro-PLO nationalist leaders.[198]

Supporters of Jewish settlement within Hebron see their program as the reclamation of an important heritage dating back to Biblical times, which was dispersed or, it is argued, stolen by Arabs after the massacre of 1929.[199][200] The purpose of settlement is to return to the 'land of our forefathers',[201] and the Hebron model of reclaiming sacred sites in Palestinian territories has pioneered a pattern for settlers in Bethlehem and Nablus.[202] Many reports, foreign and Israeli, are sharply critical of the behaviour of Hebronite settlers.[203][204]

Sheik Farid Khader heads the Ja’bari tribe, consisting of some 35,000 people, which is considered one of the most important tribes in Hebron. For years, members of the Ja'bari tribe were the mayors of Hebron. Khader regularly meets with settlers and Israeli government officials and is a strong opponent of both the concept of Palestinian State and the Palestinian Authority itself. Khader believes that Jews and Arabs must learn to coexist.[205]

Division of Hebron

 
Official 1997 agreement map of Palestinian controlled H1 and Israeli controlled H2.
 
Illustration showing areas H1 and H2 and adjacent Israeli settlements
1997 Protocol Concerning the Redeployment in Hebron

Following the 1995 Oslo Agreement and subsequent 1997 Hebron Agreement, Palestinian cities were placed under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Palestinian Authority, with the exception of Hebron,[6] which was split into two sectors: H1 is controlled by the Palestinian Authority and H2 – which includes the Old City of Hebron – remained under the military control of Israel.[206][207] Around 120,000 Palestinians live in H1, while around 30,000 Palestinians along with around 700 Israelis remain under Israeli military control in H2. As of 2009, a total of 86 Jewish families lived in Hebron.[208] The IDF (Israel Defense Forces) may not enter H1 unless under Palestinian escort. Palestinians cannot approach areas where settlers live without special permits from the IDF.[209] The Jewish settlement is widely considered to be illegal by the international community, although the Israeli government disputes this.[210]

The Palestinian population in H2 has greatly declined because of the impact of Israeli security measures, including extended curfews, strict restrictions on movement,[211] and the closure of Palestinian commercial activities near settler areas, and also due to settler harassment.[212][213][214][215]

Palestinians are barred from using Al-Shuhada Street, a principal commercial thoroughfare.[209][216] As a result, about half the Arab shops in H2 have gone out of business since 1994.[citation needed]

TIPH twentieth anniversary report

In 2017, Temporary International Presence in Hebron (TIPH) issued a confidential report covering their 20 years of observing the situation in Hebron. The report, based in part on over 40,000 incident reports over those 20 years, found that Israel routinely violates international law in Hebron and that it is in "severe and regular breach" of the rights to non-discrimination laid out in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights over the lack of freedom to movement for the Palestinian residents of Hebron. The report found that Israel is in regular violation of Article 49 of the Fourth Geneva Convention which prohibits the deportation of civilians from occupied territory. The report also found the presence of any Israeli settlement in Hebron to violate international law.[217]

Israeli settlements

Ideological background

Post-1967 settlement was impelled by theological doctrines developed in the Mercaz HaRav Kook under both its founder Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook, and his son Rabbi Zvi Yehuda Kook, according to which the Land of Israel is holy, the people, endowed with a divine spark, are holy, and that the messianic Age of Redemption has arrived, requiring that the Land and People be united in occupying the land and fulfilling the commandments. Hebron has a particular role in the unfolding 'cosmic drama': traditions hold that Abraham purchased land there, that King David was its king, and the tomb of Abraham covers the entrance to the Garden of Eden, and was a site excavated by Adam, who is buried there with Eve. The doctrines hold that redemption will occur when the feminine and masculine characteristics of God are united at the site. In this meta, settling Hebron is not only a right and duty, but is doing the world at large a favour, with the community's acts an example of the Jews of Hebron being "a light unto the nations" (Or la-Goyim)[218] and bringing about their redemption, even if this means breaching secular laws, expressed in religiously motivated violence towards Palestinians, who are widely viewed as "mendacious, vicious, self-centered, and impossible to trust". Clashes with Palestinians in the settlement project have theological significance in the Jewish Hebron community: the frictions of war were, in Kook's view, conducive to the messianic process, and that Arabs will have to leave. There is no kin connection between the new settlers and the traditional Old Families of Jewish Hebronites, who vigorously oppose the new settler presence in Hebron.[218]

First settlement, Kiryat Arba

In the spring of 1968, Rabbi Moshe Levinger, together with a group of Israelis posing as Swiss tourists, rented from its owner Faiz Qawasmeh[219] the main hotel in Hebron[220] and then refused to leave. The Labor government's survival depended on the religious Zionism-associated National Religious Party and was, under pressure of this party, reluctant to evacuate the settlers. Defence Minister Moshe Dayan ordered their evacuation but agreed to their relocation to the nearby military base on the eastern outskirts of Hebron which was to become the settlement Kiryat Arba.[221] After heavy lobbying by Levinger, the settlement gained the tacit support of Levi Eshkol and Yigal Allon, while it was opposed by Abba Eban and Pinhas Sapir.[222] After more than a year and a half, the government agreed to legitimize the settlement.[223] The settlement was later expanded with the nearby outpost Givat Ha’avot, north of the Cave of the Patriarchs.[221] Much of the Hebron-Kiryat Arba operation was planned and financed by the Movement for Greater Israel.[224] According to a ruling given by the Israeli Supreme Court in 2011, Jews have no right to properties they possessed in places like Hebron and Tel Rumeida before 1948, and have no right to compensation for their losses.[174]

Beit Hadassah

Originally named Hesed l'Avraham clinic, Beit Hadassah was constructed in 1893 with donations of Jewish Baghdadi families and was the only modern medical facility in Hebron. In 1909, it was renamed after Hadassah Women's Zionist Organization of America which took responsibility for the medical staff and provided free medical care to all.[225]

In 1979, after several attempts by Israeli men had failed to succeed in taking possession of the building, then known as the Dabouia, 15 settler mothers and their 35 children drove down to it and squatted there, and managed to camp in the building for a year, exploiting the government's indecision at the time, when it was engaged in negotiations with Egypt to hand back the Sinai peninsula The calculation was that the state would 'balance out' the unpopular decision to hand back conquered territory by committing itself to greater control of the West Bank.[226] A group of settlers led by Miriam Levinger moved into the Dabouia, the former Hadassah Hospital in central Hebron, then under Arab administration. They turned it into a bridgehead for Jewish resettlement inside Hebron[227] and founded the Committee of The Jewish Community of Hebron near the Abraham Avinu Synagogue. The take-over created severe conflict with Arab shopkeepers in the same area; a retaliatory action by a Palestinian guerilla group killed six yeshiva students.[228] The shopkeepers appealed twice to the Israeli Supreme Court, without success.[229] With this precedent, in February of the following year, the Government legitimized residency in the city of Hebron proper, allowing 50 armed families under military guard to dwell in a fortified structure in the heart of the Old City of Palestinian Hebron.[230][226] The pattern of settlement followed by an outbreak of hostilities with local Palestinians was repeated later at Tel Rumeida.[231]

Beit Romano

Beit Romano was built and owned by Yisrael Avraham Romano of Constantinople and served Sephardi Jews from Turkey. In 1901, a Yeshiva was established there with a dozen teachers and up to 60 students.[225]

In 1982, Israeli authorities took over a Palestinian education office (Osama Ben Munqez School) and the adjacent bus station. The school was turned into a settlement, and the bus station into a military base against an order of the Israeli Supreme Court.[221]

Tel Rumeida

In 1807 the immigrant Sephardic Rabbi Haim Yeshua Hamitzri (Haim the Jewish Egyptian) purchased 5 dunams on the outskirts of the city and in 1811 he signed a contract for a 99-year lease on a further 800 dunams of land, which included 4 plots in Tel Rumeida. The plots were administered by his descendant Haim Bajaio after Jews left Hebron. Settlers' claims to this land are based on these precedents, but are dismissed by the rabbi's heir.[232]

In 1984, settlers established a caravan outpost there called (Ramat Yeshai). In 1998, the Government recognized it as a settlement, and in 2001 the Defence Minister approved the building of the first housing units.[221]

Avraham Avinu

 
Abraham Avinu Synagogue in 1925

The Abraham Avinu Synagogue was the physical and spiritual center of its neighborhood and regarded as one of the most beautiful synagogues in Palestine. It was the centre of Jewish worship in Hebron until it was burnt down during the 1929 riots. In 1948 under Jordanian rule, the remaining ruins were razed.[233]

The Avraham Avinu quarter was established next to the Vegetable and Wholesale Markets on Al-Shuhada Street in the south of the Old City. The vegetable market was closed by the Israeli military and some of the neighbouring houses were occupied by settlers and soldiers. Settlers started to take over the closed Palestinian stores, despite explicit orders of the Israeli Supreme Court that the settlers should vacate these stores and the Palestinians should be allowed to return.[221]

Further settlement activities

In 2012, Israel Defense Forces called for the immediate removal of a new settlement, because it was seen as a provocation.[234] The IDF has enforced settler demands against the flying of Palestinian flags on a Hebronite rooftop contiguous to settlements, though no rule forbids the practice.[235] In August 2016, Israel announced its intention to allow settlement building in the military compound of Plugat Hamitkanim in Hebron, which had been expropriated for military purposes in the 1990s.[236]

In late 2019, the Israeli Defense Minister Naftali Bennett instructed the military administration to inform the Palestinian municipality of the government's intention to reconstruct infrastructure in the old Hebron fruit and vegetable market in order to establish a Jewish neighbourhood there, which would allow for doubling the city's settler population. The area's original residents, who have protected tenancy rights there, were compelled to evacuate the zone after the Cave of the Patriarch's massacre. The original site was under Jewish ownership prior to 1948. The plan proposes that the empty shops remain Palestinian while the units built over them house Jewish Israelis.[237][238][239]

Demographics

In 1820, it was reported that there were about 1,000 Jews in Hebron.[240] In 1838, Hebron had an estimated 1,500 taxable Muslim households, in addition to 41 Jewish tax-payers. Taxpayers consisted here of male heads of households who owned even a very small shop or piece of land. 200 Jews and one Christian household were under 'European protections'. The total population was estimated at 10,000.[126] In 1842, it was estimated that about 400 Arab and 120 Jewish families lived in Hebron, the latter having been diminished in number following the destruction of 1834.[241]

Year Muslims Christians Jews Total Notes and sources
1538 749 h 7 h 20 h 776 h (h = households), Cohen & Lewis[242]
1774 300 Azulai[243]
1817 500 Israel Foreign Ministry[244]
1820 1,000 William Turner[240]
1824 60 h (40 h Sephardim, 20 h Ashkenazim), The Missionary Herald[245]
1832 400 h 100 h 500 h (h = households), Augustin Calmet, Charles Taylor, Edward Robinson[246]
1837 423 Montefiore census
1838 c.6-7,000 "few" 700 7-8,000 William McClure Thomson[247]
1839 1295 f 1 f 241 (f = families), David Roberts[248][249]
1840 700–800 James A. Huie[250]
1851 11,000 450 Official register[251]
1851 400 Clorinda Minor[252]
1866 497 Montefiore census
1871/2 2,800 h 200 h 3,000 h Ottoman records for the Syrian provincial sālnāme for these years[253]
1875 8,000-10,000 500 Albert Socin[251]
1875 17,000 600 Hebron Kaymakam[251]
1881 1,000-1,200 PEF Survey of Palestine[251]
1881 800 5,000 The Friend[254]
1890 1,490 Jewish Encyclopedia
1895 1,400 [255]
1906 1,100 14,000 (690 Sephardim, 410 Ashkenazim), Jewish Encyclopedia
1922 16,074 73 430 16,577 1922 census of Palestine[256]
1929 700 Israel Foreign Ministry[244]
1930 0 Israel Foreign Ministry[244]
1931 17,277 109 134 17,532 1931 census of Palestine[257]
1945 24,400 150 0 24,560 Village Statistics, 1945[258]
1961 37,868 Jordanian census[259][260]
1967 38,073 136 38,348 Israeli census[261]
1997 n/a n/a 530[244] 119,093 Palestinian census[262]
2007 n/a n/a 500[263] 163,146 Palestinian census[264]

Urban development

 
View of Hebron 2006

Historically, the city consisted of four densely populated quarters: the suq and Harat al-Masharqa adjacent to the Ibrahimi mosque, the silk merchant quarter (Haret Kheitun) to the south and the Sheikh quarter (Haret al-Sheikh) to the north. It is believed the basic urban structure of the city had been established by the Mamluk period, during which time the city also had Jewish, Christian and Kurdish quarters.[265]

In the mid 19th-century, Hebron was still divided into four quarters, but the Christian quarter had disappeared.[265] The sections included the ancient quarter surrounding the cave of Machpelah, the Haret Kheitun (the Jewish quarter, Haret el-Yahud), the Haret el-Sheikh and the Druze quarter.[266] As Hebron's population gradually increased, inhabitants preferred to build upwards rather than leave the safety of their neighbourhoods. By the 1880s, better security provided by the Ottoman authorities allowed the town to expand and a new commercial centre, Bab el-Zawiye, emerged.[267] As development continued, new spacious and taller structures were built to the north-west.[268] In 1918, the town consisted of dense clusters of residential dwellings along the valley, rising onto the slopes above it.[269] By the 1920s, the town was made up of seven quarters: el-Sheikh and Bab el-Zawiye to the west, el-Kazzazin, el-Akkabi and el-Haram in the centre, el-Musharika to the south and el-Kheitun in the east.[270] Urban sprawl had spread onto the surrounding hills by 1945.[269] The large population increase under Jordanian rule resulted in about 1,800 new houses being built, most of them along the Hebron-Jerusalem highway, stretching northwards for over 3 miles (5 km) at a depth of 600 ft (200m) either way. Some 500 houses were built elsewhere on surrounding rural land. There was less development to the south-east, where housing units extended along the valley for about 1 mile (1.5 km).[181]

In 1971, with the assistance of the Israeli and Jordanian governments, the Hebron University, an Islamic university, was founded.[271][272]

In an attempt to enhance the view of the Ibrahami Mosque, Jordan demolished whole blocks of ancient houses opposite its entrance, which also resulted in improved access to the historic site.[273] The Jordanians also demolished the old synagogue located in the el-Kazzazin quarter. In 1976, Israel recovered the site which had been converted into an animal pen, and by 1989, a settler courtyard had been established there.[274]

 
Hebron market

Today, the area along the north-south axis to the east comprises the modern town of Hebron (also called Upper Hebron, Khalil Foq). It was established towards the end of the Ottoman period, its inhabitants being upper and middle class Hebronites who from there from the crowded old city, Balde al-Qadime (also called Lower Hebron, Khalil Takht).[275] The northern part of Upper Hebron includes some up-scale residential districts and also houses the Hebron University, private hospitals and the only two hotels in the city. The main commercial artery of the city is located here, situated along the Jerusalem Road, and includes modern multi-storey shopping malls. Also in this area are villas and apartment complexes built on the krum, rural lands and vineyards, which used to function as recreation areas during the summer months until the early Jordanian period.[275] The southern part is where the working-class neighbourhoods are located, along with large industrial zones and the Hebron Polytechnic University.[275]

The main municipal and governmental buildings are located in the centre of the city. This area includes high-rise concrete and glass developments and also some distinct Ottoman era one-storey family houses, adorned with arched entrances, decorative motifs and ironwork. Hebron's domestic appliance and textile markets are located here along two parallel roads which lead to the entrance of the old city.[275] Many of these have been relocated from the old commercial centre of the city, known as the vegetable market (hesbe), which was closed down by the Israeli military during the 1990s. The vegetable market is now located in the square of Bab el-Zawiye.[275]

Shoe industry

From the 1970s to the early 1990s, a third of those who lived in the city worked in the shoe industry. According to the shoe factory owner Tareq Abu Felat, the number reached least 35,000 people and there were more than 1,000 workshops around the city.[276] Statistics from the Chamber of Commerce in Hebron put the figure at 40,000 people employed in 1,200 shoe businesses.[277] However, the 1993 Oslo Accords and 1994 Protocol on Economic Relations between Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) made it possible to mass import Chinese goods as the Palestinian National Authority, which was created after the Oslo Accords, did not regulate it. They later put import taxes but the Abu Felat, who also is the Palestinian Federation of Leather Industries's chairman, said more is still needed.[276] The Palestinian government decided to impose an additional tax of 35% on products from China from April 2013.[277]

90% of the shoes in Palestine are now estimated to come from China, which Palestinian industry workers say are of much lower quality but also much cheaper,[276] and the Chinese are more aesthetic. Another factor contributing to the decline of the local industry is Israeli restrictions on Palestinian exports.[277]

Today, there are less than 300 workshops in the shoe industry, who only run part-time, and they employ around 3,000–4,000 people. More than 50% of the shoes are exported to Israel, where consumers have a better economy. Less than 25% goes to the Palestinian market, with some going to Jordan, Saudi Arabia and other Arab countries.[276]

Political status

Under the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine passed by the UN in 1947, Hebron was envisaged to become part of an Arab state. While the Jewish leaders accepted the partition plan, the Arab leadership (the Arab Higher Committee in Palestine and the Arab League) rejected it, opposing any partition.[278][279] The aftermath of the 1948 war saw the city occupied and later unilaterally annexed by the kingdom of Jordan in a move supported by local Hebron officials. Following the Six-Day War of 1967, Israel occupied Hebron. In 1997, in accordance with the Hebron Agreement, Israel withdrew from 80 per cent of Hebron which was handed over to the Palestinian Authority. Palestinian police would assume responsibilities in Area H1 and Israel would retain control in Area H2.

An international unarmed observer force—the Temporary International Presence in Hebron (TIPH) was subsequently established to help the normalization of the situation and to maintain a buffer between the Palestinian Arab population of the city and the Jewish population residing in their enclave in the old city. The TIPH operates with the permission of the Israeli government, meeting regularly with the Israeli army and the Israeli Civil Administration, and is granted free access throughout the city. In 2018, the TIPH came under criticism in Israel due to incidents where an employee was, according to the Israeli police, filmed puncturing the tires of the car of an Israeli settler, and another instance where an observer was deported after slapped a settler boy.[217]

Intercommunal violence

Main article: Israeli–Palestinian conflict in Hebron

Hebron was the one city excluded from the interim agreement of September 1995 to restore rule over all Palestinian West Bank cities to the Palestinian Authority.[206] IDF soldiers see their job as being to protect Israeli settlers from Palestinian residents, not to police the Israeli settlers. IDF soldiers are instructed to leave violent Israeli settlers for the police to deal with.[280][281]

 
A net installed in the Old City to prevent garbage dropped by Israeli settlers into a Palestinian area.[282]

Since The Oslo Agreement, violent episodes have been recurrent in the city. The Cave of the Patriarchs massacre took place on February 25, 1994 when Baruch Goldstein, an Israeli physician and resident of Kiryat Arba, opened fire on Muslims at prayer in the Ibrahimi Mosque, killing 29, and wounding 125 before the survivors overcame and killed him.[283] Standing orders for Israeli soldiers on duty in Hebron disallowed them from firing on fellow Jews, even if they were shooting Arabs.[284] This event was condemned by the Israeli Government, and the extreme right-wing Kach party was banned as a result.[285] The Israeli government also tightened restrictions on the movement of Palestinians in H2, closed their vegetable and meat markets, and banned Palestinian cars on Al-Shuhada Street.[286] The park near the Cave of the Patriarchs for recreation and barbecues is off-limits for Arab Hebronites.[287]

Over the period of the First Intifada and Second Intifada, the Jewish community was subjected to attacks by Palestinian militants, especially during the periods of the intifadas; which saw 3 fatal stabbings and 9 fatal shootings in between the first and second Intifada (0.9% of all fatalities in Israel and the West Bank) and 17 fatal shootings (9 soldiers and 8 settlers) and 2 fatalities from a bombing during the second Intifada,[288] and thousands of rounds fired on it from the hills above the Abu-Sneina and Harat al-Sheikh neighbourhoods. 12 Israeli soldiers were killed (Hebron Brigade commander Colonel Dror Weinberg and two other officers, 6 soldiers and 3 members of the security unit of Kiryat Arba) in an ambush.[289] Two Temporary International Presence in Hebron observers were killed by Palestinian gunmen in a shooting attack on the road to Hebron[290][291][292] On March 27, 2001, a Palestinian sniper targeted and killed the Jewish baby Shalhevet Pass. The sniper was caught in 2002.[citation needed]

In the 1980s Hebron, became the center of the Jewish Kach movement, a designated terrorist organization,[293] whose first operations started there, and provided a model for similar behaviour in other settlements.[294] Hebron is one of the three West Bank towns from which the majority of suicide bombers originate. In May 2003, three students of the Hebron Polytechnic University carried out three separate suicide attacks.[295] In August 2003, in what both Islamic groups described as a retaliation, a 29-year-old preacher from Hebron, Raed Abdel-Hamed Mesk, broke a unilateral Palestinian ceasefire by killing 23 and injured over 130 in a bus bombing in Jerusalem.[296][297]

 
Hebron Chamber of Commerce

Israeli organization B'Tselem states that there have been "grave violations" of Palestinian human rights in Hebron because of the "presence of the settlers within the city." The organization cites regular incidents of "almost daily physical violence and property damage by settlers in the city", curfews and restrictions of movement that are "among the harshest in the Occupied Territories", and violence by Israeli border policemen and the IDF against Palestinians who live in the city's H2 sector.[298][299][300] According to Human Rights Watch, Palestinian areas of Hebron are frequently subject to indiscriminate firing by the IDF, leading to many casualties.[301] One former IDF soldier, with experience in policing Hebron, has testified to Breaking the Silence, that on the briefing wall of his unit a sign describing their mission aim was hung that read: "To disrupt the routine of the inhabitants of the neighbourhood."[302] Hebron mayor Mustafa Abdel Nabi invited the Christian Peacemaker Teams to assist the local Palestinian community in opposition to what they describe as Israeli military occupation, collective punishment, settler harassment, home demolitions and land expropriation.[303]

A violent episode occurred on 2 May 1980, when an Al Fatah squad killed five yeshiva students and one other person on their way home from Sabbath prayer at the Tomb of the Patriarchs.[304] The event provided a major motivation for settlers near Hebron to join the Jewish Underground.[305] On July 26, 1983, Israeli settlers attacked the Islamic University and shot three people dead and injured over thirty others.[306]

The 1994 Shamgar Commission of Inquiry concluded that Israeli authorities had consistently failed to investigate or prosecute crimes committed by settlers against Palestinians. Hebron IDF commander Noam Tivon said that his foremost concern is to "ensure the security of the Jewish settlers" and that Israeli "soldiers have acted with the utmost restraint and have not initiated any shooting attacks or violence."[307]

Historic sites

Main article: Old City of Hebron

The Old City of Hebron was a declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO on 7 July 2017,[308] despite opposition from Israeli officials who objected to it not being called Israeli or Jewish.[309]

The most famous historic site in Hebron is the Cave of the Patriarchs. The Herodian era structure is said to enclose the tombs of the biblical Patriarchs and Matriarchs. The Isaac Hall now serves as the Ibrahimi mosque, while the Abraham and Jacob Hall serve as a synagogue. The tombs of other biblical figures (Abner ben Ner, Otniel ben Kenaz, Ruth and Jesse) are also located in the city.

The Oak of Sibta (Oak of Abraham) is an ancient tree which, in non-Jewish tradition,[310] is said to mark the place where Abraham pitched his tent. The Russian Orthodox Church owns the site and the nearby Abraham's Oak Holy Trinity Monastery, consecrated in 1925.

Hebron is one of the few cities to have preserved its Mamluk architecture. Many structures were built during the period, especially Sufi zawiyas.[311] Mosques from the era include the Sheikh Ali al-Bakka and Al-Jawali mosque. The early Ottoman Abraham Avinu Synagogue in the city's historic Jewish quarter was built in 1540 and restored in 1738.

Religious traditions

 
The Russian Orthodox monastery, Hebron

Some Jewish traditions regarding Adam place him in Hebron after his expulsion from Eden. Another has Cain kill Abel there. A third has Adam and Eve buried in the cave of Machpelah. A Jewish-Christian tradition had it that Adam was formed from the red clay of the field of Damascus, near Hebron.[312][313] A tradition arose in medieval Jewish texts that the Cave of the Patriarchs itself was the very entrance to the Garden of Eden.[314] During the Middle Ages, pilgrims and the inhabitants of Hebron would eat the red earth as a charm against misfortune.[315][316] Others report that the soil was harvested for export as a precious medicinal spice in Egypt, Arabia, Ethiopia and India and that the earth refilled after every digging.[312] Legend also tells that Noah planted his vineyard on Mount Hebron.[317] In medieval Christian tradition, Hebron was one of the three cities where Elizabeth was said to live, the legend implying that it might have been the birthplace of John the Baptist.[318][319]

One Islamic tradition has it that Muhammad alighted in Hebron during his night journey from Mecca to Jerusalem, and the mosque in the city is said to conserve one of his shoes.[320] Another tradition states that Muhammad arranged for Hebron and its surrounding villages to become part of Tamim al-Dari's domain; this was implemented during Umar's reign as caliph. According to the arrangement, al-Dari and his descendants were only permitted to tax the residents for their land and the waqf of the Ibrahimi Mosque was entrusted to them.[321]

The simat al-Khalil or "Table of Abraham" is attested to in the writings of the 11th century Persian traveller Nasir-i Khusraw. According to the account, this early Islamic food distribution center — which predates the Ottoman imarets — gave all visitors to Hebron a loaf of bread, a bowl of lentils in olive oil, and some raisins.[322]

According to Tamara Neuman, settlement by a community of Jewish religious fundamentalists has brought about three major changes by (a)redesigning a Palestinian area in terms of biblical imagery and origins: (b) remaking over these revamped religious sites to endow them with an innovative centrality to Jewish worship, that, she argues, effectively erases the diasporic thrust of Jewish tradition; and (c) writing out the overlapping aspects of Judaism, Christianity and Islam in such a way that the possibility of accommodation between the three intertwined traditions is eradicated, while the presence of Palestinians themselves is erased by violent methods.[323]

Twin towns/Sister cities

Hebron is twinned with:

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Y.L. Arbeitman,The Hittite is Thy Mother: An Anatolian Approach to Genesis 23, (1981) pp.889-1026, argues that an Indo-European root *ar-, with the same meaning as the semitic root ḥbr, namely 'to join' may underlie part of the earlier name Kiryat-Arba [27]

Citations

  1. ^ "Palestinian terrorist in killing of 6 Jews elected Hebron mayor". Times of Israel. 14 May 2017. Retrieved 17 May 2017.
  2. ^ "Hebron City Profile – ARIJ" (PDF).
  3. ^ 1 2 Hebron page 80, Hebron is 45 square kilometres (17 sq mi) in area and has a population of 250,000, according to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics for the year 2007. The figure given here refers to the population of the city of Hebron itself.
  4. ^ The book: Medieval Islamic Civilization: A-K, index; By: Josef W. Meri; p.318; "Hebron(al-Khalil al-Rahman"
  5. ^ Kamrava 2010, p. 236.
  6. ^ a b Alimi 2013, p. 178.
  7. ^ Rothrock 2011, p. 100.
  8. ^ Beilin 2004, p. 59.
  9. ^ "Palestinian Residents of Jerusalem". Jerusalem Institute for Policy Research. 2014-08-13. Retrieved 2022-06-12.
  10. ^ "West Bank". ATG. 2014-10-22. Retrieved 2022-06-12.
  11. ^ Neuman 2018, pp. 2–3
  12. ^ a b Neuman 2018, p. 3
  13. ^ Burckhardt; Burckhardt, John Lewis; Africa, Association for Promoting the Discovery of the Interior Parts of (1822). Travels in Syria and the Holy Land. J. Murray. ISBN 978-1-4142-8338-8.
  14. ^ Gavish, Haya (2010). Unwitting Zionists: The Jewish Community of Zakho in Iraqi Kurdistan. Wayne State University Press. ISBN 978-0-8143-3366-2.
  15. ^ a b c Scharfstein 1994, p. 124.
  16. ^ Dumper 2003, p. 164
  17. ^ Salaville 1910, p. 185:'For these reasons after the Arab conquest of 637 Hebron "was chosen as one of the four holy cities of Islam.'
  18. ^ Aksan & Goffman 2007, p. 97: 'Suleyman considered himself the ruler of the four holy cities of Islam, and, along with Mecca and Medina, included Hebron and Jerusalem in his rather lengthy list of official titles.'
  19. ^ Honigmann 1993, p. 886.
  20. ^ a b c d e "Hebron | city, West Bank | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2022-06-11.
  21. ^ For example:
    * The New Yorker, [1], January 24, 2019; "Hebron is a microcosm of the West Bank, a place where the key practices of the Israeli occupation can be observed up close, in a single afternoon."
    *Orna Ben-Naftali; Michael Sfard; Hedi Viterbo (10 May 2018). The ABC of the OPT: A Legal Lexicon of the Israeli Control over the Occupied Palestinian Territory. Cambridge University Press. p. 527. ISBN 978-1-107-15652-4. Hebron is a microcosm of the control Israel exercises over the West Bank.
    Joyce Dalsheim (1 July 2014). Producing Spoilers: Peacemaking and the Production of Enmity in a Secular Age. Oxford University Press. p. 93. ISBN 978-0-19-938723-6. Hebron is sometimes thought of as a concentrated microcosm of the conflict in Israel/Palestine. Sometimes it is imagined as a microcosm of Israeli occupation in post-1967 territories, sometimes as a microcosm of the settler-colonial project in Palestine, and sometimes as a microcosm of the Jewish state surrounded by Arab enemies.
  22. ^ Neuman 2018, p. 4.
  23. ^ 'Projected Mid -Year Population for Hebron Governorate by Locality 2017-2021,' Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics 2021
  24. ^ Zacharia 2010.
  25. ^ Hasasneh 2005.
  26. ^ Flusfeder 1997
  27. ^ Niesiolowski-Spano 2016, p. 124.
  28. ^ Cazelles 1981, p. 195 compares Amorite ḫibrum. Two roots are in play, ḥbr/ḫbr. The root has magical overtones, and develops pejorative connotations in late Biblical usage.
  29. ^ Qur'an 4:125/Surah 4 Aya (verse) 125, Qur'an (. Archived from the original on October 27, 2009. Retrieved 2007-07-30.)
  30. ^ Büssow 2011, p. 194 n.220
  31. ^ a b Sharon 2007, p. 104
  32. ^ Negev & Gibson 2001, pp. 225–5.
  33. ^ Na'aman 2005, p. 180
  34. ^ Towner 2001, pp. 144–45: "[T]he city was a Canaanite royal center long before it became Israelite".
  35. ^ Albright 2000, p. 110
  36. ^ Na'aman 2005, pp. 77–78
  37. ^ Smith 1903, p. 200.
  38. ^ Kraeling 1925, p. 179.
  39. ^ Na'aman 2005, p. 361 These non-Semitic names perhaps echo either a tradition of a group of elite professional troops (Philistines, Hittites), formed in Canaan whose ascendancy was overthrown by the West-Semitic clan of Caleb. They would have migrated from the Negev,
  40. ^ Joseph Blenkinsopp (1972). Gibeon and Israel. Cambridge University Press. p. 18. ISBN 0-521-08368-0.
  41. ^ Joshua 10:3, 5, 3–39; 12:10, 13. Na'aman 2005, p. 177 doubts this tradition. "The book of Joshua is not a reliable source for either a historical or a territorial discussion of the Late Bronze Age, and its evidence must be disregarded".
  42. ^ Mulder 2004, p. 165
  43. ^ Alter 1996, p. 108.
  44. ^ Hamilton 1995, p. 126.
  45. ^ Finkelstein & Silberman 2001, p. 45.
  46. ^ Lied 2008, pp. 154–62, 162
  47. ^ Elazar 1998, p. 128: (Genesis.ch. 23)
  48. ^ Magen 2007, p. 185.
  49. ^ Glick 1994, p. 46, citing Joshua 10:36–42 and the influence this has had on certain settlers in the West Bank.
  50. ^ Gottwald 1999, p. 153: "certain conquests claimed for Joshua are elsewhere attributed to single tribes or clans, for example, in the case of Hebron (in Joshua 10:36–37, Hebron's capture is attributed to Joshua; in Judges 1:10 to Judah; in Judges 1:20 and Joshua 14:13–14; 15:13–14" to Caleb.
  51. ^ Bratcher & Newman 1983, p. 262.
  52. ^ Schafer-Lichtenberger (1 September 1996). "Sociological views". In Volkmar Fritz (ed.). The Origins of the Ancient Israelite States. Philip R. Davies. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-0-567-60296-1.
  53. ^ Gottwald 1999, p. 173, citing 2 Samuel, 5:3.
  54. ^ Japhet 1993, p. 148. See Joshua 20, 1–7.
  55. ^ Hasson 2016
  56. ^ Jericke 2003, p. 17
  57. ^ Jericke 2003, pp. 26ff., 31.
  58. ^ Carter 1999, pp. 96–99 Carter challenges this view on the grounds that it has no archeological support.
  59. ^ Lemaire 2006, p. 419
  60. ^ Jericke 2003, p. 19.
  61. ^ Josephus 1860, p. 334 Josephus Flavius, Antiquities of the Jews, Bk. 12, ch.8, para.6.
  62. ^ Duke 2010, pp. 93–94 is sceptical.'This should be considered a raid on Hebron instead of a conquest based on subsequent events in the book of I Maccabees.'
  63. ^ Duke 2010, p. 94
  64. ^ Jericke 2003, p. 17:'Spätestens in römischer Zeit ist die Ansiedlung im Tal beim heutigen Stadtzentrum zu finden'.
  65. ^ Josephus 1860, p. 701 Josephus, The Jewish War, Bk 4, ch. 9, p. 9.
  66. ^ Schürer, Millar & Vermes 1973, p. 553 n.178 citing Jerome, in Zachariam 11:5; in Hieremiam 6:18; Chronicon paschale.
  67. ^ Hezser 2002, p. 96.
  68. ^ Norwich 1999, p. 285
  69. ^ a b Salaville 1910, p. 185
  70. ^ Gil 1997, pp. 56–57 cites the late testimony of two monks, Eudes and Arnoul CE 1119–1120:'When they (the Muslims) came to Hebron they were amazed to see the strong and handsome structures of the walls and they could not find an opening through which to enter, then the Jews happened to come, who lived in the area under the former rule of the Greeks (that is the Byzantines), and they said to the Muslims: give us (a letter of security) that we may continue to live (in our places) under your rule (literally-amongst you) and permit us to build a synagogue in front of the entrance (to the city). If you will do this, we shall show you where you can break in. And it was so'.
  71. ^ Büssow 2011, p. 195
  72. ^ Hiro 1999, p. 166.
  73. ^ Frenkel, 2011, p.28–29
  74. ^ Forbes 1965, p. 155, citing Anton Kisa et al.,Das Glas im Altertum, 1908.
  75. ^ Gil 1997, pp. 205
  76. ^ Al-Muqaddasi 2001, pp. 156–57. For an older translation see Le Strange 1890, pp. 309–10
  77. ^ Le Strange 1890, pp. 310–11
  78. ^ Le Strange 1890, p. 315
  79. ^ Singer 2002, p. 148.
  80. ^ Gil 1997, p. 206
  81. ^ Robinson & Smith 1856, p. 78:'The Castle of St. Abraham' was the generic Crusader name for Hebron.'
  82. ^ Israel tourguide, Avraham Lewensohn, 1979. p. 222.
  83. ^ Murray 2000, p. 107
  84. ^ Runciman 1965a, p. 307Runciman also (pp. 307–08) notes that Gerard of Avesnes was a knight from Hainault held hostage at Arsuf, north of Jaffa, who had been wounded by Godfrey's own forces during the siege of the port, and later returned by the Muslims to Godfrey as a token of good will.
  85. ^ Runciman 1965b, p. 4
  86. ^ Le Strange 1890, pp. 317–18
  87. ^ Kohler 1896, pp. 447ff.
  88. ^ Runciman 1965b, p. 319.
  89. ^ Kraemer 2001, p. 422.
  90. ^ Boas 1999, p. 52.
  91. ^ Richard 1999, p. 112.
  92. ^ Benjamin 1907, p. 25.
  93. ^ Gil 1997, p. 207. Note to editors. This account, always in Moshe Gil, refers to two distinct events, the Arab conquest from Byzantium, and the Kurdish-Arab conquest from Crusaders. In both the manuscript is a monkish chronicle, and the words used, and event described is identical. We may have a secondary source confusion here.
  94. ^ Sharon 2003, p. 297.
  95. ^ Runciman 1965c, p. 219
  96. ^ Micheau 2006, p. 402
  97. ^ Murphy-O'Connor 1998, p. 274.
  98. ^ Sharon 1997, pp. 117–18.
  99. ^ Dandis, Wala. History of Hebron. 2011-11-07. Retrieved on 2012-03-02.
  100. ^ Meri 2004, pp. 362–63.
  101. ^ Kosover 1966, p. 5.
  102. ^ David 2010, p. 24.
  103. ^ Lamdan 2000, p. 102.
  104. ^ Robinson & Smith 1856, pp. 440–42, n.1.
  105. ^ Singer 2002, p. 148
  106. ^ Robinson & Smith 1856, p. 458.
  107. ^ Berger 2012, p. 246..
  108. ^ Idel 2005, p. 131.[full citation needed]
  109. ^ Green 2007, pp. xv–xix.
  110. ^ a b Büssow 2011, p. 195.
  111. ^ David 2010, p. 24. Tahrir registers document 20 households in 1538/9, 8 in 1553/4, 11 in 1562 and 1596/7. Gil however suggests the tahrir records of the Jewish population may be understated.
  112. ^ Schwarz 1850, p. 397
  113. ^ Perera 1996, p. 104.
  114. ^ Barnay 1992, pp. 89–90 gives the figures of 12,000 quadrupling to 46,000 Kuruş.
  115. ^ Marcus 1996, p. 85. In 1770, they received financial assistance from North American Jews which amounted in excess of £100.
  116. ^ Van Luit 2009, p. 42. In 1803, the rabbis and elders of the Jewish community were imprisoned after failing to pay their debts. In 1807 the community did however succeed in purchasing a 5-dunam (5,000 m²) plot where Hebron's wholesale market stands today.
  117. ^ Conder 1830, p. 198.
  118. ^ Conder 1830, p. 198. The source was a manuscript, The Travels of Ali Bey, vol. ii, pp. 232–33.
  119. ^ Schölch 1993, p. 161.
  120. ^ Büssow 2011, p. 198
  121. ^ WV 1833, p. 436.
  122. ^ Shaw 1808, p. 144
  123. ^ Finn 1868, p. 39.
  124. ^ Krämer 2011, p. 68
  125. ^ Kimmerling & Migdal 2003, pp. 6–11, esp. p. 8
  126. ^ a b c Robinson & Smith 1856, p. 88.
  127. ^ Schwarz 1850, p. 403.
  128. ^ Schwarz 1850, pp. 398–99.
  129. ^ Schwarz 1850, pp. 398–400
  130. ^ Finn 1878, pp. 287ff.
  131. ^ Schölch 1993, pp. 234–35.
  132. ^ Cohen 2015, p. 15.
  133. ^ Schwarz 1850, p. 401
  134. ^ Wilson 1847, pp. 355–381, 372:The rabbi of the Ashkenazi community, who said they numbered 60 mainly Polish and Russian emigrants, professed no knowledge of the Sephardim in Hebron (p.377).
  135. ^ Sicker 1999, p. 6.
  136. ^ Büssow 2011, pp. 198–99.
  137. ^ Wilson 1847, p. 379.
  138. ^ Wilson 1881, p. 195 mentions a different set of names, the Quarter of the Cloister Gate (Harat Bab ez Zawiyeh);the Quarter of the Sanctuary (Haret el Haram), to the south-east.
  139. ^ Schölch 1993, pp. 236–37.
  140. ^ Finn 1878, pp. 305–308.
  141. ^ a b Shragai 2008.
  142. ^ History of the Jews of the Netherlands Antilles, Volume 2, Isaac Samuel Emmanuel, Suzanne A. Emmanuel, American Jewish Archives, 1970. p. 754: "Between 1869 and 1871 Hebron was plagued with a severe drought. Food was so scarce that the little available sold for ten times the normal value. Although the rains came in 1871, there was no easing of the famine, for the farmers had no seed to sow. The [Jewish] community was obliged to borrow money from non-Jews at exorbitant interest rates in order to buy wheat for their fold. Their leaders finally decided to send their eminent Chief Rabbi Eliau [Soliman] Mani to Egypt to obtain relief."
  143. ^ Khalidi 1998, p. 218.
  144. ^ a b Conder 1879, p. 79
  145. ^ Schölch 1993, pp. 161–62 quoting David Delpuget Les Juifs d´Alexandrie, de Jaffa et de Jérusalem en 1865, Bordeaux, 1866, p. 26.
  146. ^ Schölch 1993, pp. 161–62.
  147. ^ a b Tarākī 2006, pp. 12–14
  148. ^ Tarākī 2006, pp. 12–14: "Throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and well into the twentieth, Hebron was a peripheral, "borderline" community, attracting poor itinerant peasants and those with Sufi inclinations from its environs. The tradition of shorabat Sayyidna Ibrahim, a soup kitchen surviving into the present day and supervised by the awqaf, and that of the Sufi zawaya gave the city a reputation for being an asylum for the poor and the spiritual, cementing the poor cast of a town supporting the unproductive and the needy (Ju'beh 2003). This reputation was bound to shed a conservative, dull cast on the city, a place not known for high living, dynamism, or innovativeness."
  149. ^ Kimmerling & Migdal 2003, p. 41
  150. ^ Gorenberg 2007, p. 145.
  151. ^ Laurens 1999, p. 508.
  152. ^ Renan 1864, p. 93 remarked of the town that it was 'one of the bulwarks of Semitic ideas, in their most austere form.'
  153. ^ Büssow 2011, p. 199.
  154. ^ Kimmerling & Migdal 2003, p. 92.
  155. ^ Campos 2007, pp. 55–56
  156. ^ Kupferschmidt 1987, pp. 110–11.
  157. ^ J. B. Barron, ed. Palestine, Report and General Abstracts of the Census of 1922. Government of Palestine, page 9
  158. ^ M. Th. Houtsma (1993). E. J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936. Vol. 4. BRILL. p. 887. ISBN 90-04-09790-2.
  159. ^ Cohen 2008, p. 64.
  160. ^ Kupferschmidt 1987, p. 82: "In any event, after his appointment, Abd al-Hayy al-Khatib not only played a prominent role in the disturbances of 1929, but, in general, appeared as one of the few loyal adherents of Hajj Amin in that town."
  161. ^ Tarākī 2006, pp. 12–14.
  162. ^ Cohen 2008, pp. 19–20.
  163. ^ Ilan Ben Zion, 'Eyeing Nepal, experts warn Israel is unprepared for its own Big One,' The Times of Israel 27 April 2015.
  164. ^ Kupferschmidt 1987, p. 237
  165. ^ Wein 1993, pp. 138–39,
  166. ^ Bauman 1994, p. 22
  167. ^ Krämer 2011, p. 232.
  168. ^ Segev 2001, p. 318.
  169. ^ Kimmerling & Migdal 2003, p. 92
  170. ^ Post-holocaust and anti-semitism – Issues 40–75 – Page 35 Merkaz ha-Yerushalmi le-ʻinyene tsibur u-medinah, Temple University. Center for Jewish Community Studies – 2006: “After the 1929 riots in Mandatory Palestine, the non-Jewish French writer Albert Londres asked him why the Arabs had murdered the old, pious Jews in Hebron and Safed, with whom they had no quarrel. The mayor answered: "In a way you behave like in a war. You don't kill what you want. You kill what you find. Next time they will all be killed, young and old." Later on, Londres spoke again to the mayor and tested him ironically by saying: "You cannot kill all the Jews. There are 150,000 of them." Nashashibi answered "in a soft voice, 'Oh no, it'll take two days.”
  171. ^ Segev 2001, pp. 325–26: The Zionist Archives preserves lists of Jews who were saved by Arabs; one list contains 435 names.
  172. ^ Republic, The New (May 7, 2008). "The Tangled Truth". The New Republic.
  173. ^ Campos 2007, pp. 56–57
  174. ^ a b Chaim Levinsohn, 'Israel Supreme Court Rules Hebron Jews Can't Reclaim Lands Lost After 1948 ,' Haaretz 18 February 2011.
  175. ^ The Road to Jerusalem: Glubb Pasha, Palestine and the Jews, Benny Morris – 2003. pp. 186–87.
  176. ^ Thomas A Idinopulos, Jerusalem, 1994, p. 300, "So severe were the Jordanian restrictions against Jews gaining access to the old city that visitors wishing to cross over from west Jerusalem...had to produce a baptismal certificate."
  177. ^ Armstrong, Karen, Jerusalem: One City, Three Faiths, 1997, "Only clergy, diplomats, UN personnel, and a few privileged tourists were permitted to go from one side to the other. The Jordanians required most tourists to produce baptismal certificates—to prove they were not Jewish ... ."
  178. ^ Robins 2004, pp. 71–72
  179. ^ Michael Dumper; Bruce E. Stanley (2007). Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 165. ISBN 978-1-57607-919-5.
  180. ^ The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Sir H. A. R. Gibb 1980. p. 337.
  181. ^ a b Efrat 1984, p. 192
  182. ^ Auerbach 2009, p. 79: "Under Jordanian rule, the last vestiges of a Jewish historical presence in Hebron were obliterated. The Avraham Avinu synagogue, already in ruins, was razed; a pen for goats, sheep, and donkeys was built on the site."
  183. ^ Gorenberg 2007, pp. 80–83.
  184. ^ Gorenberg 2007, pp. 138–39
  185. ^ Sternhell 1999, p. 333
  186. ^ Sternhell 1999, p. 337:'In building this new Jewish town, one was sending a message to the international community: for the Jews, the sites connected with Jewish history are inalienable, and if later, for circumstantial reasons, the state of Israel is obliged to give one or another of them up, the step is not considered final.'
  187. ^ Gorenberg 2007, p. 151: 'David's kingdom was a model for the messianic kingdom. David began in Hebron, so settling Hebron would lead to final redemption.'
  188. ^ Segev 2008, p. 698: "Hebron was considered a holy city; the massacre of Jews there in 1929 was imprinted on national memory along with the great pogroms of Eastern Europe. The messianic fervor that characterized the Hebron settlers was more powerful than the awakening that led people to settle in East Jerusalem: while Jerusalem had already been annexed, the future of Hebron was still unclear."
  189. ^ a b The Jerusalem Post. "Field News 10/2/2002 Hebron Jews' offspring divided over city's fate 2011-08-16 at the Wayback Machine", 2006-05-16
  190. ^ a b The Philadelphia Inquirer. "Hebron descendants decry actions of current settlers They are kin of the Jews ousted in 1929", 1997-03-03
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External links

 
Wikiquote has quotations related to Hebron.
 
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Hebron.
 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hebron.
 
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Hebron".
  • Photographs of Hebron
  • english Hebron.com – English
  • Collection of Palestinian articles on Hebron published by "This Week in Palestine"
  • Sephardic Studies 1839 Sephardic census of Ottoman-controlled Hebron.
  • ArchNet.org. . Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: MIT School of Architecture and Planning. Archived from the original on 2014-01-05.
  • Settlement Encroachments in Hebron Old City. Photo's/maps of settlements and closed roads. Hebron Rehabilitation Committee, 1 April 2014.
  • Settlements on GoogleMaps
  • Ancient Canaanite and Biblical Hebron (Tel Rumeida) in Israel
  • Oak of Mamre on OrthodoxWiki for the Oak and Russian Orthodox monastery

January 26, 2023
hebron, khalil, redirects, here, other, uses, khalil, disambiguation, disambiguation, arabic, الخليل, khalīl, يل, الر, khalīl, raḥmān, hebrew, רו, Ḥevrōn, palestinian, city, southern, west, bank, kilometres, south, jerusalem, nestled, judaean, mountains, lies,. Al Khalil redirects here For other uses see Al Khalil disambiguation and Hebron disambiguation Hebron Arabic الخليل al Khalil or ا ل خ ل يل الر ح م ن al Khalil al Raḥman 4 Hebrew ח ב רו ן Ḥevrōn is a Palestinian 5 6 7 8 city in the southern West Bank 30 kilometres 19 mi south of Jerusalem Nestled in the Judaean Mountains it lies 930 metres 3 050 ft above sea level The second largest city in the West Bank after East Jerusalem 9 10 and the third largest in the Palestinian territories after East Jerusalem and Gaza it has a population of over 215 000 Palestinians 2016 11 and seven hundred Jewish settlers concentrated on the outskirts of its Old City 12 It includes the Cave of the Patriarchs which Jewish Christian and Islamic traditions all designate as the burial site of three key patriarchal matriarchal couples 12 The city is often considered one of the four holy cities in Judaism 13 14 15 as well as in Islam 16 17 18 19 HebronMunicipality type A City Arabic transcription s Arabicالخليل LatinḤebron ISO 259 3 Al Khalil official Al Ḫalil unofficial Hebrew transcription s HebrewחברוןDowntown HebronMunicipal Seal of HebronNickname City of the PatriarchsHebronLocation of Hebron within PalestineCoordinates 31 32 00 N 35 05 42 E 31 53333 N 35 09500 E 31 53333 35 09500 Coordinates 31 32 00 N 35 05 42 E 31 53333 N 35 09500 E 31 53333 35 09500Palestine grid159 103StateState of PalestineGovernorateHebronGovernment TypeCity from 1997 Head of MunicipalityTayseer Abu Sneineh 1 Area 2 Total74 102 dunams 74 102 km2 or 28 611 sq mi Population 2016 3 Total215 452 Density2 900 km2 7 500 sq mi Websitewww hebron city psUNESCO World Heritage SiteOfficial nameHebron Al Khalil Old TownCriteriaCultural ii iv viReference1565Inscription2017 41st Session Endangered2017 Area20 6 haBuffer zone152 2 haHebron is considered one of the oldest cities in the Levant According to the Bible Abraham settled in Hebron and bought the Cave of the Patriarchs as a burial place for his wife Sarah Biblical tradition holds that the patriarchs Abraham Isaac and Jacob along with their wives Sarah Rebecca and Leah were buried in the cave Hebron is also recognized in the Bible as the place where David was anointed king of Israel 20 Following the Babylonian captivity the Edomites settled in Hebron During the first century BCE Herod the Great built the wall which still surrounds the Cave of the Patriarchs which later became a church and then a mosque 20 With the exception of a brief Crusader control successive Muslim dynasties ruled Hebron from the 6th century CE until the Ottoman Empire s dissolution following World War I when the city became part of British Mandatory Palestine 20 A massacre in 1929 and the Arab uprising of 1936 39 led to the emigration of the Jewish community from Hebron 20 The 1948 Arab Israeli War saw the entire West Bank including Hebron occupied and annexed by Jordan and since the 1967 Six Day War the city has been under Israeli military occupation Following Israeli occupation Jewish presence was reestablished at the city 20 Since the 1997 Hebron Protocol most of Hebron has been governed by the Palestinian National Authority The city is often described as a microcosm of the Israeli Palestinian conflict and the Israeli occupation of the West Bank 21 The Hebron Protocol of 1997 divided the city into two sectors H1 controlled by the Palestinian National Authority and H2 roughly 20 of the city including 35 000 Palestinians under Israeli military administration 22 All security arrangements and travel permits for local residents are coordinated between the Palestinian National Authority and Israel via the Israeli military administration of the West Bank COGAT The Jewish settlers have their own governing municipal body the Committee of the Jewish Community of Hebron Today Hebron is the capital of the Hebron Governorate the largest governorate of the State of Palestine with an estimated population of around 782 227 as of 2021 update 23 It is a busy hub of West Bank trade generating roughly a third of the area s gross domestic product largely due to the sale of limestone from quarries in its area 24 It has a local reputation for its grapes figs limestone pottery workshops and glassblowing factories The old city of Hebron features narrow winding streets flat roofed stone houses and old bazaars The city is home to Hebron University and the Palestine Polytechnic University 25 26 Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2 1 Bronze Age 2 2 Iron Age 2 2 1 Hebrew Bible narrative 2 2 2 Archaeology 2 3 Classic antiquity 2 4 Muslim conquest and Rashidun caliphate 2 5 Umayyad period 2 6 Fatimid and Seljuk periods 2 7 Crusader Ayyubid period 2 8 Mamluk period 2 9 Early Ottoman period 2 10 Late Ottoman period 2 11 British Mandate 2 12 Jordanian period 2 13 Israeli occupation 2 14 Division of Hebron 2 14 1 TIPH twentieth anniversary report 3 Israeli settlements 3 1 Ideological background 3 2 First settlement Kiryat Arba 3 3 Beit Hadassah 3 4 Beit Romano 3 5 Tel Rumeida 3 6 Avraham Avinu 3 7 Further settlement activities 4 Demographics 5 Urban development 6 Shoe industry 7 Political status 8 Intercommunal violence 9 Historic sites 10 Religious traditions 11 Twin towns Sister cities 12 See also 13 Notes 13 1 Citations 14 Sources 15 External linksEtymologyThe name Hebron appears to trace back to two Semitic roots a which coalesce in the form ḥbr having reflexes in Hebrew and Amorite with a basic sense of unite and connoting a range of meanings from colleague to friend In the proper name Hebron the original sense may have been alliance 28 The Arabic term derives from the Qur anic epithet for Abraham Khalil al Rahman إبراهيم خليل الرحمن Beloved of the Merciful or Friend of God 29 30 Arabic Al Khalil thus precisely translates the ancient Hebrew toponym Ḥebron understood as ḥaber friend 31 HistorySee also Timeline of Hebron Bronze Age Archaeological excavations reveal traces of strong fortifications dated to the Early Bronze Age covering some 24 30 dunams centered around Tel Rumeida The city flourished in the 17th 18th centuries BCE before being destroyed by fire and was resettled in the late Middle Bronze Age 32 33 This older Hebron was originally a Canaanite royal city 34 Abrahamic legend associates the city with the Hittites It has been conjectured that Hebron might have been the capital of Shuwardata of Gath an Indo European contemporary of Jerusalem s regent Abdi Kheba 35 although the Hebron hills were almost devoid of settlements in the Late Bronze Age 36 The Abrahamic traditions associated with Hebron are nomadic This may also reflect a Kenite element since the nomadic Kenites are said to have long occupied the city 37 and Heber is the name for a Kenite clan 38 In the narrative of the later Hebrew conquest Hebron was one of two centres under Canaanite control They were ruled by the three sons of Anak bene yelide ha ănaq 39 or may reflect some Kenite and Kenizzite migration from the Negev to Hebron since terms related to the Kenizzites appear to be close to Hurrian This suggests that behind the Anakim legend lies some early Hurrian population 40 In Biblical lore they are represented as descendants of the Nephilim 41 The Book of Genesis mentions that it was formerly called Kirjath arba or city of four possibly referring to the four pairs or couples who were buried there or four tribes or four quarters 42 four hills 43 or a confederated settlement of four families 44 The story of Abraham s purchase of the Cave of the Patriarchs from the Hittites constitutes a seminal element in what was to become the Jewish attachment to the land 45 in that it signified the first real estate of Israel long before the conquest under Joshua 46 In settling here Abraham is described as making his first covenant an alliance with two local Amorite clans who became his ba alei brit or masters of the covenant 47 Iron Age Excavations at Tel Rumeida The Hebron of the Israelites was centered on what is now known as Tel Rumeida while its ritual centre was located at Elonei Mamre 48 Hebrew Bible narrative Samson removes gates of Gaza left and brings them to Mount Hebron right Strassburg 1160 1170 Wurttemberg State Museum in Stuttgart It is said to have been wrested from the Canaanites by either Joshua who is said to have wiped out all of its previous inhabitants destroying everything that drew breath as the Lord God of Israel had commanded 49 or the Tribe of Judah as a whole or specifically Caleb the Judahite 50 The town itself with some contiguous pasture land is then said to have been granted to the Levites of the clan of Kohath while the fields of the city as well as its surrounding villages were assigned to Caleb Joshua 21 3 12 1 Chronicles 6 54 56 51 who expels the three giants Sheshai Ahiman and Talmai who ruled the city Later the biblical narrative has King David called by God to relocate to Hebron and reign from there for some seven years 2 Samuel 2 1 3 52 It is there that the elders of Israel come to him to make a covenant before Elohim and anoint him king of Israel 53 It was in Hebron again that Absalom has himself declared king and then raises a revolt against his father David 2 Samuel 15 7 10 It became one of the principal centers of the Tribe of Judah and was classified as one of the six traditional Cities of Refuge 54 Archaeology As is shown by the discovery at Lachish the second most important city in the Kingdom of Judah after Jerusalem 55 of seals with the inscription lmlk Hebron to the king Hebron 31 Hebron continued to constitute an important local economic centre given its strategic position on the crossroads between the Dead Sea to the east Jerusalem to the north the Negev and Egypt to the south and the Shepelah and the coastal plain to the west 56 Lying along trading routes it remained administratively and politically dependent on Jerusalem for this period 57 Classic antiquity After the destruction of the First Temple most of the Jewish inhabitants of Hebron were exiled and according to the conventional view 58 some researchers found traces of Edomite presence after the 5th 4th centuries BCE as the area became Achaemenid province 59 and in the wake of Alexander the Great s conquest Hebron was throughout the Hellenistic period under the influence of Idumea as the new area inhabited by the Edomites was called during the Persian Hellenistic and Roman periods as is attested by inscriptions for that period bearing names with the Edomite God Qōs 60 Jews also appear to have lived there after the return from the Babylonian exile Nehemiah 11 25 During the Maccabean revolt Hebron was burnt and plundered by Judah Maccabee who fought against the Edomites in 167 BCE 61 62 The city appears to have long resisted Hasmonean dominance however and indeed as late as the First Jewish Roman War was still considered Idumean 63 The present day city of Hebron was settled in the valley downhill from Tel Rumeida at the latest by Roman times 64 Cave of the Patriarchs Herod the Great king of Judea built the wall which still surrounds the Cave of the Patriarchs During the First Jewish Roman War Hebron was captured and plundered by Simon Bar Giora a leader of the Zealots without bloodshed The little town was later laid to waste by Vespasian s officer Sextus Vettulenus Cerialis 65 Josephus wrote that he slew all he found there young and old and burnt down the town After the suppression of the Bar Kokhba revolt in 135 CE innumerable Jewish captives were sold into slavery at Hebron s Terebinth slave market 66 67 The city was part of the Byzantine Empire in Palaestina Prima province at the Diocese of the East The Byzantine emperor Justinian I erected a Christian church over the Cave of Machpelah in the 6th century CE which was later destroyed by the Sassanid general Shahrbaraz in 614 when Khosrau II s armies besieged and took Jerusalem 68 Jews were not permitted to reside in Hebron under Byzantine rule 15 The sanctuary itself however was spared by the Persians in deference to the Jewish population who were numerous in the Sassanid army 69 Muslim conquest and Rashidun caliphate Hebron was one of the last cities of Palestine to fall to the Islamic invasion in the 7th century possibly the reason why Hebron is not mentioned in any traditions of the Arab conquest 70 When the Rashidun Caliphate established its rule over Hebron in 638 the Muslims converted the Byzantine church at the site of Abraham s tomb into a mosque 15 It became an important station on the caravan trading route from Egypt and also as a way station for pilgrims making the yearly hajj from Damascus 71 After the fall of the city Jerusalem s conqueror Caliph Omar ibn al Khattab permitted Jewish people to return and to construct a small synagogue within the Herodian precinct 72 Umayyad period Catholic bishop Arculf who visited the Holy Land during the Umayyad period described the city as unfortified and poor In his writings he also mentioned camel caravans transporting firewood from Hebron to Jerusalem which implies there was a presence of Arab nomads in the region at that time 73 Trade greatly expanded in particular with Bedouins in the Negev al Naqab and the population to the east of the Dead Sea Baḥr Luṭ According to Anton Kisa Jews from Hebron and Tyre founded the Venetian glass industry in the 9th century 74 Fatimid and Seljuk periodsIslam did not view the town as significant before the 10th century it being almost absent in Muslim literature of the period 75 Jerusalemite geographer al Muqaddasi writing in 985 described the town as follows Habra Hebron is the village of Abraham al Khalil the Friend of God Within it is a strong fortress being of enormous squared stones In the middle of this stands a dome of stone built in Islamic times over the sepulchre of Abraham The tomb of Isaac lies forward in the main building of the mosque the tomb of Jacob to the rear facing each prophet lies his wife The enclosure has been converted into a mosque and built around it are rest houses for the pilgrims so that they adjoin the main edifice on all sides A small water conduit has been conducted to them All the countryside around this town for about half a stage has villages in every direction with vineyards and grounds producing grapes and apples called Jabal Nahra being fruit of unsurpassed excellence Much of this fruit is dried and sent to Egypt In Hebron is a public guest house continuously open with a cook a baker and servants in regular attendance These offer a dish of lentils and olive oil to every poor person who arrives and it is set before the rich too should they wish to partake Most men express the opinion this is a continuation of the guest house of Abraham however it is in fact from the bequest of the sahaba companion of the prophet Muhammad Tamim al Dari and others The Amir of Khurasan has assigned to this charity one thousand dirhams yearly al Shar al Adil bestowed on it a substantial bequest At present time I do not know in all the realm of al Islam any house of hospitality and charity more excellent than this one 76 The custom known as the table of Abraham simat al khalil was similar to the one established by the Fatimids and in Hebron s version it found its most famous expression The Persian traveller Nasir i Khusraw who visited Hebron in 1047 records in his Safarnama that this Sanctuary has belonging to it very many villages that provide revenues for pious purposes At one of these villages is a spring where water flows out from under a stone but in no great abundance and it is conducted by a channel cut in the ground to a place outside the town of Hebron where they have constructed a covered tank for collecting the water The Sanctuary Mashad stands on the southern border of the town it is enclosed by four walls The Mihrab or niche and the Maksurah or enclosed space for Friday prayers stand in the width of the building at the south end In the Maksurah are many fine Mihrabs 77 He further recorded that They grow at Hebron for the most part barley wheat being rare but olives are in abundance The visitors are given bread and olives There are very many mills here worked by oxen and mules that all day long grind the flour and further there are working girls who during the whole day are baking bread The loaves are about three pounds and to every persons who arrives they give daily a loaf of bread and a dish of lentils cooked in olive oil also some raisins there are some days when as many as five hundred pilgrims arrive to each of whom this hospitality is offered 78 79 Geniza documents from this period refer only to the graves of the patriarchs and reveal there was an organised Jewish community in Hebron who had a synagogue near the tomb and were occupied with accommodating Jewish pilgrims and merchants During the Seljuk period the community was headed by Saadia b Abraham b Nathan who was known as the haver of the graves of the patriarchs 80 Crusader Ayyubid period See also Vassals of the Kingdom of JerusalemThe Caliphate lasted in the area until 1099 when the Christian Crusader Godfrey de Bouillon took Hebron and renamed it Castellion Saint Abraham 81 It was designated capital of the southern district of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem 82 and given in turn 83 as the fief of Saint Abraham to Geldemar Carpinel the bishop Gerard of Avesnes 84 Hugh of Rebecques Walter Mohamet and Baldwin of Saint Abraham As a Frankish garrison of the Kingdom of Jerusalem its defence was precarious being little more than an island in a Moslem ocean 85 The Crusaders converted the mosque and the synagogue into a church In 1106 an Egyptian campaign thrust into southern Palestine and almost succeeded the following year in wresting Hebron back from the Crusaders under Baldwin I of Jerusalem who personally led the counter charge to beat the Muslim forces off In the year 1113 during the reign of Baldwin II of Jerusalem according to Ali of Herat writing in 1173 a certain part over the cave of Abraham had given way and a number of Franks had made their entrance therein And they discovered the bodies of Abraham Isaac and Jacob their shrouds having fallen to pieces lying propped up against a wall Then the King after providing new shrouds caused the place to be closed once more Similar information is given in Ibn at Athir s Chronicle under the year 1119 In this year was opened the tomb of Abraham and those of his two sons Isaac and Jacob Many people saw the Patriarch Their limbs had nowise been disturbed and beside them were placed lamps of gold and of silver 86 The Damascene nobleman and historian Ibn al Qalanisi in his chronicle also alludes at this time to the discovery of relics purported to be those of Abraham Isaac and Jacob a discovery which excited eager curiosity among all three communities in Palestine Muslim Jewish and Christian 87 88 Towards the end of the period of Crusader rule in 1166 Maimonides visited Hebron and wrote On Sunday 9 Marheshvan 17 October I left Jerusalem for Hebron to kiss the tombs of my ancestors in the Cave On that day I stood in the cave and prayed praise be to God in gratitude for everything 89 A royal domain Hebron was handed over to Philip of Milly in 1161 and joined with the Seigneurie of Transjordan A bishop was appointed to Hebron in 1168 and the new cathedral church of St Abraham was built in the southern part of the Haram 90 In 1167 the episcopal see of Hebron was created along with that of Kerak and Sebastia the tomb of John the Baptist 91 In 1170 Benjamin of Tudela visited the city which he called by its Frankish name St Abram de Bron He reported Here there is the great church called St Abram and this was a Jewish place of worship at the time of the Mohammedan rule but the Gentiles have erected there six tombs respectively called those of Abraham and Sarah Isaac and Rebekah Jacob and Leah The custodians tell the pilgrims that these are the tombs of the Patriarchs for which information the pilgrims give them money If a Jew comes however and gives a special reward the custodian of the cave opens unto him a gate of iron which was constructed by our forefathers and then he is able to descend below by means of steps holding a lighted candle in his hand He then reaches a cave in which nothing is to be found and a cave beyond which is likewise empty but when he reaches the third cave behold there are six sepulchres those of Abraham Isaac and Jacob respectively facing those of Sarah Rebekah and Leah 92 The Kurdish Muslim Saladin retook Hebron in 1187 again with Jewish assistance according to one late tradition in exchange for a letter of security allowing them to return to the city and build a synagogue there 93 The name of the city was changed back to Al Khalil A Kurdish quarter still existed in the town during the early period of Ottoman rule 94 Richard the Lionheart retook the city soon after Richard of Cornwall brought from England to settle the dangerous feuding between Templars and Hospitallers whose rivalry imperiled the treaty guaranteeing regional stability stipulated with the Egyptian Sultan As Salih Ayyub managed to impose peace on the area But soon after his departure feuding broke out and in 1241 the Templars mounted a damaging raid on what was by now Muslim Hebron in violation of agreements 95 In 1244 the Khwarazmians destroyed the town but left the sanctuary untouched 69 Mamluk period In 1260 after Mamluk Sultan Baibars defeated the Mongol army the minarets were built onto the sanctuary Six years later while on pilgrimage to Hebron Baibars promulgated an edict forbidding Christians and Jews from entering the sanctuary 96 and the climate became less tolerant of Jews and Christians than it had been under the prior Ayyubid rule The edict for the exclusion of Christians and Jews was not strictly enforced until the middle of the 14th century and by 1490 not even Muslims were permitted to enter the caverns 97 The mill at Artas was built in 1307 and the profits from its income were dedicated to the hospital in Hebron 98 Between 1318 20 the Na ib of Gaza and much of coastal and interior Palestine ordered the construction of Jawli Mosque to enlarge the prayer space for worshipers at the Ibrahimi Mosque 99 Hebron was visited by some important rabbis over the next two centuries among them Nachmanides 1270 and Ishtori HaParchi 1322 who noted the old Jewish cemetery there Sunni imam Ibn Qayyim Al Jawziyya 1292 1350 was penalised by the religious authorities in Damascus for refusing to recognise Hebron as a Muslim pilgrimage site a view also held by his teacher Ibn Taymiyyah 100 The Italian traveller Meshulam of Volterra 1481 found not more that twenty Jewish families living in Hebron 101 102 and recounted how the Jewish women of Hebron would disguise themselves with a veil in order to pass as Muslim women and enter the Cave of the Patriarchs without being recognized as Jews 103 Minute descriptions of Hebron were recorded in Stephen von Gumpenberg s Journal 1449 by Felix Fabri 1483 and by Mejr ed Din 104 It was in this period also that the Mamluk Sultan Qa it Bay revived the old custom of the Hebron table of Abraham and exported it as a model for his own madrasa in Medina 105 This became an immense charitable establishment near the Haram distributing daily some 1 200 loaves of bread to travellers of all faiths 106 The Italian rabbi Obadiah ben Abraham Bartenura wrote around 1490 I was in the Cave of Machpelah over which the mosque has been built and the Arabs hold the place in high honour All the Kings of the Arabs come here to repeat their prayers but neither a Jew nor an Arab may enter the Cave itself where the real graves of the Patriarchs are the Arabs remain above and let down burning torches into it through a window for they keep a light always burning there Bread and lentil or some other kind of pulse seeds of peas or beans is distributed by the Muslims to the poor every day without distinction of faith and this is done in honour of Abraham 107 Early Ottoman period Hebron in 1839 after a drawing by David Roberts in The Holy Land Syria Idumea Arabia Egypt and Nubia The expansion of the Ottoman Empire along the southern Mediterranean coast under sultan Selim I coincided with the establishment of Inquisition commissions by the Catholic Monarchs in Spain in 1478 which ended centuries of the Iberian convivencia coexistence The ensuing expulsions of the Jews drove many Sephardi Jews into the Ottoman provinces and a slow influx of Jews to the Holy Land took place with some notable Sephardi kabbalists settling in Hebron 108 109 Over the following two centuries there was a significant migration of Bedouin tribal groups from the Arabian Peninsula into Palestine Many settled in three separate villages in the Wadi al Khalil and their descendants later formed the majority of Hebron 110 The Jewish community fluctuated between 8 10 families throughout the 16th century and suffered from severe financial straits in the first half of the century 111 In 1540 renowned kabbalist Malkiel Ashkenazi bought a courtyard from the small Karaite community in which he established the Sephardic Abraham Avinu Synagogue 112 In 1659 Abraham Pereyra of Amsterdam founded the Hesed Le Abraham yeshiva in Hebron which attracted many students 113 In the early 18th century the Jewish community suffered from heavy debts almost quadrupling from 1717 1729 114 and were almost crushed from the extortion practiced by the Turkish pashas In 1773 or 1775 a substantial amount of money was extorted from the Jewish community who paid up to avert a threatened catastrophe after a false allegation was made accusing them of having murdered the son of a local sheikh and throwing his body into a cesspit citation needed gt Emissaries from the community were frequently sent overseas to solicit funds 115 116 During the Ottoman period the dilapidated state of the patriarchs tombs was restored to a semblance of sumptuous dignity 117 Ali Bey who under Muslim disguise was one of the few Westerners to gain access reported in 1807 that all the sepulchres of the patriarchs are covered with rich carpets of green silk magnificently embroidered with gold those of the wives are red embroidered in like manner The sultans of Constantinople furnish these carpets which are renewed from time to time Ali Bey counted nine one over the other upon the sepulchre of Abraham 118 Hebron also became known throughout the Arab world for its glass production abetted by Bedouin trade networks which brought up minerals from the Dead Sea and the industry is mentioned in the books of 19th century Western travellers to Palestine For example Ulrich Jasper Seetzen noted during his travels in Palestine in 1808 09 that 150 persons were employed in the glass industry in Hebron 119 based on 26 kilns 120 In 1833 a report on the town appearing in a weekly paper printed by the London based Religious Tract Society wrote that Hebron s population had 400 Arab families had numerous well provisioned shops and that there was a manufactory of glass lamps which were exported to Egypt 121 Early 19th century travellers also noticed Hebron s flourishing agriculture Apart from glassware it was a major exporter of dibse grape sugar 122 from the famous Dabookeh grapestock characteristic of Hebron 123 Northern Hebron in the mid 19th century 1850s An Arab peasants revolt broke out in April 1834 when Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt announced he would recruit troops from the local Muslim population 124 Hebron headed by its nazir Abd ar Rahman Amr declined to supply its quota of conscripts for the army and suffered badly from the Egyptian campaign to crush the uprising The town was invested and when its defences fell on 4 August it was sacked by Ibrahim Pasha s army 125 126 127 An estimated 500 Muslims from Hebron were killed in the attack and some 750 were conscripted 120 youths were abducted and put at the disposal of Egyptian army officers Most of the Muslim population managed to flee beforehand to the hills Many Jews fled to Jerusalem but during the general pillage of the town at least five were killed 128 In 1838 the total population was estimated at 10 000 126 When the government of Ibrahim Pasha fell in 1841 the local clan leader Abd ar Rahman Amr once again resumed the reins of power as the Sheik of Hebron Due to his extortionate demands for cash from the local population most of the Jewish population fled to Jerusalem 129 In 1846 the Ottoman Governor in chief of Jerusalem serasker Kibrisli Mehmed Emin Pasha waged a campaign to subdue rebellious sheiks in the Hebron area and while doing so allowed his troops to sack the town Though it was widely rumoured that he secretly protected Abd ar Rahman 130 the latter was deported together with other local leaders such as Muslih al Azza of Bayt Jibrin but he managed to return to the area in 1848 131 According to Hillel Cohen the attacks on Jews in this particular period are an exception that proves the rule that one of the easiest place for Jews to live in the world were in the various countries of the Ottoman Empire In the mid eighteenth century rabbi Abraham Gershon of Kitov wrote from Hebron that the gentiles here very much love the Jews When there is a brit milah circumcision ceremony or any other celebration their most important men come at night and rejoice with the Jews and clap hands and dance with the Jews just like the Jews 132 Late Ottoman period A display of Hebron glass By 1850 the Jewish population consisted of 45 60 Sephardic families some 40 born in the town and a 30 year old Ashkenazic community of 50 families mainly Polish and Russian 133 134 the Lubavitch Hasidic movement having established a community in 1823 135 The ascendency of Ibrahim Pasha devastated for a time the local glass industry for aside from the loss of life his plan to build a Mediterranean fleet led to severe logging in Hebron s forests and firewood for the kilns grew rarer At the same time Egypt began importing cheap European glass the rerouting of the hajj from Damascus through Transjordan eliminated Hebron as a staging point and the Suez canal 1869 dispensed with caravan trade The consequence was a steady decline in the local economy 136 At this time the town was divided into four quarters the Ancient Quarter Harat al Kadim near the Cave of Machpelah to its south the Quarter of the Silk Merchant Harat al Kazaz inhabited by Jews the Mamluk era Sheikh s Quarter Harat ash Sheikh to the north west and further north the Dense Quarter Harat al Harbah 137 138 In 1855 the newly appointed Ottoman pasha governor of the sanjak district of Jerusalem Kamil Pasha attempted to subdue the rebellion in the Hebron region Kamil and his army marched towards Hebron in July 1855 with representatives from the English French and other Western consulates as witnesses After crushing all opposition Kamil appointed Salama Amr the brother and strong rival of Abd al Rachman as nazir of the Hebron region After this relative quiet reigned in the town for the next 4 years 139 140 Hungarian Jews of the Karlin Hasidic court settled in another part of the city in 1866 141 According to Nadav Shragai Arab Jewish relations were good and Alter Rivlin who spoke Arabic and Syrian Aramaic was appointed Jewish representative to the city council 141 Hebron suffered from a severe drought during 1869 71 and food sold for ten times the normal value 142 From 1874 the Hebron district as part of the Sanjak of Jerusalem was administered directly from Istanbul 143 By 1874 during C R Conder s visit to Hebron under the auspices of the Palestine Exploration Fund the city s Jewish community had swollen to about 600 compared to 17 000 Muslims 144 The Jews were confined to the Quarter of the Corner Gate 144 Late in the 19th century the production of Hebron glass declined due to competition from imported European glass ware however the products of Hebron continued to be sold particularly among the poorer populace and travelling Jewish traders from the city 145 At the World Fair of 1873 in Vienna Hebron was represented with glass ornaments A report from the French consul in 1886 suggests that glass making remained an important source of income for Hebron with four factories earning 60 000 francs yearly 146 While the economy of other cities in Palestine was based on solely on trade Hebron was the only city in Palestine that combined agriculture livestock herding and trade including the manufacture of glassware and processing of hides This was because the most fertile lands were situated within the city limits 147 The city nevertheless was considered unproductive and had a reputation being an asylum for the poor and the spiritual 148 Differing in architectural style from Nablus whose wealthy merchants built handsome houses Hebron s main characteristic was its semi urban semi peasant dwellings 147 Jews in Hebron 1921 Hebron was deeply Bedouin and Islamic 149 and bleakly conservative in its religious outlook 150 with a strong tradition of hostility to Jews 151 152 It had a reputation for religious zeal in jealously protecting its sites from Jews and Christians but both the Jewish and Christian communities were apparently well integrated into the town s economic life 110 As a result of its commercial decline tax revenues diminished significantly and the Ottoman government avoiding meddling in complex local politics left Hebron relatively undisturbed to become one of the most autonomous regions in late Ottoman Palestine 153 The Jewish community was under French protection until 1914 The Jewish presence itself was divided between the traditional Sephardi community whose members spoke Arabic and adopted Arab dress and the more recent influx of Ashkenazi Jews They prayed in different synagogues sent their children to different schools lived in different quarters and did not intermarry The community was largely Orthodox and anti Zionist 154 155 British Mandate British loyalty meeting in Hebron July 1940 The British occupied Hebron on 8 December 1917 governance transited to a mandate in 1920 Most of Hebron was owned by old Islamic charitable endowments waqfs with about 60 of all the land in and around Hebron belonging to the Tamim al Dari waqf 156 In 1922 its population stood at 16 577 of which 16 074 97 were Muslim 430 2 5 were Jewish and 73 0 4 were Christian 157 158 During the 1920s Abd al Ḥayy al Khaṭib was appointed Mufti of Hebron Before his appointment he had been a staunch opponent of Haj Amin supported the Muslim National Associations and had good contacts with the Zionists 159 Later al Khaṭib became one of the few loyal followers of Haj Amin in Hebron 160 During the late Ottoman period a new ruling elite had emerged in Palestine They later formed the core of the growing Arab nationalist movement in the early 20th century During the Mandate period delegates from Hebron constituted only 1 per cent of the political leadership 161 The Palestinian Arab decision to boycott the 1923 elections for a Legislative Council was made at the fifth Palestinian Congress after it was reported by Murshid Shahin an Arab pro Zionist activist that there was intense resistance in Hebron to the elections 162 Almost no house in Hebron remained undamaged when an earthquake struck Palestine on July 11 1927 163 The Cave of the Patriarchs continued to remain officially closed to non Muslims and reports that entry to the site had been relaxed in 1928 were denied by the Supreme Muslim Council 164 At this time following attempts by the Lithuanian government to draft yeshiva students into the army the Lithuanian Hebron Yeshiva Knesses Yisroel relocated to Hebron after consultations between Rabbi Nosson Tzvi Finkel Yechezkel Sarna and Moshe Mordechai Epstein 165 166 and by 1929 had attracted some 265 students from Europe and the United States 167 The majority of the Jewish population lived on the outskirts of Hebron along the roads to Be ersheba and Jerusalem renting homes owned by Arabs a number of which were built for the express purpose of housing Jewish tenants with a few dozen within the city around the synagogues 168 During the 1929 Hebron massacre Arab rioters slaughtered some 64 to 67 Jewish men women and children 169 170 and wounded 60 and Jewish homes and synagogues were ransacked 435 Jews survived by virtue of the shelter and assistance offered them by their Arab neighbours who hid them 171 Some Hebron Arabs including Ahmad Rashid al Hirbawi president of Hebron chamber of commerce supported the return of Jews after the massacre 172 Two years later 35 families moved back into the ruins of the Jewish quarter but on the eve of the Palestinian Arab revolt April 23 1936 the British Government decided to move the Jewish community out of Hebron as a precautionary measure to secure its safety The sole exception was the 8th generation Hebronite Ya akov ben Shalom Ezra who processed dairy products in the city blended in well with its social landscape and resided there under the protection of friends In November 1947 in anticipation of the UN partition vote the Ezra family closed its shop and left the city 173 Yossi Ezra has since tried to regain his family s property through the Israeli courts 174 Jordanian period At the beginning of the 1948 Arab Israeli War Egypt took control of Hebron Between May and October Egypt and Jordan tussled for dominance in Hebron and its environs Both countries appointed military governors in the town hoping to gain recognition from Hebron officials The Egyptians managed to persuade the pro Jordanian mayor to support their rule at least superficially but local opinion turned against them when they imposed taxes Villagers surrounding Hebron resisted and skirmishes broke out in which some were killed 175 By late 1948 part of the Egyptian forces from Bethlehem to Hebron had been cut off from their lines of supply and Glubb Pasha sent 350 Arab Legionnaires and an armoured car unit to Hebron to reinforce them there When the Armistice was signed the city thus fell under Jordanian military control The armistice agreement between Israel with Jordan intended to allow Israeli Jewish pilgrims to visit Hebron but as Jews of all nationalities were forbidden by Jordan into the country this did not occur 176 177 In December 1948 the Jericho Conference was convened to decide the future of the West Bank which was held by Jordan Hebron notables headed by mayor Muhamad Ali al Ja bari voted in favour of becoming part of Jordan and to recognise Abdullah I of Jordan as their king The subsequent unilateral annexation benefited the Arabs of Hebron who during the 1950s played a significant role in the economic development of Jordan 178 179 Although a significant number of people relocated to Jerusalem from Hebron during the Jordanian period 180 Hebron itself saw a considerable increase in population with 35 000 settling in the town 181 During this period signs of the previous Jewish presence in Hebron were removed 182 Israeli occupation Constructed in 1893 this former Jewish clinic in central Hebron now forms part of an Israeli neighbourhood After the Six Day War in June 1967 Israel occupied Hebron along with the rest of the West Bank establishing a military government to rule the area In an attempt to reach a land for peace deal Yigal Allon proposed that Israel annex 45 of the West Bank and return the remainder to Jordan 183 According to the Allon Plan the city of Hebron would lie in Jordanian territory and in order to determine Israel s own border Allon suggested building a Jewish settlement adjacent to Hebron 184 David Ben Gurion also considered that Hebron was the one sector of the conquered territories that should remain under Jewish control and be open to Jewish settlement 185 Apart from its symbolic message to the international community that Israel s rights in Hebron were according to Jews inalienable 186 settling Hebron also had theological significance in some quarters 187 For some the capture of Hebron by Israel had unleashed a messianic fervor 188 2018 United Nations map of the area showing the Israeli occupation arrangements Survivors and descendants of the prior community are mixed Some support the project of Jewish redevelopment others commend living in peace with Hebronite Arabs while a third group recommend a full pullout 189 Descendants supporting the latter views have met with Palestinian leaders in Hebron 190 In 1997 one group of descendants dissociated themselves from the settlers by calling them an obstacle to peace 190 On May 15 2006 a member of a group who is a direct descendant of the 1929 refugees 191 urged the government to continue its support of Jewish settlement and allow the return of eight families evacuated the previous January from homes they set up in emptied shops near the Avraham Avinu neighborhood 189 Beit HaShalom established in 2007 under disputed circumstances was under court orders permitting its forced evacuation 192 193 194 195 All the Jewish settlers were expelled on December 3 2008 196 Israeli soldiers patrol an open air market Immediately after the 1967 war mayor al Ja bari had unsuccessfully promoted the creation of an autonomous Palestinian entity in the West Bank and by 1972 he was advocating for a confederal arrangement with Jordan instead al Ja bari nevertheless consistently fostered a conciliatory policy towards Israel 197 He was ousted by Fahad Qawasimi in the 1976 mayoral election which marked a shift in support towards pro PLO nationalist leaders 198 Supporters of Jewish settlement within Hebron see their program as the reclamation of an important heritage dating back to Biblical times which was dispersed or it is argued stolen by Arabs after the massacre of 1929 199 200 The purpose of settlement is to return to the land of our forefathers 201 and the Hebron model of reclaiming sacred sites in Palestinian territories has pioneered a pattern for settlers in Bethlehem and Nablus 202 Many reports foreign and Israeli are sharply critical of the behaviour of Hebronite settlers 203 204 Sheik Farid Khader heads the Ja bari tribe consisting of some 35 000 people which is considered one of the most important tribes in Hebron For years members of the Ja bari tribe were the mayors of Hebron Khader regularly meets with settlers and Israeli government officials and is a strong opponent of both the concept of Palestinian State and the Palestinian Authority itself Khader believes that Jews and Arabs must learn to coexist 205 Division of Hebron Official 1997 agreement map of Palestinian controlled H1 and Israeli controlled H2 Illustration showing areas H1 and H2 and adjacent Israeli settlements1997 Protocol Concerning the Redeployment in Hebron Following the 1995 Oslo Agreement and subsequent 1997 Hebron Agreement Palestinian cities were placed under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Palestinian Authority with the exception of Hebron 6 which was split into two sectors H1 is controlled by the Palestinian Authority and H2 which includes the Old City of Hebron remained under the military control of Israel 206 207 Around 120 000 Palestinians live in H1 while around 30 000 Palestinians along with around 700 Israelis remain under Israeli military control in H2 As of 2009 update a total of 86 Jewish families lived in Hebron 208 The IDF Israel Defense Forces may not enter H1 unless under Palestinian escort Palestinians cannot approach areas where settlers live without special permits from the IDF 209 The Jewish settlement is widely considered to be illegal by the international community although the Israeli government disputes this 210 The Palestinian population in H2 has greatly declined because of the impact of Israeli security measures including extended curfews strict restrictions on movement 211 and the closure of Palestinian commercial activities near settler areas and also due to settler harassment 212 213 214 215 Palestinians are barred from using Al Shuhada Street a principal commercial thoroughfare 209 216 As a result about half the Arab shops in H2 have gone out of business since 1994 citation needed TIPH twentieth anniversary report In 2017 Temporary International Presence in Hebron TIPH issued a confidential report covering their 20 years of observing the situation in Hebron The report based in part on over 40 000 incident reports over those 20 years found that Israel routinely violates international law in Hebron and that it is in severe and regular breach of the rights to non discrimination laid out in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights over the lack of freedom to movement for the Palestinian residents of Hebron The report found that Israel is in regular violation of Article 49 of the Fourth Geneva Convention which prohibits the deportation of civilians from occupied territory The report also found the presence of any Israeli settlement in Hebron to violate international law 217 Israeli settlementsIdeological background Post 1967 settlement was impelled by theological doctrines developed in the Mercaz HaRav Kook under both its founder Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook and his son Rabbi Zvi Yehuda Kook according to which the Land of Israel is holy the people endowed with a divine spark are holy and that the messianic Age of Redemption has arrived requiring that the Land and People be united in occupying the land and fulfilling the commandments Hebron has a particular role in the unfolding cosmic drama traditions hold that Abraham purchased land there that King David was its king and the tomb of Abraham covers the entrance to the Garden of Eden and was a site excavated by Adam who is buried there with Eve The doctrines hold that redemption will occur when the feminine and masculine characteristics of God are united at the site In this meta settling Hebron is not only a right and duty but is doing the world at large a favour with the community s acts an example of the Jews of Hebron being a light unto the nations Or la Goyim 218 and bringing about their redemption even if this means breaching secular laws expressed in religiously motivated violence towards Palestinians who are widely viewed as mendacious vicious self centered and impossible to trust Clashes with Palestinians in the settlement project have theological significance in the Jewish Hebron community the frictions of war were in Kook s view conducive to the messianic process and that Arabs will have to leave There is no kin connection between the new settlers and the traditional Old Families of Jewish Hebronites who vigorously oppose the new settler presence in Hebron 218 First settlement Kiryat Arba In the spring of 1968 Rabbi Moshe Levinger together with a group of Israelis posing as Swiss tourists rented from its owner Faiz Qawasmeh 219 the main hotel in Hebron 220 and then refused to leave The Labor government s survival depended on the religious Zionism associated National Religious Party and was under pressure of this party reluctant to evacuate the settlers Defence Minister Moshe Dayan ordered their evacuation but agreed to their relocation to the nearby military base on the eastern outskirts of Hebron which was to become the settlement Kiryat Arba 221 After heavy lobbying by Levinger the settlement gained the tacit support of Levi Eshkol and Yigal Allon while it was opposed by Abba Eban and Pinhas Sapir 222 After more than a year and a half the government agreed to legitimize the settlement 223 The settlement was later expanded with the nearby outpost Givat Ha avot north of the Cave of the Patriarchs 221 Much of the Hebron Kiryat Arba operation was planned and financed by the Movement for Greater Israel 224 According to a ruling given by the Israeli Supreme Court in 2011 Jews have no right to properties they possessed in places like Hebron and Tel Rumeida before 1948 and have no right to compensation for their losses 174 Beit Hadassah Originally named Hesed l Avraham clinic Beit Hadassah was constructed in 1893 with donations of Jewish Baghdadi families and was the only modern medical facility in Hebron In 1909 it was renamed after Hadassah Women s Zionist Organization of America which took responsibility for the medical staff and provided free medical care to all 225 In 1979 after several attempts by Israeli men had failed to succeed in taking possession of the building then known as the Dabouia 15 settler mothers and their 35 children drove down to it and squatted there and managed to camp in the building for a year exploiting the government s indecision at the time when it was engaged in negotiations with Egypt to hand back the Sinai peninsula The calculation was that the state would balance out the unpopular decision to hand back conquered territory by committing itself to greater control of the West Bank 226 A group of settlers led by Miriam Levinger moved into the Dabouia the former Hadassah Hospital in central Hebron then under Arab administration They turned it into a bridgehead for Jewish resettlement inside Hebron 227 and founded the Committee of The Jewish Community of Hebron near the Abraham Avinu Synagogue The take over created severe conflict with Arab shopkeepers in the same area a retaliatory action by a Palestinian guerilla group killed six yeshiva students 228 The shopkeepers appealed twice to the Israeli Supreme Court without success 229 With this precedent in February of the following year the Government legitimized residency in the city of Hebron proper allowing 50 armed families under military guard to dwell in a fortified structure in the heart of the Old City of Palestinian Hebron 230 226 The pattern of settlement followed by an outbreak of hostilities with local Palestinians was repeated later at Tel Rumeida 231 Beit Romano Beit Romano was built and owned by Yisrael Avraham Romano of Constantinople and served Sephardi Jews from Turkey In 1901 a Yeshiva was established there with a dozen teachers and up to 60 students 225 In 1982 Israeli authorities took over a Palestinian education office Osama Ben Munqez School and the adjacent bus station The school was turned into a settlement and the bus station into a military base against an order of the Israeli Supreme Court 221 Tel Rumeida In 1807 the immigrant Sephardic Rabbi Haim Yeshua Hamitzri Haim the Jewish Egyptian purchased 5 dunams on the outskirts of the city and in 1811 he signed a contract for a 99 year lease on a further 800 dunams of land which included 4 plots in Tel Rumeida The plots were administered by his descendant Haim Bajaio after Jews left Hebron Settlers claims to this land are based on these precedents but are dismissed by the rabbi s heir 232 In 1984 settlers established a caravan outpost there called Ramat Yeshai In 1998 the Government recognized it as a settlement and in 2001 the Defence Minister approved the building of the first housing units 221 Avraham Avinu Abraham Avinu Synagogue in 1925 The Abraham Avinu Synagogue was the physical and spiritual center of its neighborhood and regarded as one of the most beautiful synagogues in Palestine It was the centre of Jewish worship in Hebron until it was burnt down during the 1929 riots In 1948 under Jordanian rule the remaining ruins were razed 233 The Avraham Avinu quarter was established next to the Vegetable and Wholesale Markets on Al Shuhada Street in the south of the Old City The vegetable market was closed by the Israeli military and some of the neighbouring houses were occupied by settlers and soldiers Settlers started to take over the closed Palestinian stores despite explicit orders of the Israeli Supreme Court that the settlers should vacate these stores and the Palestinians should be allowed to return 221 Further settlement activities In 2012 Israel Defense Forces called for the immediate removal of a new settlement because it was seen as a provocation 234 The IDF has enforced settler demands against the flying of Palestinian flags on a Hebronite rooftop contiguous to settlements though no rule forbids the practice 235 In August 2016 Israel announced its intention to allow settlement building in the military compound of Plugat Hamitkanim in Hebron which had been expropriated for military purposes in the 1990s 236 In late 2019 the Israeli Defense Minister Naftali Bennett instructed the military administration to inform the Palestinian municipality of the government s intention to reconstruct infrastructure in the old Hebron fruit and vegetable market in order to establish a Jewish neighbourhood there which would allow for doubling the city s settler population The area s original residents who have protected tenancy rights there were compelled to evacuate the zone after the Cave of the Patriarch s massacre The original site was under Jewish ownership prior to 1948 The plan proposes that the empty shops remain Palestinian while the units built over them house Jewish Israelis 237 238 239 DemographicsIn 1820 it was reported that there were about 1 000 Jews in Hebron 240 In 1838 Hebron had an estimated 1 500 taxable Muslim households in addition to 41 Jewish tax payers Taxpayers consisted here of male heads of households who owned even a very small shop or piece of land 200 Jews and one Christian household were under European protections The total population was estimated at 10 000 126 In 1842 it was estimated that about 400 Arab and 120 Jewish families lived in Hebron the latter having been diminished in number following the destruction of 1834 241 Year Muslims Christians Jews Total Notes and sources1538 749 h 7 h 20 h 776 h h households Cohen amp Lewis 242 1774 300 Azulai 243 1817 500 Israel Foreign Ministry 244 1820 1 000 William Turner 240 1824 60 h 40 h Sephardim 20 h Ashkenazim The Missionary Herald 245 1832 400 h 100 h 500 h h households Augustin Calmet Charles Taylor Edward Robinson 246 1837 423 Montefiore census1838 c 6 7 000 few 700 7 8 000 William McClure Thomson 247 1839 1295 f 1 f 241 f families David Roberts 248 249 1840 700 800 James A Huie 250 1851 11 000 450 Official register 251 1851 400 Clorinda Minor 252 1866 497 Montefiore census1871 2 2 800 h 200 h 3 000 h Ottoman records for the Syrian provincial salname for these years 253 1875 8 000 10 000 500 Albert Socin 251 1875 17 000 600 Hebron Kaymakam 251 1881 1 000 1 200 PEF Survey of Palestine 251 1881 800 5 000 The Friend 254 1890 1 490 Jewish Encyclopedia1895 1 400 255 1906 1 100 14 000 690 Sephardim 410 Ashkenazim Jewish Encyclopedia1922 16 074 73 430 16 577 1922 census of Palestine 256 1929 700 Israel Foreign Ministry 244 1930 0 Israel Foreign Ministry 244 1931 17 277 109 134 17 532 1931 census of Palestine 257 1945 24 400 150 0 24 560 Village Statistics 1945 258 1961 37 868 Jordanian census 259 260 1967 38 073 136 38 348 Israeli census 261 1997 n a n a 530 244 119 093 Palestinian census 262 2007 n a n a 500 263 163 146 Palestinian census 264 Urban development View of Hebron 2006 Historically the city consisted of four densely populated quarters the suq and Harat al Masharqa adjacent to the Ibrahimi mosque the silk merchant quarter Haret Kheitun to the south and the Sheikh quarter Haret al Sheikh to the north It is believed the basic urban structure of the city had been established by the Mamluk period during which time the city also had Jewish Christian and Kurdish quarters 265 In the mid 19th century Hebron was still divided into four quarters but the Christian quarter had disappeared 265 The sections included the ancient quarter surrounding the cave of Machpelah the Haret Kheitun the Jewish quarter Haret el Yahud the Haret el Sheikh and the Druze quarter 266 As Hebron s population gradually increased inhabitants preferred to build upwards rather than leave the safety of their neighbourhoods By the 1880s better security provided by the Ottoman authorities allowed the town to expand and a new commercial centre Bab el Zawiye emerged 267 As development continued new spacious and taller structures were built to the north west 268 In 1918 the town consisted of dense clusters of residential dwellings along the valley rising onto the slopes above it 269 By the 1920s the town was made up of seven quarters el Sheikh and Bab el Zawiye to the west el Kazzazin el Akkabi and el Haram in the centre el Musharika to the south and el Kheitun in the east 270 Urban sprawl had spread onto the surrounding hills by 1945 269 The large population increase under Jordanian rule resulted in about 1 800 new houses being built most of them along the Hebron Jerusalem highway stretching northwards for over 3 miles 5 km at a depth of 600 ft 200m either way Some 500 houses were built elsewhere on surrounding rural land There was less development to the south east where housing units extended along the valley for about 1 mile 1 5 km 181 In 1971 with the assistance of the Israeli and Jordanian governments the Hebron University an Islamic university was founded 271 272 In an attempt to enhance the view of the Ibrahami Mosque Jordan demolished whole blocks of ancient houses opposite its entrance which also resulted in improved access to the historic site 273 The Jordanians also demolished the old synagogue located in the el Kazzazin quarter In 1976 Israel recovered the site which had been converted into an animal pen and by 1989 a settler courtyard had been established there 274 Hebron market Today the area along the north south axis to the east comprises the modern town of Hebron also called Upper Hebron Khalil Foq It was established towards the end of the Ottoman period its inhabitants being upper and middle class Hebronites who from there from the crowded old city Balde al Qadime also called Lower Hebron Khalil Takht 275 The northern part of Upper Hebron includes some up scale residential districts and also houses the Hebron University private hospitals and the only two hotels in the city The main commercial artery of the city is located here situated along the Jerusalem Road and includes modern multi storey shopping malls Also in this area are villas and apartment complexes built on the krum rural lands and vineyards which used to function as recreation areas during the summer months until the early Jordanian period 275 The southern part is where the working class neighbourhoods are located along with large industrial zones and the Hebron Polytechnic University 275 The main municipal and governmental buildings are located in the centre of the city This area includes high rise concrete and glass developments and also some distinct Ottoman era one storey family houses adorned with arched entrances decorative motifs and ironwork Hebron s domestic appliance and textile markets are located here along two parallel roads which lead to the entrance of the old city 275 Many of these have been relocated from the old commercial centre of the city known as the vegetable market hesbe which was closed down by the Israeli military during the 1990s The vegetable market is now located in the square of Bab el Zawiye 275 Shoe industryFrom the 1970s to the early 1990s a third of those who lived in the city worked in the shoe industry According to the shoe factory owner Tareq Abu Felat the number reached least 35 000 people and there were more than 1 000 workshops around the city 276 Statistics from the Chamber of Commerce in Hebron put the figure at 40 000 people employed in 1 200 shoe businesses 277 However the 1993 Oslo Accords and 1994 Protocol on Economic Relations between Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization PLO made it possible to mass import Chinese goods as the Palestinian National Authority which was created after the Oslo Accords did not regulate it They later put import taxes but the Abu Felat who also is the Palestinian Federation of Leather Industries s chairman said more is still needed 276 The Palestinian government decided to impose an additional tax of 35 on products from China from April 2013 277 90 of the shoes in Palestine are now estimated to come from China which Palestinian industry workers say are of much lower quality but also much cheaper 276 and the Chinese are more aesthetic Another factor contributing to the decline of the local industry is Israeli restrictions on Palestinian exports 277 Today there are less than 300 workshops in the shoe industry who only run part time and they employ around 3 000 4 000 people More than 50 of the shoes are exported to Israel where consumers have a better economy Less than 25 goes to the Palestinian market with some going to Jordan Saudi Arabia and other Arab countries 276 Political statusUnder the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine passed by the UN in 1947 Hebron was envisaged to become part of an Arab state While the Jewish leaders accepted the partition plan the Arab leadership the Arab Higher Committee in Palestine and the Arab League rejected it opposing any partition 278 279 The aftermath of the 1948 war saw the city occupied and later unilaterally annexed by the kingdom of Jordan in a move supported by local Hebron officials Following the Six Day War of 1967 Israel occupied Hebron In 1997 in accordance with the Hebron Agreement Israel withdrew from 80 per cent of Hebron which was handed over to the Palestinian Authority Palestinian police would assume responsibilities in Area H1 and Israel would retain control in Area H2 An international unarmed observer force the Temporary International Presence in Hebron TIPH was subsequently established to help the normalization of the situation and to maintain a buffer between the Palestinian Arab population of the city and the Jewish population residing in their enclave in the old city The TIPH operates with the permission of the Israeli government meeting regularly with the Israeli army and the Israeli Civil Administration and is granted free access throughout the city In 2018 the TIPH came under criticism in Israel due to incidents where an employee was according to the Israeli police filmed puncturing the tires of the car of an Israeli settler and another instance where an observer was deported after slapped a settler boy 217 Intercommunal violenceMain article Israeli Palestinian conflict in Hebron Hebron was the one city excluded from the interim agreement of September 1995 to restore rule over all Palestinian West Bank cities to the Palestinian Authority 206 IDF soldiers see their job as being to protect Israeli settlers from Palestinian residents not to police the Israeli settlers IDF soldiers are instructed to leave violent Israeli settlers for the police to deal with 280 281 A net installed in the Old City to prevent garbage dropped by Israeli settlers into a Palestinian area 282 Since The Oslo Agreement violent episodes have been recurrent in the city The Cave of the Patriarchs massacre took place on February 25 1994 when Baruch Goldstein an Israeli physician and resident of Kiryat Arba opened fire on Muslims at prayer in the Ibrahimi Mosque killing 29 and wounding 125 before the survivors overcame and killed him 283 Standing orders for Israeli soldiers on duty in Hebron disallowed them from firing on fellow Jews even if they were shooting Arabs 284 This event was condemned by the Israeli Government and the extreme right wing Kach party was banned as a result 285 The Israeli government also tightened restrictions on the movement of Palestinians in H2 closed their vegetable and meat markets and banned Palestinian cars on Al Shuhada Street 286 The park near the Cave of the Patriarchs for recreation and barbecues is off limits for Arab Hebronites 287 Over the period of the First Intifada and Second Intifada the Jewish community was subjected to attacks by Palestinian militants especially during the periods of the intifadas which saw 3 fatal stabbings and 9 fatal shootings in between the first and second Intifada 0 9 of all fatalities in Israel and the West Bank and 17 fatal shootings 9 soldiers and 8 settlers and 2 fatalities from a bombing during the second Intifada 288 and thousands of rounds fired on it from the hills above the Abu Sneina and Harat al Sheikh neighbourhoods 12 Israeli soldiers were killed Hebron Brigade commander Colonel Dror Weinberg and two other officers 6 soldiers and 3 members of the security unit of Kiryat Arba in an ambush 289 Two Temporary International Presence in Hebron observers were killed by Palestinian gunmen in a shooting attack on the road to Hebron 290 291 292 On March 27 2001 a Palestinian sniper targeted and killed the Jewish baby Shalhevet Pass The sniper was caught in 2002 citation needed In the 1980s Hebron became the center of the Jewish Kach movement a designated terrorist organization 293 whose first operations started there and provided a model for similar behaviour in other settlements 294 Hebron is one of the three West Bank towns from which the majority of suicide bombers originate In May 2003 three students of the Hebron Polytechnic University carried out three separate suicide attacks 295 In August 2003 in what both Islamic groups described as a retaliation a 29 year old preacher from Hebron Raed Abdel Hamed Mesk broke a unilateral Palestinian ceasefire by killing 23 and injured over 130 in a bus bombing in Jerusalem 296 297 Hebron Chamber of Commerce Israeli organization B Tselem states that there have been grave violations of Palestinian human rights in Hebron because of the presence of the settlers within the city The organization cites regular incidents of almost daily physical violence and property damage by settlers in the city curfews and restrictions of movement that are among the harshest in the Occupied Territories and violence by Israeli border policemen and the IDF against Palestinians who live in the city s H2 sector 298 299 300 According to Human Rights Watch Palestinian areas of Hebron are frequently subject to indiscriminate firing by the IDF leading to many casualties 301 One former IDF soldier with experience in policing Hebron has testified to Breaking the Silence that on the briefing wall of his unit a sign describing their mission aim was hung that read To disrupt the routine of the inhabitants of the neighbourhood 302 Hebron mayor Mustafa Abdel Nabi invited the Christian Peacemaker Teams to assist the local Palestinian community in opposition to what they describe as Israeli military occupation collective punishment settler harassment home demolitions and land expropriation 303 A violent episode occurred on 2 May 1980 when an Al Fatah squad killed five yeshiva students and one other person on their way home from Sabbath prayer at the Tomb of the Patriarchs 304 The event provided a major motivation for settlers near Hebron to join the Jewish Underground 305 On July 26 1983 Israeli settlers attacked the Islamic University and shot three people dead and injured over thirty others 306 The 1994 Shamgar Commission of Inquiry concluded that Israeli authorities had consistently failed to investigate or prosecute crimes committed by settlers against Palestinians Hebron IDF commander Noam Tivon said that his foremost concern is to ensure the security of the Jewish settlers and that Israeli soldiers have acted with the utmost restraint and have not initiated any shooting attacks or violence 307 Historic sitesMain article Old City of Hebron The Old City of Hebron was a declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO on 7 July 2017 308 despite opposition from Israeli officials who objected to it not being called Israeli or Jewish 309 The most famous historic site in Hebron is the Cave of the Patriarchs The Herodian era structure is said to enclose the tombs of the biblical Patriarchs and Matriarchs The Isaac Hall now serves as the Ibrahimi mosque while the Abraham and Jacob Hall serve as a synagogue The tombs of other biblical figures Abner ben Ner Otniel ben Kenaz Ruth and Jesse are also located in the city The Oak of Sibta Oak of Abraham is an ancient tree which in non Jewish tradition 310 is said to mark the place where Abraham pitched his tent The Russian Orthodox Church owns the site and the nearby Abraham s Oak Holy Trinity Monastery consecrated in 1925 Hebron is one of the few cities to have preserved its Mamluk architecture Many structures were built during the period especially Sufi zawiyas 311 Mosques from the era include the Sheikh Ali al Bakka and Al Jawali mosque The early Ottoman Abraham Avinu Synagogue in the city s historic Jewish quarter was built in 1540 and restored in 1738 Religious traditions The Russian Orthodox monastery Hebron Some Jewish traditions regarding Adam place him in Hebron after his expulsion from Eden Another has Cain kill Abel there A third has Adam and Eve buried in the cave of Machpelah A Jewish Christian tradition had it that Adam was formed from the red clay of the field of Damascus near Hebron 312 313 A tradition arose in medieval Jewish texts that the Cave of the Patriarchs itself was the very entrance to the Garden of Eden 314 During the Middle Ages pilgrims and the inhabitants of Hebron would eat the red earth as a charm against misfortune 315 316 Others report that the soil was harvested for export as a precious medicinal spice in Egypt Arabia Ethiopia and India and that the earth refilled after every digging 312 Legend also tells that Noah planted his vineyard on Mount Hebron 317 In medieval Christian tradition Hebron was one of the three cities where Elizabeth was said to live the legend implying that it might have been the birthplace of John the Baptist 318 319 One Islamic tradition has it that Muhammad alighted in Hebron during his night journey from Mecca to Jerusalem and the mosque in the city is said to conserve one of his shoes 320 Another tradition states that Muhammad arranged for Hebron and its surrounding villages to become part of Tamim al Dari s domain this was implemented during Umar s reign as caliph According to the arrangement al Dari and his descendants were only permitted to tax the residents for their land and the waqf of the Ibrahimi Mosque was entrusted to them 321 The simat al Khalil or Table of Abraham is attested to in the writings of the 11th century Persian traveller Nasir i Khusraw According to the account this early Islamic food distribution center which predates the Ottoman imarets gave all visitors to Hebron a loaf of bread a bowl of lentils in olive oil and some raisins 322 According to Tamara Neuman settlement by a community of Jewish religious fundamentalists has brought about three major changes by a redesigning a Palestinian area in terms of biblical imagery and origins b remaking over these revamped religious sites to endow them with an innovative centrality to Jewish worship that she argues effectively erases the diasporic thrust of Jewish tradition and c writing out the overlapping aspects of Judaism Christianity and Islam in such a way that the possibility of accommodation between the three intertwined traditions is eradicated while the presence of Palestinians themselves is erased by violent methods 323 Twin towns Sister citiesHebron is twinned with Amman Jordan Beyoglu Turkey Bursa Turkey Casablanca Morocco Derby England 324 Fez Morocco Jajmau India Kecioren Turkey Kraljevo Serbia 325 Medina Saudi Arabia Saint Pierre des Corps France Sanliurfa Turkey Yiwu China See alsoShabab Al Khalil SC the town s football team Palestinian Child Arts Center List of burial places of biblical figures List of people from Hebron Oak of Mamre Christian holy site historically near Hebron but now inside the city distinct from the Terebinth of Mamre Abraham s Oak Holy Trinity Monastery Russian Orthodox monastery at the Oak of Mamre Notes Y L Arbeitman The Hittite is Thy Mother An Anatolian Approach to Genesis 23 1981 pp 889 1026 argues that an Indo European root ar with the same meaning as the semitic root ḥbr namely to join may underlie part of the earlier name Kiryat Arba 27 Citations Palestinian terrorist in killing of 6 Jews elected Hebron mayor Times of Israel 14 May 2017 Retrieved 17 May 2017 Hebron City Profile ARIJ PDF 1 2 Hebron page 80 Hebron is 45 square kilometres 17 sq mi in area and has a population of 250 000 according to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics for the year 2007 The figure given here refers to the population of the city of Hebron itself The book Medieval Islamic Civilization A K index By Josef W Meri p 318 Hebron al Khalil al Rahman Kamrava 2010 p 236 a b Alimi 2013 p 178 Rothrock 2011 p 100 Beilin 2004 p 59 Palestinian Residents of Jerusalem Jerusalem Institute for Policy Research 2014 08 13 Retrieved 2022 06 12 West Bank ATG 2014 10 22 Retrieved 2022 06 12 Neuman 2018 pp 2 3 a b Neuman 2018 p 3 Burckhardt Burckhardt John Lewis Africa Association for Promoting the Discovery of the Interior Parts of 1822 Travels in Syria and the Holy Land J Murray ISBN 978 1 4142 8338 8 Gavish Haya 2010 Unwitting Zionists The Jewish Community of Zakho in Iraqi Kurdistan Wayne State University Press ISBN 978 0 8143 3366 2 a b c Scharfstein 1994 p 124 Dumper 2003 p 164 Salaville 1910 p 185 For these reasons after the Arab conquest of 637 Hebron was chosen as one of the four holy cities of Islam Aksan amp Goffman 2007 p 97 Suleyman considered himself the ruler of the four holy cities of Islam and along with Mecca and Medina included Hebron and Jerusalem in his rather lengthy list of official titles Honigmann 1993 p 886 a b c d e Hebron city West Bank Britannica www britannica com Retrieved 2022 06 11 For example The New Yorker 1 January 24 2019 Hebron is a microcosm of the West Bank a place where the key practices of the Israeli occupation can be observed up close in a single afternoon Orna Ben Naftali Michael Sfard Hedi Viterbo 10 May 2018 The ABC of the OPT A Legal Lexicon of the Israeli Control over the Occupied Palestinian Territory Cambridge University Press p 527 ISBN 978 1 107 15652 4 Hebron is a microcosm of the control Israel exercises over the West Bank Joyce Dalsheim 1 July 2014 Producing Spoilers Peacemaking and the Production of Enmity in a Secular Age Oxford University Press p 93 ISBN 978 0 19 938723 6 Hebron is sometimes thought of as a concentrated microcosm of the conflict in Israel Palestine Sometimes it is imagined as a microcosm of Israeli occupation in post 1967 territories sometimes as a microcosm of the settler colonial project in Palestine and sometimes as a microcosm of the Jewish state surrounded by Arab enemies Neuman 2018 p 4 Projected Mid Year Population for Hebron Governorate by Locality 2017 2021 Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics 2021 Zacharia 2010 Hasasneh 2005 Flusfeder 1997 Niesiolowski Spano 2016 p 124 Cazelles 1981 p 195 compares Amorite ḫibrum Two roots are in play ḥbr ḫbr The root has magical overtones and develops pejorative connotations in late Biblical usage Qur an 4 125 Surah 4 Aya verse 125 Qur an source text Archived from the original on October 27 2009 Retrieved 2007 07 30 Bussow 2011 p 194 n 220 a b Sharon 2007 p 104 Negev amp Gibson 2001 pp 225 5 Na aman 2005 p 180 Towner 2001 pp 144 45 T he city was a Canaanite royal center long before it became Israelite Albright 2000 p 110 Na aman 2005 pp 77 78 Smith 1903 p 200 Kraeling 1925 p 179 Na aman 2005 p 361 These non Semitic names perhaps echo either a tradition of a group of elite professional troops Philistines Hittites formed in Canaan whose ascendancy was overthrown by the West Semitic clan of Caleb They would have migrated from the Negev Joseph Blenkinsopp 1972 Gibeon and Israel Cambridge University Press p 18 ISBN 0 521 08368 0 Joshua 10 3 5 3 39 12 10 13 Na aman 2005 p 177 doubts this tradition The book of Joshua is not a reliable source for either a historical or a territorial discussion of the Late Bronze Age and its evidence must be disregarded Mulder 2004 p 165 Alter 1996 p 108 Hamilton 1995 p 126 Finkelstein amp Silberman 2001 p 45 Lied 2008 pp 154 62 162 Elazar 1998 p 128 Genesis ch 23 Magen 2007 p 185 Glick 1994 p 46 citing Joshua 10 36 42 and the influence this has had on certain settlers in the West Bank Gottwald 1999 p 153 certain conquests claimed for Joshua are elsewhere attributed to single tribes or clans for example in the case of Hebron in Joshua 10 36 37 Hebron s capture is attributed to Joshua in Judges 1 10 to Judah in Judges 1 20 and Joshua 14 13 14 15 13 14 to Caleb Bratcher amp Newman 1983 p 262 Schafer Lichtenberger 1 September 1996 Sociological views In Volkmar Fritz ed The Origins of the Ancient Israelite States Philip R Davies Bloomsbury Publishing ISBN 978 0 567 60296 1 Gottwald 1999 p 173 citing 2 Samuel 5 3 Japhet 1993 p 148 See Joshua 20 1 7 Hasson 2016 Jericke 2003 p 17 Jericke 2003 pp 26ff 31 Carter 1999 pp 96 99 Carter challenges this view on the grounds that it has no archeological support Lemaire 2006 p 419 Jericke 2003 p 19 Josephus 1860 p 334 Josephus Flavius Antiquities of the Jews Bk 12 ch 8 para 6 Duke 2010 pp 93 94 is sceptical This should be considered a raid on Hebron instead of a conquest based on subsequent events in the book of I Maccabees Duke 2010 p 94 Jericke 2003 p 17 Spatestens in romischer Zeit ist die Ansiedlung im Tal beim heutigen Stadtzentrum zu finden Josephus 1860 p 701 Josephus The Jewish War Bk 4 ch 9 p 9 Schurer Millar amp Vermes 1973 p 553 n 178 citing Jerome in Zachariam 11 5 in Hieremiam 6 18 Chronicon paschale Hezser 2002 p 96 Norwich 1999 p 285 a b Salaville 1910 p 185 Gil 1997 pp 56 57 cites the late testimony of two monks Eudes and Arnoul CE 1119 1120 When they the Muslims came to Hebron they were amazed to see the strong and handsome structures of the walls and they could not find an opening through which to enter then the Jews happened to come who lived in the area under the former rule of the Greeks that is the Byzantines and they said to the Muslims give us a letter of security that we may continue to live in our places under your rule literally amongst you and permit us to build a synagogue in front of the entrance to the city If you will do this we shall show you where you can break in And it was so Bussow 2011 p 195 Hiro 1999 p 166 Frenkel 2011 p 28 29 Forbes 1965 p 155 citing Anton Kisa et al Das Glas im Altertum 1908 Gil 1997 pp 205 Al Muqaddasi 2001 pp 156 57 For an older translation see Le Strange 1890 pp 309 10 Le Strange 1890 pp 310 11 Le Strange 1890 p 315 Singer 2002 p 148 Gil 1997 p 206 Robinson amp Smith 1856 p 78 The Castle of St Abraham was the generic Crusader name for Hebron Israel tourguide Avraham Lewensohn 1979 p 222 Murray 2000 p 107 Runciman 1965a p 307Runciman also pp 307 08 notes that Gerard of Avesnes was a knight from Hainault held hostage at Arsuf north of Jaffa who had been wounded by Godfrey s own forces during the siege of the port and later returned by the Muslims to Godfrey as a token of good will Runciman 1965b p 4 Le Strange 1890 pp 317 18 Kohler 1896 pp 447ff Runciman 1965b p 319 Kraemer 2001 p 422 Boas 1999 p 52 Richard 1999 p 112 Benjamin 1907 p 25 Gil 1997 p 207 Note to editors This account always in Moshe Gil refers to two distinct events the Arab conquest from Byzantium and the Kurdish Arab conquest from Crusaders In both the manuscript is a monkish chronicle and the words used and event described is identical We may have a secondary source confusion here Sharon 2003 p 297 Runciman 1965c p 219 Micheau 2006 p 402 Murphy O Connor 1998 p 274 Sharon 1997 pp 117 18 Dandis Wala History of Hebron 2011 11 07 Retrieved on 2012 03 02 Meri 2004 pp 362 63 Kosover 1966 p 5 David 2010 p 24 Lamdan 2000 p 102 Robinson amp Smith 1856 pp 440 42 n 1 Singer 2002 p 148 Robinson amp Smith 1856 p 458 Berger 2012 p 246 Idel 2005 p 131 full citation needed sfn error no target CITEREFIdel2005 help Green 2007 pp xv xix a b Bussow 2011 p 195 David 2010 p 24 Tahrir registers document 20 households in 1538 9 8 in 1553 4 11 in 1562 and 1596 7 Gil however suggests the tahrir records of the Jewish population may be understated Schwarz 1850 p 397 Perera 1996 p 104 Barnay 1992 pp 89 90 gives the figures of 12 000 quadrupling to 46 000 Kurus Marcus 1996 p 85 In 1770 they received financial assistance from North American Jews which amounted in excess of 100 Van Luit 2009 p 42 In 1803 the rabbis and elders of the Jewish community were imprisoned after failing to pay their debts In 1807 the community did however succeed in purchasing a 5 dunam 5 000 m plot where Hebron s wholesale market stands today Conder 1830 p 198 Conder 1830 p 198 The source was a manuscript The Travels of Ali Bey vol ii pp 232 33 Scholch 1993 p 161 Bussow 2011 p 198 WV 1833 p 436 Shaw 1808 p 144 Finn 1868 p 39 Kramer 2011 p 68 Kimmerling amp Migdal 2003 pp 6 11 esp p 8 a b c Robinson amp Smith 1856 p 88 Schwarz 1850 p 403 Schwarz 1850 pp 398 99 Schwarz 1850 pp 398 400 Finn 1878 pp 287ff Scholch 1993 pp 234 35 Cohen 2015 p 15 Schwarz 1850 p 401 Wilson 1847 pp 355 381 372 The rabbi of the Ashkenazi community who said they numbered 60 mainly Polish and Russian emigrants professed no knowledge of the Sephardim in Hebron p 377 Sicker 1999 p 6 Bussow 2011 pp 198 99 Wilson 1847 p 379 Wilson 1881 p 195 mentions a different set of names the Quarter of the Cloister Gate Harat Bab ez Zawiyeh the Quarter of the Sanctuary Haret el Haram to the south east Scholch 1993 pp 236 37 Finn 1878 pp 305 308 a b Shragai 2008 History of the Jews of the Netherlands Antilles Volume 2 Isaac Samuel Emmanuel Suzanne A Emmanuel American Jewish Archives 1970 p 754 Between 1869 and 1871 Hebron was plagued with a severe drought Food was so scarce that the little available sold for ten times the normal value Although the rains came in 1871 there was no easing of the famine for the farmers had no seed to sow The Jewish community was obliged to borrow money from non Jews at exorbitant interest rates in order to buy wheat for their fold Their leaders finally decided to send their eminent Chief Rabbi Eliau Soliman Mani to Egypt to obtain relief Khalidi 1998 p 218 a b Conder 1879 p 79 Scholch 1993 pp 161 62 quoting David Delpuget Les Juifs d Alexandrie de Jaffa et de Jerusalem en 1865 Bordeaux 1866 p 26 Scholch 1993 pp 161 62 a b Taraki 2006 pp 12 14 Taraki 2006 pp 12 14 Throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and well into the twentieth Hebron was a peripheral borderline community attracting poor itinerant peasants and those with Sufi inclinations from its environs The tradition of shorabat Sayyidna Ibrahim a soup kitchen surviving into the present day and supervised by the awqaf and that of the Sufi zawaya gave the city a reputation for being an asylum for the poor and the spiritual cementing the poor cast of a town supporting the unproductive and the needy Ju beh 2003 This reputation was bound to shed a conservative dull cast on the city a place not known for high living dynamism or innovativeness Kimmerling amp Migdal 2003 p 41 Gorenberg 2007 p 145 Laurens 1999 p 508 Renan 1864 p 93 remarked of the town that it was one of the bulwarks of Semitic ideas in their most austere form Bussow 2011 p 199 Kimmerling amp Migdal 2003 p 92 Campos 2007 pp 55 56 Kupferschmidt 1987 pp 110 11 J B Barron ed Palestine Report and General Abstracts of the Census of 1922 Government of Palestine page 9 M Th Houtsma 1993 E J Brill s First Encyclopaedia of Islam 1913 1936 Vol 4 BRILL p 887 ISBN 90 04 09790 2 Cohen 2008 p 64 Kupferschmidt 1987 p 82 In any event after his appointment Abd al Hayy al Khatib not only played a prominent role in the disturbances of 1929 but in general appeared as one of the few loyal adherents of Hajj Amin in that town Taraki 2006 pp 12 14 Cohen 2008 pp 19 20 Ilan Ben Zion Eyeing Nepal experts warn Israel is unprepared for its own Big One The Times of Israel 27 April 2015 Kupferschmidt 1987 p 237 Wein 1993 pp 138 39 Bauman 1994 p 22 Kramer 2011 p 232 Segev 2001 p 318 Kimmerling amp Migdal 2003 p 92 Post holocaust and anti semitism Issues 40 75 Page 35 Merkaz ha Yerushalmi le ʻinyene tsibur u medinah Temple University Center for Jewish Community Studies 2006 After the 1929 riots in Mandatory Palestine the non Jewish French writer Albert Londres asked him why the Arabs had murdered the old pious Jews in Hebron and Safed with whom they had no quarrel The mayor answered In a way you behave like in a war You don t kill what you want You kill what you find Next time they will all be killed young and old Later on Londres spoke again to the mayor and tested him ironically by saying You cannot kill all the Jews There are 150 000 of them Nashashibi answered in a soft voice Oh no it ll take two days Segev 2001 pp 325 26 The Zionist Archives preserves lists of Jews who were saved by Arabs one list contains 435 names Republic The New May 7 2008 The Tangled Truth The New Republic Campos 2007 pp 56 57 a b Chaim Levinsohn Israel Supreme Court Rules Hebron Jews Can t Reclaim Lands Lost After 1948 Haaretz 18 February 2011 The Road to Jerusalem Glubb Pasha Palestine and the Jews Benny Morris 2003 pp 186 87 Thomas A Idinopulos Jerusalem 1994 p 300 So severe were the Jordanian restrictions against Jews gaining access to the old city that visitors wishing to cross over from west Jerusalem had to produce a baptismal certificate Armstrong Karen Jerusalem One City Three Faiths 1997 Only clergy diplomats UN personnel and a few privileged tourists were permitted to go from one side to the other The Jordanians required most tourists to produce baptismal certificates to prove they were not Jewish Robins 2004 pp 71 72 Michael Dumper Bruce E Stanley 2007 Cities of the Middle East and North Africa A Historical Encyclopedia ABC CLIO p 165 ISBN 978 1 57607 919 5 The Encyclopaedia of Islam Sir H A R Gibb 1980 p 337 a b Efrat 1984 p 192 Auerbach 2009 p 79 Under Jordanian rule the last vestiges of a Jewish historical presence in Hebron were obliterated The Avraham Avinu synagogue already in ruins was razed a pen for goats sheep and donkeys was built on the site Gorenberg 2007 pp 80 83 Gorenberg 2007 pp 138 39 Sternhell 1999 p 333 Sternhell 1999 p 337 In building this new Jewish town one was sending a message to the international community for the Jews the sites connected with Jewish history are inalienable and if later for circumstantial reasons the state of Israel is obliged to give one or another of them up the step is not considered final Gorenberg 2007 p 151 David s kingdom was a model for the messianic kingdom David began in Hebron so settling Hebron would lead to final redemption Segev 2008 p 698 Hebron was considered a holy city the massacre of Jews there in 1929 was imprinted on national memory along with the great pogroms of Eastern Europe The messianic fervor that characterized the Hebron settlers was more powerful than the awakening that led people to settle in East Jerusalem while Jerusalem had already been annexed the future of Hebron was still unclear a b The Jerusalem Post Field News 10 2 2002 Hebron Jews offspring divided over city s fate Archived 2011 08 16 at the Wayback Machine 2006 05 16 a b The Philadelphia Inquirer Hebron descendants decry actions of current settlers They are kin of the Jews ousted in 1929 1997 03 03 Shragai Nadav 2007 12 26 80 years on massacre victims kin reclaims Hebron house Haaretz Retrieved 2008 02 07 Ha aretz Haaretz com Retrieved 2009 11 12 Katz Yaakov Jpost Jpost Archived from the original on 2012 01 11 Retrieved 2009 11 12 Nadav Shragai Settlers threaten Amona style riots over Hebron eviction Haaretz 17 Nov 2008 Haaretz com Retrieved 2009 11 12 Amos Harel MKs urge legal action as settler violence erupts in Hebron Haaretz 20 11 2008 Haaretz com Retrieved 2009 11 12 High alert in West Bank following Beit Hashalom evacuation Archived 2011 09 29 at the Wayback Machine Jerusalem Post December 4 2008 Charles Reynell 1972 The Economist Vol 242 Economist Newspaper Limited Mattar 2005 p 255 Bouckaert 2001 p 14 Rubenberg 2003 pp 162 63 Kellerman 1993 p 89 Rubenberg 2003 p 187 Bovard 2004 p 265 citing Charles A Radin A Top Israeli Says Settlers Incited Riot in Hebron Boston Globe July 31 2002 Amos Harel and Jonathan Lis Minister s Aide Calls Hebron Riots a Pogrom Haaretz 31 July 2002 p 409 notes 55 56 The Scotsman 2002 Jewish presence in Hebron is an indisputable historical fact Israel Hayom 2011 11 04 Retrieved 2013 03 26 a b Kimmerling amp Migdal 2003 p 443 Protocol Concerning the Redeployment in Hebron United Nations Information System on the Question of Palestine Non UN document January 17 1997 Archived from the original on October 24 2007 Gurkow Lazer Chabad org Chabad org Retrieved 2009 11 12 a b Janine Zacharia March 8 2010 Letter from the West Bank In Hebron renovation of holy site sets off strife The Washington Post The Geneva Convention BBC News 10 December 2009 Retrieved 27 September 2011 B Tselem Press Releases 31 Dec 2007 B Tselem 131 Palestinians who did not participate in the hostilities killed by Israel s security forces in 2007 Btselem org 2007 12 31 Retrieved 2009 11 12 Israeli NGO issues damning report on situation in Hebron Agence France Presse ReliefWeb August 19 2003 Archived from the original on October 21 2007 Retrieved March 30 2007 Hebron Area H 2 Settlements Cause Mass Departure of Palestinians PDF B Tselem August 2003 In total 169 families lived on the three streets in September 2000 when the intifada began Since then seventy three families forty three percent have left their homes Palestine Refugees a challenge for the International Community United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East ReliefWeb October 10 2006 Archived from the original on October 17 2006 Settler violence has forced out over half the Palestinian population in some neighborhoods in the downtown area of Hebron This once bustling community is now eerily deserted and presents a harrowing existence for those few Palestinians who dare to remain or who are too deep in poverty to move elsewhere Ghost Town Israel s Separation Policy and Forced Eviction of Palestinians from the Center of Hebron B Tselem May 2007 Hope in Hebron David Shulman New York Review of Books 22 March 2013 Those who still live on Shuhada Street can t enter their own homes from the street Some use the rooftops to go in and out climbing from one roof to another before issuing into adjacent homes or alleys Some have cut gaping holes in the walls connecting their homes to other often deserted houses and thus pass through these buildings until they can exit into a lane outside or up a flight of stairs to a passageway on top of the old casba market According to a survey conducted by the human rights organization B Tselem in 2007 42 per cent of the Palestinian population in the city center of Hebron area H2 some 1 014 families have abandoned their homes and moved out most of them to area H1 now under Palestinian control a b Confidential 20 year monitoring report Israel regularly breaks int l law in Hebron haaretz com 2018 12 17 Retrieved 2018 12 17 a b Hanne Eggen Roislien Living with Contradiction Examining the Worldview of the Jewish Settlers in Hebron Archived 2015 10 02 at the Wayback Machine IJCV Vol 1 2 2007 pp 169 184 pp 181 182 Ami Pedahzur Arie Perliger Jewish Terrorism in Israel Columbia University Press 2011 p 72 Gorenberg 2007 p 356 a b c d e Occupation in Hebron Archived 2016 01 05 at the Wayback Machine pp 10 12 Alternative Information Center 2004 Gorenberg 2007 pp 137 144 150 205 Gorenberg 2007 pp 205 359 Lustick 1988 p 205 n 1 a b Auerbach 2009 p 60 a b Tamara Neuman Settling Hebron Jewish Fundamentalism in a Palestinian City The Ethnography of Political Violence University of Pennsylvania Press 2018 ISBN 978 0 812 29482 8 pp 79 80 Perera 1996 pp 178 As I made my way to the Machpelah I passed a curious scene The Hadassah hospital of Hebron which is Arab administered had been taken over by Israeli women of Kiryat Arba the new settlement on the hill overlooking the city Miriam Levinger wife of Moshe Levinger the militant right wing rabbi who founded Kiryat Arba was screaming in her Brooklyn accented Hebrew at the Palestinian police who were very politely attempting to remove the women from the hospital grounds Ben Ehrenreich The Way to the Spring Life and Death in Palestine Granta Books2016 ISBN 978 1 783 78312 0 p 156 Kretzmer 2002 pp 117 18 Falah 1985 p 253 Bouckaert 2001 p 86 Platt 2012 pp 79 80 Auerbach 2009 pp 40 45 79 Levinson Chaim IDF brass calls for immediate removal of new Hebron settlement Haaretz Newspaper 2 April 2012 Chaim Levinson Following settlers demand IDF removes Palestinian flag from Hebron roof Haaretz March 17 2014 Watchdog Expansion of Hebron settlements amounts to right of return for Jews only Ma an News Agency 22 August 2016 Hagar Shezaf Israel Plans New Jewish Neighborhood in Hebron s Arab Market Haaretz 1 December 2019 Elisha Ben Kimon Yoav Zitun Elior Levy Bennett plans building Jewish neighborhood in Hebron Ynet 1 December 2019 Yumna Patel Israel s plan to build new settlement atop Hebron market evokes painful memories for residents Mondoweiss 4 December 2019 a b Turner 1820 p 261 Frederick Adolphus Packard American Sunday School Union 1842 The Union Bible Dictionary American Sunday School Union p 304 About four hundred families of Arabs dwell in Hebron and about one hundred and twenty families of Jews the latter having been greatly reduced in number by a bloody battle in 1834 between them and the troops of Ibrahim Pasha Lewis Bernard Cohen Amnon 8 March 2015 Population and Revenue in the Towns of Palestine in the Sixteenth Century Princeton University Press p 109 ISBN 978 1 4008 6779 0 רבי חיים יוסף דוד אזולאי Meir Benayhu Mosad Harav Kook 1959 a b c d Hebron Jewish Virtual Library The Missionary Herald Board 1825 p 65 Augustin Calmet 1832 Dictionary of the Holy Bible Crocker and Brewster p 488 ISBN 9781404787964 William McClure Thomson The Land and the Book Southern Palestine and Jerusalem p 275 Robinson p 88 David Roberts The Holy Land 123 Coloured Facsimile Lithographs and The Journal from his visit to the Holy Land Terra Sancta Arts 1982 ISBN 965 260 001 6 Plate III 13 Journal entry 17 March 1839 James A Huie 1840 The history of the Jews from the taking of Jerusalem by Titus to the present time by J A Huie p 242 a b c d PEF Survey of Western Palestine Volume III p 309 Clorinda Minor 1851 Meshullam Or Tidings from Jerusalem Arno Press p 58 ISBN 978 0 405 10302 5 Alexander Scholch Scholch The Demographic Development of Palestine 1850 1882 International Journal of Middle East Studies Vol 17 No 4 Nov 1985 pp 485 505 p 486 The Friend Vol 54 55 The Friend 1881 p 333 Tzvi Rabinowicz 1996 The Encyclopedia of Hasidism Jason Aronson ISBN 978 1 56821 123 7 Barron 1923 Table V Sub district of Hebron p 10 Jessie Sampter 2007 Modern Palestine A Symposium READ BOOKS ISBN 978 1 4067 3834 6 Government of Palestine 1945 A Survey of Palestine Vol 1 p 151 First Census Government of Jordan 1964 p 06 West Bank Volume 1 Table I West Bank population according to 1967 census and Jordanian 1961 census Levy Economics Institute West Bank Volume 1 Table 4 Population by religion sex age and type of settlement Levy Economics Institute Palestinian Census 1997 Archived from the original on November 15 2010 Palestinian security forces deploy in Hebron 25 10 2008 gives about 500 as of October 2008 The last official census in 2007 gave 165 000 2007 Locality Population Statistics Archived 2010 12 10 at the Wayback Machine Hebron Governorate Population Housing and Establishment Census 2007 Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics PCBS a b De Cesari 2009 pp 235 36 Journal of a deputation sent to the East by the committee of the Malta Protestant college in 1849 containing an account of the present state of the Oriental nations including their religion learning education customs and occupations Volume 2 J Nisbet and co 1854 p 395 Bussow 2011 p 202 Efrat 1984 p 191 a b Kedar 2000 pp 112 13 Brill 1993 p 887 About Founder of Hebron University Archived 2012 10 16 at the Wayback Machine Hebron University 2010 2011 A ghetto state of ghettos Palestinians under Israeli citizenship Mary Boger City University of New York Sociology 2008 p 93 The development of the Islamic Movement in Israel owes much to the Israeli and Jordanian governments who collaborated to establish an Islamic University in al Khalil Hebron headed by Shaykh Muhammad Ali al Ja bari a prominent anti PLO leader who served as minister in Jordan and in the internal circle of kings Abd allah and Husayn who are known to have befriended the Israeli occupation Ricca 2007 p 177 Auerbach 2009 p 79 a b c d e De Cesari 2009 pp 230 33 a b c d The decline of Hebron s shoe industry Al Jazeera 4 April 2015 a b c The decline of Hebron s shoe industry Al Monitor 13 March 2013 permanent dead link Plascov Avi 2008 The Palestinian refugees in Jordan 1948 1957 Routledge p 2 ISBN 978 0 7146 3120 2 Bovis H Eugene 1971 The Jerusalem question 1917 1968 Hoover Institution Press U S p 40 ISBN 978 0 8179 3291 6 Haaretz 22 June 2020 In Hebron Protecting Palestinians is Not an Israeli Soldier s Job Haaretz 3 Feb 2020 Jared Kushner Does Not See the Brutal Occupation I Helped Carry Out As a Former Soldier I Enforced Two Separate Legal Systems for Israelis and Palestinians The Trump Plan Wants to Make This Reality Permanent Ward Hazel May 23 2011 West Bank B amp B in Hebron s Old City fully booked The Australian Archived from the original on 2012 09 12 Retrieved November 18 2022 Nabeel Abraham What About The Victims Archived 2016 03 04 at the Wayback Machine Lies of Our Times May 1994 pp 3 6 Bovard 2004 p 265 Meir Tayar commander of the Hebron Border Police at the time testified that Instructions are to take cover wait until the clip is empty or the gun jams and then overpower him Even if I had been there in the mosque I could not have done anything there were special orders Commission of Inquiry 1994 Freedland 2012 p 23 Levy 2012 Fatal Terrorist Attacks in Israel Since the DOP Sep 1993 Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs 24 September 2000 Retrieved 2007 04 13 Harel 2002 Two Norwegian observers killed near Hebron Israeli TV Archived 2007 10 21 at the Wayback Machine ABC News online March 27 2002 Published 7 31PM GMT 26 Mar 2002 2002 03 26 Telegraph London Telegraph co uk Archived from the original on 2022 01 12 Retrieved 2009 11 12 Two TIPH members killed near Hebron Archived 2007 09 27 at the Wayback Machine Temporary International Presence in the City of Hebron website March 27 2002 Cordesman 2006 p 135 Pedahzur amp Perliger 2011 p 92 Cf the most palpable expressions of Kahanism in recent decades can be found in Hebron p 74 Diego Gambetta 2006 Making Sense of Suicide Missions OUP Oxford p 113 ISBN 978 0 19 929797 9 Chris McGreal Palestinian suicide bomber kills 20 and shatters peace process The Guardian 20 August 2003 Ed O Loughlin Ceasefire illusion just blown away Sydney Morning Herald 21 August 2003 Hamas claimed it marked the anniversary of Denis Michael Rohan s attempt to burn the Al Aqsa mosque Islamic Jihad claimed it was in revenge for the killing of a leader Ahmed Sidr in Hebron Hebron Area H 2 Settlements Cause Mass Departure of Palestinians Mounting Human Rights Crisis in Hebron Archived from the original on 2008 11 15 Retrieved 2010 03 29 Israeli human rights group slams Hebron settlers Bouckaert 2001 pp 5 40 43 48 71 72 Freedland 2012 p 22 History Mission of CPT Christian Peacemaker Teams Archived from the original on 2008 10 11 Cohen 1985 p 105 Feige 2009 p 158 Without Prejudice The Eaford International Review of Racial Discrimination International Organization for the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination 1987 p 81 2 Archived 2009 08 03 at the Wayback Machine Jerusalem Post October 6 2000 IDF Palestinians offer 2 000 for martyrs Adamczyk Ed 7 July 2017 UNESCO declares Hebron West Bank a world heritage site UPI Retrieved 7 July 2017 Israelis outraged by UNESCO decision on Hebron holy site ABC News Associated Press 7 July 2017 Archived from the original on 7 July 2017 Retrieved 8 July 2017 Finn 1868 p 184 the great oak of Sibta commonly called Abraham s oak by most people except the Jews who do not believe in any Abraham s oak there The great patriarch planted indeed a grove at Beersheba but the Elone Mamre they declare to have been plains not oaks which would be Allone Mamre and to have been situated northwards instead of westwards from the present Hebron Museum With No Frontiers 2004 Pilgrimage sciences and Sufism Islamic art in the West Bank and Gaza Edisud p 200 ISBN 978 9953 36 064 5 a b Vilnay 1973 pp 170 72 Miscellanies of divinitie divided into three books Edward Kellet 1633 p 223 Sixthly the field of Damascus where the red earth lieth of which they report Adam was formed which earth is tough and may be wrought like wax and lieth close by Hebron Neuman 2018 p 1 Marcus Milwright 2008 The Fortress of the Raven Karak in the Middle Islamic Period 1100 1650 BRILL p 119 ISBN 978 90 04 16519 9 J G R Forlong 2003 Encyclopedia of Religions Or Faiths of Man 1906 Part 2 Kessinger Publishing p 220 ISBN 978 0 7661 4308 1 Zev Vilnay 1975 The Sacred land Vol 2 Jewish Publication Society of America p 47 ISBN 978 0 8276 0064 5 Craveri 1967 p 25 Milman 1840 p 49 Gil 1997 p 100 Levi della Vida 1993 p 648 Woodhead Christine 2011 12 15 The Ottoman World Routledge p 73 ISBN 978 1 136 49894 7 Neuman 2018 p 5 This narrowed or fundamentalist focus involves three further changes that are also useful for framing this study the first is that religiously inscribed space particularly the remaking of many Palestinian areas into a geography of biblical sites and origins has been given a new significance in the construction of a distinct Jewish settler identity Spatial reorganization has also resulted in a range of incremental practices included under the rubric of religion that link up with this process of inscription including renaming reenvisioning and rebuilding These practices in turn support and magnify resolute place based attachments The second shift is that these remade biblical sites specifically in Hebron and within the Tomb of the Patriarchs itself are being given a new centrality in Jewish observance one that largely cancels out the exilic orientation of Jewish tradition They give rise to a form of Jewish observance focusing on exact origins and specific graves to the exclusion of a more characteristic yearning for the messianic future Third the final change entails writing out the many historical convergences between Judaism Christianity and Islam reflected in the traditions themselves so as to eliminate possibilities for accommodating difference while using Jewish observance and forms of direct violence in order to erase the presence of an existing Palestinian population History made as Derby becomes sister city of Hebron Palestine Archived 2015 09 23 at the Wayback Machine Derby Telegraph 3 Kraljevo CitySourcesAlbright W F 2000 1975 The Amarna letters from Palestine In Eiddon Iorwerth Edwards Stephen Gadd C J eds Cambridge Ancient History The Middle East and Aegean Region c 1380 1000 BC Vol 2 3 ed Cambridge University Press pp 98 116 ISBN 978 0 521 08691 2 Retrieved October 29 2012 Al Muqaddasi 2001 Collins B A ed The Best Divisions for Knowledge of the Regions Ahasan al Taqasim Fi Ma rifat al Aqalim Reading Garnet Publishing ISBN 978 1 85964 136 1 Retrieved 26 July 2011 Adler E 1994 1930 Jewish Travellers Asian Educational Services ISBN 978 8 120 60952 5 Retrieved 29 October 2012 Alter R 1996 Genesis Translation and Commentary W W Norton pp 886 888 ISBN 978 0 393 03981 8 Retrieved 26 July 2011 Aksan V H Goffman Daniel 2007 The early modern Ottomans remapping the Empire Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 81764 6 Retrieved 13 October 2010 Alimi Eitan 2013 Israeli Politics and the First Palestinian Intifada Political Opportunities Framing Processes and Contentious Politics Routledge ISBN 978 1 134 17182 8 Retrieved 5 October 2013 Auerbach J 2009 Hebron Jews Memory and Conflict in the Land of Israel Rowman amp Littlefield ISBN 978 0 742 56617 0 Barnay Jacob 1992 Goldblum Naomi ed The Jews in Palestine in the Eighteenth Century Under the Patronage of the Istanbul Committee of Officials for Palestine University of Alabama Press ISBN 978 0 817 30572 7 Retrieved 20 July 2011 Barron J B ed 1923 Palestine Report and General Abstracts of the Census of 1922 Government of Palestine Bauman Mark K 1994 Harry H Epstein and the Rabbinate as Conduit for Change New York amp London Fairleigh Dickinson University Press ISBN 978 0 8386 3541 4 Retrieved 20 July 2011 Beilin Y 2004 The Path to Geneva The Quest for a Permanent Agreement 1996 2004 Akashic Books ISBN 9780971920637 Retrieved 5 October 2013 Benjamin of Tudela 1907 Adler Marcus Nathan ed The itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela critical text translation and commentary Oxford Henry Frowde ISBN 9780837022635 Berger Pamela 2012 The Crescent on the Temple The Dome of the Rock as Image of the Ancient Jewish Sanctuary Brill s Studies in Religion and the Arts Vol 5 Brill ISBN 978 9 004 20300 6 Retrieved 8 March 2016 Boas Adrian J 1999 Crusader archaeology the material culture of the Latin East Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 17361 2 Retrieved 25 July 2011 Bonar H 1858 The Land of Promise Notes of a Spring journey from Beersheba to Sidon James Nisbet amp Co Retrieved 21 July 2011 Bouckaert P 2001 Bencomo Clarissa ed Center of the Storm A Case Study of Human Rights Abuses in Hebron District Human Rights Watch ISBN 978 1 56432 260 9 Retrieved 26 July 2011 Bovard J 2004 2003 Terrorism and Tyranny Trampling Freedom Justice and Peace to Rid the World of Evil Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 978 1 403 96682 7 Retrieved 31 July 2012 Bratcher Robert G Newman Barclay Moon 1983 A Translator s Handbook on the Book of Joshua United Bible Societies ISBN 978 0 8267 0105 3 Retrieved 24 July 2011 Brill E J 1993 E J Brill s First Encyclopaedia of Islam 1913 1936 Volume 4 BRILL ISBN 9004097961 Hebron Area H 2 Settlements Cause Mass Departure of Palestinians PDF B Tselem August 2003 Retrieved July 31 2012 Bussow J 2011 Hamidian Palestine Politics and Society in the District of Jerusalem 1872 1908 Brill ISBN 978 9004205697 Retrieved 27 October 2012 Campbell Deborah 2004 This Heated Place Encounters in the Promised Land Douglas amp McIntyre ISBN 978 1 55054 967 6 Retrieved 25 July 2011 Campos Michelle 2007 Remembering Jewish Arab Contact and Conflict In Sufian Sandra Marlene LeVine M eds Reapproaching borders new perspectives on the study of Israel Palestine Rowman amp Littlefield pp 41 66 ISBN 978 0 7425 4639 4 Carter Charles E 1999 The Emergence of Yehud in the Persian Period A Social and Demographic Study Journal for the study of the Old Testament Supplement series Vol 294 New York amp London Continuum International Publishing Group ISBN 978 1 84127 012 8 Retrieved 20 July 2011 Cazelles H 1981 Chabhar In Botterweck G J Ringgren H Fabry H J eds Theological dictionary of the Old Testament Vol 4 Wm B Eerdmans Publishing pp 193 197 ISBN 978 0 8028 2328 1 Retrieved July 26 2011 Churchill R 1967 The Six Day War Ritana Books ISBN 978 81 85250 14 4 Retrieved 20 July 2011 Cohen Esther Rosalind 1985 Human rights in the Israeli occupied territories 1967 1982 Manchester University Press ISBN 978 0 7190 1726 1 Retrieved 26 July 2011 Cohen H 2009 2008 Watzman Haim ed Army of Shadows Palestinian Collaboration with Zionism 1917 1948 University of California Press ISBN 978 1 55054 967 6 Retrieved 25 July 2011 Cohen H 2015 Year Zero of the Arab Israeli Conflict 1929 Brandeis University Press ISBN 978 1 611 68811 5 Conder C R 1879 Tent Work in Palestine A Record of Discovery and Adventure Vol 2 Richard Bentley amp Son published for the Committee of the PEF OCLC 23589738 Retrieved 15 October 2020 Conder J 1830 The Modern Traveller A Description Geographical Historical and Topographical of the Various Countries of the Globe Vol 1 J Duncan Retrieved 26 July 2011 Cordesman A H 2006 Arab Israeli Military Forces in an Era of Asymmetric War Greenwood Publishing Group ISBN 978 0 275 99186 9 Retrieved 28 November 2012 Craveri M 1967 The Life of Jesus An assessment through modern historical evidence Pan Books Retrieved 20 July 2011 David Abraham 2010 To Come to the Land Immigration and Settlement in 16th Century Eretz Israel University of Alabama Press ISBN 978 0 817 35643 9 Retrieved 10 November 2012 De Cesari Chiara 2009 Cultural Heritage Beyond the state Palestinian Heritage Between Nationalism and Transnationalism Stanford University Dept of Anthropology ISBN 978 0 549 98604 1 Retrieved 21 November 2012 Duke Robert R 2010 The Social Location of the Visions of Amram 4Q543 547 Studies in biblical literature Vol 135 Peter Lang ISBN 978 1 4331 0789 4 Retrieved 20 July 2011 Dumper Michael 2003 Hebron In Dumper Michael Stanley Bruce E eds Cities of the Middle East and North Africa a historical encyclopedia ABC CLIO pp 164 67 ISBN 978 1 57607 919 5 Retrieved July 26 2011 Efrat Elisha 1984 Urbanization in Israel Taylor amp Francis ISBN 9780709909316 Elazar Daniel E 1998 Covenant and Polity in Biblical Israel Biblical Foundations amp Jewish Expressions Transaction Publishers ISBN 978 0 7658 0452 5 Retrieved 25 July 2011 Emmett Chad F 2000 Sharing Sacred Space in the Holy Land In Murphy Alexander B Johnson Douglas L Haarmann Viola eds Cultural encounters with the environment enduring and evolving geographic themes Rowman amp Littlefield pp 261 82 ISBN 978 0 7425 0106 5 Falah Ghazi 1985 Recent Colonization in Hebron In Newman David ed The Impact of Gush Emunim politics and settlement in the West Bank London Croom Helm pp 245 61 ISBN 978 0 7099 1821 9 Feige Michael 2009 Settling in the hearts Jewish fundamentalism in the occupied territories Wayne State University Press ISBN 978 0 8143 2750 0 Retrieved 28 July 2011 Finkelstein I Silberman N A 2001 Covenant The Bible Unearthed Archaeology s New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts Simon and Schuster ISBN 978 0 7432 2338 6 Retrieved 25 July 2011 Finn J 1868 Byeways in Palestine London James Nisbett Retrieved 25 July 2011 Finn J 1878 Stirring Times or Records from Jerusalem Consular Chronicles of 1853 1856 Vol 2 Location C K Paul amp Co Retrieved 25 July 2011 First Census of Population and Housing Volume I Final Tables General Characteristics of the Population PDF Government of Jordan Department of Statistics 1964 Flusfeder Helena 24 January 1997 Hebron welcomes pull out Times Higher Education Retrieved 26 July 2011 Josephus Flavius 1860 1737 Whiston William ed The complete works of Flavius Josephus London T Nelson and sons 1860 Retrieved 26 July 2011 Forbes R J 1965 1955 Studies in Ancient Technology Vol 2 2 ed Brill Retrieved 15 November 2012 Freedland J 23 February 2012 An Exclusive Corner of Hebron New York Review of Books pp 21 23 Retrieved 31 July 2012 Frenkel Yehoshua 2011 Hebron An Islamic Sacred City 634 1099 in JSTOR חברון עיר קודש אסלאמית 634 1099 לסה נ Catedra For the History of Eretz Israel and Its Yishuv issue 141 p 27 52 in Hebrew Gil Moshe 1997 1983 A History of Palestine 634 1099 Translated by Ethel Broido Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 0 521 59984 9 Gelvin James L 2007 The Israel Palestine Conflict One Hundred Years of War University of California Press ISBN 978 0 521 88835 6 Retrieved 25 July 2011 Glick Leonard B 1994 Religion and Genocide In Charny I W ed The Widening Circle of Genocide Genocide A Critical Bibliography Vol 3 TRansaction Publishers Institute on the Holocaust and Genocide pp 43 74 ISBN 978 1 412 83965 5 Retrieved January 20 2010 Goldberg J May 2004 Among The Settlers The New Yorker Retrieved 26 July 2011 Gorenberg G 2007 The Accidental Empire Israel and the Birth of the Settlements 1967 1977 Times Books Henry Holt and Co ISBN 978 0 8050 8241 8 Retrieved 23 July 2011 Gottwald N K 1999 The tribes of Yahweh a sociology of the religion of liberated Israel 1250 1050 BCE Continuum International Publishing ISBN 978 1 84127 026 5 Retrieved 27 July 2011 Graetz H 1895 Lowy Bella ed The History of the Jews From the Chmielnicki Persecution of the Jews in Poland 1648 CE to the Period of Emancipation in Central Europe c 1870 CE History of the Jews Vol 5 Jewish Publication Society of America Retrieved 27 July 2011 Green T 2007 Inquisition The Reign of Fear Macmillan Press ISBN 978 1 4050 8873 2 Retrieved 23 July 2011 Harel A 17 November 2002 The attack in Hebron was not a massacre Haaretz Retrieved 2011 09 17 Hasasneh Nabeel 15 March 2005 Hebron University Digi arts Unesco Knowledge Portal Retrieved 26 July 2011 Hasson Nir 29 September 2016 Ancient Toilet Reveals the Unique Way the Israelites Fought Idol worship Haaretz Retrieved 29 September 2016 Hezser Catherine 2002 The Social Status of Slaves in the Talmud Yerushalmi and in Graeco Roman Society In Schafer Peter ed The Talmud Yerushalmi and Graece Roman Culture Texte und Studien zum antiken Judentum Vol 3 Mohr Siebeck pp 91 138 ISBN 978 0 567 02242 4 Retrieved 26 July 2011 Hiro D 1999 Sharing the Promised Land a tale of Israelis and Palestinians Olive Olive Branch Press ISBN 978 1 566 56319 2 Retrieved 19 November 2012 Honigmann Ernst 1993 1927 Hebron In Houtsma M T ed E J Brill s first encyclopedia of Islam 1913 1936 Vol IV BRILL pp 886 888 ISBN 978 90 04 09790 2 Halpern Ben Reinharz J 2000 Zionism and the Creation of a New Society University Press of New England ISBN 978 1 58465 023 2 Retrieved 23 July 2011 Hamilton V P 1995 The book of Genesis chapters 18 50 The New international commentary on the Old Testament Vol 2 Wm B Eerdmans Publishing ISBN 978 0 8028 2309 0 Retrieved 23 July 2011 Hyamson A M 1917 Palestine the Rebirth of an Ancient People New York A A Knopf Retrieved 1 August 2011 Japhet S 1993 I amp II Chronicles A Commentary Westminster John Knox Press ISBN 978 0 664 22641 1 Retrieved 26 July 2011 Jericke Detlef 2003 Abraham in Mamre Historische und exegetische Studien zur Region von Hebron und zu Genesis 11 27 19 38 BRILL ISBN 978 90 04 12939 9 Retrieved 26 July 2011 Kamrava Mehran 2010 The Modern Middle East A Political History since the First World War 2 ed University of California Press ISBN 978 0 520 94753 5 Retrieved 5 October 2010 Katz Yaakov Lazaroff Tovah April 14 2007 Hebron settlers try to buy more homes The Jerusalem Post Archived from the original on 11 January 2012 Retrieved 26 July 2011 Kedar B Z 2000 The Changing Land Between the Jordan and the Sea Aerial Photographs from 1917 to the present Wayne State University Press ISBN 0814329152 Kellerman Aharon 1993 Society and settlement Jewish land of Israel in the twentieth century Albany New York SUNY Press ISBN 978 0 7914 1295 4 Retrieved 25 July 2011 Khalidi R 1998 1998 Palestinian Identity The Construction of Modern National Consciousness Columbia University Press ISBN 978 0 231 10515 6 Retrieved 28 July 2011 Kimmerling B Migdal Joel S 2003 The Palestinian people a history Harvard University Press ISBN 978 0 674 01129 8 Retrieved 26 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for Travellers in Syria and Palestine London J Murray 1858 OCLC 2300777 External links Wikiquote has quotations related to Hebron Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Hebron Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hebron Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica article Hebron www hebron city ps Photographs of Hebron english Hebron com English Collection of Palestinian articles on Hebron published by This Week in Palestine Sephardic Studies 1839 Sephardic census of Ottoman controlled Hebron ArchNet org Hebron Cambridge Massachusetts USA MIT School of Architecture and Planning Archived from the original on 2014 01 05 Settlement Encroachments in Hebron Old City Photo s maps of settlements and closed roads Hebron Rehabilitation Committee 1 April 2014 Settlements on GoogleMaps Ancient Canaanite and Biblical Hebron Tel Rumeida in Israel Oak of Mamre on OrthodoxWiki for the Oak and Russian Orthodox monastery Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Hebron amp 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