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James VI and I

James VI and I (James Charles Stuart; 19 June 1566 – 27 March 1625) was King of Scotland as James VI from 24 July 1567 and King of England and Ireland as James I from the union of the Scottish and English crowns on 24 March 1603 until his death in 1625. Although he wanted to bring about a closer union, the kingdoms of Scotland and England remained individual sovereign states, with their own parliaments, judiciaries, and laws, both ruled by James in personal union.

James VI and I
Portrait attributed to John de Critz, c. 1605
King of England and Ireland
Reign24 March 1603 – 27 March 1625
Coronation25 July 1603
PredecessorElizabeth I
SuccessorCharles I
King of Scotland
Reign24 July 1567 – 27 March 1625
Coronation29 July 1567
PredecessorMary
SuccessorCharles I
Regents
Born19 June 1566
Edinburgh Castle, Edinburgh, Scotland
Died27 March 1625 (aged 58)
(NS: 6 April 1625)
Theobalds House, Hertfordshire, England
Burial7 May 1625
Spouse
(m. 1589; died 1619)
Issue
Detail
Names
James Charles Stuart
HouseStuart
FatherHenry Stuart, Lord Darnley
MotherMary, Queen of Scots
Signature

James was the son of Mary, Queen of Scots, and a great-great-grandson of Henry VII, King of England and Lord of Ireland, and thus a potential successor to all three thrones. He succeeded to the Scottish throne at the age of thirteen months, after his mother was compelled to abdicate in his favour. Four different regents governed during his minority, which ended officially in 1578, though he did not gain full control of his government until 1583. In 1603, he succeeded Elizabeth I, the last Tudor monarch of England and Ireland, who died childless. He continued to reign in all three kingdoms for 22 years, a period known as the Jacobean era, until his death in 1625. After the Union of the Crowns, he based himself in England (the largest of the three realms) from 1603, returning to Scotland only once, in 1617, and styled himself "King of Great Britain and Ireland". He was a major advocate of a single parliament for England and Scotland. In his reign, the Plantation of Ulster and English colonisation of the Americas began.

At 57 years and 246 days, James's reign in Scotland was the longest of any Scottish monarch. He achieved most of his aims in Scotland but faced great difficulties in England, including the Gunpowder Plot in 1605 and repeated conflicts with the English Parliament. Under James, the "Golden Age" of Elizabethan literature and drama continued, with writers such as William Shakespeare, John Donne, Ben Jonson, and Francis Bacon contributing to a flourishing literary culture.[1] James himself was a prolific writer,[2] authoring works such as Daemonologie (1597), The True Law of Free Monarchies (1598), and Basilikon Doron (1599). He sponsored the translation of the Bible into English later named after him, the Authorized King James Version, and the 1604 revision of the Book of Common Prayer.[3][4] Anthony Weldon claimed that James had been termed "the wisest fool in Christendom", an epithet associated with his character ever since.[5] Since the latter half of the 20th century, historians have tended to revise James's reputation and treat him as a serious and thoughtful monarch.[6] He was strongly committed to a peace policy, and tried to avoid involvement in religious wars, especially the Thirty Years' War that devastated much of Central Europe. He tried but failed to prevent the rise of hawkish elements in the English Parliament who wanted war with Spain.[7] He was succeeded by his second son, Charles I.

Childhood

Birth

 
Portrait of James as a boy, after Arnold Bronckorst, 1574

James was the only son of Mary, Queen of Scots, and her second husband, Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley. Both Mary and Darnley were great-grandchildren of Henry VII of England through Margaret Tudor, the older sister of Henry VIII. Mary's rule over Scotland was insecure, and she and her husband, being Roman Catholics, faced a rebellion by Protestant noblemen. During Mary's and Darnley's difficult marriage,[8] Darnley secretly allied himself with the rebels and conspired in the murder of the queen's private secretary, David Rizzio, just three months before James's birth.[9]

James was born on 19 June 1566 at Edinburgh Castle, and as the eldest son and heir apparent of the monarch automatically became Duke of Rothesay and Prince and Great Steward of Scotland. Five days later, an English diplomat Henry Killigrew saw the queen, who had not fully recovered and could only speak faintly. The baby was "sucking at his nurse" and was "well proportioned and like to prove a goodly prince".[10] He was baptised "Charles James" or "James Charles" on 17 December 1566 in a Catholic ceremony held at Stirling Castle. His godparents were Charles IX of France (represented by John, Count of Brienne), Elizabeth I of England (represented by the Earl of Bedford), and Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy (represented by ambassador Philibert du Croc).[a] Mary refused to let the Archbishop of St Andrews, whom she referred to as "a pocky priest", spit in the child's mouth, as was then the custom.[12] The subsequent entertainment, devised by Frenchman Bastian Pagez, featured men dressed as satyrs and sporting tails, to which the English guests took offence, thinking the satyrs "done against them".[13]

Lord Darnley was murdered on 10 February 1567 at Kirk o' Field, Edinburgh, perhaps in revenge for the killing of Rizzio. James inherited his father's titles of Duke of Albany and Earl of Ross. Mary was already unpopular, and her marriage on 15 May 1567 to James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell, who was widely suspected of murdering Darnley, heightened widespread bad feeling towards her.[b] In June 1567, Protestant rebels arrested Mary and imprisoned her in Lochleven Castle; she never saw her son again. She was forced to abdicate on 24 July 1567 in favour of the infant James and to appoint her illegitimate half-brother James Stewart, Earl of Moray, as regent.[16] This made James the third consecutive Scottish monarch to ascend to the throne as an infant.

Regencies

 
James (right) depicted aged 17 beside his mother Mary (left), 1583. In reality, they were separated when he was still a baby.

The care of James was entrusted to the Earl and Countess of Mar, "to be conserved, nursed, and upbrought"[17] in the security of Stirling Castle.[18] James was anointed King of Scotland at the age of thirteen months at the Church of the Holy Rude in Stirling, by Adam Bothwell, Bishop of Orkney, on 29 July 1567.[19] The sermon at the coronation was preached by John Knox. In accordance with the religious beliefs of most of the Scottish ruling class, James was brought up as a member of the Protestant Church of Scotland, the Kirk. The Privy Council selected George Buchanan, Peter Young, Adam Erskine (lay abbot of Cambuskenneth), and David Erskine (lay abbot of Dryburgh) as James's preceptors or tutors.[20] As the young king's senior tutor, Buchanan subjected James to regular beatings but also instilled in him a lifelong passion for literature and learning.[21] Buchanan sought to turn James into a God-fearing, Protestant king who accepted the limitations of monarchy, as outlined in his treatise De Jure Regni apud Scotos.[22]

In 1568, Mary escaped from Lochleven Castle, leading to several years of sporadic violence. The Earl of Moray defeated Mary's troops at the Battle of Langside, forcing her to flee to England, where she was subsequently kept in confinement by Elizabeth. On 23 January 1570, Moray was assassinated by James Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh.[23] The next regent was James's paternal grandfather, Matthew Stewart, 4th Earl of Lennox, who was carried fatally wounded into Stirling Castle a year later after a raid by Mary's supporters.[24] His successor, the Earl of Mar, "took a vehement sickness" and died on 28 October 1572 at Stirling. Mar's illness, wrote James Melville, followed a banquet at Dalkeith Palace given by James Douglas, 4th Earl of Morton.[25]

Morton was elected to Mar's office and proved in many ways the most effective of James's regents,[26] but he made enemies by his rapacity.[27] He fell from favour when Frenchman Esmé Stewart, Sieur d'Aubigny, first cousin of James's father Lord Darnley and future Earl of Lennox, arrived in Scotland and quickly established himself as the first of James's powerful favourites.[28] James was proclaimed an adult ruler in a ceremony of Entry to Edinburgh on 19 October 1579.[29] Morton was executed on 2 June 1581, belatedly charged with complicity in Darnley's murder.[30] On 8 August, James made Lennox the only duke in Scotland.[31] The king, then fifteen years old, remained under the influence of Lennox for about one more year.[32]

Rule in Scotland

 
James in 1586, age 20 (attrib. Adrian Vanson or the school of Alonso Sánchez Coello)

Lennox was a Protestant convert, but he was distrusted by Scottish Calvinists who noticed the physical displays of affection between him and the king and alleged that Lennox "went about to draw the King to carnal lust".[27] In August 1582, in what became known as the Ruthven Raid, the Protestant earls of Gowrie and Angus lured James into Ruthven Castle, imprisoned him,[c] and forced Lennox to leave Scotland. During James's imprisonment (19 September 1582), John Craig, whom the king had personally appointed royal chaplain in 1579, rebuked him so sharply from the pulpit for having issued a proclamation so offensive to the clergy "that the king wept".[34]

After James was liberated in June 1583, he assumed increasing control of his kingdom. He pushed through the Black Acts to assert royal authority over the Kirk, and denounced the writings of his former tutor Buchanan.[35] Between 1584 and 1603, he established effective royal government and relative peace among the lords, ably assisted by John Maitland of Thirlestane, who led the government until 1592.[36] An eight-man commission known as the Octavians brought some control over the ruinous state of James's finances in 1596, but it drew opposition from vested interests. It was disbanded within a year after a riot in Edinburgh, which was stoked by anti-Catholicism and led the court to withdraw to Linlithgow temporarily.[37]

One last Scottish attempt against the king's person occurred in August 1600, when James was apparently assaulted by Alexander Ruthven, the Earl of Gowrie's younger brother, at Gowrie House, the seat of the Ruthvens.[38] Ruthven was run through by James's page John Ramsay, and the Earl of Gowrie was killed in the ensuing fracas; there were few surviving witnesses. Given James's history with the Ruthvens and the fact that he owed them a great deal of money, his account of the circumstances was not universally believed.[39]

In 1586, James signed the Treaty of Berwick with England. That and his mother's execution in 1587, which he denounced as a "preposterous and strange procedure", helped clear the way for his succession south of the border.[d] Queen Elizabeth was unmarried and childless, and James was her most likely successor. Securing the English succession became a cornerstone of his policy.[41] During the Spanish Armada crisis of 1588, he assured Elizabeth of his support as "your natural son and compatriot of your country".[42] Elizabeth sent James an annual subsidy from 1586 which gave her some leverage over affairs in Scotland.[43]

Marriage

 
1589 marriage contract between James and Anne of Denmark
 
Queen Anne c. 1605, portrait attributed to John de Critz

Throughout his youth, James was praised for his chastity, since he showed little interest in women. After the loss of Lennox, he continued to prefer male company.[44] A suitable marriage, however, was necessary to reinforce his monarchy, and the choice fell on fourteen-year-old Anne of Denmark, younger daughter of Protestant Frederick II. Shortly after a proxy marriage in Copenhagen in August 1589, Anne sailed for Scotland but was forced by storms to the coast of Norway. On hearing that the crossing had been abandoned, James sailed from Leith with a 300-strong retinue to fetch Anne personally in what historian David Harris Willson called "the one romantic episode of his life".[45][e] The couple were married formally at the Bishop's Palace in Oslo on 23 November. James received a dowry of 75,000 Danish dalers and a gift of 10,000 dalers from his mother-in-law, Sophie of Mecklenburg-Güstrow.[47] After stays at Elsinore and Copenhagen and a meeting with Tycho Brahe, James and Anne returned to Scotland on 1 May 1590.[48] By all accounts, James was at first infatuated with Anne and, in the early years of their marriage, seems always to have shown her patience and affection.[49] The royal couple produced three children who survived to adulthood: Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales, who died of typhoid fever in 1612, aged 18; Elizabeth, later queen of Bohemia; and Charles, James's successor. Anne died before her husband in March 1619.

Witch hunts

 
Suspected witches kneeling before King James; Daemonologie (1597)

James's visit to Denmark, a country familiar with witch-hunts, sparked an interest in the study of witchcraft,[50] which he considered a branch of theology.[51] He attended the North Berwick witch trials, the first major persecution of witches in Scotland under the Witchcraft Act 1563. Several people were convicted of using witchcraft to send storms against James's ship, most notably Agnes Sampson.[52]

James became concerned with the threat posed by witches and wrote Daemonologie in 1597, a tract inspired by his personal involvement that opposed the practice of witchcraft and that provided background material for Shakespeare's Macbeth.[53][54] James personally supervised the torture of women accused of being witches.[53] After 1599, his views became more sceptical.[55] In a later letter written in England to his son Henry, James congratulates the prince on "the discovery of yon little counterfeit wench. I pray God ye may be my heir in such discoveries ... most miracles now-a-days prove but illusions, and ye may see by this how wary judges should be in trusting accusations".[56]

Highlands and Islands

The forcible dissolution of the Lordship of the Isles by James IV of Scotland in 1493 had led to troubled times for the western seaboard. James IV had subdued the organised military might of the Hebrides, but he and his immediate successors lacked the will or ability to provide an alternative form of governance. As a result, the 16th century became known as linn nan creach, the time of raids.[57] Furthermore, the effects of the Reformation were slow to affect the Gàidhealtachd, driving a religious wedge between this area and centres of political control in the Central Belt.[58]

In 1540, James V had toured the Hebrides, forcing the clan chiefs to accompany him. There followed a period of peace, but the clans were soon at loggerheads with one another again.[59] During James VI's reign, the citizens of the Hebrides were portrayed as lawless barbarians rather than being the cradle of Scottish Christianity and nationhood. Official documents describe the peoples of the Highlands as "void of the knawledge and feir of God" who were prone to "all kynd of barbarous and bestile cruelteis".[60] The Gaelic language, spoken fluently by James IV and probably by James V, became known in the time of James VI as "Erse" or Irish, implying that it was foreign in nature. Parliament decided that Gaelic had become a principal cause of the Highlanders' shortcomings and sought to abolish it.[61]

 
Scottish gold coin from 1609–1625

It was against this background that James VI authorised the "Gentleman Adventurers of Fife" to civilise the "most barbarous Isle of Lewis" in 1598. James wrote that the colonists were to act "not by agreement" with the local inhabitants, but "by extirpation of thame". Their landing at Stornoway began well, but the colonists were driven out by local forces commanded by Murdoch and Neil MacLeod. The colonists tried again in 1605 with the same result, although a third attempt in 1607 was more successful.[62] The Statutes of Iona were enacted in 1609, which required clan chiefs to provide support for Protestant ministers to Highland parishes; to outlaw bards; to report regularly to Edinburgh to answer for their actions; and to send their heirs to Lowland Scotland, to be educated in English-speaking Protestant schools.[63] So began a process "specifically aimed at the extirpation of the Gaelic language, the destruction of its traditional culture and the suppression of its bearers."[64]

In the Northern Isles, James's cousin Patrick Stewart, 2nd Earl of Orkney, resisted the Statutes of Iona and was consequently imprisoned.[65] His natural son Robert led an unsuccessful rebellion against James, and the Earl and his son were hanged.[66] Their estates were forfeited, and the Orkney and Shetland islands were annexed to the Crown.[66]

Theory of monarchy

 
James argued a theological basis for monarchy in The True Law of Free Monarchies.

In 1597–98, James wrote The True Law of Free Monarchies and Basilikon Doron (Royal Gift), in which he argues a theological basis for monarchy. In the True Law, he sets out the divine right of kings, explaining that kings are higher beings than other men for Biblical reasons, though "the highest bench is the sliddriest to sit upon".[67] The document proposes an absolutist theory of monarchy, by which a king may impose new laws by royal prerogative but must also pay heed to tradition and to God, who would "stirre up such scourges as pleaseth him, for punishment of wicked kings".[68]

Basilikon Doron was written as a book of instruction for the four-year-old Prince Henry and provides a more practical guide to kingship.[69] The work is considered to be well written and perhaps the best example of James's prose.[70] James's advice concerning parliaments, which he understood as merely the king's "head court", foreshadows his difficulties with the English House of Commons: "Hold no Parliaments," he tells Henry, "but for the necesitie of new Lawes, which would be but seldome".[71] In the True Law, James maintains that the king owns his realm as a feudal lord owns his fief, because kings arose "before any estates or ranks of men, before any parliaments were holden, or laws made, and by them was the land distributed, which at first was wholly theirs. And so it follows of necessity that kings were the authors and makers of the laws, and not the laws of the kings."[72]

Literary patronage

In the 1580s and 1590s, James promoted the literature of his native country. He published his treatise Some Rules and Cautions to be Observed and Eschewed in Scottish Prosody in 1584 at the age of 18. It was both a poetic manual and a description of the poetic tradition in his mother tongue of Scots, applying Renaissance principles.[73] He also made statutory provision to reform and promote the teaching of music, seeing the two in connection. One act of his reign urges the Scottish burghs to reform and support the teaching of music in Sang Sculis.[74]

In furtherance of these aims, James was both patron and head of a loose circle of Scottish Jacobean court poets and musicians known as the Castalian Band, which included William Fowler and Alexander Montgomerie among others, Montgomerie being a favourite of the king.[75] James was himself a poet, and was happy to be seen as a practising member of the group.[76]

By the late 1590s, James's championing of native Scottish tradition was reduced to some extent by the increasing likelihood of his succession to the English throne.[77] William Alexander and other courtier poets started to anglicise their written language, and followed the king to London after 1603.[78] James's role as active literary participant and patron made him a defining figure in many respects for English Renaissance poetry and drama, which reached a pinnacle of achievement in his reign,[79] but his patronage of the high style in the Scottish tradition, which included his ancestor James I of Scotland, became largely sidelined.[80]

Accession in England

 
The Union of the Crowns was symbolised in James's personal royal heraldic badge after 1603, the Tudor rose dimidiated with the Scottish thistle ensigned by the royal crown.

From 1601, in the last years of Elizabeth's life, certain English politicians—notably her chief minister Robert Cecil[f]—maintained a secret correspondence with James to prepare in advance for a smooth succession.[82] With the queen clearly dying, Cecil sent James a draft proclamation of his accession to the English throne in March 1603. Elizabeth died in the early hours of 24 March, and James was proclaimed king in London later the same day.[83][84]

On 5 April, James left Edinburgh for London, promising to return every three years (a promise that he did not keep), and progressed slowly southwards. Local lords received him with lavish hospitality along the route and James was amazed by the wealth of his new land and subjects, claiming that he was "swapping a stony couch for a deep feather bed". James arrived in the capital on 7 May, nine days after Elizabeth's funeral.[83][85] His new subjects flocked to see him, relieved that the succession had triggered neither unrest nor invasion.[86] On arrival at London, he was mobbed by a crowd of spectators.[87]

James's English coronation took place on 25 July at Westminster Abbey. An outbreak of plague restricted festivities. The Royal Entry to London with elaborate allegories provided by dramatic poets such as Thomas Dekker and Ben Jonson was deferred to 15 March 1604.[88] Dekker wrote that "the streets seemed to be paved with men; stalls instead of rich wares were set out with children; open casements filled up with women".[89]

The kingdom to which James succeeded, however, had its problems. Monopolies and taxation had engendered a widespread sense of grievance, and the costs of war in Ireland had become a heavy burden on the government,[90] which had debts of £400,000.

Early reign in England

 
Portrait after John de Critz, c. 1605. James wears the Three Brothers jewel, three rectangular red spinels; the jewel is now lost.

James survived two conspiracies in the first year of his reign, despite the smoothness of the succession and the warmth of his welcome: the Bye Plot and Main Plot, which led to the arrest of Lord Cobham and Walter Raleigh, among others.[91] Those hoping for a change in government from James were disappointed at first when he kept Elizabeth's Privy Councillors in office, as secretly planned with Cecil,[91] but James soon added long-time supporter Henry Howard and his nephew Thomas Howard to the Privy Council, as well as five Scottish nobles.[91][g]

In the early years of James's reign, the day-to-day running of the government was tightly managed by the shrewd Cecil, later Earl of Salisbury, ably assisted by the experienced Thomas Egerton, whom James made Baron Ellesmere and Lord Chancellor, and by Thomas Sackville, soon Earl of Dorset, who continued as Lord Treasurer.[91] As a consequence, James was free to concentrate on bigger issues, such as a scheme for a closer union between England and Scotland and matters of foreign policy, as well as to enjoy his leisure pursuits, particularly hunting.[91]

James was ambitious to build on the personal union of Scotland and England to establish a single country under one monarch, one parliament, and one law, a plan that met opposition in both realms.[95] "Hath He not made us all in one island," James told the English Parliament, "compassed with one sea and of itself by nature indivisible?" In April 1604, however, the Commons refused his request to be titled "King of Great Britain" on legal grounds.[h] In October 1604, he assumed the title "King of Great Britain" instead of "King of England" and "King of Scotland", though Francis Bacon told him that he could not use the style in "any legal proceeding, instrument or assurance" and the title was not used on English statutes.[97] James forced the Scottish Parliament to use it, and it was used on proclamations, coinage, letters, and treaties in both realms.[98]

James achieved more success in foreign policy. Never having been at war with Spain, he devoted his efforts to bringing the long Anglo–Spanish War to an end, and a peace treaty was signed between the two countries in August 1604, thanks to the skilled diplomacy of the delegation, in particular Robert Cecil and Henry Howard, now Earl of Northampton. James celebrated the treaty by hosting a great banquet.[99] Freedom of worship for Catholics in England, however, continued to be a major objective of Spanish policy, causing constant dilemmas for James, distrusted abroad for repression of Catholics while at home being encouraged by the Privy Council to show even less tolerance towards them.[100]

Gunpowder Plot

A dissident Catholic, Guy Fawkes, was discovered in the cellars of the parliament buildings on the night of 4–5 November 1605, the eve of the state opening of the second session of James's first English Parliament. Fawkes was guarding a pile of wood not far from 36 barrels of gunpowder with which he intended to blow up Parliament House the following day and cause the destruction, as James put it, "not only ... of my person, nor of my wife and posterity also, but of the whole body of the State in general".[101] The sensational discovery of the "Gunpowder Plot," as it quickly became known, aroused a mood of national relief at the delivery of the king and his sons. The Earl of Salisbury exploited this to extract higher subsidies from the ensuing Parliament than any but one granted to Elizabeth.[102] Fawkes and others implicated in the unsuccessful conspiracy were executed.[103]

King and Parliament

The co-operation between monarch and Parliament following the Gunpowder Plot was atypical. Instead, it was the previous session of 1604 that shaped the attitudes of both sides for the rest of the reign, though the initial difficulties owed more to mutual incomprehension than conscious enmity.[104] On 7 July 1604, James had angrily prorogued Parliament after failing to win its support either for full union or financial subsidies. "I will not thank where I feel no thanks due", he had remarked in his closing speech. "... I am not of such a stock as to praise fools ... You see how many things you did not well ... I wish you would make use of your liberty with more modesty in time to come".[105]

As James's reign progressed, his government faced growing financial pressures, partly due to creeping inflation but also to the profligacy and financial incompetence of James's court. In February 1610, Salisbury proposed a scheme, known as the Great Contract, whereby Parliament, in return for ten royal concessions, would grant a lump sum of £600,000 to pay off the king's debts plus an annual grant of £200,000.[106] The ensuing prickly negotiations became so protracted that James eventually lost patience and dismissed Parliament on 31 December 1610. "Your greatest error", he told Salisbury, "hath been that ye ever expected to draw honey out of gall".[107] The same pattern was repeated with the so-called "Addled Parliament" of 1614, which James dissolved after a mere nine weeks when the Commons hesitated to grant him the money he required.[108] James then ruled without parliament until 1621, employing officials such as the merchant Lionel Cranfield, who were astute at raising and saving money for the crown, and sold baronetcies and other dignities, many created for the purpose, as an alternative source of income.[109]

Spanish match

Another potential source of income was the prospect of a Spanish dowry from a marriage between Charles, Prince of Wales, and Infanta Maria Anna of Spain.[110] The policy of the Spanish match, as it was called, was also attractive to James as a way to maintain peace with Spain and avoid the additional costs of a war.[111] Peace could be maintained as effectively by keeping the negotiations alive as by consummating the match—which may explain why James protracted the negotiations for almost a decade.[112]

 
Portrait by Paul van Somer, c. 1620. In the background is the Banqueting House, Whitehall, by architect Inigo Jones, commissioned by James.

The policy was supported by the Howards and other Catholic-leaning ministers and diplomats—together known as the Spanish Party—but deeply distrusted in Protestant England. When Walter Raleigh was released from imprisonment in 1616, he embarked on a hunt for gold in South America with strict instructions from James not to engage the Spanish.[113] Raleigh's expedition was a disastrous failure, and his son Walter was killed fighting the Spanish.[114] On Raleigh's return to England, James had him executed to the indignation of the public, who opposed the appeasement of Spain.[115] James's policy was further jeopardised by the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War, especially after his Protestant son-in-law, Frederick V, Elector Palatine, was ousted from Bohemia by the Catholic Emperor Ferdinand II in 1620, and Spanish troops simultaneously invaded Frederick's Rhineland home territory. Matters came to a head when James finally called a Parliament in 1621 to fund a military expedition in support of his son-in-law.[116] The Commons on the one hand granted subsidies inadequate to finance serious military operations in aid of Frederick,[117] and on the other—remembering the profits gained under Elizabeth by naval attacks on Spanish gold shipments—called for a war directly against Spain. In November 1621, roused by Edward Coke, they framed a petition asking not only for war with Spain but also for Prince Charles to marry a Protestant, and for enforcement of the anti-Catholic laws.[118] James flatly told them not to interfere in matters of royal prerogative or they would risk punishment,[119] which provoked them into issuing a statement protesting their rights, including freedom of speech.[120] Urged on by George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, and the Spanish ambassador Gondomar, James ripped the protest out of the record book and dissolved Parliament.[121]

In early 1623, Prince Charles, now 22, and Buckingham decided to seize the initiative and travel to Spain incognito, to win Infanta Maria Anna directly, but the mission proved an ineffectual mistake.[122] Maria Anna detested Charles, and the Spanish confronted them with terms that included the repeal of anti-Catholic legislation by Parliament. Though a treaty was signed, Charles and Buckingham returned to England in October without the infanta and immediately renounced the treaty, much to the delight of the British people.[123] Disillusioned by the visit to Spain, Charles and Buckingham now turned James's Spanish policy upon its head and called for a French match and a war against the Habsburg empire.[124] To raise the necessary finance, they prevailed upon James to call another Parliament, which met in February 1624. For once, the outpouring of anti-Catholic sentiment in the Commons was echoed in court, where control of policy was shifting from James to Charles and Buckingham,[125] who pressured the king to declare war and engineered the impeachment of Lord Treasurer Lionel Cranfield, by now made Earl of Middlesex, when he opposed the plan on grounds of cost.[126] The outcome of the Parliament of 1624 was ambiguous: James still refused to declare or fund a war, but Charles believed the Commons had committed themselves to finance a war against Spain, a stance that was to contribute to his problems with Parliament in his own reign.[127]

King and Church

After the Gunpowder Plot, James sanctioned harsh measures to control English Catholics. In May 1606, Parliament passed the Popish Recusants Act, which could require any citizen to take an Oath of Allegiance denying the pope's authority over the king.[128] James was conciliatory towards Catholics who took the Oath of Allegiance,[129] and tolerated crypto-Catholicism even at court.[i] Henry Howard, for example, was a crypto-Catholic, received back into the Catholic Church in his final months.[130] On ascending the English throne, James suspected that he might need the support of Catholics in England, so he assured Henry Percy, 9th Earl of Northumberland, a prominent sympathiser of the old religion, that he would not persecute "any that will be quiet and give but an outward obedience to the law".[131]

In the Millenary Petition of 1603, the Puritan clergy demanded the abolition of confirmation, wedding rings, and the term "priest", among other things, and that the wearing of cap and surplice become optional.[132] James was strict in enforcing conformity at first, inducing a sense of persecution amongst many Puritans;[133] but ejections and suspensions from livings became rarer as the reign continued.[134] As a result of the Hampton Court Conference of 1604, some Puritan demands were acceded to in the 1604 Book of Common Prayer, though many remained displeased.[4][135] The conference also commissioned a new translation and compilation of approved books of the Bible to resolve discrepancies among different translations then being used. The King James Version, as it came to be known, was completed in 1611 and is considered a masterpiece of Jacobean prose.[136][137] It is still in widespread use.[136]

In Scotland, James attempted to bring the Scottish Kirk "so neir as can be" to the English church and to reestablish episcopacy, a policy that met with strong opposition from presbyterians.[j] James returned to Scotland in 1617 for the only time after his accession in England, in the hope of implementing Anglican ritual. James's bishops forced his Five Articles of Perth through a General Assembly the following year, but the rulings were widely resisted.[139] James left the church in Scotland divided at his death, a source of future problems for his son.[k]

Personal relationships

 
 
Robert Carr, 1st Earl of Somerset (left), and George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, are both said to have been James's lovers.

Throughout his life James had close relationships with male courtiers, which has caused debate among historians about their exact nature.[141] In Scotland Anne Murray was known as the king's mistress.[142] After his accession in England, his peaceful and scholarly attitude contrasted strikingly with the bellicose and flirtatious behaviour of Elizabeth,[141] as indicated by the contemporary epigram Rex fuit Elizabeth, nunc est regina Iacobus (Elizabeth was King, now James is Queen).[143]

Some of James's biographers conclude that Esmé Stewart, Duke of Lennox; Robert Carr, Earl of Somerset; and George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, were his lovers.[144] John Oglander observed that he "never yet saw any fond husband make so much or so great dalliance over his beautiful spouse as I have seen King James over his favourites, especially the Duke of Buckingham"[145] whom the king would, recalled Edward Peyton, "tumble and kiss as a mistress".[146] Restoration of Apethorpe Palace in Northamptonshire, undertaken in 2004–08, revealed a previously unknown passage linking the bedchambers of James and Villiers.[147]

Some biographers of James argue that the relationships were not sexual.[148] James's Basilikon Doron lists sodomy among crimes "ye are bound in conscience never to forgive", and James's wife Anne gave birth to seven live children, as well as suffering two stillbirths and at least three other miscarriages.[149] Contemporary Huguenot poet Théophile de Viau observed that "it is well known that the king of England / fucks the Duke of Buckingham".[150][l] Buckingham himself provides evidence that he slept in the same bed as the king, writing to James many years later that he had pondered "whether you loved me now ... better than at the time which I shall never forget at Farnham, where the bed's head could not be found between the master and his dog".[152] Buckingham's words may be interpreted as non-sexual, in the context of seventeenth-century court life,[153] and remain ambiguous despite their fondness.[154] It is also possible that James was bisexual.[155]

When the Earl of Salisbury died in 1612, he was little mourned by those who jostled to fill the power vacuum.[m] Until Salisbury's death, the Elizabethan administrative system over which he had presided continued to function with relative efficiency; from this time forward, however, James's government entered a period of decline and disrepute.[157] Salisbury's passing gave James the notion of governing in person as his own chief Minister of State, with his young Scottish favourite Robert Carr carrying out many of Salisbury's former duties, but James's inability to attend closely to official business exposed the government to factionalism.[158]

The Howard party (consisting of Henry Howard, 1st Earl of Northampton; Thomas Howard, 1st Earl of Suffolk; Suffolk's son-in-law Lord Knollys; Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Nottingham; and Thomas Lake) soon took control of much of the government and its patronage. Even the powerful Carr fell into the Howard camp, hardly experienced for the responsibilities thrust upon him and often dependent on his intimate friend Thomas Overbury for assistance with government papers.[159] Carr had an adulterous affair with Frances Howard, Countess of Essex, daughter of the Earl of Suffolk. James assisted Frances by securing an annulment of her marriage to free her to marry Carr, now Earl of Somerset.[n]

In summer 1615, however, it emerged that Overbury had been poisoned. He had died on 15 September 1613 in the Tower of London, where he had been placed at the king's request.[161][o] Among those convicted of the murder were the Earl and Countess of Somerset; the Earl had been replaced as the king's favourite in the meantime by Villiers. James pardoned the Countess and commuted the Earl's sentence of death, eventually pardoning him in 1624.[164] The implication of the king in such a scandal provoked much public and literary conjecture and irreparably tarnished James's court with an image of corruption and depravity.[165] The subsequent downfall of the Howards left Villiers unchallenged as the supreme figure in the government by 1619.[166]

Health and death

 
Portrait by Daniël Mijtens, 1621, in the National Portrait Gallery

In his later years, James suffered increasingly from arthritis, gout and kidney stones.[167][168] He also lost his teeth and drank heavily.[167][169] The king was often seriously ill during the last year of his life, leaving him an increasingly peripheral figure, rarely able to visit London, while Buckingham consolidated his control of Charles to ensure his own future.[p] One theory is that James suffered from porphyria, a disease of which his descendant George III exhibited some symptoms. James described his urine to physician Théodore de Mayerne as being the "dark red colour of Alicante wine".[172] The theory is dismissed by some experts, particularly in James's case, because he had kidney stones which can lead to blood in the urine, colouring it red.[173]

In early 1625, James was plagued by severe attacks of arthritis, gout, and fainting fits, and fell seriously ill in March with tertian ague and then suffered a stroke. He died at Theobalds House in Hertfordshire on 27 March during a violent attack of dysentery, with Buckingham at his bedside.[q] James's funeral on 7 May was a magnificent but disorderly affair.[175] Bishop John Williams of Lincoln preached the sermon, observing, "King Solomon died in Peace, when he had lived about sixty years ... and so you know did King James". The sermon was later printed as Great Britain's Salomon [sic].[176]

James was buried in Westminster Abbey. The position of the tomb was lost for many years until his lead coffin was found in the Henry VII vault, during an excavation in the 19th century.[177]

Legacy

 
On the ceiling of the Banqueting House, Rubens depicted James being carried to heaven by angels.

James was widely mourned. For all his flaws, he had largely retained the affection of his people, who had enjoyed uninterrupted peace and comparatively low taxation during the Jacobean era. "As he lived in peace," remarked the Earl of Kellie, "so did he die in peace, and I pray God our king [Charles I] may follow him".[178] The Earl prayed in vain: once in power, King Charles I and the Duke of Buckingham sanctioned a series of reckless military expeditions that ended in humiliating failure.[179] James had often neglected the business of government for leisure pastimes, such as the hunt; his later dependence on favourites at a scandal-ridden court undermined the respected image of monarchy so carefully constructed by Elizabeth I.[180]

Under James, the Plantation of Ulster by English and Scots Protestants began, and the English colonisation of North America started its course with the foundation of Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607[181] and Cuper's Cove, Newfoundland, in 1610. During the next 150 years, England would fight with Spain, the Netherlands, and France for control of the continent, while religious division in Ireland between Protestants and Catholics has lasted for 400 years. By actively pursuing more than just a personal union of his realms, James helped lay the foundations for a unitary British state.[182]

According to a tradition originating with anti-Stuart historians of the mid-17th-century, James's taste for political absolutism, his financial irresponsibility, and his cultivation of unpopular favourites established the foundations of the English Civil War. James bequeathed his son Charles a fatal belief in the divine right of kings, combined with a disdain for Parliament, which culminated in the execution of Charles I and the abolition of the monarchy. Over the last three hundred years, the king's reputation has suffered from the acid description of him by Anthony Weldon, whom James had sacked and who wrote treatises on James in the 1650s.[183]

Other influential anti-James histories written during the 1650s include: Edward Peyton's Divine Catastrophe of the Kingly Family of the House of Stuarts (1652); Arthur Wilson's History of Great Britain, Being the Life and Reign of King James I (1658); and Francis Osborne's Historical Memoirs of the Reigns of Queen Elizabeth and King James (1658).[184] David Harris Willson's 1956 biography continued much of this hostility.[94][185] In the words of historian Jenny Wormald, Willson's book was an "astonishing spectacle of a work whose every page proclaimed its author's increasing hatred for his subject".[186] Since Willson, however, the stability of James's government in Scotland and in the early part of his English reign, as well as his relatively enlightened views on religion and war, have earned him a re-evaluation from many historians, who have rescued his reputation from this tradition of criticism.[r]

Representative of the new historical perspective is the 2003 biography by Pauline Croft. Reviewer John Cramsie summarises her findings:

Croft's overall assessment of James is appropriately mixed. She recognises his good intentions in matters like Anglo-Scottish union, his openness to different points of view, and his agenda of a peaceful foreign policy within his kingdoms' financial means. His actions moderated frictions between his diverse peoples. Yet he also created new ones, particularly by supporting colonisation that polarised the crown's interest groups in Ireland, obtaining insufficient political benefit with his open-handed patronage, an unfortunate lack of attention to the image of monarchy (particularly after the image-obsessed regime of Elizabeth), pursuing a pro-Spanish foreign policy that fired religious prejudice and opened the door for Arminians within the English church, and enforcing unpalatable religious changes on the Scottish Kirk. Many of these criticisms are framed within a longer view of James' reigns, including the legacy—now understood to be more troubled—which he left Charles I.[188]

Titles, styles, honours, and arms

Titles and styles

In Scotland, James was "James the sixth, King of Scotland", until 1604. He was proclaimed "James the first, King of England, France, and Ireland, defender of the faith" in London on 24 March 1603.[189] On 20 October 1604, James issued a proclamation at Westminster changing his style to "King of Great Brittaine, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, &c."[190] The style was not used on English statutes, but was used on proclamations, coinage, letters, treaties, and in Scotland.[191] James styled himself "King of France", in line with other monarchs of England between 1340 and 1801, although he did not actually rule France.

Arms

As King of Scotland, James bore the ancient royal arms of Scotland: Or, a lion rampant Gules armed and langued Azure within a double tressure flory counter-flory Gules. The arms were supported by two unicorns Argent armed, crined and unguled Proper, gorged with a coronet Or composed of crosses patée and fleurs de lys a chain affixed thereto passing between the forelegs and reflexed over the back also Or. The crest was a lion sejant affrontée Gules, imperially crowned Or, holding in the dexter paw a sword and in the sinister paw a sceptre both erect and Proper.[192]

The Union of the Crowns of England and Scotland under James was symbolised heraldically by combining their arms, supporters and badges. Contention as to how the arms should be marshalled, and to which kingdom should take precedence, was solved by having different arms for each country.[193]

The arms used in England were: Quarterly, I and IV, quarterly 1st and 4th Azure three fleurs de lys Or (for France), 2nd and 3rd Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England); II Or a lion rampant within a tressure flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland, this was the first time that Ireland was included in the royal arms).[194] The supporters became: dexter a lion rampant guardant Or imperially crowned and sinister the Scottish unicorn. The unicorn replaced the red dragon of Cadwaladr, which was introduced by the Tudors. The unicorn has remained in the royal arms of the two united realms. The English crest and motto was retained. The compartment often contained a branch of the Tudor rose, with shamrock and thistle engrafted on the same stem. The arms were frequently shown with James's personal motto, Beati pacifici.[193]

The arms used in Scotland were: Quarterly, I and IV Scotland, II England and France, III Ireland, with Scotland taking precedence over England. The supporters were: dexter a unicorn of Scotland imperially crowned, supporting a tilting lance flying a banner Azure a saltire Argent (Cross of Saint Andrew) and sinister the crowned lion of England supporting a similar lance flying a banner Argent a cross Gules (Cross of Saint George). The Scottish crest and motto was retained, following the Scottish practice the motto In defens (which is short for In My Defens God Me Defend) was placed above the crest.[193]

As royal badges James used: the Tudor rose, the thistle (for Scotland; first used by James III of Scotland), the Tudor rose dimidiated with the thistle ensigned with the royal crown, a harp (for Ireland) and a fleur de lys (for France).[194]

 
 
 
Coat of arms used from 1567 to 1603 Coat of arms used from 1603 to 1625 outside Scotland Coat of arms used from 1603 to 1625 in Scotland

Issue

 
James I and his royal progeny by Charles Turner, from a mezzotint by Samuel Woodburn (1814), after Willem de Passe

James's queen, Anne of Denmark, gave birth to seven children who survived beyond birth, of whom three reached adulthood:[195]

  1. Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales (19 February 1594 – 6 November 1612). Died, probably of typhoid fever, aged 18.[196]
  2. Elizabeth, Queen of Bohemia (19 August 1596 – 13 February 1662). Married 1613 Frederick V, Elector Palatine. Died aged 65.
  3. Margaret (24 December 1598 – March 1600). Died aged 1.
  4. Charles I, King of England, Scotland and Ireland (19 November 1600 – 30 January 1649). Married 1625 Henrietta Maria of France. Succeeded James I & VI.
  5. Robert, Duke of Kintyre (18 January 1602 – 27 May 1602). Died aged 4 months.[197]
  6. Mary (8 April 1605 – 16 December 1607). Died aged 2.
  7. Sophia (June 1607). Died within 48 hours of birth.[198]

Family tree

List of writings

Notes

  1. ^ As the Earl of Bedford was a Protestant, his place in the ceremony was taken by Jean, Countess of Argyll.[11]
  2. ^ Elizabeth I wrote to Mary: "My ears have been so astounded, my mind so disturbed and my heart so appalled at hearing the horrible report of the abominable murder of your late husband and my slaughtered cousin, that I can scarcely as yet summon the spirit to write about it ... I will not conceal from you that people for the most part are saying that you will look through your fingers at this deed instead of avenging it and that you don't care to take action against those who have done you this pleasure." Historian John Guy nonetheless concludes: "Not a single piece of uncontaminated evidence has ever been found to show that Mary had foreknowledge of Darnley's murder".[14] In historian David Harris Willson's view, however: "That Bothwell was the murderer no one can doubt; and that Mary was his accomplice seems equally certain."[15]
  3. ^ James's captors forced from him a proclamation, dated 30 August, declaring that he was not being held prisoner "forced or constrained, for fear or terror, or against his will", and that no one should come to his aid as a result of "seditious or contrary reports".[33]
  4. ^ James briefly broke off diplomatic relations with England over Mary's execution, but he wrote privately that Scotland "could never have been without factions if she had beene left alive".[40]
  5. ^ James heard on 7 October of the decision to postpone the crossing for winter.[46]
  6. ^ James described Cecil as "king there in effect".[81]
  7. ^ The introduction of Henry Howard (soon Earl of Northampton) and of Thomas Howard (soon Earl of Suffolk) marked the beginning of the rise of the Howard family to power in England, which culminated in their dominance of James's government after the death of Cecil in 1612. Henry Howard, son of poet Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, had been a diligent correspondent with James in advance of the succession (James referred to him as "long approved and trusted Howard"). His connection with James may have owed something to the attempt by his brother Thomas Howard, 4th Duke of Norfolk, to free and marry Mary, Queen of Scots, leading to his execution in 1572.[92] For details on the Howards, see The Trials of Frances Howard by David Lindley. Henry Howard is a traditionally reviled figure (Willson [1956] called him "A man of dark counsels and creeping schemes, learned but bombastic, and a most fulsome flatterer"[93]) whose reputation was upgraded by Linda Levy Peck's 1982 biography Northampton.[94]
  8. ^ English and Scot, James insisted, should "join and coalesce together in a sincere and perfect union, as two twins bred in one belly, to love one another as no more two but one estate".[96]
  9. ^ A crypto-Catholic was someone who outwardly conformed to Protestantism but remained a Catholic in private.
  10. ^ In March 1605, Archbishop Spottiswood wrote to James warning him that sermons against bishops were being preached daily in Edinburgh.[138]
  11. ^ Assessments of the Kirk at James's death are divided. Some historians argue that the Scots might have accepted James's policies eventually, others that James left the Kirk in crisis.[140]
  12. ^ In the original: Et ce savant roy d'Angleterre / foutoit-il pas le Boukinquan.[151]
  13. ^ Northampton assumed the day-to-day running of government business, and spoke of "the death of the little man for which so many rejoice and few do as much as seem to be sorry."[156]
  14. ^ The commissioners judging the case reached a 5–5 verdict, so James quickly appointed two extra judges guaranteed to vote in favour, an intervention which aroused public censure. When Thomas Bilson (son of Bishop Bilson of Winchester, one of the added commissioners) was knighted after the annulment, he was given the nickname "Sir Nullity Bilson".[160]
  15. ^ It is very likely that Overbury was the victim of a 'set-up' contrived by the earls of Northampton and Suffolk, with Carr's complicity, to keep him out of the way during the annulment proceedings. Overbury knew too much of Carr's dealings with Frances and he opposed the match with a fervour that made him dangerous, motivated by a deep political hostility to the Howards. It cannot have been difficult to secure James's compliance, because he disliked Overbury and his influence over Carr.[162] John Chamberlain reported that the king "hath long had a desire to remove him from about the lord of Rochester, as thinking it a dishonour to him that the world should have an opinion that Rochester ruled him and Overbury ruled Rochester".[163]
  16. ^ Some historians (for example Willson) consider James, who was 58 in 1624, to have lapsed into premature senility;[170] but he suffered from an agonising species of arthritis which constantly left him indisposed, as well as other ailments; and Pauline Croft suggests that James regained some control over his affairs in summer 1624, afforded relief by the warm weather. She sees his continuing refusal to sanction war against Spain as a deliberate stand against the aggressive policies of Charles and Buckingham.[171]
  17. ^ A medicine recommended by Buckingham had only served to make the king worse, which led to rumours that the duke had poisoned him.[174]
  18. ^ In recent decades, much scholarship has emphasised James's success in Scotland (though there have been partial dissenters, such as Michael Lynch), and there is an emerging appreciation of James's successes in the early part of his reign in England.[187]

References

  1. ^ Milling 2004, p. 155.
  2. ^ Fischlin & Fortier 2002, p. 39
  3. ^ Rhodes, Richards & Marshall 2003, p. 1: "James VI and I was the most writerly of British monarchs. He produced original poetry, as well as translation and a treatise on poetics; works on witchcraft and tobacco; meditations and commentaries on the Scriptures; a manual on kingship; works of political theory; and, of course, speeches to parliament ... He was the patron of Shakespeare, Jonson, Donne, and the translators of the "Authorized version" of the Bible, surely the greatest concentration of literary talent ever to enjoy royal sponsorship in England."
  4. ^ a b Cummings, Brian, ed. (2011). The Book of Common Prayer: The Texts of 1549, 1559, and 1662. Oxford World's Classics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 737.
  5. ^ Smith 2003, p. 238: "The label 'the wisest fool in Christendom', often attributed to Henry IV of France but possibly coined by Anthony Weldon, catches James's paradoxical qualities very neatly"; Anthony Weldon (1651), The Court and Character of King James I, quoted by Stroud 1999, p. 27: "A very wise man was wont to say that he believed him the wisest fool in Christendom, meaning him wise in small things, but a fool in weighty affairs."
  6. ^ Croft 2003, p. 6: "Historians have returned to reconsidering James as a serious and intelligent ruler"; Lockyer 1998, pp. 4–6; Smith 2003, p. 238: "In contrast to earlier historians, recent research on his reign has tended to emphasize the wisdom and downplay the foolishness".
  7. ^ Davies 1959, pp. 47–57
  8. ^ Guy 2004, pp. 236–237, 241–242, 270; Willson 1963, p. 13.
  9. ^ Guy 2004, pp. 248–250; Willson 1963, p. 16.
  10. ^ Joseph Bain, Calendar State Papers Scotland, vol. 2 (Edinburgh, 1900), p. 290.
  11. ^ Willson 1963, p. 17.
  12. ^ Donaldson 1974, p. 99.
  13. ^ Thomson 1827, pp. 171–172.
  14. ^ Guy 2004, pp. 312–313.
  15. ^ Willson 1963, p. 18.
  16. ^ Guy 2004, pp. 364–365; Willson 1963, p. 19.
  17. ^ Letter of Mary to Mar, 29 March 1567, quoted by Stewart 2003, p. 27: "Suffer nor admit no noblemen of our realm or any others, of what condition soever they be of, to enter or come within our said Castle or to the presence of our said dearest son, with any more persons but two or three at the most."
  18. ^ Stewart 2003, p. 33; Willson 1963, p. 18.
  19. ^ Croft 2003, p. 11.
  20. ^ Willson 1963, p. 19.
  21. ^ Croft 2003, pp. 12–13.
  22. ^ Croft 2003, pp. 13, 18.
  23. ^ Spottiswoode, John (1851), History of the Church in Scotland, Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd, vol. 2, p. 120.
  24. ^ Croft 2003, p. 13.
  25. ^ Thomson 1827, pp. 248–249.
  26. ^ Stewart 2003, p. 45; Willson 1963, pp. 28–29.
  27. ^ a b Croft 2003, p. 15.
  28. ^ Lockyer 1998, pp. 11–12; Stewart 2003, pp. 51–63.
  29. ^ Wiggins, Martin; Richardson, Catherine (2012). British Drama 1533–1642: A Catalogue. Vol. II: 1567–1589. Oxford. pp. 242–244.
  30. ^ David Calderwood quoted by Stewart 2003, p. 63: "So ended this nobleman, one of the chief instruments of the reformation; a defender of the same, and of the King in his minority, for the which he is now unthankfully dealt with."
  31. ^ Stewart 2003, p. 63.
  32. ^ Lockyer 1998, pp. 13–15; Willson 1963, p. 35.
  33. ^ Stewart 2003, p. 66.
  34. ^ Law 1904, pp. 295, 297.
  35. ^ Croft 2003, pp. 17–18; Willson 1963, pp. 39, 50.
  36. ^ Croft 2003, p. 20.
  37. ^ Croft 2003, pp. 29, 41–42; Willson 1963, pp. 121–124.
  38. ^ Lockyer 1998, pp. 24–25; Stewart 2003, pp. 150–157.
  39. ^ Croft 2003, p. 45; George Nicolson quoted by Stewart 2003, p. 154: "It is begun to be noted that the reports coming from the King should differ"; Williams 1970, p. 61: "The two principal characters were dead, the evidence of eyewitnesses was destroyed and only King James's version remained"; Willson 1963, pp. 126–130.
  40. ^ Croft 2003, p. 22.
  41. ^ Lockyer 1998, pp. 29–31; Willson 1963, p. 52.
  42. ^ Croft 2003, p. 23.
  43. ^ Goodare, Julian (2000). Goodare, Julian; Lynch, Michael (eds.). James VI's English Subsidy. The Reign of James VI. East Linton: Tuckwell. p. 115.
  44. ^ Croft 2003, pp. 23–24.
  45. ^ Willson 1963, p. 85.
  46. ^ Stewart 2003, pp. 107–110.
  47. ^ Kerr-Peterson, Miles; Pearce, Michael (2020). James VI's English Subsidy and Danish Dowry Accounts, 1588–1596. Scottish History Society Miscellany XVI. Woodbridge. p. 35.
  48. ^ Stevenson, David (1997). Scotland's Last Royal Wedding. Edinburgh: John Donald. pp. 99–100.
  49. ^ Willson 1963, pp. 85–95.
  50. ^ Croft 2003, p. 26.
  51. ^ Willson 1963, p. 103.
  52. ^ Willumsen, Liv Helene (1 December 2020). "Witchcraft against Royal Danish Ships in 1589 and the Transnational Transfer of Ideas". International Review of Scottish Studies. 45: 54–99. doi:10.21083/irss.v45i0.5801. S2CID 229451135 – via www.irss.uoguelph.ca.
  53. ^ a b Keay & Keay 1994, p. 556.
  54. ^ Willson 1963, pp. 103–105.
  55. ^ Croft 2003, p. 27; Lockyer 1998, p. 21; Willson 1963, pp. 105, 308–309.
  56. ^ Akrigg 1984, p. 220; Willson 1963, p. 309.
  57. ^ Hunter 2000, pp. 143, 166.
  58. ^ Hunter 2000, p. 174.
  59. ^ Thompson 1968, pp. 40–41.
  60. ^ Hunter 2000, p. 175.
  61. ^ Thompson 1968, pp. 40–41; Hunter 2000, p. 175
  62. ^ Hunter 2000, p. 175; Rotary Club of Stornoway 1995, pp. 12–13
  63. ^ Hunter 2000, p. 176.
  64. ^ MacKinnon 1991, p. 46.
  65. ^ Croft 2003, p. 139; Lockyer 1998, p. 179
  66. ^ a b Willson 1963, p. 321.
  67. ^ James quoted by Willson 1963, p. 131: "Kings are called gods by the prophetical King David because they sit upon God His throne in earth and have the count of their administration to give unto Him."
  68. ^ Croft 2003, pp. 131–133.
  69. ^ Willson 1963, p. 133.
  70. ^ Croft 2003, pp. 134–135: "James wrote well, scattering engaging asides throughout the text"; Willson 1963, p. 132: "Basilikon Doron is the best prose James ever wrote".
  71. ^ Croft 2003, p. 133.
  72. ^ Quoted by Willson 1963, p. 132.
  73. ^ Jack 1988, pp. 126–127.
  74. ^ See: Jack, R. D. S. (2000), "Scottish Literature: 1603 and all that 11 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine", Association for Scottish Literary Studies, retrieved 18 October 2011.
  75. ^ Jack, R. D. S. (1985), Alexander Montgomerie, Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press, pp. 1–2.
  76. ^ Jack 1988, p. 125.
  77. ^ Jack 1988, p. 137.
  78. ^ Spiller, Michael (1988), "Poetry after the Union 1603–1660", in Craig, Cairns (general editor), The History of Scottish Literature, Aberdeen University Press, vol. 1, pp. 141–152. Spiller points out that the trend, although unambiguous, was generally more mixed.
  79. ^ See for example Rhodes, Neil (2004), "Wrapped in the Strong Arm of the Union: Shakespeare and King James", in Maley, Willy; Murphy, Andrew (eds), Shakespeare and Scotland, Manchester University Press, pp. 38–39.
  80. ^ Jack 1988, pp. 137–138.
  81. ^ Croft 2003, p. 48.
  82. ^ Lockyer 1998, pp. 161–162; Willson 1963, pp. 154–155.
  83. ^ a b Croft 2003, p. 49.
  84. ^ Willson 1963, p. 158.
  85. ^ Martin 2016, p. 315; Willson 1963, pp. 160–164.
  86. ^ Croft 2003, p. 50.
  87. ^ Stewart 2003, p. 169.
  88. ^ Stewart 2003, p. 172; Willson 1963, p. 165.
  89. ^ Stewart 2003, p. 173.
  90. ^ Croft 2003, pp. 50–51.
  91. ^ a b c d e Croft 2003, p. 51.
  92. ^ Guy 2004, pp. 461–468; Willson 1963, p. 156.
  93. ^ Willson 1963, p. 156.
  94. ^ a b Croft 2003, p. 6.
  95. ^ Croft 2003, pp. 52–54.
  96. ^ Willson 1963, p. 250.
  97. ^ Willson 1963, pp. 249–253.
  98. ^ Croft 2003, p. 67; Willson 1963, pp. 249–253.
  99. ^ Croft 2003, pp. 52–53.
  100. ^ Croft 2003, p. 118.
  101. ^ Stewart 2003, p. 219.
  102. ^ Croft 2003, p. 64.
  103. ^ Nicholls, Mark (2004). "Rookwood, Ambrose (c. 1578–1606)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/24066. Retrieved 13 August 2022. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
  104. ^ Croft 2003, p. 63.
  105. ^ Quoted by Croft 2003, p. 62.
  106. ^ Croft 2003, pp. 75–81.
  107. ^ Croft 2003, p. 80; Lockyer 1998, p. 167; Willson 1963, p. 267.
  108. ^ Croft 2003, p. 93; Willson 1963, p. 348.
  109. ^ Willson 1963, p. 409.
  110. ^ Willson 1963, pp. 348, 357.
  111. ^ Schama 2001, p. 59.
  112. ^ Kenyon, J. P. (1978). Stuart England. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books. pp. 88–89.
  113. ^ Willson 1963, pp. 369–370.
  114. ^ Croft 2003, p. 104; Willson 1963, pp. 372–373.
  115. ^ Willson 1963, p. 374–377.
  116. ^ Willson 1963, p. 408–416.
  117. ^ Lockyer 1998, p. 148; Willson 1963, p. 417.
  118. ^ Willson 1963, p. 421.
  119. ^ Willson 1963, p. 422.
  120. ^ James quoted by Willson 1963, p. 423: "We cannot with patience endure our subjects to use such anti-monarchical words to us concerning their liberties, except they had subjoined that they were granted unto them by the grace and favour of our predecessors."
  121. ^ Willson 1963, p. 243.
  122. ^ Croft 2003, pp. 118–119; Willson 1963, pp. 431–435.
  123. ^ Cogswell 2005, pp. 224–225, 243, 281–299; Croft 2003, p. 120; Schama 2001, p. 64.
  124. ^ Croft 2003, pp. 120–121.
  125. ^ Krugler 2004, pp. 63–64: "The aging monarch was no match for the two men closest to him. By the end of the year, the prince and the royal favourite spoke openly against the Spanish marriage and pressured James to call a parliament to consider their now repugnant treaties ... with hindsight ... the prince's return from Madrid marked the end of the king's reign. The prince and the favourite encouraged popular anti-Spanish sentiments to commandeer control of foreign and domestic policy".
  126. ^ Croft 2003, p. 125; Lockyer 1998, p. 195.
  127. ^ Croft 2003, p. 126: "On that divergence of interpretation, relations between the future king and the Parliaments of the years 1625–9 were to founder".
  128. ^ Stewart 2003, p. 225.
  129. ^ Willson 1963, p. 228.
  130. ^ Croft 2003, p. 162.
  131. ^ Akrigg 1984, pp. 207–208; Willson 1963, pp. 148–149.
  132. ^ Willson 1963, p. 201.
  133. ^ Croft 2003, p. 156; Stewart 2003, p. 205: "In seeking conformity, James gave a name and a purpose to nonconformity"; Basilikon Doron quoted by Willson 1963, pp. 201, 209: "In things indifferent, they are seditious which obey not the magistrates".
  134. ^ Croft 2003, p. 158.
  135. ^ Spinks, Bryan D. (2006). "Anglicans and Dissenters". In Wainwright, Geoffrey; Westerfield Tucker, Karen B. (eds.). The Oxford History of Christian Worship. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 503-504. ISBN 978-0-19-513886-3.
  136. ^ a b Croft 2003, p. 157.
  137. ^ Willson 1963, pp. 213–215.
  138. ^ Croft 2003, p. 164.
  139. ^ Croft 2003, p. 166; Lockyer 1998, pp. 185–186; Willson 1963, p. 320.
  140. ^ Croft 2003, p. 167.
  141. ^ a b Bucholz & Key 2004, p. 208: "... his sexuality has long been a matter of debate. He clearly preferred the company of handsome young men. The evidence of his correspondence and contemporary accounts have led some historians to conclude that the king was homosexual or bisexual. In fact, the issue is murky."
  142. ^ Bain, Joseph (1894), Calendar of letters and papers relating to the affairs of the borders of England and Scotland, vol. 2, Edinburgh, pp. 30–31, 44
  143. ^ Hyde, H. Montgomery (1970). The Love That Dared Not Speak its Name. London: Heinemann. pp. 43–44.
  144. ^ e.g. Young, Michael B. (2000), King James and the History of Homosexuality, New York University Press, ISBN 978-0-8147-9693-1; Bergeron, David M. (1991), Royal Family, Royal Lovers: King James of England and Scotland, University of Missouri Press; Murphy, Timothy (2011), Reader's Guide To Gay & Lesbian Studies, Routledge Dearborn Publishers, p. 312.
  145. ^ Bergeron, David M. (1999). King James and Letters of Homoerotic Desire. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press. p. 348.
  146. ^ Ruigh, Robert E. (1971). The Parliament of 1624: Politics and Foreign Policy. Harvard University Press. p. 77.
  147. ^ Graham, Fiona (5 June 2008). "To the manor bought". BBC News. Retrieved 18 October 2008.
  148. ^ e.g. Lee, Maurice (1990), Great Britain's Solomon: James VI and I in his Three Kingdoms, Urbana: University of Illinois Press, ISBN 978-0-252-01686-8.
  149. ^ Lockyer 1981, pp. 19, 21; Weir, Alison (1996). Britain's Royal Families: The Complete Genealogy. Random House. pp. 249–251. ISBN 0-7126-7448-9.
  150. ^ Norton, Rictor (8 January 2000), "Queen James and His Courtiers", Gay History and Literature, retrieved 9 December 2015.
  151. ^ Gaudiani, Claire Lynn (1981), The Cabaret poetry of Théophile de Viau: Texts and Traditions, Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag, pp. 103–104, ISBN 978-3-87808-892-9, retrieved 9 December 2015.
  152. ^ Lockyer 1981, p. 22.
  153. ^ Bray, Alan (2003). The Friend. University of Chicago Press. pp. 167–170. ISBN 0-226-07180-4.; Bray, Alan (1994). Goldberg, Jonathan (ed.). Homosexuality and the Signs of Male Friendship in Elizabethan England. Queering the Renaissance. Duke University Press. pp. 42–44. ISBN 0-8223-1385-5.
  154. ^ Ackroyd, Peter (2014). The History of England. Vol. III: Civil War. Macmillan. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-230-70641-5.; Miller, John (2004). The Stuarts. Hambledon. p. 38. ISBN 1-85285-432-4.
  155. ^ Dabiri, Emma. "Filled with 'a number of male lovelies': the surprising court of King James VI and I". BBC Scotland. BBC. Retrieved 28 August 2020.
  156. ^ Willson 1963, p. 269.
  157. ^ Willson 1963, p. 333: "Finances fell into chaos, foreign affairs became more difficult. James exalted a worthless favourite and increased the power of the Howards. As government relaxed and honour cheapened, we enter a period of decline and weakness, of intrigue, scandal, confusion and treachery."
  158. ^ Willson 1963, pp. 334–335.
  159. ^ Willson 1963, p. 349; Francis Bacon, speaking at Carr's trial, quoted by Perry 2006, p. 105: "Packets were sent, sometimes opened by my lord, sometimes unbroken unto Overbury, who perused them, registered them, made table-talk of them, as they thought good. So I will undertake the time was, when Overbury knew more of the secrets of state, than the council-table did."
  160. ^ Lindley 1993, p. 120.
  161. ^ Barroll 2001, p. 136: "Rumours of foul play involving Rochester and his wife with Overbury had, however, been circulating since his death. Indeed, almost two years later, in September 1615, and as James was in the process of replacing Rochester with a new favourite, George Villiers, the Governor of the Tower of London sent a letter to the king informing him that one of the warders in the days before Overbury had been found dead had been bringing the prisoner poisoned food and medicine"; Lindley 1993, p. 146.
  162. ^ Lindley 1993, p. 145.
  163. ^ Willson 1963, p. 342.
  164. ^ Croft 2003, p. 91.
  165. ^ Davies 1959, p. 20: "Probably no single event, prior to the attempt to arrest the five members in 1642, did more to lessen the general reverence with which royalty was regarded in England than this unsavoury episode."
  166. ^ Croft 2003, pp. 98–99; Willson 1963, p. 397.
  167. ^ a b Croft 2003, p. 101.
  168. ^ Willson 1963, pp. 378, 404.
  169. ^ Willson 1963, p. 379.
  170. ^ Willson 1963, p. 425.
  171. ^ Croft 2003, pp. 126–127; Croft 2003, p. 101: "James never became a cypher"; Lockyer 1998, p. 174: "During the last eighteen months of his life James fought a very effective rearguard action to preserve his control of foreign policy ... he never became a cypher."
  172. ^ Röhl, John C. G.; Warren, Martin; Hunt, David (1998), Purple Secret: Genes, "Madness" and the Royal Houses of Europe, London: Bantam Press, ISBN 0-593-04148-8.
  173. ^ e.g. Dean, Geoffrey (2002), The Turnstone: A Doctor's Story., Liverpool University Press, pp. 128–129.
  174. ^ Croft 2003, pp. 127–128; Willson 1963, pp. 445–447.
  175. ^ John Chamberlain quoted in Croft 2003, p. 129 and Willson 1963, p. 447: "All was performed with great magnificence, but ... very confused and disorderly."
  176. ^ Croft 2003, pp. 129–130; "Great Britains Salomon A sermon preached at the magnificent funerall, of the most high and mighty king, Iames, the late King of Great Britaine, France, and Ireland, defender of the faith, &c. At the Collegiat Church of Saint Peter at Westminster, the seuenth of May 1625. By the Right Honorable, and Right Reuerend Father in God, Iohn, Lord Bishop of Lincolne, Lord Keeper of the Great Seale of England, &c". quod.lib.umich.edu. Retrieved 1 April 2021.
  177. ^ Stanley, Arthur (1886), Historical Memorials of Westminster Abbey, London: John Murray, pp. 499–526.
  178. ^ Croft 2003, p. 130.
  179. ^ Stewart 2003, p. 348: "A 1627 mission to save the Huguenots of La Rochelle ended in an ignominious siege on the Isle of Ré, leaving the Duke as the object of widespread ridicule."
  180. ^ Croft 2003, p. 129.
  181. ^ Croft 2003, p. 146.
  182. ^ Croft 2003, p. 67.
  183. ^ Croft 2003, pp. 3–4: "Often witty and perceptive but also prejudiced and abusive, their status as eye-witness accounts and their compulsive readability led too many historians to take them at face value"; Lockyer 1998, pp. 1–4.
  184. ^ For more on the influence of Commonwealth historians on the tradition of tracing Charles I's errors back to his father's reign, see Lindley 1993, p. 44.
  185. ^ Lockyer 1998, p. 4.
  186. ^ Wormald 2011.
  187. ^ Croft 2003, pp. 1–9, 46.
  188. ^ Cramsie, John (June 2003), "The Changing Reputations of Elizabeth I and James VI & I", Reviews and History: Covering books and digital resources across all fields of history (review no. 334)
  189. ^ Velde, Francois, Proclamation by the King, 24 March 1603, heraldica.org, retrieved 9 February 2013.
  190. ^ Velde, Francois, Proclamation by the King, 20 October 1604, heraldica.org, retrieved 9 February 2013.
  191. ^ Willson 1963, pp. 252–253.
  192. ^ Pinches, John Harvey; Pinches, Rosemary (1974), The Royal Heraldry of England, Heraldry Today, Slough, Buckinghamshire: Hollen Street Press, ISBN 0-900455-25-X, pp. 159–160.
  193. ^ a b c Pinches and Pinches, pp. 168–169.
  194. ^ a b Brooke-Little, J. P. (1978) [1950], Boutell's Heraldry Revised edition, London: Frederick Warne, ISBN 0-7232-2096-4, pp. 213, 215.
  195. ^ Stewart 2003, pp. 140, 142.
  196. ^ Stewart 2003, p. 248: "Latter day experts have suggested enteric fever, typhoid fever, or porphyria, but at the time poison was the most popular explanation ... John Chamberlain wrote that it was 'verily thought that the disease was no other than the ordinary ague that had reigned and raged all over England'."
  197. ^ Barroll 2001, p. 27; Willson 1963, p. 452.
  198. ^ Croft 2003, p. 55; Stewart 2003, p. 142; Willson 1963, p. 456.
  199. ^ Warnicke 2006, p. xvi–xvii

Sources

  • Akrigg, G. P. V. (George Philip Vernon), ed. (1984), Letters of King James VI & I, Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California, ISBN 978-0-520-04707-5
  • Barroll, J. Leeds (2001), Anna of Denmark, Queen of England: A Cultural Biography, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, ISBN 978-0-8122-3574-6
  • Bucholz, Robert; Key, Newton (2004), Early Modern England, 1485–1714: A Narrative History, Oxford: Blackwell, ISBN 978-0-631-21393-2
  • Cogswell, Thomas (2005) [1989], The Blessed Revolution: English Politics and the Coming of War 1621–24, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-02313-9
  • Croft, Pauline (2003), King James, Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 978-0-333-61395-5.
  • Davies, Godfrey (1959) [1937], The Early Stuarts, Oxford: Clarendon Press, ISBN 978-0-19-821704-6
  • Donaldson, Gordon (1974), Mary, Queen of Scots, London: English Universities Press, ISBN 978-0-340-12383-6
  • Fischlin, Daniel; Fortier, Mark (2002), "'Enregistrate Speech': Stratagems of Monarchic Writing in the Work of James VI and I", in Fischlin, Daniel; Fortier, Mark (eds.), Royal Subjects: Essays on the Writings of James VI and I, Wayne State University Press, ISBN 978-0-8143-2877-4
  • Guy, John (2004), My Heart is My Own: The Life of Mary Queen of Scots, London and New York: Fourth Estate, ISBN 978-1-84115-752-8
  • Hunter, James (2000), Last of the Free: A History of the Highlands and Islands of Scotland, Edinburgh: Mainstream, ISBN 978-1-84018-376-4
  • Jack, R. D. S. (Ronald) (1988), "Poetry under King James VI", in Craig, Cairns (ed.), The History of Scottish Literature, vol. 1, Aberdeen University Press
  • Keay, John; Keay, Julia (1994), Collins Encyclopaedia of Scotland, London: HarperCollins, ISBN 978-0-00-255082-6
  • Krugler, John D. (2004), English and Catholic: The Lords Baltimore in the Seventeenth Century, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, ISBN 978-0-8018-7963-0
  • Law, Thomas Graves (1904), "John Craig", in Brown, P. Hume (ed.), Collected Essays and Reviews of Thomas Graves Law, Edinburgh: T. & A. Constable, Edinburgh University Press
  • Lindley, David (1993), The Trials of Frances Howard: Fact and Fiction at the Court of King James, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-05206-1
  • Lockyer, Roger (1981), Buckingham: The Life and Political Career of George Villiers, First Duke of Buckingham, 1592–1628, Longman, ISBN 978-0-582-50296-3
  • Lockyer, Roger (1998), James VI and I, Longman, ISBN 978-0-582-27961-2
  • MacKinnon, Kenneth (1991), Gaelic – A Past and Future Prospect, Edinburgh: The Saltire Society, ISBN 978-0-85411-047-6
  • Martin, Patrick H. (2016), Elizabethan Espionage: Plotters and Spies in the Struggle Between Catholicism and the Crown, Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland, ISBN 978-1-476-66255-8
  • Milling, Jane (2004), "The Development of a Professional Theatre", in Milling, Jane; Thomson, Peter; Donohue, Joseph W. (eds.), The Cambridge History of British Theatre, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-65040-3
  • Perry, Curtis (2006), Literature and Favoritism in Early Modern England, Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-85405-4
  • Rhodes, Neil; Richards, Jennifer; Marshall, Joseph (2003), King James VI and I: Selected Writings, Ashgate Publishing, ISBN 978-0-7546-0482-2
  • Rotary Club of Stornoway (1995), The Outer Hebrides Handbook and Guide, Machynlleth: Kittiwake, ISBN 978-0-9511003-5-6
  • Schama, Simon (2001), A History of Britain, vol. II, New York: Hyperion, ISBN 978-0-7868-6752-3
  • Smith, David L. (2003), "Politics in Early Stuart Britain", in Coward, Barry (ed.), A Companion to Stuart Britain, Blackwell Publishing, ISBN 978-0-631-21874-6
  • Stewart, Alan (2003), The Cradle King: A Life of James VI & I, London: Chatto and Windus, ISBN 978-0-7011-6984-8
  • Stroud, Angus (1999), Stuart England, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-20652-5
  • Thompson, Francis (1968), Harris and Lewis, Outer Hebrides, Newton Abbot: David & Charles, ISBN 978-0-7153-4260-2
  • Thomson, Thomas, ed. (1827), Sir James Melvill of Halhill; Memoirs of his own life, Bannatyne Club
  • Warnicke, Retha M. (2006). Mary Queen of Scots. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-29182-8.
  • Williams, Ethel Carleton (1970), Anne of Denmark, London: Longman, ISBN 978-0-582-12783-8
  • Willson, David Harris (1963) [1956], King James VI & I, London: Jonathan Cape, ISBN 978-0-224-60572-4
  • Wormald, Jenny (May 2011) [2004], "James VI and I (1566–1625)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.), Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/14592 (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)

Further reading

  • Akrigg, G. P. V. (1978). Jacobean Pageant: The Court of King James I. New York: Atheneum. ISBN 0-689-70003-2
  • Fraser, A. (1974). King James VI of Scotland, I of England. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 0-297-76775-5
  • Coward, B. (2017). The Stuart Age – England, 1603–1714 5th edition ch.4. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-4058-5916-5
  • Durston, C. (1993). James I. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-07779-6
  • Fincham, Kenneth; Lake, Peter (1985). "The ecclesiastical policy of King James I" Journal of British Studies 24 (2): 169–207
  • Gardiner, S. R. (1907). "Britain under James I" in The Cambridge Modern History vol. 3 ch. 17 online
  • Goodare, Julian (2009). "The debts of James VI of Scotland" The Economic History Review 62 (4): 926–952
  • Hirst, Derek (1986). Authority and Conflict – England 1603–1658 pp. 96–136, Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-05290-0
  • Houston, S. J. (1974). James I. Longman. ISBN 0-582-35208-8
  • Lee, Maurice (1984). "James I and the Historians: Not a Bad King After All?" Albion 16 (2): 151–163. in JSTOR
  • Montague, F. C. (1907). The History of England from the Accession of James 1st to the Restoration (1603–1660) online
  • Peck, Linda Levy (1982). Northampton: Patronage and Policy at the Court of James I. Harper Collins. ISBN 0-04-942177-8
  • Schwarz, Marc L. (1974). "James I and the Historians: Toward a Reconsideration" Journal of British Studies 13 (2): 114–134 in JSTOR
  • Smith, D. L. (1998). A History of the Modern British Isles – 1603–1707 – The Double Crown chs. 2, 3.1, and 3.2. Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-19402-6
  • Wormald, Jenny (1983). "James VI and I: Two Kings or One?" History 68 (223): 187–209
  • Young, Michael B. (1999). King James VI and I and the History of Homosexuality. Springer.
  • Young, Michael B. (2012). "James VI and I: Time for a Reconsideration?" Journal of British Studies 51 (3): 540–567

External links

James VI of Scotland & I of England
Born: 19 June 1566 Died: 27 March 1625
Regnal titles
Preceded by King of Scotland
1567–1625
Succeeded by
Preceded by King of England and Ireland
1603–1625
Peerage of Scotland
Vacant
Title last held by
James
Duke of Rothesay
1566–1567
Vacant
Title next held by
Henry Frederick
Preceded by Duke of Albany
4th creation
1567
Merged with the Crown

james, james, charles, stuart, june, 1566, march, 1625, king, scotland, james, from, july, 1567, king, england, ireland, james, from, union, scottish, english, crowns, march, 1603, until, death, 1625, although, wanted, bring, about, closer, union, kingdoms, sc. James VI and I James Charles Stuart 19 June 1566 27 March 1625 was King of Scotland as James VI from 24 July 1567 and King of England and Ireland as James I from the union of the Scottish and English crowns on 24 March 1603 until his death in 1625 Although he wanted to bring about a closer union the kingdoms of Scotland and England remained individual sovereign states with their own parliaments judiciaries and laws both ruled by James in personal union James VI and IPortrait attributed to John de Critz c 1605King of England and Ireland more Reign24 March 1603 27 March 1625Coronation25 July 1603PredecessorElizabeth ISuccessorCharles IKing of Scotland more Reign24 July 1567 27 March 1625Coronation29 July 1567PredecessorMarySuccessorCharles IRegentsSee list James Stewart Earl of Moray 1567 1570 Matthew Stewart Earl of Lennox 1570 1571 John Erskine Earl of Mar 1571 1572 James Douglas Earl of Morton 1572 1581 Born19 June 1566Edinburgh Castle Edinburgh ScotlandDied27 March 1625 aged 58 NS 6 April 1625 Theobalds House Hertfordshire EnglandBurial7 May 1625Westminster AbbeySpouseAnne of Denmark m 1589 died 1619 wbr IssueDetailHenry Frederick Prince of Wales Elizabeth Queen of Bohemia Margaret Stuart Charles I Robert Stuart Duke of Kintyre and Lorne Mary Stuart Sophia StuartNamesJames Charles StuartHouseStuartFatherHenry Stuart Lord DarnleyMotherMary Queen of ScotsSignatureJames was the son of Mary Queen of Scots and a great great grandson of Henry VII King of England and Lord of Ireland and thus a potential successor to all three thrones He succeeded to the Scottish throne at the age of thirteen months after his mother was compelled to abdicate in his favour Four different regents governed during his minority which ended officially in 1578 though he did not gain full control of his government until 1583 In 1603 he succeeded Elizabeth I the last Tudor monarch of England and Ireland who died childless He continued to reign in all three kingdoms for 22 years a period known as the Jacobean era until his death in 1625 After the Union of the Crowns he based himself in England the largest of the three realms from 1603 returning to Scotland only once in 1617 and styled himself King of Great Britain and Ireland He was a major advocate of a single parliament for England and Scotland In his reign the Plantation of Ulster and English colonisation of the Americas began At 57 years and 246 days James s reign in Scotland was the longest of any Scottish monarch He achieved most of his aims in Scotland but faced great difficulties in England including the Gunpowder Plot in 1605 and repeated conflicts with the English Parliament Under James the Golden Age of Elizabethan literature and drama continued with writers such as William Shakespeare John Donne Ben Jonson and Francis Bacon contributing to a flourishing literary culture 1 James himself was a prolific writer 2 authoring works such as Daemonologie 1597 The True Law of Free Monarchies 1598 and Basilikon Doron 1599 He sponsored the translation of the Bible into English later named after him the Authorized King James Version and the 1604 revision of the Book of Common Prayer 3 4 Anthony Weldon claimed that James had been termed the wisest fool in Christendom an epithet associated with his character ever since 5 Since the latter half of the 20th century historians have tended to revise James s reputation and treat him as a serious and thoughtful monarch 6 He was strongly committed to a peace policy and tried to avoid involvement in religious wars especially the Thirty Years War that devastated much of Central Europe He tried but failed to prevent the rise of hawkish elements in the English Parliament who wanted war with Spain 7 He was succeeded by his second son Charles I Contents 1 Childhood 1 1 Birth 1 2 Regencies 2 Rule in Scotland 2 1 Marriage 2 2 Witch hunts 2 3 Highlands and Islands 2 4 Theory of monarchy 2 5 Literary patronage 3 Accession in England 4 Early reign in England 4 1 Gunpowder Plot 5 King and Parliament 5 1 Spanish match 6 King and Church 7 Personal relationships 8 Health and death 9 Legacy 10 Titles styles honours and arms 10 1 Titles and styles 10 2 Arms 11 Issue 12 Family tree 13 List of writings 14 Notes 15 References 16 Sources 17 Further reading 18 External linksChildhood EditBirth Edit Portrait of James as a boy after Arnold Bronckorst 1574 James was the only son of Mary Queen of Scots and her second husband Henry Stuart Lord Darnley Both Mary and Darnley were great grandchildren of Henry VII of England through Margaret Tudor the older sister of Henry VIII Mary s rule over Scotland was insecure and she and her husband being Roman Catholics faced a rebellion by Protestant noblemen During Mary s and Darnley s difficult marriage 8 Darnley secretly allied himself with the rebels and conspired in the murder of the queen s private secretary David Rizzio just three months before James s birth 9 James was born on 19 June 1566 at Edinburgh Castle and as the eldest son and heir apparent of the monarch automatically became Duke of Rothesay and Prince and Great Steward of Scotland Five days later an English diplomat Henry Killigrew saw the queen who had not fully recovered and could only speak faintly The baby was sucking at his nurse and was well proportioned and like to prove a goodly prince 10 He was baptised Charles James or James Charles on 17 December 1566 in a Catholic ceremony held at Stirling Castle His godparents were Charles IX of France represented by John Count of Brienne Elizabeth I of England represented by the Earl of Bedford and Emmanuel Philibert Duke of Savoy represented by ambassador Philibert du Croc a Mary refused to let the Archbishop of St Andrews whom she referred to as a pocky priest spit in the child s mouth as was then the custom 12 The subsequent entertainment devised by Frenchman Bastian Pagez featured men dressed as satyrs and sporting tails to which the English guests took offence thinking the satyrs done against them 13 Lord Darnley was murdered on 10 February 1567 at Kirk o Field Edinburgh perhaps in revenge for the killing of Rizzio James inherited his father s titles of Duke of Albany and Earl of Ross Mary was already unpopular and her marriage on 15 May 1567 to James Hepburn 4th Earl of Bothwell who was widely suspected of murdering Darnley heightened widespread bad feeling towards her b In June 1567 Protestant rebels arrested Mary and imprisoned her in Lochleven Castle she never saw her son again She was forced to abdicate on 24 July 1567 in favour of the infant James and to appoint her illegitimate half brother James Stewart Earl of Moray as regent 16 This made James the third consecutive Scottish monarch to ascend to the throne as an infant Regencies Edit James right depicted aged 17 beside his mother Mary left 1583 In reality they were separated when he was still a baby The care of James was entrusted to the Earl and Countess of Mar to be conserved nursed and upbrought 17 in the security of Stirling Castle 18 James was anointed King of Scotland at the age of thirteen months at the Church of the Holy Rude in Stirling by Adam Bothwell Bishop of Orkney on 29 July 1567 19 The sermon at the coronation was preached by John Knox In accordance with the religious beliefs of most of the Scottish ruling class James was brought up as a member of the Protestant Church of Scotland the Kirk The Privy Council selected George Buchanan Peter Young Adam Erskine lay abbot of Cambuskenneth and David Erskine lay abbot of Dryburgh as James s preceptors or tutors 20 As the young king s senior tutor Buchanan subjected James to regular beatings but also instilled in him a lifelong passion for literature and learning 21 Buchanan sought to turn James into a God fearing Protestant king who accepted the limitations of monarchy as outlined in his treatise De Jure Regni apud Scotos 22 In 1568 Mary escaped from Lochleven Castle leading to several years of sporadic violence The Earl of Moray defeated Mary s troops at the Battle of Langside forcing her to flee to England where she was subsequently kept in confinement by Elizabeth On 23 January 1570 Moray was assassinated by James Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh 23 The next regent was James s paternal grandfather Matthew Stewart 4th Earl of Lennox who was carried fatally wounded into Stirling Castle a year later after a raid by Mary s supporters 24 His successor the Earl of Mar took a vehement sickness and died on 28 October 1572 at Stirling Mar s illness wrote James Melville followed a banquet at Dalkeith Palace given by James Douglas 4th Earl of Morton 25 Morton was elected to Mar s office and proved in many ways the most effective of James s regents 26 but he made enemies by his rapacity 27 He fell from favour when Frenchman Esme Stewart Sieur d Aubigny first cousin of James s father Lord Darnley and future Earl of Lennox arrived in Scotland and quickly established himself as the first of James s powerful favourites 28 James was proclaimed an adult ruler in a ceremony of Entry to Edinburgh on 19 October 1579 29 Morton was executed on 2 June 1581 belatedly charged with complicity in Darnley s murder 30 On 8 August James made Lennox the only duke in Scotland 31 The king then fifteen years old remained under the influence of Lennox for about one more year 32 Rule in Scotland Edit James in 1586 age 20 attrib Adrian Vanson or the school of Alonso Sanchez Coello Lennox was a Protestant convert but he was distrusted by Scottish Calvinists who noticed the physical displays of affection between him and the king and alleged that Lennox went about to draw the King to carnal lust 27 In August 1582 in what became known as the Ruthven Raid the Protestant earls of Gowrie and Angus lured James into Ruthven Castle imprisoned him c and forced Lennox to leave Scotland During James s imprisonment 19 September 1582 John Craig whom the king had personally appointed royal chaplain in 1579 rebuked him so sharply from the pulpit for having issued a proclamation so offensive to the clergy that the king wept 34 After James was liberated in June 1583 he assumed increasing control of his kingdom He pushed through the Black Acts to assert royal authority over the Kirk and denounced the writings of his former tutor Buchanan 35 Between 1584 and 1603 he established effective royal government and relative peace among the lords ably assisted by John Maitland of Thirlestane who led the government until 1592 36 An eight man commission known as the Octavians brought some control over the ruinous state of James s finances in 1596 but it drew opposition from vested interests It was disbanded within a year after a riot in Edinburgh which was stoked by anti Catholicism and led the court to withdraw to Linlithgow temporarily 37 One last Scottish attempt against the king s person occurred in August 1600 when James was apparently assaulted by Alexander Ruthven the Earl of Gowrie s younger brother at Gowrie House the seat of the Ruthvens 38 Ruthven was run through by James s page John Ramsay and the Earl of Gowrie was killed in the ensuing fracas there were few surviving witnesses Given James s history with the Ruthvens and the fact that he owed them a great deal of money his account of the circumstances was not universally believed 39 In 1586 James signed the Treaty of Berwick with England That and his mother s execution in 1587 which he denounced as a preposterous and strange procedure helped clear the way for his succession south of the border d Queen Elizabeth was unmarried and childless and James was her most likely successor Securing the English succession became a cornerstone of his policy 41 During the Spanish Armada crisis of 1588 he assured Elizabeth of his support as your natural son and compatriot of your country 42 Elizabeth sent James an annual subsidy from 1586 which gave her some leverage over affairs in Scotland 43 Marriage Edit 1589 marriage contract between James and Anne of Denmark Queen Anne c 1605 portrait attributed to John de Critz Throughout his youth James was praised for his chastity since he showed little interest in women After the loss of Lennox he continued to prefer male company 44 A suitable marriage however was necessary to reinforce his monarchy and the choice fell on fourteen year old Anne of Denmark younger daughter of Protestant Frederick II Shortly after a proxy marriage in Copenhagen in August 1589 Anne sailed for Scotland but was forced by storms to the coast of Norway On hearing that the crossing had been abandoned James sailed from Leith with a 300 strong retinue to fetch Anne personally in what historian David Harris Willson called the one romantic episode of his life 45 e The couple were married formally at the Bishop s Palace in Oslo on 23 November James received a dowry of 75 000 Danish dalers and a gift of 10 000 dalers from his mother in law Sophie of Mecklenburg Gustrow 47 After stays at Elsinore and Copenhagen and a meeting with Tycho Brahe James and Anne returned to Scotland on 1 May 1590 48 By all accounts James was at first infatuated with Anne and in the early years of their marriage seems always to have shown her patience and affection 49 The royal couple produced three children who survived to adulthood Henry Frederick Prince of Wales who died of typhoid fever in 1612 aged 18 Elizabeth later queen of Bohemia and Charles James s successor Anne died before her husband in March 1619 Witch hunts Edit Suspected witches kneeling before King James Daemonologie 1597 James s visit to Denmark a country familiar with witch hunts sparked an interest in the study of witchcraft 50 which he considered a branch of theology 51 He attended the North Berwick witch trials the first major persecution of witches in Scotland under the Witchcraft Act 1563 Several people were convicted of using witchcraft to send storms against James s ship most notably Agnes Sampson 52 James became concerned with the threat posed by witches and wrote Daemonologie in 1597 a tract inspired by his personal involvement that opposed the practice of witchcraft and that provided background material for Shakespeare s Macbeth 53 54 James personally supervised the torture of women accused of being witches 53 After 1599 his views became more sceptical 55 In a later letter written in England to his son Henry James congratulates the prince on the discovery of yon little counterfeit wench I pray God ye may be my heir in such discoveries most miracles now a days prove but illusions and ye may see by this how wary judges should be in trusting accusations 56 Highlands and Islands Edit The forcible dissolution of the Lordship of the Isles by James IV of Scotland in 1493 had led to troubled times for the western seaboard James IV had subdued the organised military might of the Hebrides but he and his immediate successors lacked the will or ability to provide an alternative form of governance As a result the 16th century became known as linn nan creach the time of raids 57 Furthermore the effects of the Reformation were slow to affect the Gaidhealtachd driving a religious wedge between this area and centres of political control in the Central Belt 58 In 1540 James V had toured the Hebrides forcing the clan chiefs to accompany him There followed a period of peace but the clans were soon at loggerheads with one another again 59 During James VI s reign the citizens of the Hebrides were portrayed as lawless barbarians rather than being the cradle of Scottish Christianity and nationhood Official documents describe the peoples of the Highlands as void of the knawledge and feir of God who were prone to all kynd of barbarous and bestile cruelteis 60 The Gaelic language spoken fluently by James IV and probably by James V became known in the time of James VI as Erse or Irish implying that it was foreign in nature Parliament decided that Gaelic had become a principal cause of the Highlanders shortcomings and sought to abolish it 61 Scottish gold coin from 1609 1625 It was against this background that James VI authorised the Gentleman Adventurers of Fife to civilise the most barbarous Isle of Lewis in 1598 James wrote that the colonists were to act not by agreement with the local inhabitants but by extirpation of thame Their landing at Stornoway began well but the colonists were driven out by local forces commanded by Murdoch and Neil MacLeod The colonists tried again in 1605 with the same result although a third attempt in 1607 was more successful 62 The Statutes of Iona were enacted in 1609 which required clan chiefs to provide support for Protestant ministers to Highland parishes to outlaw bards to report regularly to Edinburgh to answer for their actions and to send their heirs to Lowland Scotland to be educated in English speaking Protestant schools 63 So began a process specifically aimed at the extirpation of the Gaelic language the destruction of its traditional culture and the suppression of its bearers 64 In the Northern Isles James s cousin Patrick Stewart 2nd Earl of Orkney resisted the Statutes of Iona and was consequently imprisoned 65 His natural son Robert led an unsuccessful rebellion against James and the Earl and his son were hanged 66 Their estates were forfeited and the Orkney and Shetland islands were annexed to the Crown 66 Theory of monarchy Edit James argued a theological basis for monarchy in The True Law of Free Monarchies In 1597 98 James wrote The True Law of Free Monarchies and Basilikon Doron Royal Gift in which he argues a theological basis for monarchy In the True Law he sets out the divine right of kings explaining that kings are higher beings than other men for Biblical reasons though the highest bench is the sliddriest to sit upon 67 The document proposes an absolutist theory of monarchy by which a king may impose new laws by royal prerogative but must also pay heed to tradition and to God who would stirre up such scourges as pleaseth him for punishment of wicked kings 68 Basilikon Doron was written as a book of instruction for the four year old Prince Henry and provides a more practical guide to kingship 69 The work is considered to be well written and perhaps the best example of James s prose 70 James s advice concerning parliaments which he understood as merely the king s head court foreshadows his difficulties with the English House of Commons Hold no Parliaments he tells Henry but for the necesitie of new Lawes which would be but seldome 71 In the True Law James maintains that the king owns his realm as a feudal lord owns his fief because kings arose before any estates or ranks of men before any parliaments were holden or laws made and by them was the land distributed which at first was wholly theirs And so it follows of necessity that kings were the authors and makers of the laws and not the laws of the kings 72 Literary patronage Edit In the 1580s and 1590s James promoted the literature of his native country He published his treatise Some Rules and Cautions to be Observed and Eschewed in Scottish Prosody in 1584 at the age of 18 It was both a poetic manual and a description of the poetic tradition in his mother tongue of Scots applying Renaissance principles 73 He also made statutory provision to reform and promote the teaching of music seeing the two in connection One act of his reign urges the Scottish burghs to reform and support the teaching of music in Sang Sculis 74 In furtherance of these aims James was both patron and head of a loose circle of Scottish Jacobean court poets and musicians known as the Castalian Band which included William Fowler and Alexander Montgomerie among others Montgomerie being a favourite of the king 75 James was himself a poet and was happy to be seen as a practising member of the group 76 By the late 1590s James s championing of native Scottish tradition was reduced to some extent by the increasing likelihood of his succession to the English throne 77 William Alexander and other courtier poets started to anglicise their written language and followed the king to London after 1603 78 James s role as active literary participant and patron made him a defining figure in many respects for English Renaissance poetry and drama which reached a pinnacle of achievement in his reign 79 but his patronage of the high style in the Scottish tradition which included his ancestor James I of Scotland became largely sidelined 80 Accession in England EditMain article Union of the Crowns The Union of the Crowns was symbolised in James s personal royal heraldic badge after 1603 the Tudor rose dimidiated with the Scottish thistle ensigned by the royal crown From 1601 in the last years of Elizabeth s life certain English politicians notably her chief minister Robert Cecil f maintained a secret correspondence with James to prepare in advance for a smooth succession 82 With the queen clearly dying Cecil sent James a draft proclamation of his accession to the English throne in March 1603 Elizabeth died in the early hours of 24 March and James was proclaimed king in London later the same day 83 84 On 5 April James left Edinburgh for London promising to return every three years a promise that he did not keep and progressed slowly southwards Local lords received him with lavish hospitality along the route and James was amazed by the wealth of his new land and subjects claiming that he was swapping a stony couch for a deep feather bed James arrived in the capital on 7 May nine days after Elizabeth s funeral 83 85 His new subjects flocked to see him relieved that the succession had triggered neither unrest nor invasion 86 On arrival at London he was mobbed by a crowd of spectators 87 James s English coronation took place on 25 July at Westminster Abbey An outbreak of plague restricted festivities The Royal Entry to London with elaborate allegories provided by dramatic poets such as Thomas Dekker and Ben Jonson was deferred to 15 March 1604 88 Dekker wrote that the streets seemed to be paved with men stalls instead of rich wares were set out with children open casements filled up with women 89 The kingdom to which James succeeded however had its problems Monopolies and taxation had engendered a widespread sense of grievance and the costs of war in Ireland had become a heavy burden on the government 90 which had debts of 400 000 Early reign in England EditMain article Jacobean era Portrait after John de Critz c 1605 James wears the Three Brothers jewel three rectangular red spinels the jewel is now lost James survived two conspiracies in the first year of his reign despite the smoothness of the succession and the warmth of his welcome the Bye Plot and Main Plot which led to the arrest of Lord Cobham and Walter Raleigh among others 91 Those hoping for a change in government from James were disappointed at first when he kept Elizabeth s Privy Councillors in office as secretly planned with Cecil 91 but James soon added long time supporter Henry Howard and his nephew Thomas Howard to the Privy Council as well as five Scottish nobles 91 g In the early years of James s reign the day to day running of the government was tightly managed by the shrewd Cecil later Earl of Salisbury ably assisted by the experienced Thomas Egerton whom James made Baron Ellesmere and Lord Chancellor and by Thomas Sackville soon Earl of Dorset who continued as Lord Treasurer 91 As a consequence James was free to concentrate on bigger issues such as a scheme for a closer union between England and Scotland and matters of foreign policy as well as to enjoy his leisure pursuits particularly hunting 91 James was ambitious to build on the personal union of Scotland and England to establish a single country under one monarch one parliament and one law a plan that met opposition in both realms 95 Hath He not made us all in one island James told the English Parliament compassed with one sea and of itself by nature indivisible In April 1604 however the Commons refused his request to be titled King of Great Britain on legal grounds h In October 1604 he assumed the title King of Great Britain instead of King of England and King of Scotland though Francis Bacon told him that he could not use the style in any legal proceeding instrument or assurance and the title was not used on English statutes 97 James forced the Scottish Parliament to use it and it was used on proclamations coinage letters and treaties in both realms 98 James achieved more success in foreign policy Never having been at war with Spain he devoted his efforts to bringing the long Anglo Spanish War to an end and a peace treaty was signed between the two countries in August 1604 thanks to the skilled diplomacy of the delegation in particular Robert Cecil and Henry Howard now Earl of Northampton James celebrated the treaty by hosting a great banquet 99 Freedom of worship for Catholics in England however continued to be a major objective of Spanish policy causing constant dilemmas for James distrusted abroad for repression of Catholics while at home being encouraged by the Privy Council to show even less tolerance towards them 100 Gunpowder Plot Edit Main article Gunpowder Plot A dissident Catholic Guy Fawkes was discovered in the cellars of the parliament buildings on the night of 4 5 November 1605 the eve of the state opening of the second session of James s first English Parliament Fawkes was guarding a pile of wood not far from 36 barrels of gunpowder with which he intended to blow up Parliament House the following day and cause the destruction as James put it not only of my person nor of my wife and posterity also but of the whole body of the State in general 101 The sensational discovery of the Gunpowder Plot as it quickly became known aroused a mood of national relief at the delivery of the king and his sons The Earl of Salisbury exploited this to extract higher subsidies from the ensuing Parliament than any but one granted to Elizabeth 102 Fawkes and others implicated in the unsuccessful conspiracy were executed 103 King and Parliament EditMain article James I of England and the English Parliament The co operation between monarch and Parliament following the Gunpowder Plot was atypical Instead it was the previous session of 1604 that shaped the attitudes of both sides for the rest of the reign though the initial difficulties owed more to mutual incomprehension than conscious enmity 104 On 7 July 1604 James had angrily prorogued Parliament after failing to win its support either for full union or financial subsidies I will not thank where I feel no thanks due he had remarked in his closing speech I am not of such a stock as to praise fools You see how many things you did not well I wish you would make use of your liberty with more modesty in time to come 105 As James s reign progressed his government faced growing financial pressures partly due to creeping inflation but also to the profligacy and financial incompetence of James s court In February 1610 Salisbury proposed a scheme known as the Great Contract whereby Parliament in return for ten royal concessions would grant a lump sum of 600 000 to pay off the king s debts plus an annual grant of 200 000 106 The ensuing prickly negotiations became so protracted that James eventually lost patience and dismissed Parliament on 31 December 1610 Your greatest error he told Salisbury hath been that ye ever expected to draw honey out of gall 107 The same pattern was repeated with the so called Addled Parliament of 1614 which James dissolved after a mere nine weeks when the Commons hesitated to grant him the money he required 108 James then ruled without parliament until 1621 employing officials such as the merchant Lionel Cranfield who were astute at raising and saving money for the crown and sold baronetcies and other dignities many created for the purpose as an alternative source of income 109 Spanish match Edit Main article Spanish match Another potential source of income was the prospect of a Spanish dowry from a marriage between Charles Prince of Wales and Infanta Maria Anna of Spain 110 The policy of the Spanish match as it was called was also attractive to James as a way to maintain peace with Spain and avoid the additional costs of a war 111 Peace could be maintained as effectively by keeping the negotiations alive as by consummating the match which may explain why James protracted the negotiations for almost a decade 112 Portrait by Paul van Somer c 1620 In the background is the Banqueting House Whitehall by architect Inigo Jones commissioned by James The policy was supported by the Howards and other Catholic leaning ministers and diplomats together known as the Spanish Party but deeply distrusted in Protestant England When Walter Raleigh was released from imprisonment in 1616 he embarked on a hunt for gold in South America with strict instructions from James not to engage the Spanish 113 Raleigh s expedition was a disastrous failure and his son Walter was killed fighting the Spanish 114 On Raleigh s return to England James had him executed to the indignation of the public who opposed the appeasement of Spain 115 James s policy was further jeopardised by the outbreak of the Thirty Years War especially after his Protestant son in law Frederick V Elector Palatine was ousted from Bohemia by the Catholic Emperor Ferdinand II in 1620 and Spanish troops simultaneously invaded Frederick s Rhineland home territory Matters came to a head when James finally called a Parliament in 1621 to fund a military expedition in support of his son in law 116 The Commons on the one hand granted subsidies inadequate to finance serious military operations in aid of Frederick 117 and on the other remembering the profits gained under Elizabeth by naval attacks on Spanish gold shipments called for a war directly against Spain In November 1621 roused by Edward Coke they framed a petition asking not only for war with Spain but also for Prince Charles to marry a Protestant and for enforcement of the anti Catholic laws 118 James flatly told them not to interfere in matters of royal prerogative or they would risk punishment 119 which provoked them into issuing a statement protesting their rights including freedom of speech 120 Urged on by George Villiers 1st Duke of Buckingham and the Spanish ambassador Gondomar James ripped the protest out of the record book and dissolved Parliament 121 In early 1623 Prince Charles now 22 and Buckingham decided to seize the initiative and travel to Spain incognito to win Infanta Maria Anna directly but the mission proved an ineffectual mistake 122 Maria Anna detested Charles and the Spanish confronted them with terms that included the repeal of anti Catholic legislation by Parliament Though a treaty was signed Charles and Buckingham returned to England in October without the infanta and immediately renounced the treaty much to the delight of the British people 123 Disillusioned by the visit to Spain Charles and Buckingham now turned James s Spanish policy upon its head and called for a French match and a war against the Habsburg empire 124 To raise the necessary finance they prevailed upon James to call another Parliament which met in February 1624 For once the outpouring of anti Catholic sentiment in the Commons was echoed in court where control of policy was shifting from James to Charles and Buckingham 125 who pressured the king to declare war and engineered the impeachment of Lord Treasurer Lionel Cranfield by now made Earl of Middlesex when he opposed the plan on grounds of cost 126 The outcome of the Parliament of 1624 was ambiguous James still refused to declare or fund a war but Charles believed the Commons had committed themselves to finance a war against Spain a stance that was to contribute to his problems with Parliament in his own reign 127 King and Church EditMain article James VI and I and religious issues After the Gunpowder Plot James sanctioned harsh measures to control English Catholics In May 1606 Parliament passed the Popish Recusants Act which could require any citizen to take an Oath of Allegiance denying the pope s authority over the king 128 James was conciliatory towards Catholics who took the Oath of Allegiance 129 and tolerated crypto Catholicism even at court i Henry Howard for example was a crypto Catholic received back into the Catholic Church in his final months 130 On ascending the English throne James suspected that he might need the support of Catholics in England so he assured Henry Percy 9th Earl of Northumberland a prominent sympathiser of the old religion that he would not persecute any that will be quiet and give but an outward obedience to the law 131 In the Millenary Petition of 1603 the Puritan clergy demanded the abolition of confirmation wedding rings and the term priest among other things and that the wearing of cap and surplice become optional 132 James was strict in enforcing conformity at first inducing a sense of persecution amongst many Puritans 133 but ejections and suspensions from livings became rarer as the reign continued 134 As a result of the Hampton Court Conference of 1604 some Puritan demands were acceded to in the 1604 Book of Common Prayer though many remained displeased 4 135 The conference also commissioned a new translation and compilation of approved books of the Bible to resolve discrepancies among different translations then being used The King James Version as it came to be known was completed in 1611 and is considered a masterpiece of Jacobean prose 136 137 It is still in widespread use 136 In Scotland James attempted to bring the Scottish Kirk so neir as can be to the English church and to reestablish episcopacy a policy that met with strong opposition from presbyterians j James returned to Scotland in 1617 for the only time after his accession in England in the hope of implementing Anglican ritual James s bishops forced his Five Articles of Perth through a General Assembly the following year but the rulings were widely resisted 139 James left the church in Scotland divided at his death a source of future problems for his son k Personal relationships EditMain article Personal relationships of James VI and I Robert Carr 1st Earl of Somerset left and George Villiers 1st Duke of Buckingham are both said to have been James s lovers Throughout his life James had close relationships with male courtiers which has caused debate among historians about their exact nature 141 In Scotland Anne Murray was known as the king s mistress 142 After his accession in England his peaceful and scholarly attitude contrasted strikingly with the bellicose and flirtatious behaviour of Elizabeth 141 as indicated by the contemporary epigram Rex fuit Elizabeth nunc est regina Iacobus Elizabeth was King now James is Queen 143 Some of James s biographers conclude that Esme Stewart Duke of Lennox Robert Carr Earl of Somerset and George Villiers Duke of Buckingham were his lovers 144 John Oglander observed that he never yet saw any fond husband make so much or so great dalliance over his beautiful spouse as I have seen King James over his favourites especially the Duke of Buckingham 145 whom the king would recalled Edward Peyton tumble and kiss as a mistress 146 Restoration of Apethorpe Palace in Northamptonshire undertaken in 2004 08 revealed a previously unknown passage linking the bedchambers of James and Villiers 147 Some biographers of James argue that the relationships were not sexual 148 James s Basilikon Doron lists sodomy among crimes ye are bound in conscience never to forgive and James s wife Anne gave birth to seven live children as well as suffering two stillbirths and at least three other miscarriages 149 Contemporary Huguenot poet Theophile de Viau observed that it is well known that the king of England fucks the Duke of Buckingham 150 l Buckingham himself provides evidence that he slept in the same bed as the king writing to James many years later that he had pondered whether you loved me now better than at the time which I shall never forget at Farnham where the bed s head could not be found between the master and his dog 152 Buckingham s words may be interpreted as non sexual in the context of seventeenth century court life 153 and remain ambiguous despite their fondness 154 It is also possible that James was bisexual 155 When the Earl of Salisbury died in 1612 he was little mourned by those who jostled to fill the power vacuum m Until Salisbury s death the Elizabethan administrative system over which he had presided continued to function with relative efficiency from this time forward however James s government entered a period of decline and disrepute 157 Salisbury s passing gave James the notion of governing in person as his own chief Minister of State with his young Scottish favourite Robert Carr carrying out many of Salisbury s former duties but James s inability to attend closely to official business exposed the government to factionalism 158 The Howard party consisting of Henry Howard 1st Earl of Northampton Thomas Howard 1st Earl of Suffolk Suffolk s son in law Lord Knollys Charles Howard 1st Earl of Nottingham and Thomas Lake soon took control of much of the government and its patronage Even the powerful Carr fell into the Howard camp hardly experienced for the responsibilities thrust upon him and often dependent on his intimate friend Thomas Overbury for assistance with government papers 159 Carr had an adulterous affair with Frances Howard Countess of Essex daughter of the Earl of Suffolk James assisted Frances by securing an annulment of her marriage to free her to marry Carr now Earl of Somerset n In summer 1615 however it emerged that Overbury had been poisoned He had died on 15 September 1613 in the Tower of London where he had been placed at the king s request 161 o Among those convicted of the murder were the Earl and Countess of Somerset the Earl had been replaced as the king s favourite in the meantime by Villiers James pardoned the Countess and commuted the Earl s sentence of death eventually pardoning him in 1624 164 The implication of the king in such a scandal provoked much public and literary conjecture and irreparably tarnished James s court with an image of corruption and depravity 165 The subsequent downfall of the Howards left Villiers unchallenged as the supreme figure in the government by 1619 166 Health and death Edit Portrait by Daniel Mijtens 1621 in the National Portrait Gallery In his later years James suffered increasingly from arthritis gout and kidney stones 167 168 He also lost his teeth and drank heavily 167 169 The king was often seriously ill during the last year of his life leaving him an increasingly peripheral figure rarely able to visit London while Buckingham consolidated his control of Charles to ensure his own future p One theory is that James suffered from porphyria a disease of which his descendant George III exhibited some symptoms James described his urine to physician Theodore de Mayerne as being the dark red colour of Alicante wine 172 The theory is dismissed by some experts particularly in James s case because he had kidney stones which can lead to blood in the urine colouring it red 173 In early 1625 James was plagued by severe attacks of arthritis gout and fainting fits and fell seriously ill in March with tertian ague and then suffered a stroke He died at Theobalds House in Hertfordshire on 27 March during a violent attack of dysentery with Buckingham at his bedside q James s funeral on 7 May was a magnificent but disorderly affair 175 Bishop John Williams of Lincoln preached the sermon observing King Solomon died in Peace when he had lived about sixty years and so you know did King James The sermon was later printed as Great Britain s Salomon sic 176 James was buried in Westminster Abbey The position of the tomb was lost for many years until his lead coffin was found in the Henry VII vault during an excavation in the 19th century 177 Legacy EditSee also Cultural depictions of James VI and I On the ceiling of the Banqueting House Rubens depicted James being carried to heaven by angels James was widely mourned For all his flaws he had largely retained the affection of his people who had enjoyed uninterrupted peace and comparatively low taxation during the Jacobean era As he lived in peace remarked the Earl of Kellie so did he die in peace and I pray God our king Charles I may follow him 178 The Earl prayed in vain once in power King Charles I and the Duke of Buckingham sanctioned a series of reckless military expeditions that ended in humiliating failure 179 James had often neglected the business of government for leisure pastimes such as the hunt his later dependence on favourites at a scandal ridden court undermined the respected image of monarchy so carefully constructed by Elizabeth I 180 Under James the Plantation of Ulster by English and Scots Protestants began and the English colonisation of North America started its course with the foundation of Jamestown Virginia in 1607 181 and Cuper s Cove Newfoundland in 1610 During the next 150 years England would fight with Spain the Netherlands and France for control of the continent while religious division in Ireland between Protestants and Catholics has lasted for 400 years By actively pursuing more than just a personal union of his realms James helped lay the foundations for a unitary British state 182 According to a tradition originating with anti Stuart historians of the mid 17th century James s taste for political absolutism his financial irresponsibility and his cultivation of unpopular favourites established the foundations of the English Civil War James bequeathed his son Charles a fatal belief in the divine right of kings combined with a disdain for Parliament which culminated in the execution of Charles I and the abolition of the monarchy Over the last three hundred years the king s reputation has suffered from the acid description of him by Anthony Weldon whom James had sacked and who wrote treatises on James in the 1650s 183 Other influential anti James histories written during the 1650s include Edward Peyton s Divine Catastrophe of the Kingly Family of the House of Stuarts 1652 Arthur Wilson s History of Great Britain Being the Life and Reign of King James I 1658 and Francis Osborne s Historical Memoirs of the Reigns of Queen Elizabeth and King James 1658 184 David Harris Willson s 1956 biography continued much of this hostility 94 185 In the words of historian Jenny Wormald Willson s book was an astonishing spectacle of a work whose every page proclaimed its author s increasing hatred for his subject 186 Since Willson however the stability of James s government in Scotland and in the early part of his English reign as well as his relatively enlightened views on religion and war have earned him a re evaluation from many historians who have rescued his reputation from this tradition of criticism r Representative of the new historical perspective is the 2003 biography by Pauline Croft Reviewer John Cramsie summarises her findings Croft s overall assessment of James is appropriately mixed She recognises his good intentions in matters like Anglo Scottish union his openness to different points of view and his agenda of a peaceful foreign policy within his kingdoms financial means His actions moderated frictions between his diverse peoples Yet he also created new ones particularly by supporting colonisation that polarised the crown s interest groups in Ireland obtaining insufficient political benefit with his open handed patronage an unfortunate lack of attention to the image of monarchy particularly after the image obsessed regime of Elizabeth pursuing a pro Spanish foreign policy that fired religious prejudice and opened the door for Arminians within the English church and enforcing unpalatable religious changes on the Scottish Kirk Many of these criticisms are framed within a longer view of James reigns including the legacy now understood to be more troubled which he left Charles I 188 Titles styles honours and arms EditTitles and styles Edit In Scotland James was James the sixth King of Scotland until 1604 He was proclaimed James the first King of England France and Ireland defender of the faith in London on 24 March 1603 189 On 20 October 1604 James issued a proclamation at Westminster changing his style to King of Great Brittaine France and Ireland Defender of the Faith amp c 190 The style was not used on English statutes but was used on proclamations coinage letters treaties and in Scotland 191 James styled himself King of France in line with other monarchs of England between 1340 and 1801 although he did not actually rule France Arms Edit As King of Scotland James bore the ancient royal arms of Scotland Or a lion rampant Gules armed and langued Azure within a double tressure flory counter flory Gules The arms were supported by two unicorns Argent armed crined and unguled Proper gorged with a coronet Or composed of crosses patee and fleurs de lys a chain affixed thereto passing between the forelegs and reflexed over the back also Or The crest was a lion sejant affrontee Gules imperially crowned Or holding in the dexter paw a sword and in the sinister paw a sceptre both erect and Proper 192 The Union of the Crowns of England and Scotland under James was symbolised heraldically by combining their arms supporters and badges Contention as to how the arms should be marshalled and to which kingdom should take precedence was solved by having different arms for each country 193 The arms used in England were Quarterly I and IV quarterly 1st and 4th Azure three fleurs de lys Or for France 2nd and 3rd Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or for England II Or a lion rampant within a tressure flory counter flory Gules for Scotland III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent for Ireland this was the first time that Ireland was included in the royal arms 194 The supporters became dexter a lion rampant guardant Or imperially crowned and sinister the Scottish unicorn The unicorn replaced the red dragon of Cadwaladr which was introduced by the Tudors The unicorn has remained in the royal arms of the two united realms The English crest and motto was retained The compartment often contained a branch of the Tudor rose with shamrock and thistle engrafted on the same stem The arms were frequently shown with James s personal motto Beati pacifici 193 The arms used in Scotland were Quarterly I and IV Scotland II England and France III Ireland with Scotland taking precedence over England The supporters were dexter a unicorn of Scotland imperially crowned supporting a tilting lance flying a banner Azure a saltire Argent Cross of Saint Andrew and sinister the crowned lion of England supporting a similar lance flying a banner Argent a cross Gules Cross of Saint George The Scottish crest and motto was retained following the Scottish practice the motto In defens which is short for In My Defens God Me Defend was placed above the crest 193 As royal badges James used the Tudor rose the thistle for Scotland first used by James III of Scotland the Tudor rose dimidiated with the thistle ensigned with the royal crown a harp for Ireland and a fleur de lys for France 194 Coat of arms used from 1567 to 1603 Coat of arms used from 1603 to 1625 outside Scotland Coat of arms used from 1603 to 1625 in ScotlandIssue Edit James I and his royal progeny by Charles Turner from a mezzotint by Samuel Woodburn 1814 after Willem de Passe James s queen Anne of Denmark gave birth to seven children who survived beyond birth of whom three reached adulthood 195 Henry Frederick Prince of Wales 19 February 1594 6 November 1612 Died probably of typhoid fever aged 18 196 Elizabeth Queen of Bohemia 19 August 1596 13 February 1662 Married 1613 Frederick V Elector Palatine Died aged 65 Margaret 24 December 1598 March 1600 Died aged 1 Charles I King of England Scotland and Ireland 19 November 1600 30 January 1649 Married 1625 Henrietta Maria of France Succeeded James I amp VI Robert Duke of Kintyre 18 January 1602 27 May 1602 Died aged 4 months 197 Mary 8 April 1605 16 December 1607 Died aged 2 Sophia June 1607 Died within 48 hours of birth 198 Family tree EditJames s relationship to the houses of Stuart and Tudor 199 House of StuartJames II King of ScotsMary of GueldersJames III King of ScotsMary StewartJames HamiltonElizabeth HamiltonHouse of TudorJames HamiltonJohn StewartElizabeth of YorkHenry VII King of EnglandJames IV King of ScotlandMargaret TudorArchibald DouglasHenry VIII King of EnglandMary of GuiseJames V King of ScotlandMatthew StewartMargaret DouglasMary Queen of ScotsHenry StuartElizabeth I Queen of EnglandJames VI and I King of Scotland and EnglandList of writings EditThe Essayes of a Prentise in the Divine Art of Poesie also called Some Reulis and Cautelis 1584 His Majesties Poeticall Exercises at Vacant Houres 1591 Lepanto poem Daemonologie 1597 The True Law of Free Monarchies 1598 Basilikon Doron 1599 A Counterblaste to Tobacco 1604 An Apologie for the Oath of Allegiance 1608 A Premonition to All Most Mightie Monarches 1609Notes Edit As the Earl of Bedford was a Protestant his place in the ceremony was taken by Jean Countess of Argyll 11 Elizabeth I wrote to Mary My ears have been so astounded my mind so disturbed and my heart so appalled at hearing the horrible report of the abominable murder of your late husband and my slaughtered cousin that I can scarcely as yet summon the spirit to write about it I will not conceal from you that people for the most part are saying that you will look through your fingers at this deed instead of avenging it and that you don t care to take action against those who have done you this pleasure Historian John Guy nonetheless concludes Not a single piece of uncontaminated evidence has ever been found to show that Mary had foreknowledge of Darnley s murder 14 In historian David Harris Willson s view however That Bothwell was the murderer no one can doubt and that Mary was his accomplice seems equally certain 15 James s captors forced from him a proclamation dated 30 August declaring that he was not being held prisoner forced or constrained for fear or terror or against his will and that no one should come to his aid as a result of seditious or contrary reports 33 James briefly broke off diplomatic relations with England over Mary s execution but he wrote privately that Scotland could never have been without factions if she had beene left alive 40 James heard on 7 October of the decision to postpone the crossing for winter 46 James described Cecil as king there in effect 81 The introduction of Henry Howard soon Earl of Northampton and of Thomas Howard soon Earl of Suffolk marked the beginning of the rise of the Howard family to power in England which culminated in their dominance of James s government after the death of Cecil in 1612 Henry Howard son of poet Henry Howard Earl of Surrey had been a diligent correspondent with James in advance of the succession James referred to him as long approved and trusted Howard His connection with James may have owed something to the attempt by his brother Thomas Howard 4th Duke of Norfolk to free and marry Mary Queen of Scots leading to his execution in 1572 92 For details on the Howards see The Trials of Frances Howard by David Lindley Henry Howard is a traditionally reviled figure Willson 1956 called him A man of dark counsels and creeping schemes learned but bombastic and a most fulsome flatterer 93 whose reputation was upgraded by Linda Levy Peck s 1982 biography Northampton 94 English and Scot James insisted should join and coalesce together in a sincere and perfect union as two twins bred in one belly to love one another as no more two but one estate 96 A crypto Catholic was someone who outwardly conformed to Protestantism but remained a Catholic in private In March 1605 Archbishop Spottiswood wrote to James warning him that sermons against bishops were being preached daily in Edinburgh 138 Assessments of the Kirk at James s death are divided Some historians argue that the Scots might have accepted James s policies eventually others that James left the Kirk in crisis 140 In the original Et ce savant roy d Angleterre foutoit il pas le Boukinquan 151 Northampton assumed the day to day running of government business and spoke of the death of the little man for which so many rejoice and few do as much as seem to be sorry 156 The commissioners judging the case reached a 5 5 verdict so James quickly appointed two extra judges guaranteed to vote in favour an intervention which aroused public censure When Thomas Bilson son of Bishop Bilson of Winchester one of the added commissioners was knighted after the annulment he was given the nickname Sir Nullity Bilson 160 It is very likely that Overbury was the victim of a set up contrived by the earls of Northampton and Suffolk with Carr s complicity to keep him out of the way during the annulment proceedings Overbury knew too much of Carr s dealings with Frances and he opposed the match with a fervour that made him dangerous motivated by a deep political hostility to the Howards It cannot have been difficult to secure James s compliance because he disliked Overbury and his influence over Carr 162 John Chamberlain reported that the king hath long had a desire to remove him from about the lord of Rochester as thinking it a dishonour to him that the world should have an opinion that Rochester ruled him and Overbury ruled Rochester 163 Some historians for example Willson consider James who was 58 in 1624 to have lapsed into premature senility 170 but he suffered from an agonising species of arthritis which constantly left him indisposed as well as other ailments and Pauline Croft suggests that James regained some control over his affairs in summer 1624 afforded relief by the warm weather She sees his continuing refusal to sanction war against Spain as a deliberate stand against the aggressive policies of Charles and Buckingham 171 A medicine recommended by Buckingham had only served to make the king worse which led to rumours that the duke had poisoned him 174 In recent decades much scholarship has emphasised James s success in Scotland though there have been partial dissenters such as Michael Lynch and there is an emerging appreciation of James s successes in the early part of his reign in England 187 References Edit Milling 2004 p 155 Fischlin amp Fortier 2002 p 39 Rhodes Richards amp Marshall 2003 p 1 James VI and I was the most writerly of British monarchs He produced original poetry as well as translation and a treatise on poetics works on witchcraft and tobacco meditations and commentaries on the Scriptures a manual on kingship works of political theory and of course speeches to parliament He was the patron of Shakespeare Jonson Donne and the translators of the Authorized version of the Bible surely the greatest concentration of literary talent ever to enjoy royal sponsorship in England a b Cummings Brian ed 2011 The Book of Common Prayer The Texts of 1549 1559 and 1662 Oxford World s Classics Oxford Oxford University Press p 737 Smith 2003 p 238 The label the wisest fool in Christendom often attributed to Henry IV of France but possibly coined by Anthony Weldon catches James s paradoxical qualities very neatly Anthony Weldon 1651 The Court and Character of King James I quoted by Stroud 1999 p 27 A very wise man was wont to say that he believed him the wisest fool in Christendom meaning him wise in small things but a fool in weighty affairs Croft 2003 p 6 Historians have returned to reconsidering James as a serious and intelligent ruler Lockyer 1998 pp 4 6 Smith 2003 p 238 In contrast to earlier historians recent research on his reign has tended to emphasize the wisdom and downplay the foolishness Davies 1959 pp 47 57 Guy 2004 pp 236 237 241 242 270 Willson 1963 p 13 Guy 2004 pp 248 250 Willson 1963 p 16 Joseph Bain Calendar State Papers Scotland vol 2 Edinburgh 1900 p 290 Willson 1963 p 17 Donaldson 1974 p 99 Thomson 1827 pp 171 172 Guy 2004 pp 312 313 Willson 1963 p 18 Guy 2004 pp 364 365 Willson 1963 p 19 Letter of Mary to Mar 29 March 1567 quoted by Stewart 2003 p 27 Suffer nor admit no noblemen of our realm or any others of what condition soever they be of to enter or come within our said Castle or to the presence of our said dearest son with any more persons but two or three at the most Stewart 2003 p 33 Willson 1963 p 18 Croft 2003 p 11 Willson 1963 p 19 Croft 2003 pp 12 13 Croft 2003 pp 13 18 Spottiswoode John 1851 History of the Church in Scotland Edinburgh Oliver amp Boyd vol 2 p 120 Croft 2003 p 13 Thomson 1827 pp 248 249 Stewart 2003 p 45 Willson 1963 pp 28 29 a b Croft 2003 p 15 Lockyer 1998 pp 11 12 Stewart 2003 pp 51 63 Wiggins Martin Richardson Catherine 2012 British Drama 1533 1642 A Catalogue Vol II 1567 1589 Oxford pp 242 244 David Calderwood quoted by Stewart 2003 p 63 So ended this nobleman one of the chief instruments of the reformation a defender of the same and of the King in his minority for the which he is now unthankfully dealt with Stewart 2003 p 63 Lockyer 1998 pp 13 15 Willson 1963 p 35 Stewart 2003 p 66 Law 1904 pp 295 297 Croft 2003 pp 17 18 Willson 1963 pp 39 50 Croft 2003 p 20 Croft 2003 pp 29 41 42 Willson 1963 pp 121 124 Lockyer 1998 pp 24 25 Stewart 2003 pp 150 157 Croft 2003 p 45 George Nicolson quoted by Stewart 2003 p 154 It is begun to be noted that the reports coming from the King should differ Williams 1970 p 61 The two principal characters were dead the evidence of eyewitnesses was destroyed and only King James s version remained Willson 1963 pp 126 130 Croft 2003 p 22 Lockyer 1998 pp 29 31 Willson 1963 p 52 Croft 2003 p 23 Goodare Julian 2000 Goodare Julian Lynch Michael eds James VI s English Subsidy The Reign of James VI East Linton Tuckwell p 115 Croft 2003 pp 23 24 Willson 1963 p 85 Stewart 2003 pp 107 110 Kerr Peterson Miles Pearce Michael 2020 James VI s English Subsidy and Danish Dowry Accounts 1588 1596 Scottish History Society Miscellany XVI Woodbridge p 35 Stevenson David 1997 Scotland s Last Royal Wedding Edinburgh John Donald pp 99 100 Willson 1963 pp 85 95 Croft 2003 p 26 Willson 1963 p 103 Willumsen Liv Helene 1 December 2020 Witchcraft against Royal Danish Ships in 1589 and the Transnational Transfer of Ideas International Review of Scottish Studies 45 54 99 doi 10 21083 irss v45i0 5801 S2CID 229451135 via www irss uoguelph ca a b Keay amp Keay 1994 p 556 Willson 1963 pp 103 105 Croft 2003 p 27 Lockyer 1998 p 21 Willson 1963 pp 105 308 309 Akrigg 1984 p 220 Willson 1963 p 309 Hunter 2000 pp 143 166 Hunter 2000 p 174 Thompson 1968 pp 40 41 Hunter 2000 p 175 Thompson 1968 pp 40 41 Hunter 2000 p 175 Hunter 2000 p 175 Rotary Club of Stornoway 1995 pp 12 13 Hunter 2000 p 176 MacKinnon 1991 p 46 Croft 2003 p 139 Lockyer 1998 p 179 a b Willson 1963 p 321 James quoted by Willson 1963 p 131 Kings are called gods by the prophetical King David because they sit upon God His throne in earth and have the count of their administration to give unto Him Croft 2003 pp 131 133 Willson 1963 p 133 Croft 2003 pp 134 135 James wrote well scattering engaging asides throughout the text Willson 1963 p 132 Basilikon Doron is the best prose James ever wrote Croft 2003 p 133 Quoted by Willson 1963 p 132 Jack 1988 pp 126 127 See Jack R D S 2000 Scottish Literature 1603 and all that Archived 11 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine Association for Scottish Literary Studies retrieved 18 October 2011 Jack R D S 1985 Alexander Montgomerie Edinburgh Scottish Academic Press pp 1 2 Jack 1988 p 125 Jack 1988 p 137 Spiller Michael 1988 Poetry after the Union 1603 1660 in Craig Cairns general editor The History of Scottish Literature Aberdeen University Press vol 1 pp 141 152 Spiller points out that the trend although unambiguous was generally more mixed See for example Rhodes Neil 2004 Wrapped in the Strong Arm of the Union Shakespeare and King James in Maley Willy Murphy Andrew eds Shakespeare and Scotland Manchester University Press pp 38 39 Jack 1988 pp 137 138 Croft 2003 p 48 Lockyer 1998 pp 161 162 Willson 1963 pp 154 155 a b Croft 2003 p 49 Willson 1963 p 158 Martin 2016 p 315 Willson 1963 pp 160 164 Croft 2003 p 50 Stewart 2003 p 169 Stewart 2003 p 172 Willson 1963 p 165 Stewart 2003 p 173 Croft 2003 pp 50 51 a b c d e Croft 2003 p 51 Guy 2004 pp 461 468 Willson 1963 p 156 Willson 1963 p 156 a b Croft 2003 p 6 Croft 2003 pp 52 54 Willson 1963 p 250 Willson 1963 pp 249 253 Croft 2003 p 67 Willson 1963 pp 249 253 Croft 2003 pp 52 53 Croft 2003 p 118 Stewart 2003 p 219 Croft 2003 p 64 Nicholls Mark 2004 Rookwood Ambrose c 1578 1606 Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Oxford Dictionary of National Biography online ed Oxford University Press doi 10 1093 ref odnb 24066 Retrieved 13 August 2022 Subscription or UK public library membership required Croft 2003 p 63 Quoted by Croft 2003 p 62 Croft 2003 pp 75 81 Croft 2003 p 80 Lockyer 1998 p 167 Willson 1963 p 267 Croft 2003 p 93 Willson 1963 p 348 Willson 1963 p 409 Willson 1963 pp 348 357 Schama 2001 p 59 Kenyon J P 1978 Stuart England Harmondsworth England Penguin Books pp 88 89 Willson 1963 pp 369 370 Croft 2003 p 104 Willson 1963 pp 372 373 Willson 1963 p 374 377 Willson 1963 p 408 416 Lockyer 1998 p 148 Willson 1963 p 417 Willson 1963 p 421 Willson 1963 p 422 James quoted by Willson 1963 p 423 We cannot with patience endure our subjects to use such anti monarchical words to us concerning their liberties except they had subjoined that they were granted unto them by the grace and favour of our predecessors Willson 1963 p 243 Croft 2003 pp 118 119 Willson 1963 pp 431 435 Cogswell 2005 pp 224 225 243 281 299 Croft 2003 p 120 Schama 2001 p 64 Croft 2003 pp 120 121 Krugler 2004 pp 63 64 The aging monarch was no match for the two men closest to him By the end of the year the prince and the royal favourite spoke openly against the Spanish marriage and pressured James to call a parliament to consider their now repugnant treaties with hindsight the prince s return from Madrid marked the end of the king s reign The prince and the favourite encouraged popular anti Spanish sentiments to commandeer control of foreign and domestic policy Croft 2003 p 125 Lockyer 1998 p 195 Croft 2003 p 126 On that divergence of interpretation relations between the future king and the Parliaments of the years 1625 9 were to founder Stewart 2003 p 225 Willson 1963 p 228 Croft 2003 p 162 Akrigg 1984 pp 207 208 Willson 1963 pp 148 149 Willson 1963 p 201 Croft 2003 p 156 Stewart 2003 p 205 In seeking conformity James gave a name and a purpose to nonconformity Basilikon Doron quoted by Willson 1963 pp 201 209 In things indifferent they are seditious which obey not the magistrates Croft 2003 p 158 Spinks Bryan D 2006 Anglicans and Dissenters In Wainwright Geoffrey Westerfield Tucker Karen B eds The Oxford History of Christian Worship Oxford Oxford University Press p 503 504 ISBN 978 0 19 513886 3 a b Croft 2003 p 157 Willson 1963 pp 213 215 Croft 2003 p 164 Croft 2003 p 166 Lockyer 1998 pp 185 186 Willson 1963 p 320 Croft 2003 p 167 a b Bucholz amp Key 2004 p 208 his sexuality has long been a matter of debate He clearly preferred the company of handsome young men The evidence of his correspondence and contemporary accounts have led some historians to conclude that the king was homosexual or bisexual In fact the issue is murky Bain Joseph 1894 Calendar of letters and papers relating to the affairs of the borders of England and Scotland vol 2 Edinburgh pp 30 31 44 Hyde H Montgomery 1970 The Love That Dared Not Speak its Name London Heinemann pp 43 44 e g Young Michael B 2000 King James and the History of Homosexuality New York University Press ISBN 978 0 8147 9693 1 Bergeron David M 1991 Royal Family Royal Lovers King James of England and Scotland University of Missouri Press Murphy Timothy 2011 Reader s Guide To Gay amp Lesbian Studies Routledge Dearborn Publishers p 312 Bergeron David M 1999 King James and Letters of Homoerotic Desire Iowa City University of Iowa Press p 348 Ruigh Robert E 1971 The Parliament of 1624 Politics and Foreign Policy Harvard University Press p 77 Graham Fiona 5 June 2008 To the manor bought BBC News Retrieved 18 October 2008 e g Lee Maurice 1990 Great Britain s Solomon James VI and I in his Three Kingdoms Urbana University of Illinois Press ISBN 978 0 252 01686 8 Lockyer 1981 pp 19 21 Weir Alison 1996 Britain s Royal Families The Complete Genealogy Random House pp 249 251 ISBN 0 7126 7448 9 Norton Rictor 8 January 2000 Queen James and His Courtiers Gay History and Literature retrieved 9 December 2015 Gaudiani Claire Lynn 1981 The Cabaret poetry of Theophile de Viau Texts and Traditions Tubingen Gunter Narr Verlag pp 103 104 ISBN 978 3 87808 892 9 retrieved 9 December 2015 Lockyer 1981 p 22 Bray Alan 2003 The Friend University of Chicago Press pp 167 170 ISBN 0 226 07180 4 Bray Alan 1994 Goldberg Jonathan ed Homosexuality and the Signs of Male Friendship in Elizabethan England Queering the Renaissance Duke University Press pp 42 44 ISBN 0 8223 1385 5 Ackroyd Peter 2014 The History of England Vol III Civil War Macmillan p 45 ISBN 978 0 230 70641 5 Miller John 2004 The Stuarts Hambledon p 38 ISBN 1 85285 432 4 Dabiri Emma Filled with a number of male lovelies the surprising court of King James VI and I BBC Scotland BBC Retrieved 28 August 2020 Willson 1963 p 269 Willson 1963 p 333 Finances fell into chaos foreign affairs became more difficult James exalted a worthless favourite and increased the power of the Howards As government relaxed and honour cheapened we enter a period of decline and weakness of intrigue scandal confusion and treachery Willson 1963 pp 334 335 Willson 1963 p 349 Francis Bacon speaking at Carr s trial quoted by Perry 2006 p 105 Packets were sent sometimes opened by my lord sometimes unbroken unto Overbury who perused them registered them made table talk of them as they thought good So I will undertake the time was when Overbury knew more of the secrets of state than the council table did Lindley 1993 p 120 Barroll 2001 p 136 Rumours of foul play involving Rochester and his wife with Overbury had however been circulating since his death Indeed almost two years later in September 1615 and as James was in the process of replacing Rochester with a new favourite George Villiers the Governor of the Tower of London sent a letter to the king informing him that one of the warders in the days before Overbury had been found dead had been bringing the prisoner poisoned food and medicine Lindley 1993 p 146 Lindley 1993 p 145 Willson 1963 p 342 Croft 2003 p 91 Davies 1959 p 20 Probably no single event prior to the attempt to arrest the five members in 1642 did more to lessen the general reverence with which royalty was regarded in England than this unsavoury episode Croft 2003 pp 98 99 Willson 1963 p 397 a b Croft 2003 p 101 Willson 1963 pp 378 404 Willson 1963 p 379 Willson 1963 p 425 Croft 2003 pp 126 127 Croft 2003 p 101 James never became a cypher Lockyer 1998 p 174 During the last eighteen months of his life James fought a very effective rearguard action to preserve his control of foreign policy he never became a cypher Rohl John C G Warren Martin Hunt David 1998 Purple Secret Genes Madness and the Royal Houses of Europe London Bantam Press ISBN 0 593 04148 8 e g Dean Geoffrey 2002 The Turnstone A Doctor s Story Liverpool University Press pp 128 129 Croft 2003 pp 127 128 Willson 1963 pp 445 447 John Chamberlain quoted in Croft 2003 p 129 and Willson 1963 p 447 All was performed with great magnificence but very confused and disorderly Croft 2003 pp 129 130 Great Britains Salomon A sermon preached at the magnificent funerall of the most high and mighty king Iames the late King of Great Britaine France and Ireland defender of the faith amp c At the Collegiat Church of Saint Peter at Westminster the seuenth of May 1625 By the Right Honorable and Right Reuerend Father in God Iohn Lord Bishop of Lincolne Lord Keeper of the Great Seale of England amp c quod lib umich edu Retrieved 1 April 2021 Stanley Arthur 1886 Historical Memorials of Westminster Abbey London John Murray pp 499 526 Croft 2003 p 130 Stewart 2003 p 348 A 1627 mission to save the Huguenots of La Rochelle ended in an ignominious siege on the Isle of Re leaving the Duke as the object of widespread ridicule Croft 2003 p 129 Croft 2003 p 146 Croft 2003 p 67 Croft 2003 pp 3 4 Often witty and perceptive but also prejudiced and abusive their status as eye witness accounts and their compulsive readability led too many historians to take them at face value Lockyer 1998 pp 1 4 For more on the influence of Commonwealth historians on the tradition of tracing Charles I s errors back to his father s reign see Lindley 1993 p 44 Lockyer 1998 p 4 Wormald 2011 Croft 2003 pp 1 9 46 Cramsie John June 2003 The Changing Reputations of Elizabeth I and James VI amp I Reviews and History Covering books and digital resources across all fields of history review no 334 Velde Francois Proclamation by the King 24 March 1603 heraldica org retrieved 9 February 2013 Velde Francois Proclamation by the King 20 October 1604 heraldica org retrieved 9 February 2013 Willson 1963 pp 252 253 Pinches John Harvey Pinches Rosemary 1974 The Royal Heraldry of England Heraldry Today Slough Buckinghamshire Hollen Street Press ISBN 0 900455 25 X pp 159 160 a b c Pinches and Pinches pp 168 169 a b Brooke Little J P 1978 1950 Boutell s Heraldry Revised edition London Frederick Warne ISBN 0 7232 2096 4 pp 213 215 Stewart 2003 pp 140 142 Stewart 2003 p 248 Latter day experts have suggested enteric fever typhoid fever or porphyria but at the time poison was the most popular explanation John Chamberlain wrote that it was verily thought that the disease was no other than the ordinary ague that had reigned and raged all over England Barroll 2001 p 27 Willson 1963 p 452 Croft 2003 p 55 Stewart 2003 p 142 Willson 1963 p 456 Warnicke 2006 p xvi xviiSources EditAkrigg G P V George Philip Vernon ed 1984 Letters of King James VI amp I Berkeley amp Los Angeles University of California ISBN 978 0 520 04707 5 Barroll J Leeds 2001 Anna of Denmark Queen of England A Cultural Biography Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania ISBN 978 0 8122 3574 6 Bucholz Robert Key Newton 2004 Early Modern England 1485 1714 A Narrative History Oxford Blackwell ISBN 978 0 631 21393 2 Cogswell Thomas 2005 1989 The Blessed Revolution English Politics and the Coming of War 1621 24 Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 02313 9 Croft Pauline 2003 King James Basingstoke and New York Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 978 0 333 61395 5 Davies Godfrey 1959 1937 The Early Stuarts Oxford Clarendon Press ISBN 978 0 19 821704 6 Donaldson Gordon 1974 Mary Queen of Scots London English Universities Press ISBN 978 0 340 12383 6 Fischlin Daniel Fortier Mark 2002 Enregistrate Speech Stratagems of Monarchic Writing in the Work of James VI and I in Fischlin Daniel Fortier Mark eds Royal Subjects Essays on the Writings of James VI and I Wayne State University Press ISBN 978 0 8143 2877 4 Guy John 2004 My Heart is My Own The Life of Mary Queen of Scots London and New York Fourth Estate ISBN 978 1 84115 752 8 Hunter James 2000 Last of the Free A History of the Highlands and Islands of Scotland Edinburgh Mainstream ISBN 978 1 84018 376 4 Jack R D S Ronald 1988 Poetry under King James VI in Craig Cairns ed The History of Scottish Literature vol 1 Aberdeen University Press Keay John Keay Julia 1994 Collins Encyclopaedia of Scotland London HarperCollins ISBN 978 0 00 255082 6 Krugler John D 2004 English and Catholic The Lords Baltimore in the Seventeenth Century Baltimore Johns Hopkins University Press ISBN 978 0 8018 7963 0 Law Thomas Graves 1904 John Craig in Brown P Hume ed Collected Essays and Reviews of Thomas Graves Law Edinburgh T amp A Constable Edinburgh University Press Lindley David 1993 The Trials of Frances Howard Fact and Fiction at the Court of King James Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 05206 1 Lockyer Roger 1981 Buckingham The Life and Political Career of George Villiers First Duke of Buckingham 1592 1628 Longman ISBN 978 0 582 50296 3 Lockyer Roger 1998 James VI and I Longman ISBN 978 0 582 27961 2 MacKinnon Kenneth 1991 Gaelic A Past and Future Prospect Edinburgh The Saltire Society ISBN 978 0 85411 047 6 Martin Patrick H 2016 Elizabethan Espionage Plotters and Spies in the Struggle Between Catholicism and the Crown Jefferson North Carolina McFarland ISBN 978 1 476 66255 8 Milling Jane 2004 The Development of a Professional Theatre in Milling Jane Thomson Peter Donohue Joseph W eds The Cambridge History of British Theatre Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 65040 3 Perry Curtis 2006 Literature and Favoritism in Early Modern England Cambridge New York Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 85405 4 Rhodes Neil Richards Jennifer Marshall Joseph 2003 King James VI and I Selected Writings Ashgate Publishing ISBN 978 0 7546 0482 2 Rotary Club of Stornoway 1995 The Outer Hebrides Handbook and Guide Machynlleth Kittiwake ISBN 978 0 9511003 5 6 Schama Simon 2001 A History of Britain vol II New York Hyperion ISBN 978 0 7868 6752 3 Smith David L 2003 Politics in Early Stuart Britain in Coward Barry ed A Companion to Stuart Britain Blackwell Publishing ISBN 978 0 631 21874 6 Stewart Alan 2003 The Cradle King A Life of James VI amp I London Chatto and Windus ISBN 978 0 7011 6984 8 Stroud Angus 1999 Stuart England Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 20652 5 Thompson Francis 1968 Harris and Lewis Outer Hebrides Newton Abbot David amp Charles ISBN 978 0 7153 4260 2 Thomson Thomas ed 1827 Sir James Melvill of Halhill Memoirs of his own life Bannatyne Club Warnicke Retha M 2006 Mary Queen of Scots New York Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 29182 8 Williams Ethel Carleton 1970 Anne of Denmark London Longman ISBN 978 0 582 12783 8 Willson David Harris 1963 1956 King James VI amp I London Jonathan Cape ISBN 978 0 224 60572 4 Wormald Jenny May 2011 2004 James VI and I 1566 1625 Oxford Dictionary of National Biography online ed Oxford University Press doi 10 1093 ref odnb 14592 Subscription or UK public library membership required Further reading EditAkrigg G P V 1978 Jacobean Pageant The Court of King James I New York Atheneum ISBN 0 689 70003 2 Fraser A 1974 King James VI of Scotland I of England London Weidenfeld and Nicolson ISBN 0 297 76775 5 Coward B 2017 The Stuart Age England 1603 1714 5th edition ch 4 Routledge ISBN 978 1 4058 5916 5 Durston C 1993 James I Routledge ISBN 0 415 07779 6 Fincham Kenneth Lake Peter 1985 The ecclesiastical policy of King James I Journal of British Studies 24 2 169 207 Gardiner S R 1907 Britain under James I in The Cambridge Modern History vol 3 ch 17 online Goodare Julian 2009 The debts of James VI of Scotland The Economic History Review 62 4 926 952 Hirst Derek 1986 Authority and Conflict England 1603 1658 pp 96 136 Harvard University Press ISBN 0 674 05290 0 Houston S J 1974 James I Longman ISBN 0 582 35208 8 Lee Maurice 1984 James I and the Historians Not a Bad King After All Albion 16 2 151 163 in JSTOR Montague F C 1907 The History of England from the Accession of James 1st to the Restoration 1603 1660 online Peck Linda Levy 1982 Northampton Patronage and Policy at the Court of James I Harper Collins ISBN 0 04 942177 8 Schwarz Marc L 1974 James I and the Historians Toward a Reconsideration Journal of British Studies 13 2 114 134 in JSTOR Smith D L 1998 A History of the Modern British Isles 1603 1707 The Double Crown chs 2 3 1 and 3 2 Blackwell ISBN 978 0 631 19402 6 Wormald Jenny 1983 James VI and I Two Kings or One History 68 223 187 209 Young Michael B 1999 King James VI and I and the History of Homosexuality Springer Young Michael B 2012 James VI and I Time for a Reconsideration Journal of British Studies 51 3 540 567External links Edit Wikisource has original works by or about James VI and I Wikimedia Commons has media related to James I of England Wikiquote has quotations related to James I of England James VI and I at the official website of the British monarchy James I at the official website of the Royal Collection Trust James I and VI at BBC History Works by James VI and I at Project Gutenberg Works by or about James VI and I at Internet Archive Works by James VI and I at LibriVox public domain audiobooks Documents on James I curated by The National Archives United Kingdom James VI of Scotland amp I of EnglandHouse of StuartBorn 19 June 1566 Died 27 March 1625Regnal titlesPreceded byMary King of Scotland1567 1625 Succeeded byCharles IPreceded byElizabeth I King of England and Ireland1603 1625Peerage of ScotlandVacantTitle last held byJames Duke of Rothesay1566 1567 VacantTitle next held byHenry FrederickPreceded byHenry Stuart Duke of Albany4th creation1567 Merged with the Crown Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title James VI and I amp oldid 1145125814, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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