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Richard III of England

May 29, 2023

"Richard III" redirects here. For other uses, see Richard III (disambiguation).
"Richard of Gloucester" redirects here. For the grandson of George V, see Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester.

Richard III (2 October 1452 – 22 August 1485) was King of England from 26 June 1483 until his death in 1485. He was the last king of the House of York and the last of the Plantagenet dynasty. His defeat and death at the Battle of Bosworth Field, the last decisive battle of the Wars of the Roses, marked the end of the Middle Ages in England.

Richard III
Earliest surviving portrait, c. 1520
King of England
(more...)
Reign26 June 1483 – 22 August 1485
Coronation6 July 1483
PredecessorEdward V
SuccessorHenry VII
Born2 October 1452
Fotheringhay Castle, Northamptonshire, England
Died22 August 1485 (aged 32)
Bosworth Field, Leicestershire, England
Burial25 August 1485[1]
26 March 2015
Spouse
​
​
(m. 1472; died 1485)​
Issue
Detail
HouseYork (Plantagenet)
FatherRichard, 3rd Duke of York
MotherCecily Neville
Signature

Richard was created Duke of Gloucester in 1461 after the accession of his brother King Edward IV. In 1472, he married Anne Neville, daughter of Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick. He governed northern England during Edward's reign, and played a role in the invasion of Scotland in 1482. When Edward IV died in April 1483, Richard was named Lord Protector of the realm for Edward's eldest son and successor, the 12-year-old Edward V. Arrangements were made for Edward V's coronation on 22 June 1483. Before the king could be crowned, the marriage of his parents was declared bigamous and therefore invalid. Now officially illegitimate, their children were barred from inheriting the throne. On 25 June, an assembly of lords and commoners endorsed a declaration to this effect, and proclaimed Richard as the rightful king. He was crowned on 6 July 1483. Edward and his younger brother Richard of Shrewsbury, Duke of York, called the "Princes in the Tower", were not seen in public after August, and accusations circulated that they had been murdered on King Richard's orders, after the Tudor dynasty established their rule a few years later.

There were two major rebellions against Richard during his reign. In October 1483, an unsuccessful revolt was led by staunch allies of Edward IV and Richard's former ally, Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham. Then, in August 1485, Henry Tudor and his uncle, Jasper Tudor, landed in southern Wales with a contingent of French troops, and marched through Pembrokeshire, recruiting soldiers. Henry's forces defeated Richard's army near the Leicestershire town of Market Bosworth. Richard was slain, making him the last English king to die in battle. Henry Tudor then ascended the throne as Henry VII.

Richard's corpse was taken to the nearby town of Leicester and buried without ceremony. His original tomb monument is believed to have been removed during the English Reformation, and his remains were wrongly thought to have been thrown into the River Soar. In 2012, an archaeological excavation was commissioned by Philippa Langley with the assistance of the Richard III Society on the site previously occupied by Grey Friars Priory. The University of Leicester identified the skeleton found in the excavation as that of Richard III as a result of radiocarbon dating, comparison with contemporary reports of his appearance, identification of trauma sustained at the Battle of Bosworth Field and comparison of his mitochondrial DNA with that of two matrilineal descendants of his sister Anne. He was reburied in Leicester Cathedral on 26 March 2015.

Early life

Richard was born on 2 October 1452, at Fotheringhay Castle in Northamptonshire, the eleventh of the twelve children of Richard, 3rd Duke of York, and Cecily Neville, and the youngest to survive infancy.[2] His childhood coincided with the beginning of what has traditionally been labelled the 'Wars of the Roses', a period of political instability and periodic open civil war in England during the second half of the fifteenth century,[3] between the Yorkists, who supported Richard's father (a potential claimant to the throne of King Henry VI from birth),[4] and opposed the regime of Henry VI and his wife, Margaret of Anjou,[5] and the Lancastrians, who were loyal to the crown.[6] In 1459, his father and the Yorkists were forced to flee England, whereupon Richard and his older brother George were placed in the custody of their aunt Anne Neville, Duchess of Buckingham, and possibly of Cardinal Thomas Bourchier, Archbishop of Canterbury.[7]

When their father and elder brother Edmund, Earl of Rutland, were killed at the Battle of Wakefield on 30 December 1460, Richard and George were sent by their mother to the Low Countries.[8] They returned to England following the defeat of the Lancastrians at the Battle of Towton. They participated in the coronation of their eldest brother as King Edward IV on 28 June 1461, when Richard was named Duke of Gloucester and made both a Knight of the Garter and a Knight of the Bath. Edward appointed him the sole Commissioner of Array for the Western Counties in 1464 when he was 11. By the age of 17, he had an independent command.[9]

 
The ruins of the twelfth-century castle at Middleham in Wensleydale where Richard was raised

Richard spent several years during his childhood at Middleham Castle in Wensleydale, Yorkshire, under the tutelage of his cousin Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, later known as 'the Kingmaker' because of his role in the Wars of the Roses. Warwick supervised Richard's training as a knight; in the autumn of 1465, Edward IV granted Warwick 1,000 pounds for the expenses of his younger brother's tutelage.[10] With some interruptions, Richard stayed at Middleham either from late 1461 until early 1465, when he was 12[11] or from 1465 until his coming of age in 1468, when he turned 16.[note 1] While at Warwick's estate, it is likely that he met both Francis Lovell, who was his firm supporter later in his life, and Warwick's younger daughter, his future wife Anne Neville.[13]

It is possible that even at this early stage Warwick was considering the king's brothers as strategic matches for his daughters, Isabel and Anne: young aristocrats were often sent to be raised in the households of their intended future partners,[14] as had been the case for the young dukes' father, Richard of York.[15] As the relationship between the king and Warwick became strained, Edward IV opposed the match.[16] During Warwick's lifetime, George was the only royal brother to marry one of his daughters, the elder, Isabel, on 12 July 1469, without the king's permission. George joined his father-in-law's revolt against the king,[17] while Richard remained loyal to Edward, even though he was rumoured to have been sleeping with Anne.[18][note 2]

Richard and Edward were forced to flee to Burgundy in October 1470 after Warwick defected to the side of the former Lancastrian queen Margaret of Anjou. In 1468, Richard's sister Margaret had married Charles the Bold, the Duke of Burgundy, and the brothers could expect a welcome there. Edward was restored to the throne in the spring of 1471, following the battles of Barnet and Tewkesbury, in both of which the 18-year-old Richard played a crucial role.[19]

During his adolescence, and due to a cause that is unknown, Richard developed a sideways curvature of the spine (Scoliosis).[20] In 2014, after the discovery of Richard's remains, the osteoarchaeologist Dr. Jo Appleby, of Leicester University's School of Archaeology and Ancient History, imaged the spinal column, and reconstructed a model using 3D printing, and concluded that though the spinal scoliosis looked dramatic, it probably did not cause any major physical deformity that could not be disguised by clothing.[21][22]

Marriage and family relationships

 
Contemporary illumination (Rous Roll, 1483) of Richard, his wife Anne Neville, and their son Edward

Following a decisive Yorkist victory over the Lancastrians at the Battle of Tewkesbury, Richard married Anne Neville on 12 July 1472.[23] Anne had previously been wedded to Edward of Westminster, only son of Henry VI, to seal her father's allegiance to the Lancastrian party,[24] Edward died at the Battle of Tewkesbury on 4 May 1471, while Warwick had died at the Battle of Barnet on 14 April 1471.[25] Richard's marriage plans brought him into conflict with his brother George.[26] John Paston's letter of 17 February 1472 makes it clear that George was not happy about the marriage but grudgingly accepted it on the basis that "he may well have my Lady his sister-in-law, but they shall part no livelihood".[27] The reason was the inheritance Anne shared with her elder sister Isabel, whom George had married in 1469. It was not only the earldom that was at stake; Richard Neville had inherited it as a result of his marriage to Anne Beauchamp, 16th Countess of Warwick. The Countess, who was still alive, was technically the owner of the substantial Beauchamp estates, her father having left no male heirs.[28]

The Croyland Chronicle records that Richard agreed to a prenuptial contract in the following terms: "the marriage of the Duke of Gloucester with Anne before-named was to take place, and he was to have such and so much of the earl's lands as should be agreed upon between them through the mediation of arbitrators; while all the rest were to remain in the possession of the Duke of Clarence".[29] The date of Paston's letter suggests the marriage was still being negotiated in February 1472. In order to win George's final consent to the marriage, Richard renounced most of the Earl of Warwick's land and property including the earldoms of Warwick (which the Kingmaker had held in his wife's right) and Salisbury and surrendered to George the office of Great Chamberlain of England.[30] Richard retained Neville's forfeit estates he had already been granted in the summer of 1471:[31][32] Penrith, Sheriff Hutton and Middleham, where he later established his marital household.[33]

 
Stained glass depiction of Richard and Anne Neville in Cardiff Castle

The requisite papal dispensation was obtained dated 22 April 1472.[34] Michael Hicks has suggested that the terms of the dispensation deliberately understated the degrees of consanguinity between the couple, and the marriage was therefore illegal on the ground of first degree consanguinity following George's marriage to Anne's sister Isabel.[24] There would have been first-degree consanguinity if Richard had sought to marry Isabel (in case of widowhood) after she had married his brother George, but no such consanguinity applied for Anne and Richard. Richard's marriage to Anne was never declared null, and it was public to everyone including secular and canon lawyers for 13 years.[35]

In June 1473, Richard persuaded his mother-in-law to leave the sanctuary and come to live under his protection at Middleham. Later in the year, under the terms of the 1473 Act of Resumption,[36] George lost some of the property he held under royal grant and made no secret of his displeasure. John Paston's letter of November 1473 says that King Edward planned to put both his younger brothers in their place by acting as "a stifler atween them".[37] Early in 1474, Parliament assembled and Edward attempted to reconcile his brothers by stating that both men, and their wives, would enjoy the Warwick inheritance just as if the Countess of Warwick "was naturally dead".[38] The doubts cast by George on the validity of Richard and Anne's marriage were addressed by a clause protecting their rights in the event they were divorced (i.e. of their marriage being declared null and void by the Church) and then legally remarried to each other, and also protected Richard's rights while waiting for such a valid second marriage with Anne.[39] The following year, Richard was rewarded with all the Neville lands in the north of England, at the expense of Anne's cousin, George Neville, 1st Duke of Bedford.[40] From this point, George seems to have fallen steadily out of King Edward's favour, his discontent coming to a head in 1477 when, following Isabel's death, he was denied the opportunity to marry Mary of Burgundy, the stepdaughter of his sister Margaret, even though Margaret approved the proposed match.[41] There is no evidence of Richard's involvement in George's subsequent conviction and execution on a charge of treason.[42]

Reign of Edward IV

Estates and titles

Richard was granted the Duchy of Gloucester on 1 November 1461,[43] and on 12 August the next year was awarded large estates in northern England, including the lordships of Richmond in Yorkshire, and Pembroke in Wales. He gained the forfeited lands of the Lancastrian John de Vere, 12th Earl of Oxford, in East Anglia. In 1462, on his birthday, he was made Constable of Gloucester and Corfe Castles and Admiral of England, Ireland and Aquitaine[44] and appointed Governor of the North, becoming the richest and most powerful noble in England. On 17 October 1469, he was made Constable of England. In November, he replaced William Hastings, 1st Baron Hastings, as Chief Justice of North Wales. The following year, he was appointed Chief Steward and Chamberlain of Wales.[45] On 18 May 1471, Richard was named Great Chamberlain and Lord High Admiral of England. Other positions followed: High Sheriff of Cumberland for life, Lieutenant of the North and Commander-in-Chief against the Scots and hereditary Warden of the West March.[46] Two months later, on 14 July, he gained the Lordships of the strongholds Sheriff Hutton and Middleham in Yorkshire and Penrith in Cumberland, which had belonged to Warwick the Kingmaker.[47] It is possible that the grant of Middleham seconded Richard's personal wishes.[note 3]

Exile and return

During the latter part of Edward IV's reign, Richard demonstrated his loyalty to the king,[49] in contrast to their brother George who had allied himself with the Earl of Warwick when the latter rebelled towards the end of the 1460s.[50] Following Warwick's 1470 rebellion, before which he had made peace with Margaret of Anjou and promised the restoration of Henry VI to the English throne, Richard, the Baron Hastings and Anthony Woodville, 2nd Earl Rivers, escaped capture at Doncaster by Warwick's brother, John Neville, 1st Marquess of Montagu.[51] On 2 October they sailed from King's Lynn in two ships; Edward landed at Marsdiep and Richard at Zeeland.[52] It was said that, having left England in such haste as to possess almost nothing, Edward was forced to pay their passage with his fur cloak; certainly, Richard borrowed three pounds from Zeeland's town bailiff.[53] They were attainted by Warwick's only Parliament on 26 November.[54] They resided in Bruges with Louis de Gruthuse, who had been the Burgundian Ambassador to Edward's court,[55] but it was not until Louis XI of France declared war on Burgundy that Charles, Duke of Burgundy, assisted their return,[56] providing, along with the Hanseatic merchants, 20,000 pounds, 36 ships and 1,200 men. They departed Flushing for England on 11 March 1471.[57] Warwick's arrest of local sympathisers prevented them from landing in Yorkist East Anglia and on 14 March, after being separated in a storm, their ships ran ashore at Holderness.[58] The town of Hull refused Edward entry. He gained entry to York by using the same claim as Henry of Bolingbroke had before deposing Richard II in 1399; that is, that he was merely reclaiming the Dukedom of York rather than the crown.[59][60] It was in Edward's attempt to regain his throne that Richard began to demonstrate his skill as a military commander.[61]

1471 military campaign

 
Imaginary depiction of the East Gate, Exeter, and the Visit of King Richard III, painted in 1885

Once Edward had regained the support of his brother George, he mounted a swift and decisive campaign to regain the crown through combat;[62] it is believed that Richard was his principal lieutenant[25] as some of the king's earliest support came from members of Richard's affinity, including Sir James Harrington[63] and Sir William Parr, who brought 600 men-at-arms to them at Doncaster.[64] Richard may have led the vanguard at the Battle of Barnet, in his first command, on 14 April 1471, where he outflanked the wing of Henry Holland, 3rd Duke of Exeter,[65] although the degree to which his command was fundamental may have been exaggerated.[66] That Richard's personal household sustained losses indicates he was in the thick of the fighting.[67] A contemporary source is clear about his holding the vanguard for Edward at Tewkesbury,[68] deployed against the Lancastrian vanguard under Edmund Beaufort, 4th Duke of Somerset, on 4 May 1471,[69] and his role two days later, as Constable of England, sitting alongside John Howard as Earl Marshal, in the trial and sentencing of leading Lancastrians captured after the battle.[70]

1475 invasion of France

At least in part resentful of King Louis XI's previous support of his Lancastrian opponents, and possibly in support of his brother-in-law Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, Edward went to parliament in October 1472 for funding a military campaign,[71] and eventually landed in Calais on 4 July 1475.[72] Richard's was the largest private contingent of his army.[73] Although well known to have publicly been against the eventual treaty signed with Louis XI at Picquigny (and absent from the negotiations, in which one of his rank would have been expected to take a leading role),[74] he acted as Edward's witness when the king instructed his delegates to the French court,[75] and received 'some very fine presents' from Louis on a visit to the French king at Amiens.[76] In refusing other gifts, which included 'pensions' in the guise of 'tribute', he was joined only by Cardinal Bourchier.[77] He supposedly disapproved of Edward's policy of personally benefiting—politically and financially—from a campaign paid for out of a parliamentary grant, and hence out of public funds.[74] Any military prowess was therefore not to be revealed further until the last years of Edward's reign.[7]

The North, and the Council in the North

Richard was the dominant magnate in the north of England until Edward IV's death.[78] There, and especially in the city of York, he was highly regarded;[79] although it has been questioned whether this view was reciprocated by Richard.[note 4] Edward IV delegated significant authority to Richard in the region. Kendall and later historians have suggested that this was with the intention of making Richard the Lord of the North;[81] Peter Booth, however, has argued that "instead of allowing his brother Richard carte blanche, [Edward] restricted his influence by using his own agent, Sir William Parr."[82] Following Richard's accession to the throne, he first established the Council of the North and made his nephew John de la Pole, 1st Earl of Lincoln, president and formally institutionalised this body as an offshoot of the royal Council; all its letters and judgements were issued on behalf of the king and in his name.[83] The council had a budget of 2,000 marks per annum and had issued "Regulations" by July of that year: councillors to act impartially, declare vested interests and to meet at least every three months. Its main focus of operations was Yorkshire and the north-east and its responsibilities included land disputes, keeping of the king's peace and punishing lawbreakers.[84]

War with Scotland

Richard's increasing role in the north from the mid-1470s to some extent explains his withdrawal from the royal court. He had been Warden of the West March on the Scottish border since 10 September 1470,[85] and again from May 1471; he used Penrith as a base while 'taking effectual measures' against the Scots, and 'enjoyed the revenues of the estates' of the Forest of Cumberland while doing so.[86] It was at the same time that the Duke of Gloucester was appointed sheriff of Cumberland five consecutive years, being described as 'of Penrith Castle' in 1478.[87]

By 1480, war with Scotland was looming; on 12 May that year he was appointed Lieutenant-General of the North (a position created for the occasion) as fears of a Scottish invasion grew. Louis XI of France had attempted to negotiate a military alliance with Scotland (in the tradition of the "Auld Alliance"), with the aim of attacking England, according to a contemporary French chronicler.[88] Richard had the authority to summon the Border Levies and issue Commissions of Array to repel the Border raids. Together with the Earl of Northumberland, he launched counter-raids, and when the king and council formally declared war in November 1480, he was granted 10,000 pounds for wages.

The king failed to arrive to lead the English army and the result was intermittent skirmishing until early 1482. Richard witnessed the treaty with Alexander, Duke of Albany, brother of King James III of Scotland.[13] Northumberland, Stanley, Dorset, Sir Edward Woodville, and Richard with approximately 20,000 men took the town of Berwick as part of the English invasion of Scotland. The castle held until 24 August 1482, when Richard recaptured Berwick-upon-Tweed from the Kingdom of Scotland. Although it is debatable whether the English victory was due more to internal Scottish divisions rather than any outstanding military prowess by Richard,[89] it was the last time that the Royal Burgh of Berwick changed hands between the two realms.[90]

Lord Protector

On the death of Edward IV on 9 April 1483, his 12-year-old son, Edward V, succeeded him. Richard was named Lord Protector of the Realm and at Baron Hastings' urging, Richard assumed his role and left his base in Yorkshire for London.[91] On 29 April, as previously agreed, Richard and his cousin, Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham, met Queen Elizabeth's brother, Anthony Woodville, Earl Rivers, at Northampton. At the queen's request, Earl Rivers was escorting the young king to London with an armed escort of 2,000 men, while Richard and Buckingham's joint escort was 600 men.[92] Edward V had been sent further south to Stony Stratford. At first convivial, Richard had Earl Rivers, his nephew Richard Grey and his associate, Thomas Vaughan, arrested. They were taken to Pontefract Castle, where they were executed on 25 June on the charge of treason against the Lord Protector after appearing before a tribunal led by Henry Percy, 4th Earl of Northumberland. Rivers had appointed Richard as executor of his will.[93]

After having Rivers arrested, Richard and Buckingham moved to Stony Stratford, where Richard informed Edward V of a plot aimed at denying him his role as protector and whose perpetrators had been dealt with.[94] He proceeded to escort the king to London. They entered the city on 4 May, displaying the carriages of weapons Rivers had taken with his 2,000-man army. Richard first accommodated Edward in the Bishop's apartments; then, on Buckingham's suggestion, the king was moved to the royal apartments of the Tower of London, where kings customarily awaited their coronation.[95] Within the year 1483, Richard had moved himself to the grandeur of Crosby Hall, London, then in Bishopsgate in the City of London. Robert Fabyan, in his 'The new chronicles of England and of France', writes that "the Duke caused the King (Edward V) to be removed unto the Tower and his broder with hym, and the Duke lodged himselfe in Crosbyes Place in Bisshoppesgate Strete."[96] In Holinshed's Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland, he accounts that "little by little all folke withdrew from the Tower, and drew unto Crosbies in Bishops gates Street, where the Protector kept his houshold. The Protector had the resort; the King in maner desolate."[97]

On hearing the news of her brother's 30 April arrest, the dowager queen fled to sanctuary in Westminster Abbey. Joining her were her son by her first marriage, Thomas Grey, 1st Marquess of Dorset; her five daughters; and her youngest son, Richard of Shrewsbury, Duke of York.[98] On 10/11 June, Richard wrote to Ralph, Lord Neville, the City of York and others asking for their support against "the Queen, her blood adherents and affinity" whom he suspected of plotting his murder.[99] At a council meeting on 13 June at the Tower of London, Richard accused Hastings and others of having conspired against him with the Woodvilles and accusing Jane Shore, lover to both Hastings and Thomas Grey, of acting as a go-between. According to Thomas More, Hastings was taken out of the council chambers and summarily executed in the courtyard, while others, like Lord Thomas Stanley and John Morton, Bishop of Ely, were arrested.[100] Hastings was not attainted and Richard sealed an indenture that placed Hastings' widow, Katherine, under his protection.[101] Bishop Morton was released into the custody of Buckingham.[102] On 16 June, the dowager queen agreed to hand over the Duke of York to the Archbishop of Canterbury so that he might attend his brother Edward's coronation, still planned for 22 June.[103]

King of England

 
Silver groat of Richard III
 
Detail from the Rous Roll (1483) showing Richard with a sword in his right hand, a globus cruciger in his left, a white boar (his heraldic badge) at his feet, framed by the crests and helms of England, Ireland, Wales, Gascony-Guyenne, France and St. Edward the Confessor.[104]

Bishop Robert Stillington, the Bishop of Bath and Wells, is said to have informed Richard that Edward IV's marriage to Elizabeth Woodville was invalid because of Edward's earlier union with Eleanor Butler, making Edward V and his siblings illegitimate. The identity of Stillington was known only through the memoirs of French diplomat Philippe de Commines.[105] On 22 June, a sermon was preached outside Old St. Paul's Cathedral by Ralph Shaa, declaring Edward IV's children bastards and Richard the rightful king.[106] Shortly after, the citizens of London, both nobles and commons, convened and drew up a petition asking Richard to assume the throne.[107] He accepted on 26 June and was crowned at Westminster Abbey on 6 July. His title to the throne was confirmed by Parliament in January 1484 by the document Titulus Regius.[108]

The princes, who were still lodged in the royal residence of the Tower of London at the time of Richard's coronation, disappeared from sight after the summer of 1483.[109] Although after his death Richard III was accused of having Edward and his brother killed, notably by More and in Shakespeare's play, the facts surrounding their disappearance remain unknown.[110] Other culprits have been suggested, including Buckingham and even Henry VII, although Richard remains a suspect.[111]

After the coronation ceremony, Richard and Anne set out on a royal progress to meet their subjects. During this journey through the country, the king and queen endowed King's College and Queens' College at Cambridge University, and made grants to the church.[112] Still feeling a strong bond with his northern estates, Richard later planned the establishment of a large chantry chapel in York Minster with over 100 priests.[113] He also founded the College of Arms.[114][115]

Buckingham's rebellion of 1483

Further information: Buckingham's rebellion

In 1483, a conspiracy arose among a number of disaffected gentry, many of whom had been supporters of Edward IV and the "whole Yorkist establishment".[116][117] The conspiracy was nominally led by Richard's former ally, the Duke of Buckingham, although it had begun as a Woodville-Beaufort conspiracy (being "well underway" by the time of the Duke's involvement).[118][note 5] Davies has suggested that it was "only the subsequent parliamentary attainder that placed Buckingham at the centre of events", to blame a disaffected magnate motivated by greed, rather than "the embarrassing truth" that those opposing Richard were actually "overwhelmingly Edwardian loyalists".[120] It is possible that they planned to depose Richard III and place Edward V back on the throne, and that when rumours arose that Edward and his brother were dead, Buckingham proposed that Henry Tudor should return from exile, take the throne and marry Elizabeth, eldest daughter of Edward IV. It has also been pointed out that as this narrative stems from Richard's parliament of 1484, it should probably be treated "with caution".[121] For his part, Buckingham raised a substantial force from his estates in Wales and the Marches.[122] Henry, in exile in Brittany, enjoyed the support of the Breton treasurer Pierre Landais, who hoped Buckingham's victory would cement an alliance between Brittany and England.[123]

Some of Henry Tudor's ships ran into a storm and were forced to return to Brittany or Normandy, while Henry anchored off Plymouth for a week before learning of Buckingham's failure.[124][125] Buckingham's army was troubled by the same storm and deserted when Richard's forces came against them. Buckingham tried to escape in disguise, but was either turned in by a retainer for the bounty Richard had put on his head, or was discovered in hiding with him.[126] He was convicted of treason and beheaded in Salisbury, near the Bull's Head Inn, on 2 November.[127] His widow, Catherine Woodville, later married Jasper Tudor, the uncle of Henry Tudor.[128] Richard made overtures to Landais, offering military support for Landais's weak regime under Francis II, Duke of Brittany, in exchange for Henry. Henry fled to Paris, where he secured support from the French regent Anne of Beaujeu, who supplied troops for an invasion in 1485.[129]

Death at the Battle of Bosworth Field

Main articles: Battle of Bosworth Field and Exhumation and reburial of Richard III of England
 
Former memorial ledger stone to Richard III in the choir of Leicester Cathedral, since replaced by his stone tomb (as illustrated further below)

On 22 August 1485, Richard met the outnumbered forces of Henry Tudor at the Battle of Bosworth Field. Richard rode a white courser (an especially swift and strong horse).[130] The size of Richard's army has been estimated at 8,000 and Henry's at 5,000, but exact numbers are not known, though the royal army is believed to have "substantially" outnumbered Henry's.[131] The traditional view of the king's famous cries of "Treason!" before falling was that during the battle Richard was abandoned by Baron Stanley (made Earl of Derby in October), Sir William Stanley, and Henry Percy, 4th Earl of Northumberland.[132][133] The role of Northumberland is unclear; his position was with the reserve—behind the king's line—and he could not easily have moved forward without a general royal advance, which did not take place.[134] The physical confines behind the crest of Ambion Hill, combined with a difficulty of communications, probably physically hampered any attempt he made to join the fray.[135] Despite appearing "a pillar of the Ricardian regime" and his previous loyalty to Edward IV, Baron Stanley was the stepfather of Henry Tudor and Stanley's inaction combined with his brother's entering the battle on Tudor's behalf was fundamental to Richard's defeat.[136][137][138][139] The death of Richard's close companion John Howard, Duke of Norfolk, may have had a demoralising effect on the king and his men. Either way, Richard led a cavalry charge deep into the enemy ranks in an attempt to end the battle quickly by striking at Henry Tudor.[140]

 
18th-century illustration of the death of Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field

All accounts note that King Richard fought bravely and ably during this manoeuvre, unhorsing Sir John Cheyne, a well-known jousting champion, killing Henry's standard bearer Sir William Brandon and coming within a sword's length of Henry Tudor before being surrounded by Sir William Stanley's men and killed.[141] Polydore Vergil, Henry VII's official historian, recorded that "King Richard, alone, was killed fighting manfully in the thickest press of his enemies".[142] The Burgundian chronicler, Jean Molinet, states that a Welshman struck the death-blow with a halberd while Richard's horse was stuck in the marshy ground.[143] It was said that the blows were so violent that the king's helmet was driven into his skull.[144] The contemporary Welsh poet Guto'r Glyn implies a leading Welsh Lancastrian, Rhys ap Thomas, or one of his men killed the king, writing that he "killed the boar, shaved his head".[143][145][146] The identification in 2013 of King Richard's body shows that the skeleton had 11 wounds, eight of them to the skull, clearly inflicted in battle and suggesting he had lost his helmet.[147] Professor Guy Rutty, from the University of Leicester, said: "The most likely injuries to have caused the king's death are the two to the inferior aspect of the skull—a large sharp force trauma possibly from a sword or staff weapon, such as a halberd or bill, and a penetrating injury from the tip of an edged weapon."[148] The skull showed that a blade had hacked away part of the rear of the skull. Richard III was the last English king to be killed in battle.[149] Henry Tudor succeeded Richard as King Henry VII. He married the Yorkist heiress Elizabeth of York, Edward IV's daughter and Richard III's niece.

After the Battle of Bosworth, Richard's naked body was then carried back to Leicester tied to a horse, and early sources strongly suggest that it was displayed in the collegiate Church of the Annunciation of Our Lady of the Newarke,[150] prior to being hastily and discreetly buried in the choir of Greyfriars Church in Leicester.[151][152][153] In 1495, Henry VII paid 50 pounds for a marble and alabaster monument.[152] According to a discredited tradition, during the Dissolution of the Monasteries, his body was thrown into the River Soar,[154][155] although other evidence suggests that a memorial stone was visible in 1612, in a garden built on the site of Greyfriars.[152] The exact location was then lost, owing to more than 400 years of subsequent development,[156] until archaeological investigations in 2012 revealed the site of the garden and Greyfriars Church. There was a memorial ledger stone in the choir of the cathedral, since replaced by the tomb of the king, and a stone plaque on Bow Bridge where tradition had falsely suggested that his remains had been thrown into the river.[157]

According to another tradition, Richard consulted a seer in Leicester before the battle who foretold that "where your spur should strike on the ride into battle, your head shall be broken on the return". On the ride into battle, his spur struck the bridge stone of Bow Bridge in the city; legend states that as his corpse was carried from the battle over the back of a horse, his head struck the same stone and was broken open.[158]

Issue

Richard and Anne had one son, Edward of Middleham, who was born between 1474 and 1476.[159][160] He was created Earl of Salisbury on 15 February 1478,[161] and Prince of Wales on 24 August 1483, and died in March 1484, less than two months after he had been formally declared heir apparent.[162] After the death of his son, Richard appointed his nephew John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln, as Lieutenant of Ireland, an office previously held by his son Edward.[163] Lincoln was the son of Richard's older sister, Elizabeth, Duchess of Suffolk. After his wife's death, Richard commenced negotiations with John II of Portugal to marry John's pious sister, Joanna, Princess of Portugal. She had already turned down several suitors because of her preference for the religious life.[164]

Richard had two acknowledged illegitimate children, John of Gloucester and Katherine Plantagenet. Also known as 'John of Pontefract', John of Gloucester was appointed Captain of Calais in 1485. Katherine married William Herbert, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, in 1484. Neither the birth dates nor the names of the mothers of either of the children is known. Katherine was old enough to be wedded in 1484, when the age of consent was twelve, and John was knighted in September 1483 in York Minster, and so most historians agree that they were both fathered when Richard was a teenager.[165][166] There is no evidence of infidelity on Richard's part after his marriage to Anne Neville in 1472 when he was around 20.[167] This has led to a suggestion by the historian A. L. Rowse that Richard "had no interest in sex".[168]

Michael Hicks and Josephine Wilkinson have suggested that Katherine's mother may have been Katherine Haute, on the basis of the grant of an annual payment of 100 shillings made to her in 1477. The Haute family was related to the Woodvilles through the marriage of Elizabeth Woodville's aunt, Joan Wydeville, to William Haute.[169] One of their children was Richard Haute, Controller of the Prince's Household. Their daughter, Alice, married Sir John Fogge; they were ancestors to Catherine Parr, sixth wife of King Henry VIII.[170] They also suggest that John's mother may have been Alice Burgh. Richard visited Pontefract from 1471, in April and October 1473, and in early March 1474, for a week. On 1 March 1474, he granted Alice Burgh 20 pounds a year for life "for certain special causes and considerations". She later received another allowance, apparently for being engaged as a nurse for his brother George's son, Edward of Warwick. Richard continued her annuity when he became king.[171][172] John Ashdown-Hill has suggested that John was conceived during Richard's first solo expedition to the eastern counties in the summer of 1467 at the invitation of John Howard and that the boy was born in 1468 and named after his friend and supporter. Richard himself noted John was still a minor (not being yet 21) when he issued the royal patent appointing him Captain of Calais on 11 March 1485, possibly on his seventeenth birthday.[165]

Both of Richard's illegitimate children survived him, but they seem to have died without issue and their fate after Richard's demise at Bosworth is not certain. John received a 20 pound annuity from Henry VII, but there are no mentions of him in contemporary records after 1487 (the year of the Battle of Stoke Field). He may have been executed in 1499, though no record of this exists beyond an assertion by George Buck over a century later.[173] Katherine apparently died before her cousin Elizabeth of York's coronation on 25 November 1487, since her husband Sir William Herbert is described as a widower by that time.[165][7] Katherine's burial place was located in the London parish church of St James Garlickhithe,[note 6] between Skinner's Lane and Upper Thames Street.[175] The mysterious Richard Plantagenet, who was first mentioned in Francis Peck's Desiderata Curiosa (a two-volume miscellany published 1732–1735) was said to be a possible illegitimate child of Richard III and is sometimes referred to as "Richard the Master-Builder" or "Richard of Eastwell", but it has also been suggested he could have been Richard, Duke of York, one of the missing Princes in the Tower.[176] He died in 1550.[177]

Legacy

Richard's Council of the North, described as his "one major institutional innovation", derived from his ducal council following his own viceregal appointment by Edward IV; when Richard himself became king, he maintained the same conciliar structure in his absence.[178] It officially became part of the royal council machinery under the presidency of John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln in April 1484, based at Sandal Castle in Wakefield.[83] It is considered to have greatly improved conditions for northern England, as it was intended to keep the peace and punish lawbreakers, as well as resolve land disputes.[84] Bringing regional governance directly under the control of central government, it has been described as the king's "most enduring monument", surviving unchanged until 1641.[84]

In December 1483, Richard instituted what later became known as the Court of Requests, a court to which poor people who could not afford legal representation could apply for their grievances to be heard.[179] He also improved bail in January 1484, to protect suspected felons from imprisonment before trial and to protect their property from seizure during that time.[180][181] He founded the College of Arms in 1484,[114][115] he banned restrictions on the printing and sale of books,[182] and he ordered the translation of the written Laws and Statutes from the traditional French into English.[183] During his reign, Parliament ended the arbitrary benevolence (a device by which Edward IV raised funds),[184][185] made it punishable to conceal from a buyer of land that a part of the property had already been disposed of to somebody else,[186] required that land sales be published,[186] laid down property qualifications for jurors, restricted the abusive Courts of Piepowders,[187] regulated cloth sales,[188] instituted certain forms of trade protectionism,[189][190] prohibited the sale of wine and oil in fraudulent measure,[190] and prohibited fraudulent collection of clergy dues,[190] among others. Churchill implies he improved the law of trusts.[191]

Richard's death at Bosworth resulted in the end of the Plantagenet dynasty, which had ruled England since the succession of Henry II in 1154.[192] The last legitimate male Plantagenet, Richard's nephew Edward, Earl of Warwick (son of his brother George, Duke of Clarence), was executed by Henry VII in 1499.[193]

Reputation

 
Late 16th-century portrait, (oil on panel, National Portrait Gallery, London)

There are numerous contemporary, or near-contemporary, sources of information about the reign of Richard III.[194] These include the Croyland Chronicle, Commines' Mémoires, the report of Dominic Mancini, the Paston Letters, the Chronicles of Robert Fabyan and numerous court and official records, including a few letters by Richard himself. However, the debate about Richard's true character and motives continues, both because of the subjectivity of many of the written sources, reflecting the generally partisan nature of writers of this period, and because none was written by men with an intimate knowledge of Richard.[195]

During Richard's reign, the historian John Rous praised him as a "good lord" who punished "oppressors of the commons", adding that he had "a great heart".[196][197] In 1483, the Italian observer Mancini reported that Richard enjoyed a good reputation and that both "his private life and public activities powerfully attracted the esteem of strangers".[198][199] His bond to the City of York, in particular, was such that on hearing of Richard's demise at the battle of Bosworth the City Council officially deplored the king's death, at the risk of facing the victor's wrath.[200]

During his lifetime he was the subject of some attacks. Even in the North in 1482, a man was prosecuted for offences against the Duke of Gloucester, saying he did "nothing but grin at" the city of York. In 1484, attempts to discredit him took the form of hostile placards, the only surviving one being William Collingbourne's lampoon of July 1484 "The Cat, the Rat, and Lovell the Dog, all rule England under a Hog" which was pinned to the door of St. Paul's Cathedral and referred to Richard himself (the Hog) and his most trusted councillors William Catesby, Richard Ratcliffe and Francis, Viscount Lovell.[201] On 30 March 1485 Richard felt forced to summon the Lords and London City Councillors to publicly deny the rumours that he had poisoned Queen Anne and that he had planned a marriage to his niece Elizabeth,[202] at the same time ordering the Sheriff of London to imprison anyone spreading such slanders.[203] The same orders were issued throughout the realm, including York where the royal pronouncement recorded in the City Records dates 5 April 1485 and carries specific instructions to suppress seditious talk and remove and destroy evidently hostile placards unread.[204][205]

As for Richard's physical appearance, most contemporary descriptions bear out the evidence that aside from having one shoulder higher than the other (with chronicler Rous not able to correctly remember which one, as slight as the difference was), Richard had no other noticeable bodily deformity. John Stow talked to old men who, remembering him, said "that he was of bodily shape comely enough, only of low stature"[206][incomplete short citation] and a German traveller, Nicolas von Poppelau, who spent ten days in Richard's household in May 1484, describes him as "three fingers taller than himself...much more lean, with delicate arms and legs and also a great heart."[207] Six years after Richard's death, in 1491, a schoolmaster named William Burton, on hearing a defence of Richard, launched into a diatribe, accusing the dead king of being "a hypocrite and a crookback...who was deservedly buried in a ditch like a dog."[208]

Richard's death encouraged the furtherance of this later negative image by his Tudor successors due to the fact that it helped to legitimise Henry VII's seizure of the throne.[209] The Richard III Society contends that this means that "a lot of what people thought they knew about Richard III was pretty much propaganda and myth building."[210] The Tudor characterisation culminated in the famous fictional portrayal of him in Shakespeare's play Richard III as a physically deformed, Machiavellian villain, ruthlessly committing numerous murders in order to claw his way to power;[211] Shakespeare's intention perhaps being to use Richard III as a vehicle for creating his own Marlowesque protagonist.[212] Rous himself in his History of the Kings of England, written during Henry VII's reign, initiated the process. He reversed his earlier position,[213] and now portrayed Richard as a freakish individual who was born with teeth and shoulder-length hair after having been in his mother's womb for two years. His body was stunted and distorted, with one shoulder higher than the other, and he was "slight in body and weak in strength".[214] Rous also attributes the murder of Henry VI to Richard, and claims that he poisoned his own wife.[215] Jeremy Potter, a former Chair of the Richard III Society, claims that "At the bar of history Richard III continues to be guilty because it is impossible to prove him innocent. The Tudors ride high in popular esteem."[216]

Polydore Vergil and Thomas More expanded on this portrayal, emphasising Richard's outward physical deformities as a sign of his inwardly twisted mind. More describes him as "little of stature, ill-featured of limbs, crook-backed ... hard-favoured of visage".[197] Vergil also says he was "deformed of body ... one shoulder higher than the right".[197] Both emphasise that Richard was devious and flattering, while planning the downfall of both his enemies and supposed friends. Richard's good qualities were his cleverness and bravery. All these characteristics are repeated by Shakespeare, who portrays him as having a hunch, a limp and a withered arm.[217][218] With regard to the "hunch", the second quarto edition of Richard III (1598) used the term "hunched-backed" but in the First Folio edition (1623) it became "bunch-backed".[219]

 
A statue of Richard III now outside Leicester Cathedral

Richard's reputation as a promoter of legal fairness persisted, however. William Camden in his Remains Concerning Britain (1605) states that Richard, "albeit he lived wickedly, yet made good laws".[220] Francis Bacon also states that he was "a good lawmaker for the ease and solace of the common people".[221] In 1525, Cardinal Wolsey upbraided the aldermen and Mayor of London for relying on a statute of Richard to avoid paying an extorted tax (benevolence) but received the reply "although he did evil, yet in his time were many good acts made."[222][223]

Richard was a practising Catholic, as shown by his personal Book of Hours, surviving in the Lambeth Palace library. As well as conventional aristocratic devotional texts, the book contains a Collect of Saint Ninian, referencing a saint popular in the Anglo-Scottish Borders.[224]

Despite this, the image of Richard as a ruthless tyrant remained dominant in the 18th and 19th centuries. The 18th-century philosopher and historian David Hume described him as a man who used dissimulation to conceal "his fierce and savage nature" and who had "abandoned all principles of honour and humanity".[225] Hume acknowledged that some historians have argued "that he was well qualified for government, had he legally obtained it; and that he committed no crimes but such as were necessary to procure him possession of the crown", but he dismissed this view on the grounds that Richard's exercise of arbitrary power encouraged instability.[226] The most important late 19th century biographer of the king was James Gairdner, who also wrote the entry on Richard in the Dictionary of National Biography.[227] Gairdner stated that he had begun to study Richard with a neutral viewpoint, but became convinced that Shakespeare and More were essentially correct in their view of the king, despite some exaggerations.[228]

Richard was not without his defenders, the first of whom was Sir George Buck, a descendant of one of the king's supporters, who completed The history of King Richard the Third in 1619.[229] The authoritative Buck text was published only in 1979, though a corrupted version was published by Buck's great-nephew in 1646.[230]</ref> Buck attacked the "improbable imputations and strange and spiteful scandals" related by Tudor writers, including Richard's alleged deformities and murders. He located lost archival material, including the Titulus Regius, but also claimed to have seen a letter written by Elizabeth of York, according to which Elizabeth sought to marry the king.[231] Elizabeth's supposed letter was never produced. Documents which later emerged from the Portuguese royal archives show that after Queen Anne's death, Richard's ambassadors were sent on a formal errand to negotiate a double marriage between Richard and the Portuguese king's sister Joanna,[7] of Lancastrian descent,[232] and between Elizabeth of York and Joanna's cousin Manuel, Duke of Viseu (later King of Portugal).[165]

Significant among Richard's defenders was Horace Walpole. In Historic Doubts on the Life and Reign of King Richard the Third (1768), Walpole disputed all the alleged murders and argued that Richard may have acted in good faith. He also argued that any physical abnormality was probably no more than a minor distortion of the shoulders.[233] However, he retracted his views in 1793 after the Terror, stating he now believed that Richard could have committed the crimes he was charged with,[234] although Pollard observes that this retraction is frequently overlooked by later admirers of Richard.[235] Other defenders of Richard include the noted explorer Clements Markham, whose Richard III: His Life and Character (1906) replied to the work of Gairdner. He argued that Henry VII killed the princes and that the bulk of evidence against Richard was nothing more than Tudor propaganda.[236] An intermediate view was provided by Alfred Legge in The Unpopular King (1885). Legge argued that Richard's "greatness of soul" was eventually "warped and dwarfed" by the ingratitude of others.[237]

Some 20th-century historians have been less inclined to moral judgement,[238] seeing Richard's actions as a product of the unstable times. In the words of Charles Ross, "the later fifteenth century in England is now seen as a ruthless and violent age as concerns the upper ranks of society, full of private feuds, intimidation, land-hunger, and litigiousness, and consideration of Richard's life and career against this background has tended to remove him from the lonely pinnacle of Villainy Incarnate on which Shakespeare had placed him. Like most men, he was conditioned by the standards of his age."[239] The Richard III Society, founded in 1924 as "The Fellowship of the White Boar", is the oldest of several groups dedicated to improving his reputation. Other historians still describe him as a "power-hungry and ruthless politician" who was still most probably "ultimately responsible for the murder of his nephews."[240][241]

In culture

Main article: Cultural depictions of Richard III of England
 
Cover of the 1594 quarto of the anonymous play, The True Tragedy of Richard III.

Richard III is the protagonist of Richard III, one of William Shakespeare's history/tragedy plays. Apart from Shakespeare, he appears in many other works of literature. Two other plays of the Elizabethan era predated Shakespeare's work. The Latin-language drama Richardus Tertius (first known performance in 1580) by Thomas Legge is believed to be the first history play written in England. The anonymous play The True Tragedy of Richard III (c. 1590), performed in the same decade as Shakespeare's work, was probably an influence on Shakespeare.[242] Neither of the two plays places any emphasis on Richard's physical appearance, though the True Tragedy briefly mentions that he is "A man ill shaped, crooked backed, lame armed" and "valiantly minded, but tyrannous in authority". Both portray him as a man motivated by personal ambition, who uses everyone around him to get his way. Ben Jonson is also known to have written a play Richard Crookback in 1602, but it was never published and nothing is known about its portrayal of the king.[243]

Marjorie Bowen's 1929 novel Dickon set the trend for pro-Ricardian literature.[244] Particularly influential was The Daughter of Time (1951) by Josephine Tey, in which a modern detective concludes that Richard III is innocent in the death of the Princes.[245][246][247] Other novelists such as Valerie Anand in the novel Crown of Roses (1989) have also offered alternative versions to the theory that he murdered them.[248] Sharon Kay Penman, in her historical novel The Sunne in Splendour, attributes the death of the Princes to the Duke of Buckingham.[249] In the mystery novel The Murders of Richard III by Elizabeth Peters (1974) the central plot revolves around the debate as to whether Richard III was guilty of these and other crimes.[250] A sympathetic portrayal is given in The Founding (1980), the first volume in The Morland Dynasty series by Cynthia Harrod-Eagles.[251]

One film adaptation of Shakespeare's play Richard III is the 1955 version directed and produced by Laurence Olivier, who also played the lead role.[252][253] Also notable are the 1995 film version starring Ian McKellen, set in a fictional 1930s fascist England,[254][255] and Looking for Richard, a 1996 documentary film directed by Al Pacino, who plays the title character as well as himself.[256][257] The play has been adapted for television on several occasions.[258][259][260]

Discovery of remains

Main article: Exhumation and reburial of Richard III of England

On 24 August 2012, the University of Leicester, Leicester City Council and the Richard III Society, announced that they were going to look for the remains of King Richard. The search was managed by Philippa Langley of the Society's Looking for Richard project with the archaeology run by University of Leicester Archaeological Services (ULAS).[261][262][263][264][265] The participants looked for the lost site of the former Greyfriars Church (demolished during Henry VIII's dissolution of the monasteries) to find his remains.[266][267] By comparing fixed points between maps in a historical sequence, the church was found, where Richard's body had been hastily buried without pomp in 1485, its foundations identifiable beneath a modern city centre car park.[268] In 1975 Audrey Strange of the Richard III Society predicted that the lost grave lay beneath one of the three car parks that partly cover the site of the former Grey Friars Priory.[269] A decade later, in the mid 1980s, academic David Baldwin, a medieval historian formerly of Leicester University, concluded that the burial site lay further to the east, beneath the northern (St Martin's) end of Grey Friars Street, or the buildings that face it on either side.[154][270]

 
Site of Greyfriars Church, Leicester, shown superimposed over a modern map of the area. The skeleton of Richard III was recovered in September 2012 from the centre of the choir, shown by a small blue dot.

The diggers found Greyfriars Church by 5 September 2012 and two days later announced that they had found Robert Herrick's garden, where the memorial to Richard III stood in the early 17th century.[271][272] A human skeleton was found beneath the Church's choir.[273]

Improbably, the excavators found the remains in the first dig at the car park.[274][275][276]

 
Skeleton as discovered

On 12 September, it was announced that the skeleton discovered during the search might be that of Richard III. Several reasons were given: the body was of an adult male; it was buried beneath the choir of the church; and there was severe scoliosis of the spine, possibly making one shoulder[271] higher than the other (to what extent depended on the severity of the condition). Additionally, there was an object that appeared to be an arrowhead embedded in the spine; and there were perimortem injuries to the skull. These included a relatively shallow orifice, which is most likely to have been caused by a rondel dagger, and a scooping depression to the skull, inflicted by a bladed weapon, most probably a sword.

Further, the bottom of the skull presented a gaping hole, where a halberd had cut away and entered it. Forensic pathologist Stuart Hamilton stated that this injury would have left the individual's brain visible, and most certainly would have been the cause of death. Jo Appleby, the osteo-archaeologist who excavated the skeleton, concurred and described the latter as "a mortal battlefield wound in the back of the skull". The base of the skull also presented another fatal wound in which a bladed weapon had been thrust into it, leaving behind a jagged hole. Closer examination of the interior of the skull revealed a mark opposite this wound, showing that the blade penetrated to a depth of 10.5 centimetres (4.1 in).[277]

In total, the skeleton presented ten wounds: four minor injuries on the top of the skull, one dagger blow on the cheekbone, one cut on the lower jaw, two fatal injuries on the base of the skull, one cut on a rib bone, and one final wound on the pelvis, most probably inflicted after death. It is generally accepted that postmortem, Richard's naked body was tied to the back of a horse, with his arms slung over one side and his legs and buttocks over the other. This presented a tempting target for onlookers, and the angle of the blow on the pelvis suggests that one of them stabbed Richard's right buttock with substantial force, as the cut extends from the back all the way to the front of the pelvic bone and was most probably an act of humiliation. It is also possible that Richard and his corpse suffered other injuries which left no trace on the skeleton.[278][279][280]

British historian John Ashdown-Hill had used genealogical research in 2004 to trace matrilineal descendants of Anne of York, Duchess of Exeter, Richard's elder sister.[281][282][283][284] A British-born woman who emigrated to Canada after the Second World War, Joy Ibsen (née Brown), was found to be a 16th-generation great-niece of the king in the same direct maternal line.[285][286] Her mitochondrial DNA was tested and belongs to mitochondrial DNA haplogroup J, which by deduction, should also be the mitochondrial DNA haplogroup of Richard III.[165][287] Joy Ibsen died in 2008. Her son Michael Ibsen gave a mouth-swab sample to the research team on 24 August 2012. His mitochondrial DNA, passed down the direct maternal line, was compared to samples from the human remains found at the excavation site and used to identify King Richard.[288][289][290][291]

On 4 February 2013, the University of Leicester confirmed that the skeleton was beyond reasonable doubt that of King Richard III. This conclusion was based on mitochondrial DNA evidence,[292] soil analysis, and dental tests (there were some molars missing as a result of caries), as well as physical characteristics of the skeleton which are highly consistent with contemporary accounts of Richard's appearance.[293] The team announced that the "arrowhead" discovered with the body was a Roman-era nail, probably disturbed when the body was first interred. However, there were numerous perimortem wounds on the body, and part of the skull had been sliced off with a bladed weapon;[210] this would have caused rapid death. The team concluded that it is unlikely that the king was wearing a helmet in his last moments. Soil taken from the remains was found to contain microscopic roundworm eggs. Several eggs were found in samples taken from the pelvis, where the king's intestines were, but not from the skull and only very small numbers were identified in soil surrounding the grave. The findings suggest that the higher concentration of eggs in the pelvic area probably arose from a roundworm infection the king suffered in his life, rather than from human waste dumped in the area at a later date, researchers said. The mayor of Leicester announced that the king's skeleton would be re-interred at Leicester Cathedral in early 2014, but a judicial review of that decision delayed the reinterment for a year.[294] A museum to Richard III was opened in July 2014 in the Victorian school buildings next to the Greyfriars grave site.[282][292][295]

On 5 February 2013 Caroline Wilkinson of the University of Dundee conducted a facial reconstruction of Richard III, commissioned by the Richard III Society, based on 3D mappings of his skull.[296] The face is described as "warm, young, earnest and rather serious".[297] On 11 February 2014 the University of Leicester announced the project to sequence the entire genome of Richard III and one of his living relatives, Michael Ibsen, whose mitochondrial DNA confirmed the identification of the excavated remains. Richard III thus became the first ancient person of known historical identity whose genome has been sequenced.[298]

In November 2014, the results of the DNA testing were published, confirming that the maternal side was as previously thought.[287] The paternal side, however, demonstrated some variance from what had been expected, with the DNA showing no links between Richard and Henry Somerset, 5th Duke of Beaufort, a purported descendant of Richard's great-great-grandfather Edward III of England. This could be the result of covert illegitimacy that does not reflect the accepted genealogies between Edward III and either Richard III or the 5th Duke of Beaufort.[287][299][300]

Reburial and tomb

 
Tomb of Richard III in Leicester Cathedral, with his motto Loyaulte me lie (loyalty binds me) at right

After his death in battle in 1485, Richard III's body was buried in Greyfriars Church in Leicester.[7] Following the discoveries of Richard's remains in 2012, it was decided that they should be reburied at Leicester Cathedral,[301] despite feelings in some quarters that he should have been reburied in York Minster.[302] Those who challenged the decision included fifteen "collateral [non-direct] descendants of Richard III",[303] represented by the Plantagenet Alliance, who believed that the body should be reburied in York, as they claim the king wished.[304] In August 2013, they filed a court case in order to contest Leicester's claim to re-inter the body within its cathedral, and propose the body be buried in York instead. However, Michael Ibsen, who gave the DNA sample that identified the king, gave his support to Leicester's claim to re-inter the body in their cathedral.[304] On 20 August, a judge ruled that the opponents had the legal standing to contest his burial in Leicester Cathedral, despite a clause in the contract which had authorized the excavations requiring his burial there. He urged the parties, though, to settle out of court in order to "avoid embarking on the Wars of the Roses, Part Two".[305][306] The Plantagenet Alliance, and the supporting fifteen collateral descendants, also faced the challenge that "Basic maths shows Richard, who had no surviving children but five siblings, could have millions of 'collateral' descendants"[303] undermining the group's claim to represent "the only people who can speak on behalf of him".[303] A ruling in May 2014 decreed that there are "no public law grounds for the Court interfering with the decisions in question".[307] The remains were taken to Leicester Cathedral on 22 March 2015 and reinterred on 26 March.[308]

His remains were carried in procession to the cathedral on 22 March 2015, and reburied on 26 March 2015[309] at a religious re-burial service at which both Tim Stevens, the Bishop of Leicester, and Justin Welby, the Archbishop of Canterbury, officiated. The British royal family was represented by the Duke and Duchess of Gloucester and the Countess of Wessex. The actor Benedict Cumberbatch, who later portrayed him in The Hollow Crown television series, read a poem by poet laureate Carol Ann Duffy.[260][310]

Richard's cathedral tomb was designed by the architects van Heyningen and Haward.[311] The tombstone is deeply incised with a cross, and consists of a rectangular block of white Swaledale fossil stone, quarried in North Yorkshire. It sits on a low plinth made of dark Kilkenny marble, incised with Richard's name, dates and motto (Loyaulte me lie – loyalty binds me). The plinth also carries his coat of arms in pietra dura.[312] On top is a funeral crown commissioned specifically for the reinterment, and made by George Easton.[313] The remains of Richard III are in a lead-lined inner casket,[314] inside an outer English oak coffin crafted by Michael Ibsen, a direct descendant of Richard's sister Anne, and laid in a brick-lined vault below the floor, and below the plinth and tombstone.[312] The original 2010 raised tomb design had been proposed by Langley's "Looking For Richard Project" and fully funded by members of the Richard III Society. The proposal was publicly launched by the Society on 13 February 2013 but rejected by Leicester Cathedral in favour of a memorial slab.[315][316][317] However, following a public outcry, the Cathedral changed its position and on 18 July 2013 announced its agreement to give King Richard III a raised tomb monument.[318][319]

Titles, styles, honours and arms

 
Bronze boar mount found on the Thames foreshore, and thought to have been worn by a supporter of Richard III.[320]
 
Arms as duke

On 1 November 1461, Richard gained the title of Duke of Gloucester; in late 1461, he was invested as a Knight of the Garter.[321] Following the death of King Edward IV, he was made Lord Protector of England. Richard held this office from 30 April to 26 June 1483, when he became king. During his reign, Richard was styled Dei Gratia Rex Angliae et Franciae et Dominus Hiberniae (by the Grace of God, King of England and France and Lord of Ireland).

Informally, he may have been known as "Dickon", according to a sixteenth-century legend of a note, warning of treachery, that was sent to the Duke of Norfolk on the eve of Bosworth:

Jack of Norfolk, be not too bold,
For Dickon, thy master, is bought and sold.[322]

Arms

As Duke of Gloucester, Richard used the Royal Arms of France quartered with the Royal Arms of England, differenced by a label argent of three points ermine, on each point a canton gules, supported by a blue boar.[323][324] As sovereign, he used the arms of the kingdom undifferenced, supported by a white boar and a lion.[324] His motto was Loyaulte me lie, "Loyalty binds me"; and his personal device was a white boar.[325]

Family trees

See also

Explanatory notes

  1. ^ "From November 1461 until 1465 all references to Richard place him in locations south of the river Trent. It may have been partly to appease Warwick's injured feelings towards the rising influence of the king's new Woodville in-laws that he was given the honour of taking Richard into his household to complete his education, probably at some time in 1465".[12]
  2. ^ As late as 1469 rumours were still linking Richard's name with Anne Neville's. In August of that year, by which time Clarence had married Isabel, an Italian observer in London mistakenly reported that Warwick had married his two daughters to the king's brothers (Cal. Milanese Papers, I, pp. 118–120).
  3. ^ Says Kendall, "Richard had won his way back to Middleham Castle". However, any personal attachment he may have felt to Middleham was likely mitigated in his adulthood, as surviving records demonstrate he spent less time there than at Barnard Castle and Pontefract." "No great magnate or royal duke in the fifteenth century had a 'home' in the twentieth-century sense of the word. Richard of Gloucester formed no more of a personal attachment to Middleham than he did to Barnard Castle or Pontefract, at both of which surviving records suggest he spent more time."[48]
  4. ^ Hanham has raised "the charge of hypocrisy",[80] suggesting "that Richard would 'grin' at the city", and questioning whether he was either as popular or as devoted to the region as sometimes thought.[80]
  5. ^ Rosemary Horrox notes that "Buckingham was an exception amongst the rebels as, far from being a previous favourite, he 'had been refused any political role by Edward IV'."[119]
  6. ^ Specifically, in the Vinter's Hall, Thameside.[174]

References

Citations

  1. ^ Carson, Ashdown-Hill, Johnson, Johnson & Langley, p. 8.
  2. ^ Baldwin (2013).
  3. ^ Pollard (2000), p. 15.
  4. ^ Ross (1974), pp. 3–5.
  5. ^ Pollard (2008).
  6. ^ Griffiths (2008).
  7. ^ a b c d e Horrox (2013).
  8. ^ Kendall (1956), pp. 41–42.
  9. ^ Kendall (1956), p. 40.
  10. ^ Scofield (2016), p. 216, n.6, quoting Tellers' Roll, Mich. 5 Edw. IV (no. 36), m. 2.
  11. ^ Kendall (1956), pp. 34–44, 74.
  12. ^ Baldwin (2013), pp. 36–37, 240.
  13. ^ a b Ross (1974), p. 9.
  14. ^ Licence (2013), p. 63.
  15. ^ Kendall (1956), pp. 16–17.
  16. ^ Kendall (1956), p. 68.
  17. ^ Hicks (1980), p. 45.
  18. ^ Kendall (1956), p. 522.
  19. ^ Kendall (1956), pp. 87–89.
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  320. ^ . The Daily Telegraph. London. 3 December 2012. Archived from the original on 19 September 2018. Retrieved 3 December 2012.
  321. ^ Kendall (1956), p. 44. "By early February 1462 a helm, crest and sword marked his stall ... in the Chapel of St. George."
  322. ^ Grant (1972), p. 15.
  323. ^ Velde, François R. (5 August 2013). "Marks of Cadency in the British Royal Family". Heraldica.org. from the original on 14 June 2018. Retrieved 20 August 2012.
  324. ^ a b Brunet (1889), p. 202.
  325. ^ Kendall (1956), pp. 132–133.
  326. ^ Ross, Charles D. (1981). Richard III. English Monarchs series. Eyre Methuen. p. 323. ISBN 978-0-4132-9530-9.

General and cited sources

May 29, 2023
richard, england, richard, redirects, here, other, uses, richard, disambiguation, richard, gloucester, redirects, here, grandson, george, prince, richard, duke, gloucester, richard, october, 1452, august, 1485, king, england, from, june, 1483, until, death, 14. Richard III redirects here For other uses see Richard III disambiguation Richard of Gloucester redirects here For the grandson of George V see Prince Richard Duke of Gloucester Richard III 2 October 1452 22 August 1485 was King of England from 26 June 1483 until his death in 1485 He was the last king of the House of York and the last of the Plantagenet dynasty His defeat and death at the Battle of Bosworth Field the last decisive battle of the Wars of the Roses marked the end of the Middle Ages in England Richard IIIEarliest surviving portrait c 1520King of England more Reign26 June 1483 22 August 1485Coronation6 July 1483PredecessorEdward VSuccessorHenry VIIBorn2 October 1452Fotheringhay Castle Northamptonshire EnglandDied22 August 1485 aged 32 Bosworth Field Leicestershire EnglandBurial25 August 1485 1 Greyfriars Leicester26 March 2015Leicester CathedralSpouseAnne Neville m 1472 died 1485 wbr IssueDetailEdward of Middleham Prince of Wales John of Gloucester ill Katherine Countess of Huntingdon ill HouseYork Plantagenet FatherRichard 3rd Duke of YorkMotherCecily NevilleSignatureRichard was created Duke of Gloucester in 1461 after the accession of his brother King Edward IV In 1472 he married Anne Neville daughter of Richard Neville 16th Earl of Warwick He governed northern England during Edward s reign and played a role in the invasion of Scotland in 1482 When Edward IV died in April 1483 Richard was named Lord Protector of the realm for Edward s eldest son and successor the 12 year old Edward V Arrangements were made for Edward V s coronation on 22 June 1483 Before the king could be crowned the marriage of his parents was declared bigamous and therefore invalid Now officially illegitimate their children were barred from inheriting the throne On 25 June an assembly of lords and commoners endorsed a declaration to this effect and proclaimed Richard as the rightful king He was crowned on 6 July 1483 Edward and his younger brother Richard of Shrewsbury Duke of York called the Princes in the Tower were not seen in public after August and accusations circulated that they had been murdered on King Richard s orders after the Tudor dynasty established their rule a few years later There were two major rebellions against Richard during his reign In October 1483 an unsuccessful revolt was led by staunch allies of Edward IV and Richard s former ally Henry Stafford 2nd Duke of Buckingham Then in August 1485 Henry Tudor and his uncle Jasper Tudor landed in southern Wales with a contingent of French troops and marched through Pembrokeshire recruiting soldiers Henry s forces defeated Richard s army near the Leicestershire town of Market Bosworth Richard was slain making him the last English king to die in battle Henry Tudor then ascended the throne as Henry VII Richard s corpse was taken to the nearby town of Leicester and buried without ceremony His original tomb monument is believed to have been removed during the English Reformation and his remains were wrongly thought to have been thrown into the River Soar In 2012 an archaeological excavation was commissioned by Philippa Langley with the assistance of the Richard III Society on the site previously occupied by Grey Friars Priory The University of Leicester identified the skeleton found in the excavation as that of Richard III as a result of radiocarbon dating comparison with contemporary reports of his appearance identification of trauma sustained at the Battle of Bosworth Field and comparison of his mitochondrial DNA with that of two matrilineal descendants of his sister Anne He was reburied in Leicester Cathedral on 26 March 2015 Contents 1 Early life 2 Marriage and family relationships 3 Reign of Edward IV 3 1 Estates and titles 3 2 Exile and return 3 3 1471 military campaign 3 4 1475 invasion of France 3 5 The North and the Council in the North 3 6 War with Scotland 4 Lord Protector 5 King of England 5 1 Buckingham s rebellion of 1483 5 2 Death at the Battle of Bosworth Field 6 Issue 7 Legacy 7 1 Reputation 7 2 In culture 8 Discovery of remains 8 1 Reburial and tomb 9 Titles styles honours and arms 9 1 Arms 10 Family trees 11 See also 12 Explanatory notes 13 References 13 1 Citations 13 2 General and cited sources 14 Further reading 15 External linksEarly life EditRichard was born on 2 October 1452 at Fotheringhay Castle in Northamptonshire the eleventh of the twelve children of Richard 3rd Duke of York and Cecily Neville and the youngest to survive infancy 2 His childhood coincided with the beginning of what has traditionally been labelled the Wars of the Roses a period of political instability and periodic open civil war in England during the second half of the fifteenth century 3 between the Yorkists who supported Richard s father a potential claimant to the throne of King Henry VI from birth 4 and opposed the regime of Henry VI and his wife Margaret of Anjou 5 and the Lancastrians who were loyal to the crown 6 In 1459 his father and the Yorkists were forced to flee England whereupon Richard and his older brother George were placed in the custody of their aunt Anne Neville Duchess of Buckingham and possibly of Cardinal Thomas Bourchier Archbishop of Canterbury 7 When their father and elder brother Edmund Earl of Rutland were killed at the Battle of Wakefield on 30 December 1460 Richard and George were sent by their mother to the Low Countries 8 They returned to England following the defeat of the Lancastrians at the Battle of Towton They participated in the coronation of their eldest brother as King Edward IV on 28 June 1461 when Richard was named Duke of Gloucester and made both a Knight of the Garter and a Knight of the Bath Edward appointed him the sole Commissioner of Array for the Western Counties in 1464 when he was 11 By the age of 17 he had an independent command 9 The ruins of the twelfth century castle at Middleham in Wensleydale where Richard was raised Richard spent several years during his childhood at Middleham Castle in Wensleydale Yorkshire under the tutelage of his cousin Richard Neville 16th Earl of Warwick later known as the Kingmaker because of his role in the Wars of the Roses Warwick supervised Richard s training as a knight in the autumn of 1465 Edward IV granted Warwick 1 000 pounds for the expenses of his younger brother s tutelage 10 With some interruptions Richard stayed at Middleham either from late 1461 until early 1465 when he was 12 11 or from 1465 until his coming of age in 1468 when he turned 16 note 1 While at Warwick s estate it is likely that he met both Francis Lovell who was his firm supporter later in his life and Warwick s younger daughter his future wife Anne Neville 13 It is possible that even at this early stage Warwick was considering the king s brothers as strategic matches for his daughters Isabel and Anne young aristocrats were often sent to be raised in the households of their intended future partners 14 as had been the case for the young dukes father Richard of York 15 As the relationship between the king and Warwick became strained Edward IV opposed the match 16 During Warwick s lifetime George was the only royal brother to marry one of his daughters the elder Isabel on 12 July 1469 without the king s permission George joined his father in law s revolt against the king 17 while Richard remained loyal to Edward even though he was rumoured to have been sleeping with Anne 18 note 2 Richard and Edward were forced to flee to Burgundy in October 1470 after Warwick defected to the side of the former Lancastrian queen Margaret of Anjou In 1468 Richard s sister Margaret had married Charles the Bold the Duke of Burgundy and the brothers could expect a welcome there Edward was restored to the throne in the spring of 1471 following the battles of Barnet and Tewkesbury in both of which the 18 year old Richard played a crucial role 19 During his adolescence and due to a cause that is unknown Richard developed a sideways curvature of the spine Scoliosis 20 In 2014 after the discovery of Richard s remains the osteoarchaeologist Dr Jo Appleby of Leicester University s School of Archaeology and Ancient History imaged the spinal column and reconstructed a model using 3D printing and concluded that though the spinal scoliosis looked dramatic it probably did not cause any major physical deformity that could not be disguised by clothing 21 22 Marriage and family relationships Edit Contemporary illumination Rous Roll 1483 of Richard his wife Anne Neville and their son Edward Following a decisive Yorkist victory over the Lancastrians at the Battle of Tewkesbury Richard married Anne Neville on 12 July 1472 23 Anne had previously been wedded to Edward of Westminster only son of Henry VI to seal her father s allegiance to the Lancastrian party 24 Edward died at the Battle of Tewkesbury on 4 May 1471 while Warwick had died at the Battle of Barnet on 14 April 1471 25 Richard s marriage plans brought him into conflict with his brother George 26 John Paston s letter of 17 February 1472 makes it clear that George was not happy about the marriage but grudgingly accepted it on the basis that he may well have my Lady his sister in law but they shall part no livelihood 27 The reason was the inheritance Anne shared with her elder sister Isabel whom George had married in 1469 It was not only the earldom that was at stake Richard Neville had inherited it as a result of his marriage to Anne Beauchamp 16th Countess of Warwick The Countess who was still alive was technically the owner of the substantial Beauchamp estates her father having left no male heirs 28 The Croyland Chronicle records that Richard agreed to a prenuptial contract in the following terms the marriage of the Duke of Gloucester with Anne before named was to take place and he was to have such and so much of the earl s lands as should be agreed upon between them through the mediation of arbitrators while all the rest were to remain in the possession of the Duke of Clarence 29 The date of Paston s letter suggests the marriage was still being negotiated in February 1472 In order to win George s final consent to the marriage Richard renounced most of the Earl of Warwick s land and property including the earldoms of Warwick which the Kingmaker had held in his wife s right and Salisbury and surrendered to George the office of Great Chamberlain of England 30 Richard retained Neville s forfeit estates he had already been granted in the summer of 1471 31 32 Penrith Sheriff Hutton and Middleham where he later established his marital household 33 Stained glass depiction of Richard and Anne Neville in Cardiff Castle The requisite papal dispensation was obtained dated 22 April 1472 34 Michael Hicks has suggested that the terms of the dispensation deliberately understated the degrees of consanguinity between the couple and the marriage was therefore illegal on the ground of first degree consanguinity following George s marriage to Anne s sister Isabel 24 There would have been first degree consanguinity if Richard had sought to marry Isabel in case of widowhood after she had married his brother George but no such consanguinity applied for Anne and Richard Richard s marriage to Anne was never declared null and it was public to everyone including secular and canon lawyers for 13 years 35 In June 1473 Richard persuaded his mother in law to leave the sanctuary and come to live under his protection at Middleham Later in the year under the terms of the 1473 Act of Resumption 36 George lost some of the property he held under royal grant and made no secret of his displeasure John Paston s letter of November 1473 says that King Edward planned to put both his younger brothers in their place by acting as a stifler atween them 37 Early in 1474 Parliament assembled and Edward attempted to reconcile his brothers by stating that both men and their wives would enjoy the Warwick inheritance just as if the Countess of Warwick was naturally dead 38 The doubts cast by George on the validity of Richard and Anne s marriage were addressed by a clause protecting their rights in the event they were divorced i e of their marriage being declared null and void by the Church and then legally remarried to each other and also protected Richard s rights while waiting for such a valid second marriage with Anne 39 The following year Richard was rewarded with all the Neville lands in the north of England at the expense of Anne s cousin George Neville 1st Duke of Bedford 40 From this point George seems to have fallen steadily out of King Edward s favour his discontent coming to a head in 1477 when following Isabel s death he was denied the opportunity to marry Mary of Burgundy the stepdaughter of his sister Margaret even though Margaret approved the proposed match 41 There is no evidence of Richard s involvement in George s subsequent conviction and execution on a charge of treason 42 Reign of Edward IV EditEstates and titles Edit Richard was granted the Duchy of Gloucester on 1 November 1461 43 and on 12 August the next year was awarded large estates in northern England including the lordships of Richmond in Yorkshire and Pembroke in Wales He gained the forfeited lands of the Lancastrian John de Vere 12th Earl of Oxford in East Anglia In 1462 on his birthday he was made Constable of Gloucester and Corfe Castles and Admiral of England Ireland and Aquitaine 44 and appointed Governor of the North becoming the richest and most powerful noble in England On 17 October 1469 he was made Constable of England In November he replaced William Hastings 1st Baron Hastings as Chief Justice of North Wales The following year he was appointed Chief Steward and Chamberlain of Wales 45 On 18 May 1471 Richard was named Great Chamberlain and Lord High Admiral of England Other positions followed High Sheriff of Cumberland for life Lieutenant of the North and Commander in Chief against the Scots and hereditary Warden of the West March 46 Two months later on 14 July he gained the Lordships of the strongholds Sheriff Hutton and Middleham in Yorkshire and Penrith in Cumberland which had belonged to Warwick the Kingmaker 47 It is possible that the grant of Middleham seconded Richard s personal wishes note 3 Exile and return Edit During the latter part of Edward IV s reign Richard demonstrated his loyalty to the king 49 in contrast to their brother George who had allied himself with the Earl of Warwick when the latter rebelled towards the end of the 1460s 50 Following Warwick s 1470 rebellion before which he had made peace with Margaret of Anjou and promised the restoration of Henry VI to the English throne Richard the Baron Hastings and Anthony Woodville 2nd Earl Rivers escaped capture at Doncaster by Warwick s brother John Neville 1st Marquess of Montagu 51 On 2 October they sailed from King s Lynn in two ships Edward landed at Marsdiep and Richard at Zeeland 52 It was said that having left England in such haste as to possess almost nothing Edward was forced to pay their passage with his fur cloak certainly Richard borrowed three pounds from Zeeland s town bailiff 53 They were attainted by Warwick s only Parliament on 26 November 54 They resided in Bruges with Louis de Gruthuse who had been the Burgundian Ambassador to Edward s court 55 but it was not until Louis XI of France declared war on Burgundy that Charles Duke of Burgundy assisted their return 56 providing along with the Hanseatic merchants 20 000 pounds 36 ships and 1 200 men They departed Flushing for England on 11 March 1471 57 Warwick s arrest of local sympathisers prevented them from landing in Yorkist East Anglia and on 14 March after being separated in a storm their ships ran ashore at Holderness 58 The town of Hull refused Edward entry He gained entry to York by using the same claim as Henry of Bolingbroke had before deposing Richard II in 1399 that is that he was merely reclaiming the Dukedom of York rather than the crown 59 60 It was in Edward s attempt to regain his throne that Richard began to demonstrate his skill as a military commander 61 1471 military campaign Edit Imaginary depiction of the East Gate Exeter and the Visit of King Richard III painted in 1885 Once Edward had regained the support of his brother George he mounted a swift and decisive campaign to regain the crown through combat 62 it is believed that Richard was his principal lieutenant 25 as some of the king s earliest support came from members of Richard s affinity including Sir James Harrington 63 and Sir William Parr who brought 600 men at arms to them at Doncaster 64 Richard may have led the vanguard at the Battle of Barnet in his first command on 14 April 1471 where he outflanked the wing of Henry Holland 3rd Duke of Exeter 65 although the degree to which his command was fundamental may have been exaggerated 66 That Richard s personal household sustained losses indicates he was in the thick of the fighting 67 A contemporary source is clear about his holding the vanguard for Edward at Tewkesbury 68 deployed against the Lancastrian vanguard under Edmund Beaufort 4th Duke of Somerset on 4 May 1471 69 and his role two days later as Constable of England sitting alongside John Howard as Earl Marshal in the trial and sentencing of leading Lancastrians captured after the battle 70 1475 invasion of France Edit At least in part resentful of King Louis XI s previous support of his Lancastrian opponents and possibly in support of his brother in law Charles the Bold Duke of Burgundy Edward went to parliament in October 1472 for funding a military campaign 71 and eventually landed in Calais on 4 July 1475 72 Richard s was the largest private contingent of his army 73 Although well known to have publicly been against the eventual treaty signed with Louis XI at Picquigny and absent from the negotiations in which one of his rank would have been expected to take a leading role 74 he acted as Edward s witness when the king instructed his delegates to the French court 75 and received some very fine presents from Louis on a visit to the French king at Amiens 76 In refusing other gifts which included pensions in the guise of tribute he was joined only by Cardinal Bourchier 77 He supposedly disapproved of Edward s policy of personally benefiting politically and financially from a campaign paid for out of a parliamentary grant and hence out of public funds 74 Any military prowess was therefore not to be revealed further until the last years of Edward s reign 7 The North and the Council in the North Edit Richard was the dominant magnate in the north of England until Edward IV s death 78 There and especially in the city of York he was highly regarded 79 although it has been questioned whether this view was reciprocated by Richard note 4 Edward IV delegated significant authority to Richard in the region Kendall and later historians have suggested that this was with the intention of making Richard the Lord of the North 81 Peter Booth however has argued that instead of allowing his brother Richard carte blanche Edward restricted his influence by using his own agent Sir William Parr 82 Following Richard s accession to the throne he first established the Council of the North and made his nephew John de la Pole 1st Earl of Lincoln president and formally institutionalised this body as an offshoot of the royal Council all its letters and judgements were issued on behalf of the king and in his name 83 The council had a budget of 2 000 marks per annum and had issued Regulations by July of that year councillors to act impartially declare vested interests and to meet at least every three months Its main focus of operations was Yorkshire and the north east and its responsibilities included land disputes keeping of the king s peace and punishing lawbreakers 84 War with Scotland Edit Richard s increasing role in the north from the mid 1470s to some extent explains his withdrawal from the royal court He had been Warden of the West March on the Scottish border since 10 September 1470 85 and again from May 1471 he used Penrith as a base while taking effectual measures against the Scots and enjoyed the revenues of the estates of the Forest of Cumberland while doing so 86 It was at the same time that the Duke of Gloucester was appointed sheriff of Cumberland five consecutive years being described as of Penrith Castle in 1478 87 By 1480 war with Scotland was looming on 12 May that year he was appointed Lieutenant General of the North a position created for the occasion as fears of a Scottish invasion grew Louis XI of France had attempted to negotiate a military alliance with Scotland in the tradition of the Auld Alliance with the aim of attacking England according to a contemporary French chronicler 88 Richard had the authority to summon the Border Levies and issue Commissions of Array to repel the Border raids Together with the Earl of Northumberland he launched counter raids and when the king and council formally declared war in November 1480 he was granted 10 000 pounds for wages The king failed to arrive to lead the English army and the result was intermittent skirmishing until early 1482 Richard witnessed the treaty with Alexander Duke of Albany brother of King James III of Scotland 13 Northumberland Stanley Dorset Sir Edward Woodville and Richard with approximately 20 000 men took the town of Berwick as part of the English invasion of Scotland The castle held until 24 August 1482 when Richard recaptured Berwick upon Tweed from the Kingdom of Scotland Although it is debatable whether the English victory was due more to internal Scottish divisions rather than any outstanding military prowess by Richard 89 it was the last time that the Royal Burgh of Berwick changed hands between the two realms 90 Lord Protector EditOn the death of Edward IV on 9 April 1483 his 12 year old son Edward V succeeded him Richard was named Lord Protector of the Realm and at Baron Hastings urging Richard assumed his role and left his base in Yorkshire for London 91 On 29 April as previously agreed Richard and his cousin Henry Stafford 2nd Duke of Buckingham met Queen Elizabeth s brother Anthony Woodville Earl Rivers at Northampton At the queen s request Earl Rivers was escorting the young king to London with an armed escort of 2 000 men while Richard and Buckingham s joint escort was 600 men 92 Edward V had been sent further south to Stony Stratford At first convivial Richard had Earl Rivers his nephew Richard Grey and his associate Thomas Vaughan arrested They were taken to Pontefract Castle where they were executed on 25 June on the charge of treason against the Lord Protector after appearing before a tribunal led by Henry Percy 4th Earl of Northumberland Rivers had appointed Richard as executor of his will 93 After having Rivers arrested Richard and Buckingham moved to Stony Stratford where Richard informed Edward V of a plot aimed at denying him his role as protector and whose perpetrators had been dealt with 94 He proceeded to escort the king to London They entered the city on 4 May displaying the carriages of weapons Rivers had taken with his 2 000 man army Richard first accommodated Edward in the Bishop s apartments then on Buckingham s suggestion the king was moved to the royal apartments of the Tower of London where kings customarily awaited their coronation 95 Within the year 1483 Richard had moved himself to the grandeur of Crosby Hall London then in Bishopsgate in the City of London Robert Fabyan in his The new chronicles of England and of France writes that the Duke caused the King Edward V to be removed unto the Tower and his broder with hym and the Duke lodged himselfe in Crosbyes Place in Bisshoppesgate Strete 96 In Holinshed s Chronicles of England Scotland and Ireland he accounts that little by little all folke withdrew from the Tower and drew unto Crosbies in Bishops gates Street where the Protector kept his houshold The Protector had the resort the King in maner desolate 97 On hearing the news of her brother s 30 April arrest the dowager queen fled to sanctuary in Westminster Abbey Joining her were her son by her first marriage Thomas Grey 1st Marquess of Dorset her five daughters and her youngest son Richard of Shrewsbury Duke of York 98 On 10 11 June Richard wrote to Ralph Lord Neville the City of York and others asking for their support against the Queen her blood adherents and affinity whom he suspected of plotting his murder 99 At a council meeting on 13 June at the Tower of London Richard accused Hastings and others of having conspired against him with the Woodvilles and accusing Jane Shore lover to both Hastings and Thomas Grey of acting as a go between According to Thomas More Hastings was taken out of the council chambers and summarily executed in the courtyard while others like Lord Thomas Stanley and John Morton Bishop of Ely were arrested 100 Hastings was not attainted and Richard sealed an indenture that placed Hastings widow Katherine under his protection 101 Bishop Morton was released into the custody of Buckingham 102 On 16 June the dowager queen agreed to hand over the Duke of York to the Archbishop of Canterbury so that he might attend his brother Edward s coronation still planned for 22 June 103 King of England Edit Silver groat of Richard III Detail from the Rous Roll 1483 showing Richard with a sword in his right hand a globus cruciger in his left a white boar his heraldic badge at his feet framed by the crests and helms of England Ireland Wales Gascony Guyenne France and St Edward the Confessor 104 Bishop Robert Stillington the Bishop of Bath and Wells is said to have informed Richard that Edward IV s marriage to Elizabeth Woodville was invalid because of Edward s earlier union with Eleanor Butler making Edward V and his siblings illegitimate The identity of Stillington was known only through the memoirs of French diplomat Philippe de Commines 105 On 22 June a sermon was preached outside Old St Paul s Cathedral by Ralph Shaa declaring Edward IV s children bastards and Richard the rightful king 106 Shortly after the citizens of London both nobles and commons convened and drew up a petition asking Richard to assume the throne 107 He accepted on 26 June and was crowned at Westminster Abbey on 6 July His title to the throne was confirmed by Parliament in January 1484 by the document Titulus Regius 108 The princes who were still lodged in the royal residence of the Tower of London at the time of Richard s coronation disappeared from sight after the summer of 1483 109 Although after his death Richard III was accused of having Edward and his brother killed notably by More and in Shakespeare s play the facts surrounding their disappearance remain unknown 110 Other culprits have been suggested including Buckingham and even Henry VII although Richard remains a suspect 111 After the coronation ceremony Richard and Anne set out on a royal progress to meet their subjects During this journey through the country the king and queen endowed King s College and Queens College at Cambridge University and made grants to the church 112 Still feeling a strong bond with his northern estates Richard later planned the establishment of a large chantry chapel in York Minster with over 100 priests 113 He also founded the College of Arms 114 115 Buckingham s rebellion of 1483 Edit Further information Buckingham s rebellion In 1483 a conspiracy arose among a number of disaffected gentry many of whom had been supporters of Edward IV and the whole Yorkist establishment 116 117 The conspiracy was nominally led by Richard s former ally the Duke of Buckingham although it had begun as a Woodville Beaufort conspiracy being well underway by the time of the Duke s involvement 118 note 5 Davies has suggested that it was only the subsequent parliamentary attainder that placed Buckingham at the centre of events to blame a disaffected magnate motivated by greed rather than the embarrassing truth that those opposing Richard were actually overwhelmingly Edwardian loyalists 120 It is possible that they planned to depose Richard III and place Edward V back on the throne and that when rumours arose that Edward and his brother were dead Buckingham proposed that Henry Tudor should return from exile take the throne and marry Elizabeth eldest daughter of Edward IV It has also been pointed out that as this narrative stems from Richard s parliament of 1484 it should probably be treated with caution 121 For his part Buckingham raised a substantial force from his estates in Wales and the Marches 122 Henry in exile in Brittany enjoyed the support of the Breton treasurer Pierre Landais who hoped Buckingham s victory would cement an alliance between Brittany and England 123 Some of Henry Tudor s ships ran into a storm and were forced to return to Brittany or Normandy while Henry anchored off Plymouth for a week before learning of Buckingham s failure 124 125 Buckingham s army was troubled by the same storm and deserted when Richard s forces came against them Buckingham tried to escape in disguise but was either turned in by a retainer for the bounty Richard had put on his head or was discovered in hiding with him 126 He was convicted of treason and beheaded in Salisbury near the Bull s Head Inn on 2 November 127 His widow Catherine Woodville later married Jasper Tudor the uncle of Henry Tudor 128 Richard made overtures to Landais offering military support for Landais s weak regime under Francis II Duke of Brittany in exchange for Henry Henry fled to Paris where he secured support from the French regent Anne of Beaujeu who supplied troops for an invasion in 1485 129 Death at the Battle of Bosworth Field Edit Main articles Battle of Bosworth Field and Exhumation and reburial of Richard III of England Former memorial ledger stone to Richard III in the choir of Leicester Cathedral since replaced by his stone tomb as illustrated further below On 22 August 1485 Richard met the outnumbered forces of Henry Tudor at the Battle of Bosworth Field Richard rode a white courser an especially swift and strong horse 130 The size of Richard s army has been estimated at 8 000 and Henry s at 5 000 but exact numbers are not known though the royal army is believed to have substantially outnumbered Henry s 131 The traditional view of the king s famous cries of Treason before falling was that during the battle Richard was abandoned by Baron Stanley made Earl of Derby in October Sir William Stanley and Henry Percy 4th Earl of Northumberland 132 133 The role of Northumberland is unclear his position was with the reserve behind the king s line and he could not easily have moved forward without a general royal advance which did not take place 134 The physical confines behind the crest of Ambion Hill combined with a difficulty of communications probably physically hampered any attempt he made to join the fray 135 Despite appearing a pillar of the Ricardian regime and his previous loyalty to Edward IV Baron Stanley was the stepfather of Henry Tudor and Stanley s inaction combined with his brother s entering the battle on Tudor s behalf was fundamental to Richard s defeat 136 137 138 139 The death of Richard s close companion John Howard Duke of Norfolk may have had a demoralising effect on the king and his men Either way Richard led a cavalry charge deep into the enemy ranks in an attempt to end the battle quickly by striking at Henry Tudor 140 18th century illustration of the death of Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field All accounts note that King Richard fought bravely and ably during this manoeuvre unhorsing Sir John Cheyne a well known jousting champion killing Henry s standard bearer Sir William Brandon and coming within a sword s length of Henry Tudor before being surrounded by Sir William Stanley s men and killed 141 Polydore Vergil Henry VII s official historian recorded that King Richard alone was killed fighting manfully in the thickest press of his enemies 142 The Burgundian chronicler Jean Molinet states that a Welshman struck the death blow with a halberd while Richard s horse was stuck in the marshy ground 143 It was said that the blows were so violent that the king s helmet was driven into his skull 144 The contemporary Welsh poet Guto r Glyn implies a leading Welsh Lancastrian Rhys ap Thomas or one of his men killed the king writing that he killed the boar shaved his head 143 145 146 The identification in 2013 of King Richard s body shows that the skeleton had 11 wounds eight of them to the skull clearly inflicted in battle and suggesting he had lost his helmet 147 Professor Guy Rutty from the University of Leicester said The most likely injuries to have caused the king s death are the two to the inferior aspect of the skull a large sharp force trauma possibly from a sword or staff weapon such as a halberd or bill and a penetrating injury from the tip of an edged weapon 148 The skull showed that a blade had hacked away part of the rear of the skull Richard III was the last English king to be killed in battle 149 Henry Tudor succeeded Richard as King Henry VII He married the Yorkist heiress Elizabeth of York Edward IV s daughter and Richard III s niece After the Battle of Bosworth Richard s naked body was then carried back to Leicester tied to a horse and early sources strongly suggest that it was displayed in the collegiate Church of the Annunciation of Our Lady of the Newarke 150 prior to being hastily and discreetly buried in the choir of Greyfriars Church in Leicester 151 152 153 In 1495 Henry VII paid 50 pounds for a marble and alabaster monument 152 According to a discredited tradition during the Dissolution of the Monasteries his body was thrown into the River Soar 154 155 although other evidence suggests that a memorial stone was visible in 1612 in a garden built on the site of Greyfriars 152 The exact location was then lost owing to more than 400 years of subsequent development 156 until archaeological investigations in 2012 revealed the site of the garden and Greyfriars Church There was a memorial ledger stone in the choir of the cathedral since replaced by the tomb of the king and a stone plaque on Bow Bridge where tradition had falsely suggested that his remains had been thrown into the river 157 According to another tradition Richard consulted a seer in Leicester before the battle who foretold that where your spur should strike on the ride into battle your head shall be broken on the return On the ride into battle his spur struck the bridge stone of Bow Bridge in the city legend states that as his corpse was carried from the battle over the back of a horse his head struck the same stone and was broken open 158 Issue EditRichard and Anne had one son Edward of Middleham who was born between 1474 and 1476 159 160 He was created Earl of Salisbury on 15 February 1478 161 and Prince of Wales on 24 August 1483 and died in March 1484 less than two months after he had been formally declared heir apparent 162 After the death of his son Richard appointed his nephew John de la Pole Earl of Lincoln as Lieutenant of Ireland an office previously held by his son Edward 163 Lincoln was the son of Richard s older sister Elizabeth Duchess of Suffolk After his wife s death Richard commenced negotiations with John II of Portugal to marry John s pious sister Joanna Princess of Portugal She had already turned down several suitors because of her preference for the religious life 164 Richard had two acknowledged illegitimate children John of Gloucester and Katherine Plantagenet Also known as John of Pontefract John of Gloucester was appointed Captain of Calais in 1485 Katherine married William Herbert 2nd Earl of Pembroke in 1484 Neither the birth dates nor the names of the mothers of either of the children is known Katherine was old enough to be wedded in 1484 when the age of consent was twelve and John was knighted in September 1483 in York Minster and so most historians agree that they were both fathered when Richard was a teenager 165 166 There is no evidence of infidelity on Richard s part after his marriage to Anne Neville in 1472 when he was around 20 167 This has led to a suggestion by the historian A L Rowse that Richard had no interest in sex 168 Michael Hicks and Josephine Wilkinson have suggested that Katherine s mother may have been Katherine Haute on the basis of the grant of an annual payment of 100 shillings made to her in 1477 The Haute family was related to the Woodvilles through the marriage of Elizabeth Woodville s aunt Joan Wydeville to William Haute 169 One of their children was Richard Haute Controller of the Prince s Household Their daughter Alice married Sir John Fogge they were ancestors to Catherine Parr sixth wife of King Henry VIII 170 They also suggest that John s mother may have been Alice Burgh Richard visited Pontefract from 1471 in April and October 1473 and in early March 1474 for a week On 1 March 1474 he granted Alice Burgh 20 pounds a year for life for certain special causes and considerations She later received another allowance apparently for being engaged as a nurse for his brother George s son Edward of Warwick Richard continued her annuity when he became king 171 172 John Ashdown Hill has suggested that John was conceived during Richard s first solo expedition to the eastern counties in the summer of 1467 at the invitation of John Howard and that the boy was born in 1468 and named after his friend and supporter Richard himself noted John was still a minor not being yet 21 when he issued the royal patent appointing him Captain of Calais on 11 March 1485 possibly on his seventeenth birthday 165 Both of Richard s illegitimate children survived him but they seem to have died without issue and their fate after Richard s demise at Bosworth is not certain John received a 20 pound annuity from Henry VII but there are no mentions of him in contemporary records after 1487 the year of the Battle of Stoke Field He may have been executed in 1499 though no record of this exists beyond an assertion by George Buck over a century later 173 Katherine apparently died before her cousin Elizabeth of York s coronation on 25 November 1487 since her husband Sir William Herbert is described as a widower by that time 165 7 Katherine s burial place was located in the London parish church of St James Garlickhithe note 6 between Skinner s Lane and Upper Thames Street 175 The mysterious Richard Plantagenet who was first mentioned in Francis Peck s Desiderata Curiosa a two volume miscellany published 1732 1735 was said to be a possible illegitimate child of Richard III and is sometimes referred to as Richard the Master Builder or Richard of Eastwell but it has also been suggested he could have been Richard Duke of York one of the missing Princes in the Tower 176 He died in 1550 177 Legacy EditRichard s Council of the North described as his one major institutional innovation derived from his ducal council following his own viceregal appointment by Edward IV when Richard himself became king he maintained the same conciliar structure in his absence 178 It officially became part of the royal council machinery under the presidency of John de la Pole Earl of Lincoln in April 1484 based at Sandal Castle in Wakefield 83 It is considered to have greatly improved conditions for northern England as it was intended to keep the peace and punish lawbreakers as well as resolve land disputes 84 Bringing regional governance directly under the control of central government it has been described as the king s most enduring monument surviving unchanged until 1641 84 In December 1483 Richard instituted what later became known as the Court of Requests a court to which poor people who could not afford legal representation could apply for their grievances to be heard 179 He also improved bail in January 1484 to protect suspected felons from imprisonment before trial and to protect their property from seizure during that time 180 181 He founded the College of Arms in 1484 114 115 he banned restrictions on the printing and sale of books 182 and he ordered the translation of the written Laws and Statutes from the traditional French into English 183 During his reign Parliament ended the arbitrary benevolence a device by which Edward IV raised funds 184 185 made it punishable to conceal from a buyer of land that a part of the property had already been disposed of to somebody else 186 required that land sales be published 186 laid down property qualifications for jurors restricted the abusive Courts of Piepowders 187 regulated cloth sales 188 instituted certain forms of trade protectionism 189 190 prohibited the sale of wine and oil in fraudulent measure 190 and prohibited fraudulent collection of clergy dues 190 among others Churchill implies he improved the law of trusts 191 Richard s death at Bosworth resulted in the end of the Plantagenet dynasty which had ruled England since the succession of Henry II in 1154 192 The last legitimate male Plantagenet Richard s nephew Edward Earl of Warwick son of his brother George Duke of Clarence was executed by Henry VII in 1499 193 Reputation Edit Late 16th century portrait oil on panel National Portrait Gallery London There are numerous contemporary or near contemporary sources of information about the reign of Richard III 194 These include the Croyland Chronicle Commines Memoires the report of Dominic Mancini the Paston Letters the Chronicles of Robert Fabyan and numerous court and official records including a few letters by Richard himself However the debate about Richard s true character and motives continues both because of the subjectivity of many of the written sources reflecting the generally partisan nature of writers of this period and because none was written by men with an intimate knowledge of Richard 195 During Richard s reign the historian John Rous praised him as a good lord who punished oppressors of the commons adding that he had a great heart 196 197 In 1483 the Italian observer Mancini reported that Richard enjoyed a good reputation and that both his private life and public activities powerfully attracted the esteem of strangers 198 199 His bond to the City of York in particular was such that on hearing of Richard s demise at the battle of Bosworth the City Council officially deplored the king s death at the risk of facing the victor s wrath 200 During his lifetime he was the subject of some attacks Even in the North in 1482 a man was prosecuted for offences against the Duke of Gloucester saying he did nothing but grin at the city of York In 1484 attempts to discredit him took the form of hostile placards the only surviving one being William Collingbourne s lampoon of July 1484 The Cat the Rat and Lovell the Dog all rule England under a Hog which was pinned to the door of St Paul s Cathedral and referred to Richard himself the Hog and his most trusted councillors William Catesby Richard Ratcliffe and Francis Viscount Lovell 201 On 30 March 1485 Richard felt forced to summon the Lords and London City Councillors to publicly deny the rumours that he had poisoned Queen Anne and that he had planned a marriage to his niece Elizabeth 202 at the same time ordering the Sheriff of London to imprison anyone spreading such slanders 203 The same orders were issued throughout the realm including York where the royal pronouncement recorded in the City Records dates 5 April 1485 and carries specific instructions to suppress seditious talk and remove and destroy evidently hostile placards unread 204 205 As for Richard s physical appearance most contemporary descriptions bear out the evidence that aside from having one shoulder higher than the other with chronicler Rous not able to correctly remember which one as slight as the difference was Richard had no other noticeable bodily deformity John Stow talked to old men who remembering him said that he was of bodily shape comely enough only of low stature 206 incomplete short citation and a German traveller Nicolas von Poppelau who spent ten days in Richard s household in May 1484 describes him as three fingers taller than himself much more lean with delicate arms and legs and also a great heart 207 Six years after Richard s death in 1491 a schoolmaster named William Burton on hearing a defence of Richard launched into a diatribe accusing the dead king of being a hypocrite and a crookback who was deservedly buried in a ditch like a dog 208 Richard s death encouraged the furtherance of this later negative image by his Tudor successors due to the fact that it helped to legitimise Henry VII s seizure of the throne 209 The Richard III Society contends that this means that a lot of what people thought they knew about Richard III was pretty much propaganda and myth building 210 The Tudor characterisation culminated in the famous fictional portrayal of him in Shakespeare s play Richard III as a physically deformed Machiavellian villain ruthlessly committing numerous murders in order to claw his way to power 211 Shakespeare s intention perhaps being to use Richard III as a vehicle for creating his own Marlowesque protagonist 212 Rous himself in his History of the Kings of England written during Henry VII s reign initiated the process He reversed his earlier position 213 and now portrayed Richard as a freakish individual who was born with teeth and shoulder length hair after having been in his mother s womb for two years His body was stunted and distorted with one shoulder higher than the other and he was slight in body and weak in strength 214 Rous also attributes the murder of Henry VI to Richard and claims that he poisoned his own wife 215 Jeremy Potter a former Chair of the Richard III Society claims that At the bar of history Richard III continues to be guilty because it is impossible to prove him innocent The Tudors ride high in popular esteem 216 Polydore Vergil and Thomas More expanded on this portrayal emphasising Richard s outward physical deformities as a sign of his inwardly twisted mind More describes him as little of stature ill featured of limbs crook backed hard favoured of visage 197 Vergil also says he was deformed of body one shoulder higher than the right 197 Both emphasise that Richard was devious and flattering while planning the downfall of both his enemies and supposed friends Richard s good qualities were his cleverness and bravery All these characteristics are repeated by Shakespeare who portrays him as having a hunch a limp and a withered arm 217 218 With regard to the hunch the second quarto edition of Richard III 1598 used the term hunched backed but in the First Folio edition 1623 it became bunch backed 219 A statue of Richard III now outside Leicester Cathedral Richard s reputation as a promoter of legal fairness persisted however William Camden in his Remains Concerning Britain 1605 states that Richard albeit he lived wickedly yet made good laws 220 Francis Bacon also states that he was a good lawmaker for the ease and solace of the common people 221 In 1525 Cardinal Wolsey upbraided the aldermen and Mayor of London for relying on a statute of Richard to avoid paying an extorted tax benevolence but received the reply although he did evil yet in his time were many good acts made 222 223 Richard was a practising Catholic as shown by his personal Book of Hours surviving in the Lambeth Palace library As well as conventional aristocratic devotional texts the book contains a Collect of Saint Ninian referencing a saint popular in the Anglo Scottish Borders 224 Despite this the image of Richard as a ruthless tyrant remained dominant in the 18th and 19th centuries The 18th century philosopher and historian David Hume described him as a man who used dissimulation to conceal his fierce and savage nature and who had abandoned all principles of honour and humanity 225 Hume acknowledged that some historians have argued that he was well qualified for government had he legally obtained it and that he committed no crimes but such as were necessary to procure him possession of the crown but he dismissed this view on the grounds that Richard s exercise of arbitrary power encouraged instability 226 The most important late 19th century biographer of the king was James Gairdner who also wrote the entry on Richard in the Dictionary of National Biography 227 Gairdner stated that he had begun to study Richard with a neutral viewpoint but became convinced that Shakespeare and More were essentially correct in their view of the king despite some exaggerations 228 Richard was not without his defenders the first of whom was Sir George Buck a descendant of one of the king s supporters who completed The history of King Richard the Third in 1619 229 The authoritative Buck text was published only in 1979 though a corrupted version was published by Buck s great nephew in 1646 230 lt ref gt Buck attacked the improbable imputations and strange and spiteful scandals related by Tudor writers including Richard s alleged deformities and murders He located lost archival material including the Titulus Regius but also claimed to have seen a letter written by Elizabeth of York according to which Elizabeth sought to marry the king 231 Elizabeth s supposed letter was never produced Documents which later emerged from the Portuguese royal archives show that after Queen Anne s death Richard s ambassadors were sent on a formal errand to negotiate a double marriage between Richard and the Portuguese king s sister Joanna 7 of Lancastrian descent 232 and between Elizabeth of York and Joanna s cousin Manuel Duke of Viseu later King of Portugal 165 Significant among Richard s defenders was Horace Walpole In Historic Doubts on the Life and Reign of King Richard the Third 1768 Walpole disputed all the alleged murders and argued that Richard may have acted in good faith He also argued that any physical abnormality was probably no more than a minor distortion of the shoulders 233 However he retracted his views in 1793 after the Terror stating he now believed that Richard could have committed the crimes he was charged with 234 although Pollard observes that this retraction is frequently overlooked by later admirers of Richard 235 Other defenders of Richard include the noted explorer Clements Markham whose Richard III His Life and Character 1906 replied to the work of Gairdner He argued that Henry VII killed the princes and that the bulk of evidence against Richard was nothing more than Tudor propaganda 236 An intermediate view was provided by Alfred Legge in The Unpopular King 1885 Legge argued that Richard s greatness of soul was eventually warped and dwarfed by the ingratitude of others 237 Some 20th century historians have been less inclined to moral judgement 238 seeing Richard s actions as a product of the unstable times In the words of Charles Ross the later fifteenth century in England is now seen as a ruthless and violent age as concerns the upper ranks of society full of private feuds intimidation land hunger and litigiousness and consideration of Richard s life and career against this background has tended to remove him from the lonely pinnacle of Villainy Incarnate on which Shakespeare had placed him Like most men he was conditioned by the standards of his age 239 The Richard III Society founded in 1924 as The Fellowship of the White Boar is the oldest of several groups dedicated to improving his reputation Other historians still describe him as a power hungry and ruthless politician who was still most probably ultimately responsible for the murder of his nephews 240 241 In culture Edit Main article Cultural depictions of Richard III of England Cover of the 1594 quarto of the anonymous play The True Tragedy of Richard III Richard III is the protagonist of Richard III one of William Shakespeare s history tragedy plays Apart from Shakespeare he appears in many other works of literature Two other plays of the Elizabethan era predated Shakespeare s work The Latin language drama Richardus Tertius first known performance in 1580 by Thomas Legge is believed to be the first history play written in England The anonymous play The True Tragedy of Richard III c 1590 performed in the same decade as Shakespeare s work was probably an influence on Shakespeare 242 Neither of the two plays places any emphasis on Richard s physical appearance though the True Tragedy briefly mentions that he is A man ill shaped crooked backed lame armed and valiantly minded but tyrannous in authority Both portray him as a man motivated by personal ambition who uses everyone around him to get his way Ben Jonson is also known to have written a play Richard Crookback in 1602 but it was never published and nothing is known about its portrayal of the king 243 Marjorie Bowen s 1929 novel Dickon set the trend for pro Ricardian literature 244 Particularly influential was The Daughter of Time 1951 by Josephine Tey in which a modern detective concludes that Richard III is innocent in the death of the Princes 245 246 247 Other novelists such as Valerie Anand in the novel Crown of Roses 1989 have also offered alternative versions to the theory that he murdered them 248 Sharon Kay Penman in her historical novel The Sunne in Splendour attributes the death of the Princes to the Duke of Buckingham 249 In the mystery novel The Murders of Richard III by Elizabeth Peters 1974 the central plot revolves around the debate as to whether Richard III was guilty of these and other crimes 250 A sympathetic portrayal is given in The Founding 1980 the first volume in The Morland Dynasty series by Cynthia Harrod Eagles 251 One film adaptation of Shakespeare s play Richard III is the 1955 version directed and produced by Laurence Olivier who also played the lead role 252 253 Also notable are the 1995 film version starring Ian McKellen set in a fictional 1930s fascist England 254 255 and Looking for Richard a 1996 documentary film directed by Al Pacino who plays the title character as well as himself 256 257 The play has been adapted for television on several occasions 258 259 260 Discovery of remains EditMain article Exhumation and reburial of Richard III of England On 24 August 2012 the University of Leicester Leicester City Council and the Richard III Society announced that they were going to look for the remains of King Richard The search was managed by Philippa Langley of the Society s Looking for Richard project with the archaeology run by University of Leicester Archaeological Services ULAS 261 262 263 264 265 The participants looked for the lost site of the former Greyfriars Church demolished during Henry VIII s dissolution of the monasteries to find his remains 266 267 By comparing fixed points between maps in a historical sequence the church was found where Richard s body had been hastily buried without pomp in 1485 its foundations identifiable beneath a modern city centre car park 268 In 1975 Audrey Strange of the Richard III Society predicted that the lost grave lay beneath one of the three car parks that partly cover the site of the former Grey Friars Priory 269 A decade later in the mid 1980s academic David Baldwin a medieval historian formerly of Leicester University concluded that the burial site lay further to the east beneath the northern St Martin s end of Grey Friars Street or the buildings that face it on either side 154 270 Site of Greyfriars Church Leicester shown superimposed over a modern map of the area The skeleton of Richard III was recovered in September 2012 from the centre of the choir shown by a small blue dot The diggers found Greyfriars Church by 5 September 2012 and two days later announced that they had found Robert Herrick s garden where the memorial to Richard III stood in the early 17th century 271 272 A human skeleton was found beneath the Church s choir 273 Improbably the excavators found the remains in the first dig at the car park 274 275 276 Skeleton as discovered On 12 September it was announced that the skeleton discovered during the search might be that of Richard III Several reasons were given the body was of an adult male it was buried beneath the choir of the church and there was severe scoliosis of the spine possibly making one shoulder 271 higher than the other to what extent depended on the severity of the condition Additionally there was an object that appeared to be an arrowhead embedded in the spine and there were perimortem injuries to the skull These included a relatively shallow orifice which is most likely to have been caused by a rondel dagger and a scooping depression to the skull inflicted by a bladed weapon most probably a sword Further the bottom of the skull presented a gaping hole where a halberd had cut away and entered it Forensic pathologist Stuart Hamilton stated that this injury would have left the individual s brain visible and most certainly would have been the cause of death Jo Appleby the osteo archaeologist who excavated the skeleton concurred and described the latter as a mortal battlefield wound in the back of the skull The base of the skull also presented another fatal wound in which a bladed weapon had been thrust into it leaving behind a jagged hole Closer examination of the interior of the skull revealed a mark opposite this wound showing that the blade penetrated to a depth of 10 5 centimetres 4 1 in 277 In total the skeleton presented ten wounds four minor injuries on the top of the skull one dagger blow on the cheekbone one cut on the lower jaw two fatal injuries on the base of the skull one cut on a rib bone and one final wound on the pelvis most probably inflicted after death It is generally accepted that postmortem Richard s naked body was tied to the back of a horse with his arms slung over one side and his legs and buttocks over the other This presented a tempting target for onlookers and the angle of the blow on the pelvis suggests that one of them stabbed Richard s right buttock with substantial force as the cut extends from the back all the way to the front of the pelvic bone and was most probably an act of humiliation It is also possible that Richard and his corpse suffered other injuries which left no trace on the skeleton 278 279 280 British historian John Ashdown Hill had used genealogical research in 2004 to trace matrilineal descendants of Anne of York Duchess of Exeter Richard s elder sister 281 282 283 284 A British born woman who emigrated to Canada after the Second World War Joy Ibsen nee Brown was found to be a 16th generation great niece of the king in the same direct maternal line 285 286 Her mitochondrial DNA was tested and belongs to mitochondrial DNA haplogroup J which by deduction should also be the mitochondrial DNA haplogroup of Richard III 165 287 Joy Ibsen died in 2008 Her son Michael Ibsen gave a mouth swab sample to the research team on 24 August 2012 His mitochondrial DNA passed down the direct maternal line was compared to samples from the human remains found at the excavation site and used to identify King Richard 288 289 290 291 On 4 February 2013 the University of Leicester confirmed that the skeleton was beyond reasonable doubt that of King Richard III This conclusion was based on mitochondrial DNA evidence 292 soil analysis and dental tests there were some molars missing as a result of caries as well as physical characteristics of the skeleton which are highly consistent with contemporary accounts of Richard s appearance 293 The team announced that the arrowhead discovered with the body was a Roman era nail probably disturbed when the body was first interred However there were numerous perimortem wounds on the body and part of the skull had been sliced off with a bladed weapon 210 this would have caused rapid death The team concluded that it is unlikely that the king was wearing a helmet in his last moments Soil taken from the remains was found to contain microscopic roundworm eggs Several eggs were found in samples taken from the pelvis where the king s intestines were but not from the skull and only very small numbers were identified in soil surrounding the grave The findings suggest that the higher concentration of eggs in the pelvic area probably arose from a roundworm infection the king suffered in his life rather than from human waste dumped in the area at a later date researchers said The mayor of Leicester announced that the king s skeleton would be re interred at Leicester Cathedral in early 2014 but a judicial review of that decision delayed the reinterment for a year 294 A museum to Richard III was opened in July 2014 in the Victorian school buildings next to the Greyfriars grave site 282 292 295 On 5 February 2013 Caroline Wilkinson of the University of Dundee conducted a facial reconstruction of Richard III commissioned by the Richard III Society based on 3D mappings of his skull 296 The face is described as warm young earnest and rather serious 297 On 11 February 2014 the University of Leicester announced the project to sequence the entire genome of Richard III and one of his living relatives Michael Ibsen whose mitochondrial DNA confirmed the identification of the excavated remains Richard III thus became the first ancient person of known historical identity whose genome has been sequenced 298 In November 2014 the results of the DNA testing were published confirming that the maternal side was as previously thought 287 The paternal side however demonstrated some variance from what had been expected with the DNA showing no links between Richard and Henry Somerset 5th Duke of Beaufort a purported descendant of Richard s great great grandfather Edward III of England This could be the result of covert illegitimacy that does not reflect the accepted genealogies between Edward III and either Richard III or the 5th Duke of Beaufort 287 299 300 Reburial and tomb Edit Tomb of Richard III in Leicester Cathedral with his motto Loyaulte me lie loyalty binds me at right After his death in battle in 1485 Richard III s body was buried in Greyfriars Church in Leicester 7 Following the discoveries of Richard s remains in 2012 it was decided that they should be reburied at Leicester Cathedral 301 despite feelings in some quarters that he should have been reburied in York Minster 302 Those who challenged the decision included fifteen collateral non direct descendants of Richard III 303 represented by the Plantagenet Alliance who believed that the body should be reburied in York as they claim the king wished 304 In August 2013 they filed a court case in order to contest Leicester s claim to re inter the body within its cathedral and propose the body be buried in York instead However Michael Ibsen who gave the DNA sample that identified the king gave his support to Leicester s claim to re inter the body in their cathedral 304 On 20 August a judge ruled that the opponents had the legal standing to contest his burial in Leicester Cathedral despite a clause in the contract which had authorized the excavations requiring his burial there He urged the parties though to settle out of court in order to avoid embarking on the Wars of the Roses Part Two 305 306 The Plantagenet Alliance and the supporting fifteen collateral descendants also faced the challenge that Basic maths shows Richard who had no surviving children but five siblings could have millions of collateral descendants 303 undermining the group s claim to represent the only people who can speak on behalf of him 303 A ruling in May 2014 decreed that there are no public law grounds for the Court interfering with the decisions in question 307 The remains were taken to Leicester Cathedral on 22 March 2015 and reinterred on 26 March 308 His remains were carried in procession to the cathedral on 22 March 2015 and reburied on 26 March 2015 309 at a religious re burial service at which both Tim Stevens the Bishop of Leicester and Justin Welby the Archbishop of Canterbury officiated The British royal family was represented by the Duke and Duchess of Gloucester and the Countess of Wessex The actor Benedict Cumberbatch who later portrayed him in The Hollow Crown television series read a poem by poet laureate Carol Ann Duffy 260 310 Richard s cathedral tomb was designed by the architects van Heyningen and Haward 311 The tombstone is deeply incised with a cross and consists of a rectangular block of white Swaledale fossil stone quarried in North Yorkshire It sits on a low plinth made of dark Kilkenny marble incised with Richard s name dates and motto Loyaulte me lie loyalty binds me The plinth also carries his coat of arms in pietra dura 312 On top is a funeral crown commissioned specifically for the reinterment and made by George Easton 313 The remains of Richard III are in a lead lined inner casket 314 inside an outer English oak coffin crafted by Michael Ibsen a direct descendant of Richard s sister Anne and laid in a brick lined vault below the floor and below the plinth and tombstone 312 The original 2010 raised tomb design had been proposed by Langley s Looking For Richard Project and fully funded by members of the Richard III Society The proposal was publicly launched by the Society on 13 February 2013 but rejected by Leicester Cathedral in favour of a memorial slab 315 316 317 However following a public outcry the Cathedral changed its position and on 18 July 2013 announced its agreement to give King Richard III a raised tomb monument 318 319 Titles styles honours and arms Edit Bronze boar mount found on the Thames foreshore and thought to have been worn by a supporter of Richard III 320 Arms as duke On 1 November 1461 Richard gained the title of Duke of Gloucester in late 1461 he was invested as a Knight of the Garter 321 Following the death of King Edward IV he was made Lord Protector of England Richard held this office from 30 April to 26 June 1483 when he became king During his reign Richard was styled Dei Gratia Rex Angliae et Franciae et Dominus Hiberniae by the Grace of God King of England and France and Lord of Ireland Informally he may have been known as Dickon according to a sixteenth century legend of a note warning of treachery that was sent to the Duke of Norfolk on the eve of Bosworth Jack of Norfolk be not too bold For Dickon thy master is bought and sold 322 Arms Edit As Duke of Gloucester Richard used the Royal Arms of France quartered with the Royal Arms of England differenced by a label argent of three points ermine on each point a canton gules supported by a blue boar 323 324 As sovereign he used the arms of the kingdom undifferenced supported by a white boar and a lion 324 His motto was Loyaulte me lie Loyalty binds me and his personal device was a white boar 325 Family trees Editvte Family tree of the Dukes of Gloucester Dukes of Edinburgh and the Dukes of Gloucester and EdinburghKing Edward III1312 1377DUKE OF GLOUCESTER 1st creation 1385John of GauntDuke of Lancaster1340 1399Thomas of WoodstockDuke of Gloucester1355 1397Dukedom of Gloucester 1st creation extinct 1397King Henry IV1367 1413John Beaufort1st Earl of Somerset1373 1410Joan Beaufortc 1379 1440DUKE OF GLOUCESTER 2nd creation 1414Humphrey of LancasterDuke of Gloucester1390 1447John BeaufortDuke of Somerset1404 1444Cecily Neville1415 1495Dukedom of Gloucester 2nd creation extinct 1447DUKE OF GLOUCESTER 3rd creation 1461Lady Margaret Beaufort1443 1509King Edward IV1442 1483Richard of YorkDuke of GloucesterKing Richard III1452 1485Dukedom of Gloucester 3rd creation merged in the Crown 1483King Henry VII1457 1509Elizabeth of York1466 1503Margaret Tudor1489 1541King Henry VIII1491 1547James V of Scotland1512 1542Mary Queen of Scots1542 1587King James VI amp I1566 1625Princess Elizabeth Stuart1596 1662King Charles I1600 1649DUKE OF GLOUCESTER 4th creation 1659Sophia of Hanover1630 1714King James II1633 1701Prince HenryDuke of Gloucester1640 1660Dukedom of Gloucester 4th creation extinct 1660King George I1660 1727Queen Anne1665 1714styled DUKE OF GLOUCESTER 1689King George II1683 1760Prince WilliamDuke of Gloucester1689 1700Dukedom of Gloucester 5th creation styling extinct 1700styled DUKE OF GLOUCESTER 1718DUKE OF EDINBURGH 1st creation 1726Prince Frederick LouisDuke of Gloucester1st Duke of EdinburghPrince of Wales1707 1751Dukedom of Gloucester styling extinct when created Duke of Edinburgh 1726DUKE OF GLOUCESTER AND EDINBURGH 1764Prince George William Frederick2nd Duke of EdinburghKing George III1738 1820Prince William Henry1st Duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh1743 1805Dukedom of Edinburgh 1st creation merged in the Crown 1760Dukedom of Gloucester and Edinburgh unused 1805 1816King William IV1765 1837Prince EdwardDuke of Kent and Strathearn1767 1820Princess Mary1776 1857Prince William Frederick2nd Duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh1776 1834Dukedom of Gloucester and Edinburgh extinct 1834Queen Victoria1819 1901DUKE OF EDINBURGH 2nd creation 1866King Edward VII1841 1910Princess Alice1843 1878Prince Alfred Ernest AlbertDuke of EdinburghDuke of Saxe Coburg and Gotha1844 1900Dukedom of Edinburgh 2nd creation extinct 1900King George V1865 1936Princess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine1863 1950DUKE OF GLOUCESTER 5th creation 1928Prince Henry1st Duke of GloucesterEarl of Ulster1900 1974King George VI1895 1952Princess Alice of Battenberg1885 1969DUKE OF EDINBURGH 3rd creation 1947Prince Richard2nd Duke of Gloucesterb 1944Queen Elizabeth II1926 2022Prince Philip1st Duke of Edinburgh1921 2021DUKE OF EDINBURGH 4th creation 2023Alexander WindsorEarl of Ulsterb 1974Prince Charles2nd Duke of EdinburghPrince of WalesKing Charles IIIb 1948Prince EdwardDuke of Edinburghb 1964Heir apparent to the Dukedom of GloucesterDukedom of Edinburgh 3rd creation merged in the Crown 2022Dukedom of Edinburgh 4th creation is a life peerage and therefore not hereditaryvteEnglish royal families in the Wars of the RosesDukes except Aquitaine and Princes of Wales are noted as are the monarchs reigns Individuals with red dashed borders are Lancastrians and blue dotted borders are Yorkists Some changed sides and are represented with a solid thin purple border Monarchs have a rounded corner border 326 Henry of GrosmontDuke of LancasterEdward IIIKing of Englandr 1327 1377Edward of Woodstock The Black Prince Prince of WalesLionel of AntwerpDuke of ClarenceBlanche of LancasterJohn of GauntDuke of LancasterKatherine SwynfordEdmund of LangleyDuke of YorkThomas of WoodstockDuke of GloucesterRichard IIPrince of Wales King of Englandr 1377 1399Philippa of ClarenceHenry IVDuke of Lancaster King of Englandr 1399 1413John BeaufortThomas BeaufortDuke of ExeterJoan BeaufortRalph NevilleHenry Percy Hotspur Elizabeth MortimerRoger MortimerOwen TudorCatherine of ValoisHenry VDuke of Lancaster Prince of Wales King of Englandr 1413 1422HumphreyDuke of GloucesterEdward of NorwichDuke of YorkRichard of ConisburghAnne de MortimerJohn Beaufort1st Duke of SomersetMargaret of AnjouHenry VIKing of Englandr 1422 1461 r 1470 1471Edmund Beaufort2nd Duke of Somerset 1st St AlbansWilliam NevilleEleanor NevilleHenry Percy 1st St AlbansAnne NevilleDuchess of BuckinghamRichard Neville WakefieldCecily NevilleRichard PlantagenetDuke of York Prince of Wales WakefieldHenry Beaufort3rd Duke of Somerset HexhamRichard Woodville EdgecoteMargaret BeaufortEdmund Beaufort4th Duke of Somerset TewkesburyHenry Percy TowtonHumphrey StaffordJohn Neville BarnetRichard Neville Kingmaker BarnetMargaret BeaufortEdmund TudorJasper TudorDuke of BedfordCatherine WoodvilleHenry StaffordDuke of Buckingham Elizabeth WoodvilleEdward IVDuke of York King of Englandr 1461 1470 r 1471 1483George PlantagenetDuke of Clarence TowerEdward of WestminsterPrince of Wales TewkesburyAnne NevilleRichard IIIDuke of Gloucester King of Englandr 1483 1485 Bosworth FieldHenry VIIKing of Englandr 1485 1509Elizabeth of YorkEdward VPrince of Wales King of Englandr 1483 TowerRichard of ShrewsburyDuke of York TowerSee also EditKing Richard III Visitor Centre Leicester Ricardian Richard III Richard III Experience at Monk Bar YorkExplanatory notes Edit From November 1461 until 1465 all references to Richard place him in locations south of the river Trent It may have been partly to appease Warwick s injured feelings towards the rising influence of the king s new Woodville in laws that he was given the honour of taking Richard into his household to complete his education probably at some time in 1465 12 As late as 1469 rumours were still linking Richard s name with Anne Neville s In August of that year by which time Clarence had married Isabel an Italian observer in London mistakenly reported that Warwick had married his two daughters to the king s brothers Cal Milanese Papers I pp 118 120 Says Kendall Richard had won his way back to Middleham Castle However any personal attachment he may have felt to Middleham was likely mitigated in his adulthood as surviving records demonstrate he spent less time there than at Barnard Castle and Pontefract No great magnate or royal duke in the fifteenth century had a home in the twentieth century sense of the word Richard of Gloucester formed no more of a personal attachment to Middleham than he did to Barnard Castle or Pontefract at both of which surviving records suggest he spent more time 48 Hanham has raised the charge of hypocrisy 80 suggesting that Richard would grin at the city and questioning whether he was either as popular or as devoted to the region as sometimes thought 80 Rosemary Horrox notes that Buckingham was an exception amongst the rebels as far from being a previous favourite he had been refused any political role by Edward IV 119 Specifically in the Vinter s Hall Thameside 174 References EditCitations Edit Carson Ashdown Hill Johnson Johnson amp Langley p 8 Baldwin 2013 Pollard 2000 p 15 Ross 1974 pp 3 5 Pollard 2008 Griffiths 2008 a b c d e Horrox 2013 Kendall 1956 pp 41 42 Kendall 1956 p 40 Scofield 2016 p 216 n 6 quoting Tellers Roll Mich 5 Edw IV no 36 m 2 Kendall 1956 pp 34 44 74 Baldwin 2013 pp 36 37 240 a b Ross 1974 p 9 Licence 2013 p 63 Kendall 1956 pp 16 17 Kendall 1956 p 68 Hicks 1980 p 45 Kendall 1956 p 522 Kendall 1956 pp 87 89 Spine The Discovery of Richard III University of Leicester Retrieved 5 February 2013 A very pronounced curve in the spine was visible when the body was first uncovered evidence of scoliosis which may have meant that Richard s right shoulder was noticeably higher than his left The type of scoliosis seen here is known as idiopathic adolescent onset scoliosis The word idiopathic means that the reason for its development is not entirely clear although there is probably a genetic component The term adolescent onset indicates that the deformity wasn t present at birth but developed after the age of ten It is quite possible that the scoliosis was progressive Richard III Team rebuilds most famous spine BBC News London 29 May 2014 Retrieved 7 December 2014 Duffin Claire 17 August 2014 Richard III the hunchback king really could have been a formidable warrior and his body double can prove it The Daily Telegraph London Archived from the original on 10 January 2022 Retrieved 24 November 2018 Timeline Richard III Rumour and Reality Institute for the Public Understanding of the Past University of York Retrieved 8 July 2014 a b Hicks 2006 a b Ross 1981 p 21 Ross 1974 p 27 Hicks 1980 p 115 The East Anglian Paston family have left historians a rich source of historical information for the lives of the English gentry of the period in a large collection of surviving letters Hicks 2009 pp 81 82 Riley 1908 p 470 Kendall 1956 Baldwin 2013 p 58 Northern Properties and Influence Richard III Rumour and Reality Institute for the Public Understanding of the Past University of York CPR 1467 77 p 260 Retrieved 7 September 2014 Kendall 1956 p 128 Clarke 2005 p 1023 In fact Richard and Anne had sought a dispensation to marry from the penitentiary in early 1472 for it was granted on 22 April that year and they probably married shortly afterwards Barnfield 2007 p 85 Cobbett 1807 p 431 Ross 1974 p 190 Ross 1981 p 30 Given Wilson et al 2005 Edward IV October 1472 Second Roll items 20 24 Ross 1981 p 31 Hicks 1980 p 132 Hicks 1980 p 146 Ross 1981 p 6 Ross 1981 p 9 Ross 1974 p 136 Hicks 2001 p 74 Hicks 2001 p 82 Kendall 1956 p 125 Hicks 2009 p 75 Hicks 2004 After 1466 Clarence was not the ally for which Edward IV had presumably hoped He embroiled himself in a dangerous feud in the north midlands and associated himself politically with Warwick who graduated from direction of Edward s affairs in the early 1460s to outright opposition Ross 1974 p 152 Ross 1981 p 19 Lulofs 1974 Ross 1974 p 155 Ross 1974 p 153 Ross 1974 p 159 Ross 1974 p 160 Ross 1974 p 161 Ross 1974 p 163 Ross 1981 p 20 Hicks 2009 p 98 Gillingham 1981 p 191 Horrox 1989 p 41 Ross 1974 p 164 Kinross 1979 p 89 Kendall 1956 pp 93 99 Ross 1981 p 22 Gillingham 1981 p 206 Ross 1981 p 22 citing The Arrivall Ross 1974 p 172 Ross 1974 p 206 Ross 1974 p 223 Grant 1993 p 116 a b Ross 1981 p 34 Ross 1974 p 230 Ross 1974 p 233 Hampton 1975 p 10 Hicks 2009 p 57 Kendall 1956 p 132 133 154 a b Hanham 1975 p 64 Kendall 1956 p 156 Booth 1997 a b Ross 1981 p 182 a b c Ross 1981 p 183 Scofield 2016 p 534 Ferguson 1890 p 238 Lysons amp Lysons 1816 Parishes Newton Regny Ponsonby pp 142 150 Ross 1974 p 278 citing Phillipe de Commynes Ross 1981 p 143 n 53 However Ross cites a letter from Edward IV in May 1480 the letter of appointment to his position as Lieutenant General referred to his proven capacity in the arts of war Ross 1981 pp 44 47 Baldwin 2013 p 95 Kendall 1956 pp 207 210 Kendall 1956 pp 252 254 Baldwin 2013 p 96citing Mancini Kendall 1956 pp 162 163 Robert Fabyan The Concordaunce of Hystoryes Richard III Society American Branch Retrieved 13 May 2020 The history of Crosby Place British History Online www british history ac uk Retrieved 13 May 2020 Kendall 1956 pp 212 213 Baldwin 2013 p 99 Horrox 2004 Kendall 1956 pp 209 210 Chrimes 1999 p 20 Baldwin 2013 p 101 Rous 1980 p 63 Kendall 1956 pp 215 216 Hicks 2001 p 117 Wood 1975 pp 269 270 quoting a letter of instruction sent to Lord Mountjoy two days following Richard s assumption of the throne Wood goes on to observe that the impressions conveyed by this document are in many respects demonstrably false better source needed Given Wilson et al 2005 Richard III January 1484 item 5 Grummitt 2013 p 116 Ross 1981 pp 96 104 Kendall 1956 pp 487 489 Kendall 1956 p 290 Jones 2014 pp 96 97 a b Wagner 1967 p 130 a b History College of Arms Archived from the original on 1 June 2018 Retrieved 6 December 2018 In 1484 the Royal heralds were granted a charter of incorporation by Richard III and given a house in Coldharbour in Upper Thames Street London to keep their records in Ross 1981 p 105 Hicks 2009 p 211 Ross 1981 p 111 Horrox 1989 p 132 Davies 2011 Horrox 1989 p 153 Ross 1981 pp 105 119 Costello 1855 pp 17 18 43 44 Kendall 1956 p 274 Chrimes 1999 p 26 n 2 Chrimes 1999 p 25 n 5 Chrimes 1999 pp 25 26 Davies 2011 Following Bosworth Katherine Stafford was married by 7 November 1485 to the new king s 55 year old bachelor uncle Jasper Tudor now duke of Bedford Chrimes 1999 pp 29 30 Kendall 1956 p 365 Jones 2014 Kendall 1956 p 367 Chrimes 1999 p 55 Ross 1981 p 218 Northumberland s rearguard was never seriously engaged nor could be whatever the proclivities of its commander Ross 1981 p 222 Bennett 2008 Bennett 2008 Sir William Stanley was among the first to rally to Edward and he may have brought Thomas Stanley s good wishes with him Appointed steward of the king s household late in 1471 Thomas Stanley was thenceforward a regular member of the royal council Ross 1981 p 186 Gillingham 1981 p 244 Ross 1981 pp 218 222 Ross 1981 pp 223 224 Kendall 1956 p 368 a b Griffiths 1993 p 43 Penn 2013 p 9 Rees 2008 p 211 The original Welsh is Lladd y baedd eilliodd ei ben The usual meaning of eilliodd is shaved which might mean chopped off or sliced Thomas Jeffrey L 2009 Sir Rhys ap Thomas Castles of Wales Website Archived from the original on 24 November 2018 Retrieved 4 February 2013 Watson Greig 4 February 2013 Richard III dig Grim clues to the death of a king BBC News London Retrieved 3 December 2014 Richard III died in battle after losing helmet new research shows The Guardian London Press Association 16 September 2014 Retrieved 18 September 2018 King Richard III killed by blows to skull BBC News London 17 September 2014 Retrieved 3 December 2014 Ashdown Hill et al 2014 Ashdown Hill 2013 p 94 a b c Baldwin 1986 pp 21 22 Schurer Kevin The King in the Car Park The Discovery and Identification of Richard III Professor Kevin Schurer Youtube Retrieved 7 May 2022 22 53 23 33 a b Baldwin 1986 Strong evidence Richard III s body has been found with a curved spine The Daily Telegraph London 12 September 2012 Archived from the original on 12 September 2012 Retrieved 5 February 2013 Baldwin 1986 p 24 Ashdown Hill 2015 Legends about the Battle of Bosworth Richard III Society American Branch Archived from the original on 25 July 2006 Retrieved 5 July 2009 Ross 1981 p 29 n 2 1476 Pollard 2004 Although Edward s date of birth is usually attributed to 1474 the Tewkesbury chronicle records the birth of an unnamed son at Middleham in 1476 Ross 1981 p 33 Pollard 2004 The child Edward was created prince of Wales on 24 August 1483 He was formally declared heir apparent to the throne in parliament in February 1484 by the end of March 1484 the prince was dead Kendall 1956 pp 349 350 563 Williams 1983 a b c d e Ashdown Hill 2013 Baldwin 2013 p 42 Kendall 1956 p 387 Rowse 1966 p 190 Haute William d 1462 of Bishopsbourne Kent History of Parliament Online Retrieved 12 June 2022 Paget 1977 Hicks 2009 pp 156 158 Wilkinson 2008 pp 228 229 235 254 Given Wilson amp Curteis 1984 p 161 Barron 2004 p 420 Steer 2014 Baldwin 2007 Andrews 2000 p 90 Ross 1981 p 181 Kleineke 2007 Ross 1981 p 188 Higginbotham Susan 16 December 2008 Richard III and Bail History Refreshed Archived from the original on 6 July 2018 Retrieved 31 March 2014 Woodger Douglas September 1997 The Statutes of King Richard III s Parliament Richard III Society of Canada Archived from the original on 27 September 2014 Retrieved 3 December 2014 Cheetham amp Fraser 1972 Maureen Jurkowski Carrie L Smith David Crook 1998 Lay Taxes in England and Wales 1188 1688 PRO Publications pp 119 120 ISBN 978 1 873162 64 4 Hanbury 1962 p 106 a b Kendall 1956 p 340 Kendall 1956 p 341 Hanbury 1962 p 109 Kendall 1956 p 343 a b c Hanbury 1962 Churchill 1956 pp 360 361 Who Was Richard III The Discovery of Richard III University of Leicester Archived from the original on 4 December 2018 Retrieved 3 December 2014 Chrimes 1999 p 92 Tudor reason of State had claimed the first of its many victims Back to Basics for Newcomers Richard III Society American Branch Archived from the original on 8 April 2018 Retrieved 5 February 2013 Hanham 1975 John Rous in Hanham 1975 p 121 a b c Ross 1981 pp xxii xxiv Langley amp Jones 2013 Kendall 1956 pp 150 151 quoting from Mancini s De Occupatione Regni Anglie per Riccardum Tercium After the death of Clarence he Richard came very rarely to court He kept himself within his own lands and set out to acquire the loyalty of his people through favours and justice The good reputation of his private life and public activities powerfully attracted the esteem of strangers Such was his renown in warfare that whenever a difficult and dangerous policy had to be undertaken it would be entrusted to his direction and his generalship By these arts Richard acquired the favour of the people and avoided the jealousy of the queen from whom he lived far separated Kendall 1956 p 444 The day after the battle John Sponer galloped into York to bring news of King Richard s overthrow to the Mayor and Aldermen hastily assembled in the council chamber it was showed by John Spooner that king Richard late mercifully reigning upon us was through great treason piteously slain and murdered to the great heaviness of this City York Records p 218 Hicks 2009 pp 237 238 Cheetham amp Fraser 1972 pp 175 176 Kendall 1956 p 395 quoting from the court minutes of the Mercer s company 31 March 1485 Hicks 2009 pp 238 239 Kendall 1956 pp 395 396 Buck 1706 p 548 sfnp error no target CITEREFBuck1706 help Kendall 1956 p 537 Pollard 1991 p 200 quoting York records pp 220 222 Hicks 2009 pp 247 249 a b Mackintosh Eliza 4 February 2013 Beyond reasonable doubt bones are the remains of England s King Richard III The Washington Post Archived from the original on 29 August 2018 Retrieved 4 February 2013 Richard III Folger Shakespeare Library Kendall 1956 p 426 The comparison is with Barabas in Marlowe s Jew of Malta of a couple of years earlier Kendall 1956 p 419 Kendall 1956 p 420 Hammond Peter November 2003 These Supposed Crimes Four Major Accusations the Murders of Edward of Lancaster Henry VI Clarence and Queene Anne Discussed and Illustrated To Prove a Villain The Real Richard III Exhibition at the Royal National Theatre London 27 March 27 April 1991 Richard III Society American Branch Archived from the original on 14 July 2006 Retrieved 5 February 2013 Potter 1994 p 4 Henry VI Part 3 3 2 155 161 Folger Shakespeare Library Clemen 1977 p 51 Shipley 1984 p 127 Camden 1870 p 293 Bacon amp Lumby 1885 Potter 1994 p 23 Baldwin 2013 p 217 Sutton amp Visser Fuchs The Hours of Richard III 1996 pp 41 44 ISBN 0750911840 Hume 1864 pp 345 346 Hume 1864 p 365 Gairdner 1896 Gairdner 1898 p xi Buck George 1979 Kincaid Arthur ed The history of King Richard the Third 1619 Gloucester Alan Sutton ISBN 0904387267 OCLC 233671890 Buck 1647 Elizabeth of York Richard III Society American Branch Archived from the original on 8 April 2018 Retrieved 6 December 2018 Williams 1983 p 139 Walpole 1798 Historic Doubts on the Life and Reign of King Richard the Third pp 103 184 Walpole 1798 Postscript to my Historic Doubts written in February 1793 pp 220 251 Pollard 1991 p 216 Myers 1968 pp 199 200 Legge 1885 p viii Myers 1968 pp 200 202 Ross 1981 p liii Hebron Michael 15 March 2016 Richard III and the Will to Power Discovering Literature Shakespeare amp Renaissance British Library Retrieved 23 September 2017 Hogenboom Melissa 15 September 2012 Richard III The people who want everyone to like the infamous king BBC News Magazine London Retrieved 23 September 2018 Churchill 1976 McEvoy 2008 p 4 Brown 1973 p 369 Dickon tells the story of Richard himself a handsome earnest young man who always speaks the truth is unswervingly loyal to his brother Edward IV and by an unkind destiny becomes a King of deep unhappiness plagued by hostile supernatural forces although personally blameless Kelly 2000 p 134 Polsky Sara 24 March 2015 The Detective Novel That Convinced a Generation Richard III Wasn t Evil Page Turner New Yorker New York Conde Nast Retrieved 8 December 2018 Dugdale John 26 March 2018 The many versions of Richard III from Shakespeare to Game of Thrones The Guardian London Retrieved 10 December 2014 Book Review Crown of Roses Publishers Weekly New York Cahners 1 January 1989 Retrieved 10 December 2018 Johnson George 2 February 1990 New and Noteworthy The Sunne in Splendour The New York Times Retrieved 24 November 2014 Peters 2004 Harrod Eagles 1981 Brooke Michael Richard III 1955 BFI Screenonline British Film Institute Retrieved 6 December 2018 Von Tunzelmann Alex 1 April 2015 Richard III Laurence Olivier s melodramatic baddie is seriously limp Reel History The Guardian London Retrieved 24 December 2018 Ian McKellen is Richard III Sir Ian McKellen Official Home Page Retrieved 8 December 2018 Mitchell 1997 p 135 Loncraine and McKellen s film adaptation set in 1930s England also explores the question of what would have happened if Hitler had invaded England The House of York in this War of the Roses is depicted as the Nazi Party and Richard in a Nazi uniform seals his fate as eternity s archvillain Looking for Richard Cannes Film Festival Retrieved 8 December 2018 Aune 2006 Brooke Michael Tragedy of Richard III The 1983 BFI Screenonline British Film Institute Retrieved 11 December 2018 Griffin 1966 pp 385 387 a b Billington Michael 21 May 2016 Benedict Cumberbatch proves a superb villain in The Hollow Crown s Richard III Theatre Blog The Guardian London Archived from the original on 2 April 2018 Retrieved 5 December 2018 Langley amp Jones 2013 pp 11 29 240 248 Ashdown Hill et al 2014 pp 38 52 71 81 including back cover The remains of King Richard III reinterred in Leicester Cathedral in pictures The Daily Telegraph London Archived from the original on 28 March 2015 Retrieved 24 April 2016 Philippa Langley who led the quest to find the remains of King Richard III Sabur Rozina 22 May 2015 Hunt for the grave of a medieval king first check the car park The Daily Telegraph London Archived from the original on 10 January 2022 Retrieved 24 April 2016 Earle Laurence 10 February 2013 Philippa Langley Hero or Villain The Independent London Retrieved 17 September 2013 Historic search for King Richard III begins in Leicester Press release University of Leicester 24 August 2012 Retrieved 25 August 2012 Hunt for Richard III s remains under car park ABC News Sydney Agence France Presse 27 August 2012 Retrieved 5 February 2013 Greyfriars Project Update Friday 31 August University of Leicester 31 August 2012 Retrieved 1 September 2012 Strange Audrey September 1975 The Grey Friars Leicester The Ricardian III 50 3 7 Ashdown Hill J Johnson D Johnson W Langley P 2014 Carson A J ed Finding Richard III The Official Account of Research by the Retrieval and Reburial Project Imprimis Imprimatur pp 25 27 ISBN 978 0957684027 a b Search for Richard III Confirms that Remains Are the Long Lost Church of the Grey Friars University of Leicester 5 September 2012 Retrieved 4 February 2013 Greyfriars Project Update 7 September University of Leicester 7 September 2012 Retrieved 10 September 2012 Richard III dig Strong evidence bones belong to king BBC News London 12 September 2012 Retrieved 12 September 2012 Warzynski Peter A 3 February 2013 Richard III dig R marks the spot where skeleton found in Leicester car park Leicester Mercury Local World Archived from the original on 19 November 2014 Retrieved 2 April 2014 Burying Richard III The hunch paid off The Economist London 28 March 2015 Retrieved 2 April 2014 Langley Philippa J Looking for Richard Project Retrieved 7 December 2018 Skull The Discovery of Richard III University of Leicester Retrieved 3 December 2014 Osteology The Discovery of Richard III University of Leicester Retrieved 3 December 2014 Injuries to Body The Discovery of Richard III University of Leicester Retrieved 3 December 2014 Burns John F 24 September 2012 DNA could cleanse a king besmirched tests of skeletal remains may bring re evaluation of the reviled Richard III International Herald Tribune La Defense France Archived from the original on 19 July 2018 Retrieved 6 December 2018 Kennedy Maev 4 February 2013 Richard III DNA confirms twisted bones belong to king The Guardian London Retrieved 7 December 2014 a b Richard III dig DNA confirms bones are king BBC News London 4 February 2013 Retrieved 4 February 2013 Fricker Martin 5 February 2013 Edinburgh based writer reveals how her intuition led archaeologists to remains of King Richard III Daily Record Glasgow Trinity Mirror Retrieved 5 February 2013 Lines of Descent The Discovery of Richard III University of Leicester Retrieved 7 February 2013 Female Line Family Tree The Discovery of Richard III University of Leicester Retrieved 4 February 2013 Ashdown Hill John Davis Evans 4 February 2013 Richard III dig It does look like him Today Radio programme London BBC Radio 4 Retrieved 7 February 2013 via BBC News a b c King et al 2014 Boswell Randy 27 August 2012 Canadian family holds genetic key to Richard III puzzle canada com Don Mills Ontario Postmedia News Archived from the original on 31 August 2012 Retrieved 30 August 2012 Results of the DNA Analysis The Discovery of Richard III University of Leicester Retrieved 4 February 2013 Geneticist Dr Turi King and Genealogist Professor Kevin Schurer Give Key Evidence on the DNA Testing University of Leicester 4 February 2013 Archived from the original on 6 February 2013 Retrieved 5 February 2013 Burns John F 4 February 2013 Bones Under Parking Lot Belonged to Richard III The New York Times Retrieved 6 February 2013 a b Richard III DNA results announced Leicester University reveals identity of human remains found in car park Leicester Mercury Archived from the original on 21 April 2013 Retrieved 4 February 2013 What the Bones Can and Can t Tell Us The Discovery of Richard III University of Leicester Retrieved 6 December 2018 Warzynski Peter A 23 May 2014 Richard III Leicester wins the battle of the bones Leicester Mercury Local World Archived from the original on 24 May 2014 Retrieved 23 May 2014 News January Opening King Richard III Visitor Centre 29 December 2014 Archived from the original on 4 February 2015 Retrieved 4 February 2015 Richard III Facial reconstruction shows king s features BBC News Online 5 February 2013 Retrieved 12 April 2019 Dundee experts reconstruct face of Richard III 528 years after his death Press release University of Dundee 5 February 2013 Retrieved 7 February 2013 Genomes of Richard III and his proven relative to be sequenced Press release University of Leicester Wellcome Trust and Leverhulme Trust 11 February 2014 Retrieved 16 March 2014 Rincon Paul 2 December 2014 Richard III s DNA throws up infidelity surprise BBC News London Retrieved 3 December 2014 Richard III DNA study raises doubts about royal claims of centuries of British monarchs researchers say ABC News Sydney Agence France Presse 2 December 2014 Retrieved 3 December 2014 Richard III Leicester welcomes king s remains BBC News London 22 March 2018 Archived from the original on 11 August 2018 Retrieved 5 December 2018 York Minster says Richard III should be buried in Leicester BBC News London 7 February 2013 Archived from the original on 10 November 2018 Retrieved 5 December 2018 a b c Watson Greig 13 September 2013 The Plantagenet Alliance Who do they think they are BBC News London Retrieved 11 December 2018 a b Richard III King s reburial row goes to judicial review BBC News London 16 August 2013 Retrieved 19 September 2013 R on the application of Plantagenet Alliance Ltd v Secretary of State for Justice amp Anor 2013 EWHC B13 Admin 15 August 2013 Greene David Montagne Renee 20 August 2013 English Debate What To Do With Richard III s Remains Morning Edition Radio programme with transcript Washington DC National Public Radio Retrieved 6 December 2018 R on the application of Plantagenet Alliance Ltd v Secretary of State for Justice amp Ors 2014 EWHC 1662 QB 23 May 2014 Richard III reburial court bid fails BBC News London 23 May 2014 Retrieved 23 May 2014 Richard III Leicester Cathedral reburial service for king BBC News Online 26 March 2015 Retrieved 12 April 2019 Duffy Carol Ann 26 March 2015 Richard by Carol Ann Duffy The Guardian London Archived from the original on 16 November 2018 Retrieved 10 November 2015 Withstandley Kate 27 March 2015 Our Tomb for Richard III is Revealed van Heyningen and Haward Architects Retrieved 10 December 2018 a b Richard III Tomb and Burial Leicester Cathedral Archived from the original on 6 December 2018 Retrieved 6 December 2018 Film and Heritage Viking Saxon and Medieval jewellery reproductions from Danegeld Retrieved 7 October 2022 Richard III s remains sealed inside coffin at Leicester University BBC News 16 March 2015 Hubball Louise 13 February 2013 A tomb fit for a king has been designed for Richard III BBC News London Archived from the original on 23 October 2018 Retrieved 24 April 2016 Britten Nick 13 March 2013 Cathedral criticised for being out of touch over King Richard III s resting place The Daily Telegraph London Archived from the original on 6 December 2018 Retrieved 6 December 2018 Warzynski Peter A 14 March 2013 Richard III Stone slab to mark final resting place of king says Leicester Cathedral Leicester Mercury Local World Archived from the original on 28 March 2014 Retrieved 24 April 2016 Richard III Give king tomb not slab says online poll Leicester Mercury Local World 14 March 2013 Archived from the original on 29 March 2014 Retrieved 29 May 2016 Warzynski Peter A 18 July 2013 Richard III will be buried in a raised tomb not slab says Leicester Cathedral Leicester Mercury Local World Archived from the original on 21 July 2013 Retrieved 18 July 2013 Boar mount belonging to Richard III detected The Daily Telegraph London 3 December 2012 Archived from the original on 19 September 2018 Retrieved 3 December 2012 Kendall 1956 p 44 By early February 1462 a helm crest and sword marked his stall in the Chapel of St George Grant 1972 p 15 Velde Francois R 5 August 2013 Marks of Cadency in the British Royal Family Heraldica org Archived from the original on 14 June 2018 Retrieved 20 August 2012 a b Brunet 1889 p 202 Kendall 1956 pp 132 133 Ross Charles D 1981 Richard III English Monarchs series Eyre Methuen p 323 ISBN 978 0 4132 9530 9 General and cited sources Edit Andrews Allen 2000 Kings of England and Scotland Marshall Cavendish ISBN 9781854357236 OL 18869907M Ashdown Hill John 2013 2010 The Last Days of Richard III and the fate of his DNA revised and updated ed Stroud The History Press published 16 January 2013 ISBN 978 0 7524 9205 6 OL 26180251M 2015 The Mythology of Richard III Stroud England Amberley ISBN 978 1 4456 4467 7 Johnson D Johnson W amp Langley P J 2014 A J Carson ed Finding Richard III The Official Account of Research by the Retrieval amp Reburial Project Horstead England Imprimis Imprimatur ISBN 978 0 9576840 2 7 Aune M G 2006 Star Power Al Pacino Looking for Richard and the Cultural Capital of Shakespeare on Film Quarterly Review of Film and Video 23 4 353 367 doi 10 1080 10509200690897617 S2CID 145021928 Bacon Francis Lumby Joseph Lawson 1885 First published 1622 The History of the Reign of King Henry the Seventh Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0801430671 OL 20438086M Baldwin David 1986 King Richard s Grave in Leicester PDF Transactions of the Leicestershire Archaeological and Historical Society 60 21 24 Archived from the original PDF on 4 February 2012 2007 The Lost Prince The Survival of Richard of York Stroud England History Press ISBN 9780750943369 2013 2012 Richard III revised ed Stroud Amberley Publishing ISBN 978 1 4456 1591 2 Barnfield Marie 2007 Diriment Impediments Dispensations and Divorce Richard III and Matrimony PDF The Ricardian 17 83 98 Barron Caroline M 2004 London in the Later Middle Ages Government and People 1200 1500 Oxford University Press published 6 May 2004 ISBN 978 0 19 925777 5 Bennett Michael J 2008 Stanley Thomas first earl of Derby Oxford Dictionary of 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George B 1976 reprint of 1900 ed Richard the Third up to Shakespeare Dursley England and Totowa New Jersey Alan Sutton and Rowman amp Littlefield ISBN 978 0 874 71773 0 OCLC 3069413 OL 4599416M Churchill Winston S 1956 A History of the English Speaking Peoples Vol 1 The Birth of Britain New York Bantam Books ISBN 0 304 341010 OL 14989146M Clarke Peter D 2005 English Royal Marriages and the Papal Penitentiary in the Fifteenth Century The English Historical Review 120 488 1014 1029 doi 10 1093 ehr cei244 JSTOR 3489227 Clemen Wolfgang 1977 Richard III Foul Hunch Back d Toad Development of Shakespeare s Imagery 2nd ed London Methuen ISBN 0 416 85740 X OL 4281207M Cobbett William 1807 The Parliamentary History of England from the Earliest Period to the Year 1803 Vol 2 London T C Thomas Curson Hansard OCLC 2190940 Retrieved 5 December 2018 via Internet Archive Costello Louisa Stuart 1855 Memoirs of Anne Duchess of Brittany Twice Queen of France London W amp F G Cash Davies C S L 2011 Stafford Henry second duke of Buckingham Oxford Dictionary of National Biography online ed Oxford University Press doi 10 1093 ref odnb 26204 Subscription or UK public library membership required Ferguson Richard S 1890 A History of Cumberland London Elliot Stock OCLC 4876036 OL 6930115M Gairdner James 1896 Richard III In Lee Sidney ed Dictionary of National Biography Vol Vol 48 New York Macmillan pp 158 165 via Wikisource scan 1898 History of the Life and Reign of Richard the Third to Which is Added the Story of Perkin Warbeck from Original Documents Cambridge University Press OL 7193498M Gillingham John 1981 The Wars of the Roses Peace and Conflict in Fifteenth Century England London Weidenfeld amp Nicolson ISBN 9780297776307 OL 3870696M Given Wilson Chris Brand Paul Phillips Seymour Ormrod Mark Martin Geoffrey Curry Anne Horrox Rosemary eds 2005 Parliament Rolls of Medieval England Woodbridge England Boydell Retrieved 7 December 2018 via British History Online Curteis Alice 1984 The Royal Bastards of Medieval England London Routledge ISBN 978 0415028264 Grant A 1993 Foreign Affairs Under Richard III In John Gillingham ed Richard III A Medieval Kingship London Collins amp Brown ISBN 978 1 85585 100 9 Grant Neil 1972 The Howards of Norfolk Worthing England Littlehampton Book Services Griffin Alice V 1966 Shakespeare through the Camera s Eye IV Shakespeare Quarterly 17 4 383 387 doi 10 2307 2867913 JSTOR 24407008 Grummitt David 2013 A Short History of the Wars of the Roses London I B Tauris ISBN 9781848858756 Griffiths Ralph A 1993 Sir Rhys ap Thomas and His Family A Study in the Wars of the Roses and Early Tudor Politics Cardiff University of Wales Press ISBN 978 0708312186 2008 Lancastrians Oxford Dictionary of National Biography online ed Oxford University Press doi 10 1093 ref odnb 95581 Subscription or UK public library membership required Hampton W E 1975 Sir Thomas Montgomery KG The Ricardian 3 51 9 14 Hanbury Harold G 1962 The Legislation of Richard III American Journal of Legal History 6 2 95 113 doi 10 2307 844148 JSTOR 844148 Hanham Alison 1975 Richard III and his early historians 1483 1535 Oxford Clarendon Press ISBN 978 0 19 822434 1 Harrod Eagles Cynthia 1981 The Founding new ed London Sphere ISBN 978 0 751 50382 1 OL 7517496M Hicks Michael A 1980 False Fleeting Perjur d Clarence George Duke of Clarence 1449 1478 Gloucester England Alan Sutton a, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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