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Resurrection of Jesus

May 02, 2023

The resurrection of Jesus (Biblical Greek: ἀνάστασις τοῦ Ἰησοῦ) is the Christian belief that God raised Jesus on the third day[note 1] after his crucifixion, starting – or restoring[web 1][note 2] – his exalted life as Christ and Lord.[web 2] According to the New Testament writing, Jesus was firstborn from the dead, ushering in the Kingdom of God.[1][web 2] He appeared to his disciples, calling the apostles to the Great Commission of forgiving sin and baptizing repenters, and ascended to Heaven.

Resurrection of Jesus Christ (Kinnaird Resurrection) by Raphael, 1502

For the Christian tradition, the bodily resurrection was the restoration to life of a transformed body powered by spirit,[web 3] as described by Paul and the Gospel authors, that led to the establishment of Christianity. In Christian theology, the resurrection of Jesus is "the central mystery of the Christian faith".[2] It provides the foundation for that faith, as commemorated by Easter, along with Jesus's life, death and sayings.[3] For Christians, his resurrection is the guarantee that all the Christian dead will be resurrected at Christ's parousia (second coming).[4]

In secular and liberal Christian scholarship asserts that religious experiences,[5] such as the visionary appearances of Jesus[6][7][8][note 3] and an inspired reading of the Biblical texts,[9] gave the impetus to the belief in the exaltation of Jesus[10] as a "fulfillment of the scriptures,"[11] and a resumption of the missionary activity of Jesus's followers.[6][12]

Biblical accounts

See also: Overview of resurrection appearances in the Gospels and Paul (table)
 
Resurrection of Christ, Noël Coypel, 1700, using a hovering depiction of Jesus

The conviction that Jesus was raised from the dead is found in the earliest evidence of Christian origins.[13][note 4]

Paul and the first Christians

Main article: 1 Corinthians 15
See also: Pauline Christianity, Jewish Christian, and Paul the Apostle and Jewish Christianity

The moment of resurrection itself is not described in any of the gospels, but all four contain passages in which Jesus is portrayed as predicting his death and resurrection, or contain allusions that "the reader will understand".[18] The New Testament writings do not contain any descriptions of a resurrection but rather accounts of an empty tomb and appearances of Jesus.[19]

One of the letters sent by Paul the Apostle to one of the early Greek churches, the First Epistle to the Corinthians, contains one of the earliest Christian creeds referring to post-mortem appearances of Jesus, and expressing the belief that he was raised from the dead, namely 1 Corinthians 15:3–8.[20][21][22] It is widely accepted that this creed predates Paul and the writing of First Corinthians.[15] Scholars have contended that in his presentation of the resurrection, Paul refers to this as an earlier authoritative tradition, transmitted in a rabbinic style, that he received and has passed on to the church at Corinth.[note 5] Geza Vermes writes that the creed is "a tradition he [Paul] has inherited from his seniors in the faith concerning the death, burial and resurrection of Jesus".[24] The creed's ultimate origins are probably within the Jerusalem apostolic community, having been formalised and passed on within a few years of the resurrection.[note 6] Hans Grass argues for an origin in Damascus,[25] and according to Paul Barnett, this creedal formula, and others, were variants of the "one basic early tradition that Paul "received" in Damascus from Ananias in about 34 [AD]" after his conversion.[26]

[3] For I handed on to you as of first importance what I in turn had received: that Christ died for our sins in accordance with the scriptures,[note 7] [4] and that he was buried, and that he was raised on the third day in accordance with the scriptures,[note 1] [5] and that he appeared to Cephas, then to the twelve. [6] Then he appeared to more than five hundred brothers and sisters at one time, most of whom are still alive, though some have died. [7] Then he appeared to James, then to all the apostles. [8] Last of all, as to one untimely born, he appeared also to me.[36]

In the Jerusalem ekklēsia (Church), from which Paul received this creed, the phrase "died for our sins" probably was an apologetic rationale for the death of Jesus as being part of God's plan and purpose, as evidenced in the scriptures. For Paul, it gained a deeper significance, providing "a basis for the salvation of sinful Gentiles apart from the Torah."[37] The phrase "died for our sins" was derived from Isaiah, especially 53:4–11,[38] and 4 Maccabees, especially 6:28–29.[30][note 7] "Raised on the third day" is derived from Hosea 6:1–2:[33][32]

Come, let us return to the Lord;
for he has torn us, that he may heal us;
he has struck us down, and he will bind us up.
After two days he will revive us;
on the third day he will raise us up,
that we may live before him.[note 1]

Paul, writing to the members of the church at Corinth, said that Jesus appeared to him in the same fashion in which he appeared to the earlier witnesses.[39] In 2 Corinthians 12 Paul described "a man in Christ [presumably Paul himself] who ... was caught up to the third heaven", and while the language is obscure, a plausible interpretation is that the man believed he saw Jesus enthroned at the right hand of God.[40]

The many Pauline references affirming his belief in the resurrection include:

  • Romans 1:3–4: "...concerning his Son, who was descended from David according to the flesh and designated the Son of God in power according to the Spirit of holiness by his resurrection from the dead, Jesus Christ our Lord".[41]
  • 2 Timothy 2:8: "Remember Jesus Christ, raised from the dead... this is my gospel for which I am suffering even to the point of being chained like a criminal. But God’s word is not chained...".[42]
  • 1 Corinthians 15:3–7: "...that Christ died for our sins in accordance with the Scriptures, that he was buried, that he was raised on the third day in accordance with the Scriptures..."[43]

Gospels and Acts

Main articles: Mark 16, Matthew 28, Luke 24, Acts 1, and John 20
See also: Gospel harmony, Passion of Jesus, Burial of Jesus, Empty tomb, and Myrrhbearers
 
Germain Pilon (French, d. 1590), Resurrection of Jesus Christ. Marble, before 1572

Jesus is described as the "firstborn from the dead", prōtotokos, the first to be raised from the dead, thereby acquiring the "special status of the firstborn as the preeminent son and heir".[1][web 2] His resurrection is also the guarantee that all the Christian dead will be resurrected at Christ's parousia.[4]

After the resurrection, Jesus is portrayed as calling the apostles to the Great Commission, as described in Matthew 28:16–20,[44] Mark 16:14–18,[45] Luke 24:44–49,[46] Acts 1:4–8,[47] and John 20:19–23,[48] in which the disciples receive the call "to let the world know the good news of a victorious Saviour and the very presence of God in the world by the spirit".[49] According to these texts, Jesus says that they "will receive power when the Holy Spirit has come upon you",[50] that "repentance and forgiveness of sins is to be proclaimed in [the Messiah's] name to all nations, beginning from Jerusalem",[51] and that "if you forgive the sins of any, they are forgiven them; if you retain the sins of any, they are retained".[52]

The shorter version of the Gospel of Mark ends with the discovery of the empty tomb by Mary Magdalene, Salome, and "Mary the mother of James". A young man in a white robe at the site of the tomb announced to them that Jesus has risen, and instructed them to "tell Peter and the disciples that he will meet them in Galilee, 'just as he told you'" (Mark 16).[53] The longer version says in 16:9 further forwards, which is a later addition, that Jesus appeared to Mary Magdalene, then to two followers outside Jerusalem, and then to the eleven remaining Apostles, commissioning them to spread "the good news" (often referred to as "The Great Commission"), saying: "The one who believes and is baptized will be saved; but the one who does not believe will be condemned."[54] In the intermediate ending of Mark 16 (between verses 8 and 9), Jesus is portrayed as proclaiming "eternal salvation" through the disciples.

In Matthew, Luke and John, the resurrection announcement is followed by appearances of Jesus first to Mary Magdalene then to other followers. The Gospel of Matthew describes a single appearance in Galilee, Luke describes several appearances in Jerusalem, and John mentions appearances in both Jerusalem and Galilee. At some point, these appearances ceased in the early Christian community, as reflected in the Gospel narratives: the "Acts of the Apostles" says that "for forty days he had continued to appear to them".[55] The Gospel of Luke describes Jesus ascending to heaven at a location near Bethany.[56]

In the Gospel of Matthew, an angel appeared to Mary Magdalene at the empty tomb, telling her that Jesus is not there because he has been raised from the dead, and instructing her to tell the other followers to go to Galilee, to meet Jesus. Jesus then appeared to Mary Magdalene and "the other Mary" at the tomb; and next, based on Mark 16:7, Jesus appeared to all the disciples on a mountain in Galilee, where Jesus claimed authority over heaven and earth, and commissioned the disciples to preach the gospel to the whole world.[57] Matthew presents Jesus's second appearance as an apotheosis (deification), commissioning his followers to "make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, [20] and teaching them to obey everything that I have commanded you."[44] In this message, the end times are delayed "to bring the world to discipleship".[58]

 
The three Marys at the Tomb of Christ (1470) at the west portal of Konstanz Minster, Baden-Württemberg, Germany

In the Gospel of Luke, "the women who had come with him from Galilee"[59] come to his tomb, which they find empty. Two angelic beings appeared to announce that Jesus is not there but has been raised.[60] Jesus then appeared to two followers on their way to Emmaus, who notify the eleven remaining Apostles, who respond that Jesus has appeared to Peter. While they were describing this, Jesus appeared again, explaining that he is the messiah who was raised from the dead according to the scriptures "and that repentance and forgiveness of sins is to be proclaimed in his name to all nations, beginning from Jerusalem".[61][62] In Luke–Acts (two works from the same author) he then ascended into heaven, his rightful home.[62]

In the Gospel of John, Mary Magdalene found the tomb empty and informed Peter. She then saw two angels, after which Jesus himself appeared to her. In the evening, Jesus appeared to the other followers, followed by another appearance a week later.[63] He later appeared in Galilee to Peter, Thomas, and two other followers, commanding Peter to take care of his followers.[64]

In Acts of the Apostles, Jesus appeared to the apostles for forty days and commanded them to stay in Jerusalem,[65] after which Jesus ascended to heaven, followed by the coming of the Holy Spirit at Pentecost and the missionary task of the early church.[66]

Jewish-Hellenistic background

 
Five-part resurrection icon, Solovetsky Monastery, 17th century

Jewish

See also: Jewish eschatology and Resurrection of the dead

In Judaism, the idea of resurrection first emerges in the 2nd-century BC Book of Daniel as a belief in the resurrection of the soul alone, which was then developed by the Pharisees as a belief in bodily resurrection, an idea completely alien to the Greeks.[67] Josephus tells of the three main Jewish sects of the 1st century AD, that the Sadducees held that both soul and body perished at death; the Essenes that the soul was immortal but the flesh was not; and the Pharisees that the soul was immortal and that the body would be resurrected to house it.[68] Of these three positions, Jesus and the early Christians appear to have been closest to that of the Pharisees.[69] Steve Mason notes that for the Pharisees, "the new body is a special, holy body", which is different from the old body, "a view shared to some extent by the ex-Pharisee Paul (1. Cor. 15:35ff)".[70]

The evidence from Jewish texts and from tomb inscriptions points to a more complex reality: for example, when the 2nd century BC author of the Book of Daniel wrote that "many of those sleeping in the dust shall awaken",[71] religion scholar Dag Øistein Endsjø believes he probably had in mind a rebirth as angelic beings (metaphorically described as stars in God's Heaven, stars having been identified with angels from early times); such a rebirth would rule out a bodily resurrection, as angels were believed to be fleshless.[72] Other texts range from the traditional Old Testament view that the soul would spend eternity in the underworld, to a metaphorical belief in the raising of the spirit.[73] Most avoided defining what resurrection might imply, but a resurrection of the flesh was a marginal belief.[74] As Outi Lehtipuu states, "belief in resurrection was far from being an established doctrine"[75] of Second Temple Judaism.

Greco-Roman

Main article: Immortality § Ancient Greek religion

The Greeks held that the soul of a meritorious man could be translated into a god in the process of apotheosis (divination) which then transferred them to a special place of honor.[76] Successors of Alexander the Great made this idea very well known throughout the Middle East through coins bearing his image, a privilege previously reserved for gods.[77] The idea was adopted by the Roman emperors, and in the Imperial Roman concept of apotheosis, the earthly body of the recently deceased emperor was replaced by a new and divine one as he ascended into heaven.[78] These stories proliferated in the middle to late first century.[79]

The apotheosised dead remained recognisable to those who met them, as when Romulus appeared to witnesses after his death, but as the biographer Plutarch (c. AD 46 – c. 120) explained of this incident, while something within humans comes from the gods and returns to them after death, this happens "only when it is most completely separated and set free from the body, and becomes altogether pure, fleshless, and undefiled".[80]

Burial and empty tomb

Scholars differ on the historicity of the empty tomb story and the relation with the burial stories and the postmortem appearances. Scholars also differ on whether Jesus received a decent burial. Points of contention are (1) whether Jesus's body was taken off the cross before sunset or left on the cross to decay, (2) whether his body was taken off the cross and buried specifically by Joseph of Arimathea, or by the Sanhedrin or a group of Jews in general, and (3) whether he was entombed (and if so, what kind of tomb) or buried in a common grave.

Burial

Main article: Burial of Jesus

An often noted argument in favor of a decent burial before sunset is the Jewish custom, based on Deuteronomy 21:22–23,[81] which says the body must not be left exposed overnight, but must be buried that day. This is also attested in the Temple Scroll of the Essenes, and in Josephus's Jewish War 4.5.2§317, describing the burial of crucified Jewish insurgents before sunset.[82][83][84][85][86] Reference is made to the Digesta, a Roman Law Code from the 6th century AD, which contains material from the 2nd century AD, stating that "the bodies of those who have been punished are only buried when this has been requested and permission granted."[87][88] Burial of people who were executed by crucifixion is also attested by archaeological finds from Yehohanan, a body of an apparently crucified man with a nail in the heel which could not be removed who was buried in a tomb.[89][84]

Contra a decent burial, Martin Hengel has argued that Jesus was buried in disgrace as an executed criminal who died a shameful death,[90][91] a view which is "now widely accepted and has become entrenched in scholarly literature."[90] John Dominic Crossan argued that Jesus followers did not know what happened to the body.[92][note 8] According to Crossan, Joseph of Arimathea is "a total Markan creation in name, in place, and in function",[93][note 9] arguing that Jesus's followers inferred from Deut. 21:22–23 that Jesus was buried by a group of law-abiding Jews, as described in Acts 13:29.

New Testament scholar Dale Allison writes that this story was adapted by Mark, turning the group of Jews into a specific person.[94] Roman practice was often to leave the body on the stake, denying an honorable or family burial, stating that "the dogs were waiting."[95][96] Archaeologist Byron McCane argues that it was customary to dispose of the dead immediately, yet concludes that "Jesus was buried in disgrace in a criminal's tomb".[97] British New Testament scholar Maurice Casey also notes that "Jewish criminals were supposed to receive a shameful and dishonourable burial,"[98] and argues that Jesus was indeed buried by Joseph of Arimathea, but in a tomb for criminals owned by the Sanhedrin.[98] He therefore rejects the empty tomb narrative as legendary.[99]

New Testament historian Bart D. Ehrman writes that it can't be known what happened to Jesus's body; he doubts that Jesus had a decent burial,[100] and also thinks that it is doubtful that Jesus was buried by Joseph of Arimathea specifically.[101] According to Ehrman, "what was originally a vague statement that the unnamed Jewish leaders buried Jesus becomes a story of one leader in particular, who is named, doing so."[102][note 10] Ehrman gives three reasons for doubting a decent burial. Referring to Hengel and Crossan, Ehrman argues that crucifixion was meant "to torture and humiliate a person as fully as possible," and the body was normally left on the stake to be eaten by animals.[104] Ehrman further argues that criminals were usually buried in common graves;[105] and Pilate had no concern for Jewish sensitivities, which makes it unlikely that he would have allowed Jesus to be buried.[106]

A number of Christian authors have rejected the criticisms, taking the Gospel-accounts to be historically reliable.[note 11] John A.T. Robinson states that "the burial of Jesus in the tomb is one of the earliest and best-attested facts about Jesus."[107] Dale Allison, reviewing the arguments of Crossan and Ehrman, finds their assertions strong, but "find[s] it likely that a man named Joseph, probably a Sanhedrist, from the obscure Arimathea, sought and obtained permission from the Roman authorities to make arrangements for Jesus’s hurried burial."[108] James Dunn states that "the tradition is firm that Jesus was given a proper burial (Mark 15.42-47 pars.), and there are good reasons why its testimony should be respected."[109]

Dunn argues that the burial tradition is "one of the oldest pieces of tradition we have," referring to 1 Cor. 15.4; burial was in line with Jewish custom as prescribed by Deut. 21:22–23 and confirmed by Josephus War; cases of burial of crucified persons are known, as attested by the Yehohanan burial; Joseph of Arimathea "is a very plausible historical character"; and "the presence of the women at the cross and their involvement in Jesus's burial can be attributed more plausibly to early oral memory than to creative story-telling."[110] Andrew Loke, after replying to various objections against the historicity of the guards at the tomb, argues that "the presence of guards at the tomb would imply that Jesus was buried in a well-identified place (contrary to unburied hypothesis)."[111]

According to religion professor John Granger Cook, there are historical texts that mention mass graves, but they contain no indication of those bodies being dug up by animals. There is no mention of an open pit or shallow graves in any Roman text. There are a number of historical texts outside the gospels showing the bodies of the crucified dead were buried by family or friends. Cook writes that "those texts show that the narrative of Joseph of Arimethaea's burial of Jesus would be perfectly comprehensible to a Greco-Roman reader of the gospels and historically credible."[112]

Empty tomb

Main article: Empty tomb

Skepticism about the empty tomb narrative

Early on, the stories about the empty tomb were met with skepticism. The Gospel of Matthew already mentions stories that the body was stolen from the grave.[113] Other suggestions, not supported in mainstream scholarship, are that Jesus had not really died on the cross, was lost due to natural causes,[114] or was replaced by an impostor.[115]

The belief that Jesus did not really die on the cross but only appeared to do so is found in a wide variety of early texts, and probably has its historical roots in the earliest stages of Christianity.[116] According to Israeli religion scholar Gedaliahu Stroumsa, this idea came first, and later, docetism broadened to include Jesus was spirit without flesh.[117] It is probable these were present in the first century, as it is against such doctrines that the author of 1 and 2 John seems to argue.[117]

The absence of any reference to the story of Jesus's empty tomb in the Pauline epistles and the Easter kerygma (preaching or proclamation) of the earliest church has led some scholars to suggest that Mark invented it.[note 12] Allison, however, finds this argument from silence unconvincing.[119] Most scholars believe that the Gospel of Mark and the Gospel of John contain two independent attestations of an empty tomb, which in turn suggests that both used already-existing sources[120] and appealed to a commonly held tradition, though Mark may have added to and adapted that tradition to fit his narrative.[121]

Empty tomb and resurrection appearances

N. T. Wright emphatically and extensively argues for the reality of the empty tomb and the subsequent appearances of Jesus, reasoning that as a matter of "inference"[122] both a bodily resurrection and later bodily appearances of Jesus are far better explanations for the empty tomb and the 'meetings' and the rise of Christianity than are any other theories, including those of Ehrman.[122][123] Dale Allison argues for an empty tomb that was later followed by visions of Jesus by the Apostles and Mary Magdalene.[124]

Smith argues that Mark has integrated two traditions, which were first separate, on the disappearance (from the tomb, interpreted as being taken to heaven) and appearance (post-mortem appearances), into one Easter narrative.[125][126] According to Géza Vermes, the story of the empty tomb developed independently from the stories of the post-resurrection appearances, as they are never directly coordinated to form a combined argument.[127] While the coherence of the empty tomb-narrative is questionable, it is "clearly an early tradition."[127] Vermes notes that the story of the empty tomb conflicts with notions of a spiritual resurrection. According to Vermes, "[t]he strictly Jewish bond of spirit and body is better served by the idea of the empty tomb and is no doubt responsible for the introduction of the notions of palpability (Thomas in John) and eating (Luke and John)."[128] Ehrman rejects the story of the empty tomb, and argues that "an empty tomb had nothing to do with it [...] an empty tomb would not produce faith."[129] Ehrman argues that the empty tomb was needed to underscore the physical resurrection of Jesus.[130]

Resurrection of a transformed body

Géza Vermes notes that the story of the empty tomb conflicts with notions of a spiritual resurrection. According to Vermes, "[t]he strictly Jewish bond of spirit and body is better served by the idea of the empty tomb and is no doubt responsible for the introduction of the notions of palpability (Thomas in John) and eating (Luke and John)."[128]

Both Ware and Cook argue, primarily from Paul's terminology and the contemporary Jewish, pagan and cultural understanding of the nature of resurrection, that Paul held to a physically resurrected body (sōma), restored to life, but animated by spirit (pneumatikos) instead of soul (psuchikos), just like the later Gospel accounts.[131][web 5] The nature of this resurrected body is a matter of debate. In 1 Corinthians 15:44,[132] Paul uses the phrase "spiritual body" (sōma pneumatikos),[web 6] which has been explained as a "Spirit-empowered body,"[131][web 5][web 7] but also as a "celestial body," made of a finer material than the flesh.[133][web 7][note 13]

In the Epistle to the Philippians Paul describes how the body of the resurrected Christ is utterly different from the one he wore when he had "the appearance of a man," and holds out a similar glorified state, when Christ "will transform our lowly body," as the goal of the Christian life – "flesh and blood cannot inherit the kingdom of God" (I Corinthians 15:50), and Christians entering the kingdom will be "putting off the body of the flesh" (Colossians 2:11).[134][135] Paul opposed the notion of a purely spiritual resurrection, as propagated by some Christians in Corinth, which he addresses in 1 Corinthians.[133] The developing Gospel-tradition emphasized the material aspects to counter this spiritual interpretation.[130]

Paul's views of a bodily resurrection went against the thoughts of the Greek philosophers to whom a bodily resurrection meant a new imprisonment in a corporeal body, which was what they wanted to avoid – given that for them the corporeal and the material fettered the spirit.[136]

James Dunn notes that there is a great difference between Paul's resurrection appearance, and the appearances described in the Gospels. Where "Paul's seeing was visionary [...], 'from heaven'," in contrast, the Gospel-accounts have a "massive realism" to them.[137] Dunn contends that the "massive realism' [...] of the [Gospel] appearances themselves can only be described as visionary with great difficulty – and Luke would certainly reject the description as inappropriate."[137] According to Dunn, most scholars explain this as a "legendary materialization" of the visionary experiences, "borrowing the traits of the earthly Jesus."[138][note 14] Yet, according to Dunn, there was both "a tendency away from the physical [...] and a reverse tendency towards the physical."[142] The tendency towards the material is most clear, but there are also signs for the tendency away from the physical, and "there are some indications that a more physical understanding was current in the earliest Jerusalem community."[143]

According to Wright, there is substantial unanimity among the early Christian writers (first and second century) that Jesus had been bodily raised from the dead,[144] "with (as the early Christians in their different ways affirmed) a 'transphysical' body, both the same and yet in some mysterious way transformed."[122] According to Wright, Paul "believed he had seen the risen Jesus in person, and [...] his understanding of who this Jesus was included the firm belief that he possessed a transformed but still physical body."[145]

Significance in Christianity

Main article: Salvation in Christianity
 
Right wing of the winged triptych at the Church of the Teutonic Order, Vienna, Austria. The artwork depicts Christ's crucifixion and burial (left), and resurrection (right).

Foundation of Christian faith

In Christian theology, the death, resurrection, and exaltation of Jesus are the most important events, and the foundation of the Christian faith.[3][146][note 15] The Nicene Creed states: "On the third day[note 1] he rose again in accordance with the Scriptures".[147] According to Terry Miethe, a Christian philosopher at Oxford University, the question " 'Did Jesus rise from the dead?' is the most important question regarding the claims of the Christian faith."[148] According to John R. Rice, a Baptist evangelist, the resurrection of Jesus was part of the plan of salvation and redemption by atonement for man's sin.[149] According to the Roman Catechism of the Catholic Church, the resurrection of Jesus causes and is the model of the resurrection of all the dead, as well as the cause and model of repentance, which the catechism calls "spiritual resurrection."[150] Summarizing its traditional analysis, the Catholic Church states in its Catechism:

Although the Resurrection was an historical event that could be verified by the sign of the empty tomb and by the reality of the apostles' encounters with the risen Christ, still it remains at the very heart of the mystery of faith as something that transcends and surpasses history.[151][152]

For orthodox Christians, including some scholars, the resurrection is taken to have been a concrete, material resurrection of a transformed body.[153][web 3][note 13] Craig L. Blomberg argues there are sufficient arguments for the historicity of the resurrection.[155]

In secular and liberal Christian scholarship, the post-resurrection appearances are often explained as subjective visionary experiences in which Jesus's presence was felt,[6][7][156] as articulated in the vision theory of Jesus's appearances.[note 16] In the twenty-first century, modern scholars such as Gerd Lüdemann have proposed that Peter had a vision of Jesus, due to severe grief and mourning.[note 17] Ehrman notes that "Christian apologists sometimes claim that the most sensible historical explanation for these visions is that Jesus [physically] appeared to the disciples."[158]

First ekklēsia

Main article: Jewish Christian

The belief in the resurrection by Jesus's early followers formed the proclamation of the first ekklēsia (lit. "assembly").[159][160] The "visions of the resurrected/exalted Christ" reinforced the impact Jesus and his ministry had on his early followers,[161] and interpreted in a scriptural framework they gave the impetus to Christ-devotion[162] and the belief in the exaltation of Jesus.[10][163] Jesus's death was interpreted in light of the scriptures as a redemptive death, being part of God's plan.[164] The subsequent appearances led to the resumption of the missionary activity of Jesus's followers,[6][12] with Peter assuming the leadership role in the first ekklēsia (which formed the basis for the Apostolic succession).[165][166]

In the Antiquities of the Jews, a 1st-century account of Jewish history by Josephus, believers of the resurrection are discussed. However, this reference to the resurrection is widely believed to have been added by a Christian interpolator.[167] Within the non-canonical literature of Gospel of Peter, there is a retelling of the resurrection of Jesus.[168]

Ushering in the last days

Jesus's followers expected God's Kingdom to come soon, and Jesus's resurrection was the first event of the Endtime.[169][note 18] As Borg and Crossan note, "For Mark the kingdom of God is already here because the Son of Man is already present."[169]

Exaltation and Christology

See also: Ascension of Jesus, Session of Christ, and Christology
Christ-devotion

The New Testament writings contend that the resurrection was "the beginning of His exalted life"[170][note 19] as Christ and Lord.[172][web 2] Jesus is the "firstborn of the dead", prōtotokos, the first to be raised from the dead, thereby acquiring the "special status of the firstborn as the preeminent son and heir".[1][web 2] According to Beale

"Firstborn" refers to the high, privileged position that Christ has as a result of the resurrection from the dead [...] Christ has gained such a sovereign position over the cosmos, not in the sense that he is recognized as the first-created being of all creation or as the origin of creation, but in the sense that he is the inaugurator of the new creation by means of his resurrection.[web 2]

Hurtado notes that soon after his death, Jesus was called Lord (Kyrios), which "associates him in astonishing ways with God".[173] The term Lord reflected the belief that God had exalted Jesus to a divine status "at God's 'right hand'".[174] The worship of God as expressed in the phrase "call upon the name of the Lord [Yahweh]" was also applied to Jesus, invocating his name "in corporate worship and in the wider devotional pattern of Christian believers (e.g., baptism, exorcism, healing)".[175]

According to Hurtado, powerful religious experiences were an indispensable factor in the emergence of Christ-devotion.[176][note 20] Those experiences "seem to have included visions of (and/or ascents to) God's heaven, in which the glorified Christ was seen in an exalted position."[5][note 3] Those experiences were interpreted in the framework of God's redemptive purposes, as reflected in the scriptures, in a "dynamic interaction between devout, prayerful searching for, and pondering over, scriptural texts and continuing powerful religious experiences."[179] This initiated a "new devotional pattern unprecedented in Jewish monotheism," that is, the worship of Jesus next to God,[180] giving Jesus a central place because his ministry, and its consequences, had a strong impact on his early followers.[181] Revelations, including those visions, but also inspired and spontaneous utterances, and "charismatic exegesis" of the Jewish scriptures, convinced them that this devotion was commanded by God.[182]

Ehrman notes that both Jesus and his early followers were apocalyptic Jews, who believed in the bodily resurrection, which would start when the coming of God's Kingdom was near.[183] According to Ehrman, "the disciples' belief in the resurrection was based on visionary experiences,"[8] arguing that visions usually have a strong persuasive power, but also noting that the Gospel-accounts record a tradition of doubt about the appearances of Jesus. Ehrman's "tentative suggestion" is that only a few followers had visions, including Peter, Paul and Mary. They told others about those visions, convincing most of their close associates that Jesus was raised from the dead, but not all of them.[note 21] Eventually, these stories were retold and embellished, leading to the story that all disciples had seen the risen Jesus.[184] The belief in Jesus's resurrection radically changed their perceptions, concluding from his absence that he must have been exalted to heaven, by God himself, exalting him to an unprecedented status and authority.[10]

Low and High Christology
See also: Early High Christology and Preexistence of Christ

It has long been argued that the New Testament writings contain two different Christologies, namely a "low" or adoptionist Christology, and a "high" or "incarnation Christology."[185] The "low Christology" or "adoptionist Christology" is the belief "that God exalted Jesus to be his Son by raising him from the dead,"[186] thereby raising him to "divine status,"[web 9] as in Romans 1:4.[187] The other early Christology is "high Christology," which is "the view that Jesus was a pre-existent divine being who became a human, did the Father’s will on earth, and then was taken back up into heaven whence he had originally come,"[web 9][188] and from where he appeared on earth. The chronology of the development of these early Christologies is a matter of debate within contemporary scholarship.[189][190][191][web 10]

According to the "evolutionary model"[192] c.q. "evolutionary theories,"[193] as proposed by Bousset, followed by Brown, the Christological understanding of Christ developed over time, from a low Christology to a high Christology,[194][195][196] as witnessed in the Gospels.[190] According to the evolutionary model, the earliest Christians believed that Jesus was a human who was exalted, c.q. adopted as God's Son,[197][198][199] when he was resurrected,[196][200] signaling the nearness of the Kingdom of God, when all dead would be resurrected and the righteous exalted.[201] Later beliefs shifted the exaltation to his baptism, birth, and subsequently to the idea of his eternal existence, as witnessed in the Gospel of John.[196] Mark shifted the moment of when Jesus became the son to the baptism of Jesus, and later still Matthew and Luke shifted it to the moment of the divine conception, and finally John declared that Jesus had been with God from the beginning: "In the beginning was the Word".[199]

Since the 1970s, the late datings for the development of a "high Christology" have been contested,[202] and a majority of scholars argue that this "High Christology" existed already before the writings of Paul.[185] This "incarnation Christology" or "high Christology" did not evolve over a longer time, but was a "big bang" of ideas which were already present at the start of Christianity, and took further shape in the first few decades of the church, as witnessed in the writings of Paul.[202][web 11][web 9][web 12]

According to Ehrman, these two Christologies existed alongside each other, calling the "low Christology" an "adoptionist Christology, and "the "high Christology" an "incarnation Christology."[185] While adoptionism was declared heresy at the end of the 2nd century,[203][204] it was adhered to by the Ebionites,[205] who regarded Jesus as the Messiah while rejecting his divinity and his virgin birth,[206] and insisted on the necessity of following Jewish law and rites.[207] They revered James the brother of Jesus (James the Just); and rejected Paul the Apostle as an apostate from the Law.[208] They show strong similarities with the earliest form of Jewish Christianity, and their specific theology may have been a "reaction to the law-free Gentile mission."[209]

In the "pre-existence" Christology, Christ's resurrection and exaltation was a restoration of the exalted status he already had, but had not grasped at, as described in Philippians|2:6-11.[210][211][web 1][note 2]

Redemptive death

See also: Salvation in Christianity § Atonement, and Redeemer

Jesus's death was interpreted as a redemptive death "for our sins," in accordance with God's plan as contained in the Jewish scriptures.[212][note 7] The significance lay in "the theme of divine necessity and fulfillment of the scriptures," not in the later Pauline emphasis on "Jesus's death as a sacrifice or an expiation for our sins."[213] For the early Jewish Christians, "the idea that Messiah's death was a necessary redemptive event functioned more as an apologetic explanation for Jesus's crucifixion"[214] "proving that Jesus's death was no surprise to God."[215][note 22]

Call to missionary activity

Main articles: Great Commission, Apostles, and Christian mission

According to Dunn, the appearances to the disciples have "a sense of obligation to make the vision known."[217] Helmut Koester states that the stories of the resurrection were originally epiphanies in which the disciples were called to a ministry by the risen Jesus, and at a secondary stage were interpreted as physical proof of the event. He contends that the more detailed accounts of the resurrection are also secondary and do not come from historically trustworthy sources, but instead belong to the genre of the narrative types.[6]

Biblical scholar Géza Vermes argues that the resurrection is to be understood as a reviving of the self-confidence of the followers of Jesus, under the influence of the Spirit, "prompting them to resume their apostolic mission." They felt the presence of Jesus in their own actions, "rising again, today and tomorrow, in the hearts of the men who love him and feel he is near."[12][note 23] According to Gerd Lüdemann, Peter convinced the other disciples that the resurrection of Jesus signaled that the end-times were near and God's Kingdom was coming, when the dead who would rise again, as evidenced by Jesus. This revitalized the disciples, starting-off their new mission.[220][221][web 13]

Leadership of Peter

Main articles: Saint Peter and Apostolic succession

Peter claimed forcefully that Jesus appeared to him,[222][184] and legitimised by Jesus's appearance he assumed leadership of the group of early followers, forming the Jerusalem ekklēsia mentioned by Paul.[222][166] He was soon eclipsed in this leadership by James the Just, "the Brother of the Lord,"[223][224] which may explain why the early texts contain scarce information about Peter.[224][note 24] According to Gerd Lüdemann, Peter was the first who had a vision of Jesus,[220] noting that Peter and Mary both had appearance-experiences, but arguing that the tradition of Mary's appearance is a later development, and her appearance probably was not the first.[226][note 21]

According to Christian proto-orthodoxy, Peter was the first to who Jesus appeared, and therefore the rightful leader of the Church.[222] The resurrection forms the basis of the Apostolic succession and the institutional power of orthodoxy, as the heirs of Peter,[228] to whom Jesus appeared, and is described as "the rock" on which the church will be built.[222] Though the Gospels, and Paul's letters, describe appearances to a greater number of people, only the appearances to the Twelve Apostles count as lending authority and Apostolic succession.[229]

Paul – participation in Christ

Main article: Participation in Christ

The appearance of Jesus to Paul convinced him that Jesus was the risen Lord and Christ, who commissioned him to be an apostle to the Gentiles.[230][231][232] According to Newbigin, "Paul presents himself not as the teacher of a new theology but as the messenger commissioned by the authority of the Lord himself to announce a new fact – namely that in the ministry, death and resurrection of Jesus God has acted decisively to reveal and effect his purpose of redemption for the whole world."[233] The teachings of the apostle Paul form a key element of the Christian tradition and theology. Fundamental to Pauline theology is the connection between Christ's resurrection, and redemption.[234] In 1 Corinthians 15:13–14, 15:17, and 15:20–22, Paul writes:

If there is no resurrection of the dead, then Christ has not been raised; if Christ has not been raised, then our preaching is in vain and your faith is in vain [...] If Christ has not been raised, your faith is futile [...] But Christ really has been raised from the dead. He is the first of all those who will rise. Death came because of what a man did. Rising from the dead also comes because of what a man did. Because of Adam, all people die. So because of Christ, all will be made alive.[235][236]

The kerygma of 1 Corinthians 15:3 states that "Christ died for our sins."[note 7] The meaning of that kerygma is a matter of debate, and open to multiple interpretations. Traditionally, this kerygma is interpreted as meaning that Jesus's death was an atonement or ransom for, or propitiation or expiation of, God's wrath against humanity because of their sins. With Jesus death, humanity was freed from this wrath.[237][web 14][note 25] In the classical Protestant understanding, which has dominated the understanding of Paul's writings, humans partake in this salvation by faith in Jesus Christ; this faith is a grace given by God, and people are justified by God through Jesus Christ and faith in Him.[238]

More recent scholarship has raised several concerns regarding these interpretations. According to E. P. Sanders, who initiated the so-called "New Perspective on Paul", Paul saw the faithful redeemed by participation in Jesus's death and rising. Though "Jesus's death substituted for that of others and thereby freed believers from sin and guilt," a metaphor derived from "ancient sacrificial theology,"[web 16][note 26] the essence of Paul's writing is not in the "legal terms" regarding the expiation of sin, but the act of "participation in Christ through dying and rising with him."[239][note 27] According to Sanders, "those who are baptized into Christ are baptized into his death, and thus they escape the power of sin [...] he died so that the believers may die with him and consequently live with him."[web 16] Just as Christians share in Jesus's death in baptism, so they will share in his resurrection.[240] James F. McGrath notes that Paul "prefers to use the language of participation. One died for all, so that all died.[241] This is not only different from substitution, it is the opposite of it."[web 4]

Paul insists that salvation is received by the grace of God; according to Sanders, this insistence is in line with Judaism of c. 200 BC – c. AD 200, which saw God's covenant with Israel as an act of grace of God. Observance of the Law is needed to maintain the covenant, but the covenant is not earned by observing the Law, but by the grace of God.[web 20]

Church Fathers – atonement

Main article: Ransom theory of atonement

The Apostolic Fathers, discussed the death and resurrection of Jesus, including Ignatius (50–115),[242] Polycarp (69–155), and Justin Martyr (100–165). The understanding of the Greek Fathers of the death and resurrection of Jesus as an atonement is the "classic paradigm" of the Church Fathers,[243][244] who developed the themes found in the New Testament.[245]

During the first millennium AD, the ransom theory of atonement was the dominant metaphor, both in eastern and western Christianity, until it was replaced in the west by Anselmus's satisfaction theory of atonement.[246] The ransom theory of atonement says that Christ liberated humanity from slavery to sin and Satan, and thus death, by giving his own life as a ransom sacrifice to Satan, swapping the life of the perfect (Jesus), for the lives of the imperfect (humans). It entails the idea that God deceived the devil,[247] and that Satan, or death, had "legitimate rights"[247] over sinful souls in the afterlife, due to the fall of man and inherited sin.

The ransom theory was first clearly enunciated by Irenaeus (c. 130–c. 202),[248] who was an outspoken critic of Gnosticism, but borrowed ideas from their dualistic worldview.[249] In this worldview, humankind is under the power of the Demiurge, a lesser God who has created the world. Yet, humans have a spark of the true divine nature within them, which can be liberated by gnosis (knowledge) of this divine spark. This knowledge is revealed by the Logos, "the very mind of the supreme God," who entered the world in the person of Jesus. Nevertheless, the Logos could not simply undo the power of the Demiurge, and had to hide his real identity, appearing as a physical form, thereby misleading the Demiurge, and liberating humankind.[249] In Irenaeus' writings, the Demiurge is replaced by the devil, while Justin Martyr had already equated Jesus and the Logos.[249]

Origen (184–253) introduced the idea that the devil held legitimate rights over humans, who were bought free by the blood of Christ.[250] He also introduced the notion that the devil was deceived in thinking that he could master the human soul.[251]

Late Antiquity and early Middle Ages

Following the conversion of Constantine and the Edict of Milan in 313, the ecumenical councils of the 4th, 5th and 6th centuries, that focused on Christology, helped shape the Christian understanding of the redemptive nature of resurrection, and influenced both the development of its iconography, and its use within Liturgy.[252]

Belief in bodily resurrection was a constant note of the Christian church in antiquity. Augustine of Hippo accepted it at the time of his conversion in 386.[253] Augustine defended resurrection, and argued that given that Christ has risen, there is resurrection of the dead.[254][255] Moreover, he argued that the death and resurrection of Jesus was for the salvation of man, stating: "to achieve each resurrection of ours, the savior paid with his single life, and he pre-enacted and presented his one and only one by way of sacrament and by way of model."[256]

The 5th-century theology of Theodore of Mopsuestia provides an insight into the development of the Christian understanding of the redemptive nature of resurrection. The crucial role of the sacraments in the mediation of salvation was well accepted at the time. In Theodore's representation of the Eucharist, the sacrificial and salvific elements are combined in the "One who saved us and delivered us by the sacrifice of Himself". Theodore's interpretation of the Eucharistic rite is directed towards the triumph over the power of death brought about by the resurrection.[257]

The emphasis on the salvific nature of the resurrection continued in Christian theology in the next centuries, e.g., in the 8th century Saint John of Damascus wrote that: "... When he had freed those who were bound from the beginning of time, Christ returned again from among the dead, having opened for us the way to resurrection" and Christian iconography of the ensuing years represented that concept.[258]

Present-day

Lorenzen finds "a strange silence about the resurrection in many pulpits". He writes that among some Christians, ministers and professors, it seems to have become "a cause for embarrassment or the topic of apologetics".[259] The idea of a bodily resurrection remains controversial.[260]

According to Warnock, many Christians neglect the resurrection because of their understandable preoccupation with the Cross.[261]

Easter

Main article: Easter

Easter (or Easter Sunday) is the preeminent Christian feast that celebrates the resurrection of Jesus, and, according to Susan J. White, "is clearly the earliest Christian festival."[262] According to James Dunn, "In Easter we celebrate man become God [...] that in the death and resurrection of Christ God has broken the stranglehold of human selfishness, has proved the enduring and conquering strength of divine love."[263] According to Thorwald Lorenzen, the first Easter led to a shift in emphasis from faith "in God" to faith "in Christ".[259] According to Raymond Harfgus Taylor, Easter "focuses upon the consummation of the redemptive act of God in the death/resurrection of Jesus Christ."[264]

Easter is linked to the Passover and Exodus from Egypt recorded in the Old Testament through the Last Supper and crucifixion that preceded the resurrection. According to the New Testament, Jesus gave the Passover meal a new meaning, as he prepared himself and his disciples for his death in the upper room during the Last Supper. He identified the loaf of bread and cup of wine as his body soon to be sacrificed and his blood soon to be shed. 1 Corinthians 5:7 states, "Get rid of the old yeast that you may be a new batch without yeast – as you really are. For Christ, our Passover lamb, has been sacrificed";[265] this refers to the Passover requirement to have no yeast in the house and to the allegory of Jesus as the Paschal lamb.[266] The Jewish feast of First-fruits is regarded by dispensationalists as foreshadowing its fulfilment in the resurrection of Jesus based on 1 Corinthians 15:20 "But Christ has indeed been raised from the dead, the firstfruits of those who have fallen asleep."[267]

In Christian art

Main article: Resurrection of Jesus in Christian art
 
The Chi Rho with a wreath symbolizing the victory of the Resurrection, above Roman soldiers, c. 350 AD

In the Catacombs of Rome, artists indirectly hinted at the resurrection by using images from the Old Testament such as the fiery furnace and Daniel in the Lion's den. Depictions prior to the 7th century generally showed secondary events such as the Myrrhbearers at the tomb of Jesus to convey the concept of the resurrection. An early symbol of the resurrection was the wreathed Chi Rho (Greek letters representing the word "Khristos" or "Christ"), whose origin traces to the victory of emperor Constantine I at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312, which he attributed to the use of a cross on the shields of his soldiers. Constantine used the Chi Rho on his standard and his coins showed a labarum with the Chi Rho killing a serpent.[268]

The use of a wreath around the Chi Rho symbolizes the victory of the resurrection over death, and is an early visual representation of the connection between the Crucifixion of Jesus and his triumphal resurrection, as seen in the 4th-century sarcophagus of Domitilla[269] in Rome. Here, in the wreathed Chi Rho the death and Resurrection of Christ are shown as inseparable, and the Resurrection is not merely a happy ending tucked at the end of the life of Christ on earth. Given the use of similar symbols on the Roman military banner, this depiction also conveyed another victory, namely that of the Christian faith: the Roman soldiers who had once arrested Jesus and marched him to Calvary now walked under the banner of a resurrected Christ.[270]

The cosmic significance of the resurrection in Western theology goes back to Saint Ambrose, who in the 4th century said that "The universe rose again in Him, the heaven rose again in Him, the earth rose again in Him, for there shall be a new heaven and a new earth".[271][272] This theme developed gradually in the West, later than in the East where the resurrection had been linked from an earlier date to redemption and the renewal and rebirth of the whole world. In art this was symbolized by combining the depictions of the resurrection with the Harrowing of Hell in icons and paintings. A good example is from the Chora Church in Istanbul, where John the Baptist, Solomon and other figures are also present, depicting that Christ was not alone in the resurrection.[272] The depiction sequence at the 10th-century Hosios Loukas shows Christ as he pulls Adam from his tomb, followed by Eve, signifying the salvation of humanity after the resurrection.[273]

Gallery of art

For a Commons gallery see: Resurrection gallery

Relics

Main articles: Acheiropoieta, Shroud of Turin, and Veil of Veronica
 
Secondo Pia's 1898 negative of the image on the Shroud of Turin has an appearance suggesting a positive image. It is used as part of the devotion to the Holy Face of Jesus.

The resurrection of Jesus has long been central to Christian faith and appears within diverse elements of the Christian tradition, from feasts to artistic depictions to religious relics. In Christian teachings, the sacraments derive their saving power from the passion and resurrection of Christ, upon which the salvation of the world entirely depends.[274]

An example of the interweaving of the teachings on the resurrection with Christian relics is the application of the concept of "miraculous image formation" at the moment of resurrection to the Shroud of Turin. Christian authors have stated the belief that the body around whom the shroud was wrapped was not merely human, but divine, and that the image on the shroud was miraculously produced at the moment of resurrection.[275][276] Quoting Pope Paul VI's statement that the shroud is "the wonderful document of His Passion, Death and Resurrection, written for us in letters of blood" author Antonio Cassanelli argues that the shroud is a deliberate divine record of the five stages of the Passion of Christ, created at the moment of resurrection.[277]

Views of other religions

Groups such as Jews, Muslims, Baháʼís, and other non-Christians, as well as some liberal Christians, dispute whether Jesus actually rose from the dead. Arguments over death and resurrection claims occur at many religious debates and interfaith dialogues.[278]

Judaism

Further information: Judaism's view of Jesus

Christianity split from Judaism in the 1st century AD, and the two faiths have differed in their theology since. According to the Toledot Yeshu, the body of Jesus was removed in the same night by a gardener named Juda, after hearing the disciples planned to steal the body of Jesus.[279][280] However, Toledot Yeshu is not considered either canonical or normative within rabbinic literature.[281] Van Voorst states that Toledot Yeshu is a medieval document set without a fixed form which is "most unlikely" to have reliable information about Jesus.[282] The Blackwell Companion to Jesus states that the Toledot Yeshu has no historical facts as such, and was perhaps created as a tool for warding off conversions to Christianity.[283]

Gnostics

 
A rotunda in Church of the Holy Sepulchre, called the Anastasis ("Resurrection"), which contains the remains of a rock-cut room that Helena and Macarius identified as the burial site of Jesus

Some Gnostics did not believe in a literal physical resurrection. "For the gnostic any resurrection of the dead was excluded from the outset; the flesh or substance is destined to perish. 'There is no resurrection of the flesh, but only of the soul', say the so-called Archontics, a late gnostic group in Palestine".[284]

Islam

Main articles: Islamic view of Jesus' death and Jesus in Islam

Muslims believe that ʿĪsā (Jesus) son of Mariam (Mary) was a holy prophet with a divine message. The Islamic perspective is that Jesus was not crucified and will return to the world at the end of times. "But Allāh raised him up to Himself. And Allāh is Ever All-Powerful, All-Wise".[285] The Quran says in Surah An-Nisa [Ch 004: Verse 157] "And because of their saying, 'We killed Messiah ʿĪsā, son of Maryam, the Messenger of Allāh', – but they killed him not, nor crucified him, but it appeared so to them, and those who differ therein are full of doubts".[286]

Islam Ahmadiyya

Ahmadi Muslims believe that, as Jesus is the Messiah to the Children of Israel[287] his objective was to gather their following. For this reason, Ahmadis believe that Jesus survived the crucifixion, as supported by the Qur'an,[288][289][290][291] as a death on the cross would be a cursed one, supported by the Bible.[292] This belief is held as Jesus had other "sheep" to tend to.[293]

After surviving the crucifixion, Jesus and his mother migrated to another land[294] where he continued his mission.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b c d See "Why Was Resurrection on 'the Third Day'? Two Insights" for explanations on the phrase "third day". According to Ernst Lüdemann[32] and Pinchas Lapide, "third day" may refer to Hosea 6:1–2:[33]

    Come, let us return to the Lord;
    for he has torn us, that he may heal us;
    he has struck us down, and he will bind us up.
    After two days he will revive us;
    on the third day he will raise us up,
    that we may live before him.

    See also 2 Kings 20:8: "Hezekiah said to Isaiah, 'What shall be the sign that the Lord will heal me, and that I shall go up to the house of the Lord on the third day?'"[34]

    According to Sheehan, Paul's reference to Jesus having risen "on the third day [...] simply expresses the belief that Jesus was rescued from the fate of utter absence from God (death) and was admitted to the saving presence of God (the eschatological future)."[35]

  2. ^ a b EB: "Session at the right hand of the Father was apparently a Christian interpretation of the first verse of Psalm 110. It implied the elevation—or, as the doctrine of preexistence became clearer, the restoration—of Christ to a position of honour with God. Taken together, the Ascension and the session were a way of speaking about the presence of Christ with the Father during the interim between the Resurrection and the Second Advent."[web 1]
  3. ^ a b These visions may mostly have appeared during corporate worship.[177] Johan Leman contends that the communal meals provided a context in which participants entered a state of mind in which the presence of Jesus was felt.[178]
  4. ^ In 1 Corinthians 15:3 - 7, Paul passes on what Judaism valued as the best evidence: first-person testimony of the resurrection. According to John Kloppenborg, Paul's "argumentation in chap.15 revolves around the reality of the resurrection; the tradition adduced by Paul in support of his argument must have contained some element of proof of the resurrection (i.e., witnesses) - otherwise there would have been no reason for Paul to adduce it in the first place".[14] That this teaching predates Paul and the New Testament book that contains it has been almost universally acknowledged.[15] Bart Ehrman dates the text to within one to two years of the crucifixion.[16] However, whether the pre-Pauline material is from the earliest Aramaic-speaking community or from the Jewish-Hellenistic church is disputed.[17]
  5. ^ Early creed:
    • Neufeld, The Earliest Christian Confessions (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964) p. 47
    • Reginald Fuller, The Formation of the Resurrection Narratives (New York: Macmillan, 1971) p. 10
    • Wolfhart Pannenberg, Jesus – God and Man translated Lewis Wilkins and Duane Pribe (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1968) p. 90
    • Oscar Cullmann, The Early Church: Studies in Early Christian History and Theology, ed. A. J. B. Higgins (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1966) p. 64
    • Hans Conzelmann, 1 Corinthians, translated James W. Leitch (Philadelphia: Fortress 1969) p. 251
    • Bultmann, Theology of the New Testament vol. 1 pp. 45, 80–82, 293
    • R. E. Brown, The Virginal Conception and Bodily Resurrection of Jesus (New York: Paulist Press, 1973) pp. 81, 92
    • Most Fellows of the Jesus Seminar also concluded that this tradition dates to before Paul's conversion, c. AD 33.[23]
  6. ^ Origins within the Jerusalem apostolic community:
    • Wolfhart Pannenberg, Jesus – God and Man translated Lewis Wilkins and Duane Pribe (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1968) p. 90
    • Oscar Cullmann, The Early church: Studies in Early Christian History and Theology, ed. A. J. B. Higgins (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1966) pp. 66–66
    • R. E. Brown, The Virginal Conception and Bodily Resurrection of Jesus (New York: Paulist Press, 1973) p. 81
    • Thomas Sheehan, First Coming: How the Kingdom of God Became Christianity (New York: Random House, 1986) pp. 110, 118
    • Ulrich Wilckens, Resurrection translated A. M. Stewart (Edinburgh: Saint Andrew, 1977) p. 2
  7. ^ a b c d The kerygma from 1 Corinthians 15:3–5 refers to two mythologies: the Greek myth of the noble dead, to which the Maccabean notion of martyrdom and dying for ones people is related; and the Jewish myth of the persecuted sage or righteous man, c.q. the "story of the child of wisdom."[27] The notion of 'dying for' refers to this martyrdom and persecution.[28] James F. McGrath refers to 4 Maccabees,[29] "which presents a martyr praying "Be merciful to your people, and let our punishment suffice for them. Make my blood their purification, and take my life in exchange for theirs".[30] Clearly, there were ideas that existed in the Judaism of the time that helped make sense of the death of the righteous in terms of atonement."[web 4] See also Herald Gandi (2018), The Resurrection: "According to the Scriptures"?, referring to Isaiah 53,[31] among others: "[4] Surely he has borne our infirmities and carried our diseases; yet we accounted him stricken, struck down by God, and afflicted. [5] But he was wounded for our transgressions, crushed for our iniquities; upon him was the punishment that made us whole, and by his bruises we are healed [...] [10] Yet it was the will of the Lord to crush him with pain. When you make his life an offering for sin, he shall see his offspring, and shall prolong his days; through him the will of the Lord shall prosper. [11] Out of his anguish he shall see light; he shall find satisfaction through his knowledge. The righteous one, my servant, shall make many righteous, and he shall bear their iniquities."
  8. ^ Allison refers to "Crossan, Historical Jesus, 391–4; idem, Jesus: A Revolutionary Biography (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1994), 123–58; idem, Who Killed Jesus? Exposing the Roots of Anti-Semitism in the Gospel Story of the Death of Jesus (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1996), 160–77))"
  9. ^ Allison refers to Crossan (1996), Who Killed Jesus?
  10. ^ In an earlier publication (2003), Ehrman recognized that "Some scholars have argued that it's more plausible that in fact Jesus was placed in a common burial plot, which sometimes happened, or was, as many other crucified people, simply left to be eaten by scavenging animals," but further elaborated by stating that "[T]he accounts are fairly unanimous in saying [...] that Jesus was in fact buried by this fellow, Joseph of Arimathea, and so it's relatively reliable that that's what happened."[103]
  11. ^ Wright (2009, p. 22)]] argues that the burial of Christ is part of the earliest gospel traditions.
  12. ^ Bultmann dismisses the empty tomb story as "an apologetic legend."[118]
  13. ^ a b According to Christian apologist Gary Habermas, "Many [conservative] scholars have spoken in support of a [transformed] bodily notion of Jesus' resurrection."[web 3] According to Habermas, Paul refers to a physical body in 1 Corinthians 15:44.[154] Habermas notes that Paul doesn't use solely the word pneuma, but speaks about "spiritual [pneumatikos] body [soma]". According to Habermas, Paul refers to a physical body, arguing that "Paul says three things in one chapter [of Philippians] that indicates that he’s talking about a physical resurrection." The first is that Paul says that he is a Pharisee, implying that he believes in a physical resurrection. The second is that, in Philippians 3:11, Paul says "That I may attain the resurrection of the dead," using the phrase eks-anastasis ("εἰς τὴν ἐξανάστασιν") (out-resurrection), "resurrection from out among the dead ones." And third, in Philippians 3:20–21 "He Jesus will change my body to be like His body." Habermas further notes that in Philippians 3:20,21, Paul speaks of a "glorious body" which is resurrected.[web 8]
  14. ^ According to Sheehan, Paul's account of the resurrection is not meant to be taken as referring to a literal, physical rising from the grave.[139] Paul's understanding of the resurrection, and perhaps Peter's as well, is a metaphorical one, with the stories of Jesus's (figurative) resurrection reflecting his triumphant "entry into God's eschatological presence."[140] Sheehan:

    The word "resurrection" is a metaphor that unfortunately has been taken literally. That's where the confusion begins. In the New Testament the word for "resurrection" means literally "awakening," like waking up your kids in the morning. The New Testament says not that God "resurrected" Jesus from the dead, but that he "awoke" him. Using metaphoric language, the New Testament says God awoke Jesus from the sleep of death and brought him into God's heavenly presence. There's nothing here about an event in space and time. Resurrection doesn't mean coming back to life."[139]

    Sheehan quotes Helmut Koester:

    "Resurrection is thus a mythological metaphor for God's victory over the powers of unrighteousness. ... The preaching of Jesus' resurrection was thus the proclamation that the new age had been ushered in": "The Structure and Criteria of Early Christian Beliefs" in Robinson and Koester, Trajectories, 223, 224.[141]
  15. ^ 1 Cor 15:12–20 1 Pet 1:3
  16. ^ According to Habermas, a Christian apologist, both internal states of mind, such as hallucinations, conversion disorder, and bereavement-related visions, as well as objective phenomena such as illusions have been proposed as possible natural explanations for what the disciples believed they saw.[157]
  17. ^ "Gerd Lüdemann 2012: 552 (cf. 550-557); 2004: 159 (cf. 163-166); 1994: 174 (cf. 173-179). See also Bart Ehrman 2014: 183-206, although Ehrman never describes the vision he proposes. Other proponents of some form of vision hypothesis include Michael Goulder (1996, 2000, 2005) and James Crossley (2005), although Goulder proposes only a spiritual resurrection belief emerged initially, and Crossley considers Jesus’ predictions of his own death historical and a contributing factor to the resurrection belief."
  18. ^ Ushering in the last days and the Kingdom of God:
    • James Dunn (2006), The Theology of Pual the Apostle, p.240: "...the resurrection of Jesus was understood by Paul (as those before him) as ushering in a new age, even the last days."
    • Paula Fredriksen (2018), When Christians Were Jews, p.86-87: "The Kingdom truly was at hand. Jesus' own resurrection was for them meaningful as the first of a cascade of anticipated Endtime events."
    • Wright (2003, p. 272): "He [Paul] believed himself to be living at a new stage in the eschatological timetable: the 'age to come' had already begun, precisely with the Messiah's resurrection."
  19. ^ Novakovic quotes C.E.B. Cranfield, The Epistle to the Romans, 1:62.[171]
  20. ^ See also Andrew Chester (2007), Messiah and Exaltation: Jewish Messianic and Visionary Traditions and New Testament Christology, Mohr Siebeck; and Larry Huratdo (11 December 2012), "'Early High Christology': A Recent Assessment of Scholarly Debate".
  21. ^ a b According to Sanders, "there seems to have been a competition: 'I saw him,' 'so did I,' 'the women saw him first,' 'no, I did; they didn't see him at all,' and so on."[227]
  22. ^ Hurtado cites Green, The Death of Jesus, p.323.[216]
  23. ^ Vermes describes are eight possible theories to explain the resurrection of Jesus, concluding that none of these six possibilities "stands up to stringent scrutiny",[218] and then stating that the resurrection is a "resurrection in the hearts of men."[219]
  24. ^ According to Lüdemann, in the discussions about the strictness of adherence to the Jewish Law, the more conservative faction of James the Just took the overhand over the more liberal position of Peter, who soon lost influence.[224] According to Dunn, this was not an "usurpation of power," but a consequence of Peter's involvement in missionary activities.[225]
  25. ^ Atonement:
    * Briscoe and Ogilvie (2003): "Paul says that Christ's ransom price is his blood."[237]
    * Cobb: "The question is whether Paul thought that God sacrificed Jesus to atone for human sins. During the past thousand years, this idea has often been viewed in the Western church as at the heart of Christianity, and many of those who uphold it have appealed to Paul as its basis [...] In fact, the word "atonement" is lacking in many standard translations. The King James Translation uses "propitiation", and the Revised Standard Version uses "expiation." The American Translation reads: "For God showed him publicly dying as a sacrifice of reconciliation to be taken advantage of through faith." The Good News Bible renders the meaning as: "God offered him, so that by his sacrificial death he should become the means by which people's sins are forgiven through their faith in him." Despite this variety, and the common avoidance of the word "atonement," all these translations agree with the New Revised Standard Version in suggesting that God sacrificed Jesus so that people could be reconciled to God through faith. All thereby support the idea that is most directly formulated by the use of the word "atonement."[web 15]
  26. ^ According to The Jewish Encyclopedia (1906), "The Mishnah says that sins are expiated (1) by sacrifice, (2) by repentance at death or on Yom Kippur, (3) in the case of the lighter transgressions of the positive or negative precepts, by repentance at any time [...] The graver sins, according to Rabbi, are apostasy, heretical interpretation of the Torah, and non-circumcision (Yoma 86a). The atonement for sins between a man and his neighbor is an ample apology (Yoma 85b)."[web 17]

    The Jewish Virual Library writes: "Another important concept [of sacrifices] is the element of substitution. The idea is that the thing being offered is a substitute for the person making the offering, and the things that are done to the offering are things that should have been done to the person offering. The offering is in some sense 'punished' in place of the offerer. It is interesting to note that whenever the subject of Karbanot is addressed in the Torah, the name of G-d used is the four-letter name indicating G-d's mercy."[web 18]

    The Jewish Encyclopedia further writes: "Most efficacious seemed to be the atoning power of suffering experienced by the righteous during the Exile. This is the idea underlying the description of the suffering servant of God in Isa. liii. 4, 12, Hebr. [...] of greater atoning power than all the Temple sacrifices was the suffering of the elect ones who were to be servants and witnesses of the Lord (Isa. xlii. 1-4, xlix. 1–7, l. 6). This idea of the atoning power of the suffering and death of the righteous finds expression also in IV Macc. vi. 27, xvii. 21–23; M. Ḳ. 28a; Pesiḳ. xxvii. 174b; Lev. R. xx.; and formed the basis of Paul's doctrine of the atoning blood of Christ (Rom. iii. 25)."[web 19]
  27. ^ Jordan Cooper: "Sanders sees Paul’s motifs of salvation as more participationist than juristic. The reformation overemphasized the judicial categories of forgiveness and escape from condemnation, while ignoring the real heart of salvation, which is a mystical participation in Christ. Paul shows this in his argument in his first epistle to the Corinthians when arguing against sexual immorality. It is wrong because it affects one’s union with Christ by uniting himself to a prostitute. Sin is not merely the violation of an abstract law. This participationist language is also used in Corinthians in the discussion of the Lord’s Supper wherein one participates in the body and blood of Christ."[web 20]

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External links

  •   Media related to Resurrection of Christ at Wikimedia Commons

May 02, 2023
resurrection, jesus, resurrection, jesus, biblical, greek, ἀνάστασις, τοῦ, Ἰησοῦ, christian, belief, that, raised, jesus, third, note, after, crucifixion, starting, restoring, note, exalted, life, christ, lord, according, testament, writing, jesus, firstborn, . The resurrection of Jesus Biblical Greek ἀnastasis toῦ Ἰhsoῦ is the Christian belief that God raised Jesus on the third day note 1 after his crucifixion starting or restoring web 1 note 2 his exalted life as Christ and Lord web 2 According to the New Testament writing Jesus was firstborn from the dead ushering in the Kingdom of God 1 web 2 He appeared to his disciples calling the apostles to the Great Commission of forgiving sin and baptizing repenters and ascended to Heaven Resurrection of Jesus Christ Kinnaird Resurrection by Raphael 1502 For the Christian tradition the bodily resurrection was the restoration to life of a transformed body powered by spirit web 3 as described by Paul and the Gospel authors that led to the establishment of Christianity In Christian theology the resurrection of Jesus is the central mystery of the Christian faith 2 It provides the foundation for that faith as commemorated by Easter along with Jesus s life death and sayings 3 For Christians his resurrection is the guarantee that all the Christian dead will be resurrected at Christ s parousia second coming 4 In secular and liberal Christian scholarship asserts that religious experiences 5 such as the visionary appearances of Jesus 6 7 8 note 3 and an inspired reading of the Biblical texts 9 gave the impetus to the belief in the exaltation of Jesus 10 as a fulfillment of the scriptures 11 and a resumption of the missionary activity of Jesus s followers 6 12 Contents 1 Biblical accounts 1 1 Paul and the first Christians 1 2 Gospels and Acts 2 Jewish Hellenistic background 2 1 Jewish 2 2 Greco Roman 3 Burial and empty tomb 3 1 Burial 3 2 Empty tomb 3 2 1 Skepticism about the empty tomb narrative 3 2 2 Empty tomb and resurrection appearances 4 Resurrection of a transformed body 5 Significance in Christianity 5 1 Foundation of Christian faith 5 2 First ekklesia 5 2 1 Ushering in the last days 5 2 2 Exaltation and Christology 5 2 2 1 Christ devotion 5 2 2 2 Low and High Christology 5 2 3 Redemptive death 5 2 4 Call to missionary activity 5 2 5 Leadership of Peter 5 3 Paul participation in Christ 5 4 Church Fathers atonement 5 5 Late Antiquity and early Middle Ages 5 6 Present day 6 Easter 7 In Christian art 7 1 Gallery of art 8 Relics 9 Views of other religions 9 1 Judaism 9 2 Gnostics 9 3 Islam 9 4 Islam Ahmadiyya 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 13 Sources 14 External linksBiblical accounts EditSee also Overview of resurrection appearances in the Gospels and Paul table Resurrection of Christ Noel Coypel 1700 using a hovering depiction of Jesus The conviction that Jesus was raised from the dead is found in the earliest evidence of Christian origins 13 note 4 Paul and the first Christians Edit Main article 1 Corinthians 15 See also Pauline Christianity Jewish Christian and Paul the Apostle and Jewish Christianity The moment of resurrection itself is not described in any of the gospels but all four contain passages in which Jesus is portrayed as predicting his death and resurrection or contain allusions that the reader will understand 18 The New Testament writings do not contain any descriptions of a resurrection but rather accounts of an empty tomb and appearances of Jesus 19 One of the letters sent by Paul the Apostle to one of the early Greek churches the First Epistle to the Corinthians contains one of the earliest Christian creeds referring to post mortem appearances of Jesus and expressing the belief that he was raised from the dead namely 1 Corinthians 15 3 8 20 21 22 It is widely accepted that this creed predates Paul and the writing of First Corinthians 15 Scholars have contended that in his presentation of the resurrection Paul refers to this as an earlier authoritative tradition transmitted in a rabbinic style that he received and has passed on to the church at Corinth note 5 Geza Vermes writes that the creed is a tradition he Paul has inherited from his seniors in the faith concerning the death burial and resurrection of Jesus 24 The creed s ultimate origins are probably within the Jerusalem apostolic community having been formalised and passed on within a few years of the resurrection note 6 Hans Grass argues for an origin in Damascus 25 and according to Paul Barnett this creedal formula and others were variants of the one basic early tradition that Paul received in Damascus from Ananias in about 34 AD after his conversion 26 3 For I handed on to you as of first importance what I in turn had received that Christ died for our sins in accordance with the scriptures note 7 4 and that he was buried and that he was raised on the third day in accordance with the scriptures note 1 5 and that he appeared to Cephas then to the twelve 6 Then he appeared to more than five hundred brothers and sisters at one time most of whom are still alive though some have died 7 Then he appeared to James then to all the apostles 8 Last of all as to one untimely born he appeared also to me 36 In the Jerusalem ekklesia Church from which Paul received this creed the phrase died for our sins probably was an apologetic rationale for the death of Jesus as being part of God s plan and purpose as evidenced in the scriptures For Paul it gained a deeper significance providing a basis for the salvation of sinful Gentiles apart from the Torah 37 The phrase died for our sins was derived from Isaiah especially 53 4 11 38 and 4 Maccabees especially 6 28 29 30 note 7 Raised on the third day is derived from Hosea 6 1 2 33 32 Come let us return to the Lord for he has torn us that he may heal us he has struck us down and he will bind us up After two days he will revive us on the third day he will raise us up that we may live before him note 1 Paul writing to the members of the church at Corinth said that Jesus appeared to him in the same fashion in which he appeared to the earlier witnesses 39 In 2 Corinthians 12 Paul described a man in Christ presumably Paul himself who was caught up to the third heaven and while the language is obscure a plausible interpretation is that the man believed he saw Jesus enthroned at the right hand of God 40 The many Pauline references affirming his belief in the resurrection include Romans 1 3 4 concerning his Son who was descended from David according to the flesh and designated the Son of God in power according to the Spirit of holiness by his resurrection from the dead Jesus Christ our Lord 41 2 Timothy 2 8 Remember Jesus Christ raised from the dead this is my gospel for which I am suffering even to the point of being chained like a criminal But God s word is not chained 42 1 Corinthians 15 3 7 that Christ died for our sins in accordance with the Scriptures that he was buried that he was raised on the third day in accordance with the Scriptures 43 Gospels and Acts Edit Main articles Mark 16 Matthew 28 Luke 24 Acts 1 and John 20 See also Gospel harmony Passion of Jesus Burial of Jesus Empty tomb and Myrrhbearers Germain Pilon French d 1590 Resurrection of Jesus Christ Marble before 1572 Jesus is described as the firstborn from the dead prōtotokos the first to be raised from the dead thereby acquiring the special status of the firstborn as the preeminent son and heir 1 web 2 His resurrection is also the guarantee that all the Christian dead will be resurrected at Christ s parousia 4 After the resurrection Jesus is portrayed as calling the apostles to the Great Commission as described in Matthew 28 16 20 44 Mark 16 14 18 45 Luke 24 44 49 46 Acts 1 4 8 47 and John 20 19 23 48 in which the disciples receive the call to let the world know the good news of a victorious Saviour and the very presence of God in the world by the spirit 49 According to these texts Jesus says that they will receive power when the Holy Spirit has come upon you 50 that repentance and forgiveness of sins is to be proclaimed in the Messiah s name to all nations beginning from Jerusalem 51 and that if you forgive the sins of any they are forgiven them if you retain the sins of any they are retained 52 The shorter version of the Gospel of Mark ends with the discovery of the empty tomb by Mary Magdalene Salome and Mary the mother of James A young man in a white robe at the site of the tomb announced to them that Jesus has risen and instructed them to tell Peter and the disciples that he will meet them in Galilee just as he told you Mark 16 53 The longer version says in 16 9 further forwards which is a later addition that Jesus appeared to Mary Magdalene then to two followers outside Jerusalem and then to the eleven remaining Apostles commissioning them to spread the good news often referred to as The Great Commission saying The one who believes and is baptized will be saved but the one who does not believe will be condemned 54 In the intermediate ending of Mark 16 between verses 8 and 9 Jesus is portrayed as proclaiming eternal salvation through the disciples In Matthew Luke and John the resurrection announcement is followed by appearances of Jesus first to Mary Magdalene then to other followers The Gospel of Matthew describes a single appearance in Galilee Luke describes several appearances in Jerusalem and John mentions appearances in both Jerusalem and Galilee At some point these appearances ceased in the early Christian community as reflected in the Gospel narratives the Acts of the Apostles says that for forty days he had continued to appear to them 55 The Gospel of Luke describes Jesus ascending to heaven at a location near Bethany 56 In the Gospel of Matthew an angel appeared to Mary Magdalene at the empty tomb telling her that Jesus is not there because he has been raised from the dead and instructing her to tell the other followers to go to Galilee to meet Jesus Jesus then appeared to Mary Magdalene and the other Mary at the tomb and next based on Mark 16 7 Jesus appeared to all the disciples on a mountain in Galilee where Jesus claimed authority over heaven and earth and commissioned the disciples to preach the gospel to the whole world 57 Matthew presents Jesus s second appearance as an apotheosis deification commissioning his followers to make disciples of all nations baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit 20 and teaching them to obey everything that I have commanded you 44 In this message the end times are delayed to bring the world to discipleship 58 The three Marys at the Tomb of Christ 1470 at the west portal of Konstanz Minster Baden Wurttemberg Germany In the Gospel of Luke the women who had come with him from Galilee 59 come to his tomb which they find empty Two angelic beings appeared to announce that Jesus is not there but has been raised 60 Jesus then appeared to two followers on their way to Emmaus who notify the eleven remaining Apostles who respond that Jesus has appeared to Peter While they were describing this Jesus appeared again explaining that he is the messiah who was raised from the dead according to the scriptures and that repentance and forgiveness of sins is to be proclaimed in his name to all nations beginning from Jerusalem 61 62 In Luke Acts two works from the same author he then ascended into heaven his rightful home 62 In the Gospel of John Mary Magdalene found the tomb empty and informed Peter She then saw two angels after which Jesus himself appeared to her In the evening Jesus appeared to the other followers followed by another appearance a week later 63 He later appeared in Galilee to Peter Thomas and two other followers commanding Peter to take care of his followers 64 In Acts of the Apostles Jesus appeared to the apostles for forty days and commanded them to stay in Jerusalem 65 after which Jesus ascended to heaven followed by the coming of the Holy Spirit at Pentecost and the missionary task of the early church 66 Jewish Hellenistic background Edit Five part resurrection icon Solovetsky Monastery 17th century Jewish Edit See also Jewish eschatology and Resurrection of the dead In Judaism the idea of resurrection first emerges in the 2nd century BC Book of Daniel as a belief in the resurrection of the soul alone which was then developed by the Pharisees as a belief in bodily resurrection an idea completely alien to the Greeks 67 Josephus tells of the three main Jewish sects of the 1st century AD that the Sadducees held that both soul and body perished at death the Essenes that the soul was immortal but the flesh was not and the Pharisees that the soul was immortal and that the body would be resurrected to house it 68 Of these three positions Jesus and the early Christians appear to have been closest to that of the Pharisees 69 Steve Mason notes that for the Pharisees the new body is a special holy body which is different from the old body a view shared to some extent by the ex Pharisee Paul 1 Cor 15 35ff 70 The evidence from Jewish texts and from tomb inscriptions points to a more complex reality for example when the 2nd century BC author of the Book of Daniel wrote that many of those sleeping in the dust shall awaken 71 religion scholar Dag Oistein Endsjo believes he probably had in mind a rebirth as angelic beings metaphorically described as stars in God s Heaven stars having been identified with angels from early times such a rebirth would rule out a bodily resurrection as angels were believed to be fleshless 72 Other texts range from the traditional Old Testament view that the soul would spend eternity in the underworld to a metaphorical belief in the raising of the spirit 73 Most avoided defining what resurrection might imply but a resurrection of the flesh was a marginal belief 74 As Outi Lehtipuu states belief in resurrection was far from being an established doctrine 75 of Second Temple Judaism Greco Roman Edit Main article Immortality Ancient Greek religion The Greeks held that the soul of a meritorious man could be translated into a god in the process of apotheosis divination which then transferred them to a special place of honor 76 Successors of Alexander the Great made this idea very well known throughout the Middle East through coins bearing his image a privilege previously reserved for gods 77 The idea was adopted by the Roman emperors and in the Imperial Roman concept of apotheosis the earthly body of the recently deceased emperor was replaced by a new and divine one as he ascended into heaven 78 These stories proliferated in the middle to late first century 79 The apotheosised dead remained recognisable to those who met them as when Romulus appeared to witnesses after his death but as the biographer Plutarch c AD 46 c 120 explained of this incident while something within humans comes from the gods and returns to them after death this happens only when it is most completely separated and set free from the body and becomes altogether pure fleshless and undefiled 80 Burial and empty tomb EditScholars differ on the historicity of the empty tomb story and the relation with the burial stories and the postmortem appearances Scholars also differ on whether Jesus received a decent burial Points of contention are 1 whether Jesus s body was taken off the cross before sunset or left on the cross to decay 2 whether his body was taken off the cross and buried specifically by Joseph of Arimathea or by the Sanhedrin or a group of Jews in general and 3 whether he was entombed and if so what kind of tomb or buried in a common grave Burial Edit Main article Burial of Jesus An often noted argument in favor of a decent burial before sunset is the Jewish custom based on Deuteronomy 21 22 23 81 which says the body must not be left exposed overnight but must be buried that day This is also attested in the Temple Scroll of the Essenes and in Josephus s Jewish War 4 5 2 317 describing the burial of crucified Jewish insurgents before sunset 82 83 84 85 86 Reference is made to the Digesta a Roman Law Code from the 6th century AD which contains material from the 2nd century AD stating that the bodies of those who have been punished are only buried when this has been requested and permission granted 87 88 Burial of people who were executed by crucifixion is also attested by archaeological finds from Yehohanan a body of an apparently crucified man with a nail in the heel which could not be removed who was buried in a tomb 89 84 Contra a decent burial Martin Hengel has argued that Jesus was buried in disgrace as an executed criminal who died a shameful death 90 91 a view which is now widely accepted and has become entrenched in scholarly literature 90 John Dominic Crossan argued that Jesus followers did not know what happened to the body 92 note 8 According to Crossan Joseph of Arimathea is a total Markan creation in name in place and in function 93 note 9 arguing that Jesus s followers inferred from Deut 21 22 23 that Jesus was buried by a group of law abiding Jews as described in Acts 13 29 New Testament scholar Dale Allison writes that this story was adapted by Mark turning the group of Jews into a specific person 94 Roman practice was often to leave the body on the stake denying an honorable or family burial stating that the dogs were waiting 95 96 Archaeologist Byron McCane argues that it was customary to dispose of the dead immediately yet concludes that Jesus was buried in disgrace in a criminal s tomb 97 British New Testament scholar Maurice Casey also notes that Jewish criminals were supposed to receive a shameful and dishonourable burial 98 and argues that Jesus was indeed buried by Joseph of Arimathea but in a tomb for criminals owned by the Sanhedrin 98 He therefore rejects the empty tomb narrative as legendary 99 New Testament historian Bart D Ehrman writes that it can t be known what happened to Jesus s body he doubts that Jesus had a decent burial 100 and also thinks that it is doubtful that Jesus was buried by Joseph of Arimathea specifically 101 According to Ehrman what was originally a vague statement that the unnamed Jewish leaders buried Jesus becomes a story of one leader in particular who is named doing so 102 note 10 Ehrman gives three reasons for doubting a decent burial Referring to Hengel and Crossan Ehrman argues that crucifixion was meant to torture and humiliate a person as fully as possible and the body was normally left on the stake to be eaten by animals 104 Ehrman further argues that criminals were usually buried in common graves 105 and Pilate had no concern for Jewish sensitivities which makes it unlikely that he would have allowed Jesus to be buried 106 A number of Christian authors have rejected the criticisms taking the Gospel accounts to be historically reliable note 11 John A T Robinson states that the burial of Jesus in the tomb is one of the earliest and best attested facts about Jesus 107 Dale Allison reviewing the arguments of Crossan and Ehrman finds their assertions strong but find s it likely that a man named Joseph probably a Sanhedrist from the obscure Arimathea sought and obtained permission from the Roman authorities to make arrangements for Jesus s hurried burial 108 James Dunn states that the tradition is firm that Jesus was given a proper burial Mark 15 42 47 pars and there are good reasons why its testimony should be respected 109 Dunn argues that the burial tradition is one of the oldest pieces of tradition we have referring to 1 Cor 15 4 burial was in line with Jewish custom as prescribed by Deut 21 22 23 and confirmed by Josephus War cases of burial of crucified persons are known as attested by the Yehohanan burial Joseph of Arimathea is a very plausible historical character and the presence of the women at the cross and their involvement in Jesus s burial can be attributed more plausibly to early oral memory than to creative story telling 110 Andrew Loke after replying to various objections against the historicity of the guards at the tomb argues that the presence of guards at the tomb would imply that Jesus was buried in a well identified place contrary to unburied hypothesis 111 According to religion professor John Granger Cook there are historical texts that mention mass graves but they contain no indication of those bodies being dug up by animals There is no mention of an open pit or shallow graves in any Roman text There are a number of historical texts outside the gospels showing the bodies of the crucified dead were buried by family or friends Cook writes that those texts show that the narrative of Joseph of Arimethaea s burial of Jesus would be perfectly comprehensible to a Greco Roman reader of the gospels and historically credible 112 Empty tomb Edit Main article Empty tomb Skepticism about the empty tomb narrative Edit Early on the stories about the empty tomb were met with skepticism The Gospel of Matthew already mentions stories that the body was stolen from the grave 113 Other suggestions not supported in mainstream scholarship are that Jesus had not really died on the cross was lost due to natural causes 114 or was replaced by an impostor 115 The belief that Jesus did not really die on the cross but only appeared to do so is found in a wide variety of early texts and probably has its historical roots in the earliest stages of Christianity 116 According to Israeli religion scholar Gedaliahu Stroumsa this idea came first and later docetism broadened to include Jesus was spirit without flesh 117 It is probable these were present in the first century as it is against such doctrines that the author of 1 and 2 John seems to argue 117 The absence of any reference to the story of Jesus s empty tomb in the Pauline epistles and the Easter kerygma preaching or proclamation of the earliest church has led some scholars to suggest that Mark invented it note 12 Allison however finds this argument from silence unconvincing 119 Most scholars believe that the Gospel of Mark and the Gospel of John contain two independent attestations of an empty tomb which in turn suggests that both used already existing sources 120 and appealed to a commonly held tradition though Mark may have added to and adapted that tradition to fit his narrative 121 Empty tomb and resurrection appearances Edit N T Wright emphatically and extensively argues for the reality of the empty tomb and the subsequent appearances of Jesus reasoning that as a matter of inference 122 both a bodily resurrection and later bodily appearances of Jesus are far better explanations for the empty tomb and the meetings and the rise of Christianity than are any other theories including those of Ehrman 122 123 Dale Allison argues for an empty tomb that was later followed by visions of Jesus by the Apostles and Mary Magdalene 124 Smith argues that Mark has integrated two traditions which were first separate on the disappearance from the tomb interpreted as being taken to heaven and appearance post mortem appearances into one Easter narrative 125 126 According to Geza Vermes the story of the empty tomb developed independently from the stories of the post resurrection appearances as they are never directly coordinated to form a combined argument 127 While the coherence of the empty tomb narrative is questionable it is clearly an early tradition 127 Vermes notes that the story of the empty tomb conflicts with notions of a spiritual resurrection According to Vermes t he strictly Jewish bond of spirit and body is better served by the idea of the empty tomb and is no doubt responsible for the introduction of the notions of palpability Thomas in John and eating Luke and John 128 Ehrman rejects the story of the empty tomb and argues that an empty tomb had nothing to do with it an empty tomb would not produce faith 129 Ehrman argues that the empty tomb was needed to underscore the physical resurrection of Jesus 130 Resurrection of a transformed body EditGeza Vermes notes that the story of the empty tomb conflicts with notions of a spiritual resurrection According to Vermes t he strictly Jewish bond of spirit and body is better served by the idea of the empty tomb and is no doubt responsible for the introduction of the notions of palpability Thomas in John and eating Luke and John 128 Both Ware and Cook argue primarily from Paul s terminology and the contemporary Jewish pagan and cultural understanding of the nature of resurrection that Paul held to a physically resurrected body sōma restored to life but animated by spirit pneumatikos instead of soul psuchikos just like the later Gospel accounts 131 web 5 The nature of this resurrected body is a matter of debate In 1 Corinthians 15 44 132 Paul uses the phrase spiritual body sōma pneumatikos web 6 which has been explained as a Spirit empowered body 131 web 5 web 7 but also as a celestial body made of a finer material than the flesh 133 web 7 note 13 In the Epistle to the Philippians Paul describes how the body of the resurrected Christ is utterly different from the one he wore when he had the appearance of a man and holds out a similar glorified state when Christ will transform our lowly body as the goal of the Christian life flesh and blood cannot inherit the kingdom of God I Corinthians 15 50 and Christians entering the kingdom will be putting off the body of the flesh Colossians 2 11 134 135 Paul opposed the notion of a purely spiritual resurrection as propagated by some Christians in Corinth which he addresses in 1 Corinthians 133 The developing Gospel tradition emphasized the material aspects to counter this spiritual interpretation 130 Paul s views of a bodily resurrection went against the thoughts of the Greek philosophers to whom a bodily resurrection meant a new imprisonment in a corporeal body which was what they wanted to avoid given that for them the corporeal and the material fettered the spirit 136 James Dunn notes that there is a great difference between Paul s resurrection appearance and the appearances described in the Gospels Where Paul s seeing was visionary from heaven in contrast the Gospel accounts have a massive realism to them 137 Dunn contends that the massive realism of the Gospel appearances themselves can only be described as visionary with great difficulty and Luke would certainly reject the description as inappropriate 137 According to Dunn most scholars explain this as a legendary materialization of the visionary experiences borrowing the traits of the earthly Jesus 138 note 14 Yet according to Dunn there was both a tendency away from the physical and a reverse tendency towards the physical 142 The tendency towards the material is most clear but there are also signs for the tendency away from the physical and there are some indications that a more physical understanding was current in the earliest Jerusalem community 143 According to Wright there is substantial unanimity among the early Christian writers first and second century that Jesus had been bodily raised from the dead 144 with as the early Christians in their different ways affirmed a transphysical body both the same and yet in some mysterious way transformed 122 According to Wright Paul believed he had seen the risen Jesus in person and his understanding of who this Jesus was included the firm belief that he possessed a transformed but still physical body 145 Significance in Christianity EditMain article Salvation in Christianity Right wing of the winged triptych at the Church of the Teutonic Order Vienna Austria The artwork depicts Christ s crucifixion and burial left and resurrection right Foundation of Christian faith Edit In Christian theology the death resurrection and exaltation of Jesus are the most important events and the foundation of the Christian faith 3 146 note 15 The Nicene Creed states On the third day note 1 he rose again in accordance with the Scriptures 147 According to Terry Miethe a Christian philosopher at Oxford University the question Did Jesus rise from the dead is the most important question regarding the claims of the Christian faith 148 According to John R Rice a Baptist evangelist the resurrection of Jesus was part of the plan of salvation and redemption by atonement for man s sin 149 According to the Roman Catechism of the Catholic Church the resurrection of Jesus causes and is the model of the resurrection of all the dead as well as the cause and model of repentance which the catechism calls spiritual resurrection 150 Summarizing its traditional analysis the Catholic Church states in its Catechism Although the Resurrection was an historical event that could be verified by the sign of the empty tomb and by the reality of the apostles encounters with the risen Christ still it remains at the very heart of the mystery of faith as something that transcends and surpasses history 151 152 For orthodox Christians including some scholars the resurrection is taken to have been a concrete material resurrection of a transformed body 153 web 3 note 13 Craig L Blomberg argues there are sufficient arguments for the historicity of the resurrection 155 In secular and liberal Christian scholarship the post resurrection appearances are often explained as subjective visionary experiences in which Jesus s presence was felt 6 7 156 as articulated in the vision theory of Jesus s appearances note 16 In the twenty first century modern scholars such as Gerd Ludemann have proposed that Peter had a vision of Jesus due to severe grief and mourning note 17 Ehrman notes that Christian apologists sometimes claim that the most sensible historical explanation for these visions is that Jesus physically appeared to the disciples 158 First ekklesia Edit Main article Jewish Christian The belief in the resurrection by Jesus s early followers formed the proclamation of the first ekklesia lit assembly 159 160 The visions of the resurrected exalted Christ reinforced the impact Jesus and his ministry had on his early followers 161 and interpreted in a scriptural framework they gave the impetus to Christ devotion 162 and the belief in the exaltation of Jesus 10 163 Jesus s death was interpreted in light of the scriptures as a redemptive death being part of God s plan 164 The subsequent appearances led to the resumption of the missionary activity of Jesus s followers 6 12 with Peter assuming the leadership role in the first ekklesia which formed the basis for the Apostolic succession 165 166 In the Antiquities of the Jews a 1st century account of Jewish history by Josephus believers of the resurrection are discussed However this reference to the resurrection is widely believed to have been added by a Christian interpolator 167 Within the non canonical literature of Gospel of Peter there is a retelling of the resurrection of Jesus 168 Ushering in the last days Edit Jesus s followers expected God s Kingdom to come soon and Jesus s resurrection was the first event of the Endtime 169 note 18 As Borg and Crossan note For Mark the kingdom of God is already here because the Son of Man is already present 169 Exaltation and Christology Edit See also Ascension of Jesus Session of Christ and Christology Christ devotion Edit The New Testament writings contend that the resurrection was the beginning of His exalted life 170 note 19 as Christ and Lord 172 web 2 Jesus is the firstborn of the dead prōtotokos the first to be raised from the dead thereby acquiring the special status of the firstborn as the preeminent son and heir 1 web 2 According to Beale Firstborn refers to the high privileged position that Christ has as a result of the resurrection from the dead Christ has gained such a sovereign position over the cosmos not in the sense that he is recognized as the first created being of all creation or as the origin of creation but in the sense that he is the inaugurator of the new creation by means of his resurrection web 2 Hurtado notes that soon after his death Jesus was called Lord Kyrios which associates him in astonishing ways with God 173 The term Lord reflected the belief that God had exalted Jesus to a divine status at God s right hand 174 The worship of God as expressed in the phrase call upon the name of the Lord Yahweh was also applied to Jesus invocating his name in corporate worship and in the wider devotional pattern of Christian believers e g baptism exorcism healing 175 According to Hurtado powerful religious experiences were an indispensable factor in the emergence of Christ devotion 176 note 20 Those experiences seem to have included visions of and or ascents to God s heaven in which the glorified Christ was seen in an exalted position 5 note 3 Those experiences were interpreted in the framework of God s redemptive purposes as reflected in the scriptures in a dynamic interaction between devout prayerful searching for and pondering over scriptural texts and continuing powerful religious experiences 179 This initiated a new devotional pattern unprecedented in Jewish monotheism that is the worship of Jesus next to God 180 giving Jesus a central place because his ministry and its consequences had a strong impact on his early followers 181 Revelations including those visions but also inspired and spontaneous utterances and charismatic exegesis of the Jewish scriptures convinced them that this devotion was commanded by God 182 Ehrman notes that both Jesus and his early followers were apocalyptic Jews who believed in the bodily resurrection which would start when the coming of God s Kingdom was near 183 According to Ehrman the disciples belief in the resurrection was based on visionary experiences 8 arguing that visions usually have a strong persuasive power but also noting that the Gospel accounts record a tradition of doubt about the appearances of Jesus Ehrman s tentative suggestion is that only a few followers had visions including Peter Paul and Mary They told others about those visions convincing most of their close associates that Jesus was raised from the dead but not all of them note 21 Eventually these stories were retold and embellished leading to the story that all disciples had seen the risen Jesus 184 The belief in Jesus s resurrection radically changed their perceptions concluding from his absence that he must have been exalted to heaven by God himself exalting him to an unprecedented status and authority 10 Low and High Christology Edit See also Early High Christology and Preexistence of Christ It has long been argued that the New Testament writings contain two different Christologies namely a low or adoptionist Christology and a high or incarnation Christology 185 The low Christology or adoptionist Christology is the belief that God exalted Jesus to be his Son by raising him from the dead 186 thereby raising him to divine status web 9 as in Romans 1 4 187 The other early Christology is high Christology which is the view that Jesus was a pre existent divine being who became a human did the Father s will on earth and then was taken back up into heaven whence he had originally come web 9 188 and from where he appeared on earth The chronology of the development of these early Christologies is a matter of debate within contemporary scholarship 189 190 191 web 10 According to the evolutionary model 192 c q evolutionary theories 193 as proposed by Bousset followed by Brown the Christological understanding of Christ developed over time from a low Christology to a high Christology 194 195 196 as witnessed in the Gospels 190 According to the evolutionary model the earliest Christians believed that Jesus was a human who was exalted c q adopted as God s Son 197 198 199 when he was resurrected 196 200 signaling the nearness of the Kingdom of God when all dead would be resurrected and the righteous exalted 201 Later beliefs shifted the exaltation to his baptism birth and subsequently to the idea of his eternal existence as witnessed in the Gospel of John 196 Mark shifted the moment of when Jesus became the son to the baptism of Jesus and later still Matthew and Luke shifted it to the moment of the divine conception and finally John declared that Jesus had been with God from the beginning In the beginning was the Word 199 Since the 1970s the late datings for the development of a high Christology have been contested 202 and a majority of scholars argue that this High Christology existed already before the writings of Paul 185 This incarnation Christology or high Christology did not evolve over a longer time but was a big bang of ideas which were already present at the start of Christianity and took further shape in the first few decades of the church as witnessed in the writings of Paul 202 web 11 web 9 web 12 According to Ehrman these two Christologies existed alongside each other calling the low Christology an adoptionist Christology and the high Christology an incarnation Christology 185 While adoptionism was declared heresy at the end of the 2nd century 203 204 it was adhered to by the Ebionites 205 who regarded Jesus as the Messiah while rejecting his divinity and his virgin birth 206 and insisted on the necessity of following Jewish law and rites 207 They revered James the brother of Jesus James the Just and rejected Paul the Apostle as an apostate from the Law 208 They show strong similarities with the earliest form of Jewish Christianity and their specific theology may have been a reaction to the law free Gentile mission 209 In the pre existence Christology Christ s resurrection and exaltation was a restoration of the exalted status he already had but had not grasped at as described in Philippians 2 6 11 210 211 web 1 note 2 Redemptive death Edit See also Salvation in Christianity Atonement and Redeemer Jesus s death was interpreted as a redemptive death for our sins in accordance with God s plan as contained in the Jewish scriptures 212 note 7 The significance lay in the theme of divine necessity and fulfillment of the scriptures not in the later Pauline emphasis on Jesus s death as a sacrifice or an expiation for our sins 213 For the early Jewish Christians the idea that Messiah s death was a necessary redemptive event functioned more as an apologetic explanation for Jesus s crucifixion 214 proving that Jesus s death was no surprise to God 215 note 22 Call to missionary activity Edit Main articles Great Commission Apostles and Christian mission According to Dunn the appearances to the disciples have a sense of obligation to make the vision known 217 Helmut Koester states that the stories of the resurrection were originally epiphanies in which the disciples were called to a ministry by the risen Jesus and at a secondary stage were interpreted as physical proof of the event He contends that the more detailed accounts of the resurrection are also secondary and do not come from historically trustworthy sources but instead belong to the genre of the narrative types 6 Biblical scholar Geza Vermes argues that the resurrection is to be understood as a reviving of the self confidence of the followers of Jesus under the influence of the Spirit prompting them to resume their apostolic mission They felt the presence of Jesus in their own actions rising again today and tomorrow in the hearts of the men who love him and feel he is near 12 note 23 According to Gerd Ludemann Peter convinced the other disciples that the resurrection of Jesus signaled that the end times were near and God s Kingdom was coming when the dead who would rise again as evidenced by Jesus This revitalized the disciples starting off their new mission 220 221 web 13 Leadership of Peter Edit Main articles Saint Peter and Apostolic succession Peter claimed forcefully that Jesus appeared to him 222 184 and legitimised by Jesus s appearance he assumed leadership of the group of early followers forming the Jerusalem ekklesia mentioned by Paul 222 166 He was soon eclipsed in this leadership by James the Just the Brother of the Lord 223 224 which may explain why the early texts contain scarce information about Peter 224 note 24 According to Gerd Ludemann Peter was the first who had a vision of Jesus 220 noting that Peter and Mary both had appearance experiences but arguing that the tradition of Mary s appearance is a later development and her appearance probably was not the first 226 note 21 According to Christian proto orthodoxy Peter was the first to who Jesus appeared and therefore the rightful leader of the Church 222 The resurrection forms the basis of the Apostolic succession and the institutional power of orthodoxy as the heirs of Peter 228 to whom Jesus appeared and is described as the rock on which the church will be built 222 Though the Gospels and Paul s letters describe appearances to a greater number of people only the appearances to the Twelve Apostles count as lending authority and Apostolic succession 229 Paul participation in Christ Edit Main article Participation in Christ The appearance of Jesus to Paul convinced him that Jesus was the risen Lord and Christ who commissioned him to be an apostle to the Gentiles 230 231 232 According to Newbigin Paul presents himself not as the teacher of a new theology but as the messenger commissioned by the authority of the Lord himself to announce a new fact namely that in the ministry death and resurrection of Jesus God has acted decisively to reveal and effect his purpose of redemption for the whole world 233 The teachings of the apostle Paul form a key element of the Christian tradition and theology Fundamental to Pauline theology is the connection between Christ s resurrection and redemption 234 In 1 Corinthians 15 13 14 15 17 and 15 20 22 Paul writes If there is no resurrection of the dead then Christ has not been raised if Christ has not been raised then our preaching is in vain and your faith is in vain If Christ has not been raised your faith is futile But Christ really has been raised from the dead He is the first of all those who will rise Death came because of what a man did Rising from the dead also comes because of what a man did Because of Adam all people die So because of Christ all will be made alive 235 236 The kerygma of 1 Corinthians 15 3 states that Christ died for our sins note 7 The meaning of that kerygma is a matter of debate and open to multiple interpretations Traditionally this kerygma is interpreted as meaning that Jesus s death was an atonement or ransom for or propitiation or expiation of God s wrath against humanity because of their sins With Jesus death humanity was freed from this wrath 237 web 14 note 25 In the classical Protestant understanding which has dominated the understanding of Paul s writings humans partake in this salvation by faith in Jesus Christ this faith is a grace given by God and people are justified by God through Jesus Christ and faith in Him 238 More recent scholarship has raised several concerns regarding these interpretations According to E P Sanders who initiated the so called New Perspective on Paul Paul saw the faithful redeemed by participation in Jesus s death and rising Though Jesus s death substituted for that of others and thereby freed believers from sin and guilt a metaphor derived from ancient sacrificial theology web 16 note 26 the essence of Paul s writing is not in the legal terms regarding the expiation of sin but the act of participation in Christ through dying and rising with him 239 note 27 According to Sanders those who are baptized into Christ are baptized into his death and thus they escape the power of sin he died so that the believers may die with him and consequently live with him web 16 Just as Christians share in Jesus s death in baptism so they will share in his resurrection 240 James F McGrath notes that Paul prefers to use the language of participation One died for all so that all died 241 This is not only different from substitution it is the opposite of it web 4 Paul insists that salvation is received by the grace of God according to Sanders this insistence is in line with Judaism of c 200 BC c AD 200 which saw God s covenant with Israel as an act of grace of God Observance of the Law is needed to maintain the covenant but the covenant is not earned by observing the Law but by the grace of God web 20 Church Fathers atonement Edit Main article Ransom theory of atonement The Apostolic Fathers discussed the death and resurrection of Jesus including Ignatius 50 115 242 Polycarp 69 155 and Justin Martyr 100 165 The understanding of the Greek Fathers of the death and resurrection of Jesus as an atonement is the classic paradigm of the Church Fathers 243 244 who developed the themes found in the New Testament 245 During the first millennium AD the ransom theory of atonement was the dominant metaphor both in eastern and western Christianity until it was replaced in the west by Anselmus s satisfaction theory of atonement 246 The ransom theory of atonement says that Christ liberated humanity from slavery to sin and Satan and thus death by giving his own life as a ransom sacrifice to Satan swapping the life of the perfect Jesus for the lives of the imperfect humans It entails the idea that God deceived the devil 247 and that Satan or death had legitimate rights 247 over sinful souls in the afterlife due to the fall of man and inherited sin The ransom theory was first clearly enunciated by Irenaeus c 130 c 202 248 who was an outspoken critic of Gnosticism but borrowed ideas from their dualistic worldview 249 In this worldview humankind is under the power of the Demiurge a lesser God who has created the world Yet humans have a spark of the true divine nature within them which can be liberated by gnosis knowledge of this divine spark This knowledge is revealed by the Logos the very mind of the supreme God who entered the world in the person of Jesus Nevertheless the Logos could not simply undo the power of the Demiurge and had to hide his real identity appearing as a physical form thereby misleading the Demiurge and liberating humankind 249 In Irenaeus writings the Demiurge is replaced by the devil while Justin Martyr had already equated Jesus and the Logos 249 Origen 184 253 introduced the idea that the devil held legitimate rights over humans who were bought free by the blood of Christ 250 He also introduced the notion that the devil was deceived in thinking that he could master the human soul 251 Late Antiquity and early Middle Ages Edit Following the conversion of Constantine and the Edict of Milan in 313 the ecumenical councils of the 4th 5th and 6th centuries that focused on Christology helped shape the Christian understanding of the redemptive nature of resurrection and influenced both the development of its iconography and its use within Liturgy 252 Belief in bodily resurrection was a constant note of the Christian church in antiquity Augustine of Hippo accepted it at the time of his conversion in 386 253 Augustine defended resurrection and argued that given that Christ has risen there is resurrection of the dead 254 255 Moreover he argued that the death and resurrection of Jesus was for the salvation of man stating to achieve each resurrection of ours the savior paid with his single life and he pre enacted and presented his one and only one by way of sacrament and by way of model 256 The 5th century theology of Theodore of Mopsuestia provides an insight into the development of the Christian understanding of the redemptive nature of resurrection The crucial role of the sacraments in the mediation of salvation was well accepted at the time In Theodore s representation of the Eucharist the sacrificial and salvific elements are combined in the One who saved us and delivered us by the sacrifice of Himself Theodore s interpretation of the Eucharistic rite is directed towards the triumph over the power of death brought about by the resurrection 257 The emphasis on the salvific nature of the resurrection continued in Christian theology in the next centuries e g in the 8th century Saint John of Damascus wrote that When he had freed those who were bound from the beginning of time Christ returned again from among the dead having opened for us the way to resurrection and Christian iconography of the ensuing years represented that concept 258 Present day Edit Lorenzen finds a strange silence about the resurrection in many pulpits He writes that among some Christians ministers and professors it seems to have become a cause for embarrassment or the topic of apologetics 259 The idea of a bodily resurrection remains controversial 260 According to Warnock many Christians neglect the resurrection because of their understandable preoccupation with the Cross 261 Easter EditMain article Easter Easter or Easter Sunday is the preeminent Christian feast that celebrates the resurrection of Jesus and according to Susan J White is clearly the earliest Christian festival 262 According to James Dunn In Easter we celebrate man become God that in the death and resurrection of Christ God has broken the stranglehold of human selfishness has proved the enduring and conquering strength of divine love 263 According to Thorwald Lorenzen the first Easter led to a shift in emphasis from faith in God to faith in Christ 259 According to Raymond Harfgus Taylor Easter focuses upon the consummation of the redemptive act of God in the death resurrection of Jesus Christ 264 Easter is linked to the Passover and Exodus from Egypt recorded in the Old Testament through the Last Supper and crucifixion that preceded the resurrection According to the New Testament Jesus gave the Passover meal a new meaning as he prepared himself and his disciples for his death in the upper room during the Last Supper He identified the loaf of bread and cup of wine as his body soon to be sacrificed and his blood soon to be shed 1 Corinthians 5 7 states Get rid of the old yeast that you may be a new batch without yeast as you really are For Christ our Passover lamb has been sacrificed 265 this refers to the Passover requirement to have no yeast in the house and to the allegory of Jesus as the Paschal lamb 266 The Jewish feast of First fruits is regarded by dispensationalists as foreshadowing its fulfilment in the resurrection of Jesus based on 1 Corinthians 15 20 But Christ has indeed been raised from the dead the firstfruits of those who have fallen asleep 267 In Christian art EditMain article Resurrection of Jesus in Christian art The Chi Rho with a wreath symbolizing the victory of the Resurrection above Roman soldiers c 350 AD In the Catacombs of Rome artists indirectly hinted at the resurrection by using images from the Old Testament such as the fiery furnace and Daniel in the Lion s den Depictions prior to the 7th century generally showed secondary events such as the Myrrhbearers at the tomb of Jesus to convey the concept of the resurrection An early symbol of the resurrection was the wreathed Chi Rho Greek letters representing the word Khristos or Christ whose origin traces to the victory of emperor Constantine I at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312 which he attributed to the use of a cross on the shields of his soldiers Constantine used the Chi Rho on his standard and his coins showed a labarum with the Chi Rho killing a serpent 268 The use of a wreath around the Chi Rho symbolizes the victory of the resurrection over death and is an early visual representation of the connection between the Crucifixion of Jesus and his triumphal resurrection as seen in the 4th century sarcophagus of Domitilla 269 in Rome Here in the wreathed Chi Rho the death and Resurrection of Christ are shown as inseparable and the Resurrection is not merely a happy ending tucked at the end of the life of Christ on earth Given the use of similar symbols on the Roman military banner this depiction also conveyed another victory namely that of the Christian faith the Roman soldiers who had once arrested Jesus and marched him to Calvary now walked under the banner of a resurrected Christ 270 The cosmic significance of the resurrection in Western theology goes back to Saint Ambrose who in the 4th century said that The universe rose again in Him the heaven rose again in Him the earth rose again in Him for there shall be a new heaven and a new earth 271 272 This theme developed gradually in the West later than in the East where the resurrection had been linked from an earlier date to redemption and the renewal and rebirth of the whole world In art this was symbolized by combining the depictions of the resurrection with the Harrowing of Hell in icons and paintings A good example is from the Chora Church in Istanbul where John the Baptist Solomon and other figures are also present depicting that Christ was not alone in the resurrection 272 The depiction sequence at the 10th century Hosios Loukas shows Christ as he pulls Adam from his tomb followed by Eve signifying the salvation of humanity after the resurrection 273 Gallery of art Edit For a Commons gallery see Resurrection gallery Resurrection of Christ by Hans Memling 15th century Resurrection by Luca Giordano after 1665 Resurrection by Hans Multscher 1437 Resurrection by Dieric Bouts c 1450 1460 Der Auferstanden by Lucas Cranach 1558 Piero della Francesca 15th century The Resurrection of Christ Alonso Lopez de Herrera es c 1625 The Resurrection La Resurrection by James Tissot c 1890 Brooklyn Museum Resurrection of Jesus by Anton von Werner Berlin Cathedral Stained glass depiction with two Marys Lutheran Church South Carolina Women at the empty tomb by Fra Angelico 1437 1446Relics EditMain articles Acheiropoieta Shroud of Turin and Veil of Veronica Secondo Pia s 1898 negative of the image on the Shroud of Turin has an appearance suggesting a positive image It is used as part of the devotion to the Holy Face of Jesus The resurrection of Jesus has long been central to Christian faith and appears within diverse elements of the Christian tradition from feasts to artistic depictions to religious relics In Christian teachings the sacraments derive their saving power from the passion and resurrection of Christ upon which the salvation of the world entirely depends 274 An example of the interweaving of the teachings on the resurrection with Christian relics is the application of the concept of miraculous image formation at the moment of resurrection to the Shroud of Turin Christian authors have stated the belief that the body around whom the shroud was wrapped was not merely human but divine and that the image on the shroud was miraculously produced at the moment of resurrection 275 276 Quoting Pope Paul VI s statement that the shroud is the wonderful document of His Passion Death and Resurrection written for us in letters of blood author Antonio Cassanelli argues that the shroud is a deliberate divine record of the five stages of the Passion of Christ created at the moment of resurrection 277 Views of other religions EditGroups such as Jews Muslims Bahaʼis and other non Christians as well as some liberal Christians dispute whether Jesus actually rose from the dead Arguments over death and resurrection claims occur at many religious debates and interfaith dialogues 278 Judaism Edit Further information Judaism s view of Jesus Christianity split from Judaism in the 1st century AD and the two faiths have differed in their theology since According to the Toledot Yeshu the body of Jesus was removed in the same night by a gardener named Juda after hearing the disciples planned to steal the body of Jesus 279 280 However Toledot Yeshu is not considered either canonical or normative within rabbinic literature 281 Van Voorst states that Toledot Yeshu is a medieval document set without a fixed form which is most unlikely to have reliable information about Jesus 282 The Blackwell Companion to Jesus states that the Toledot Yeshu has no historical facts as such and was perhaps created as a tool for warding off conversions to Christianity 283 Gnostics Edit A rotunda in Church of the Holy Sepulchre called the Anastasis Resurrection which contains the remains of a rock cut room that Helena and Macarius identified as the burial site of Jesus Some Gnostics did not believe in a literal physical resurrection For the gnostic any resurrection of the dead was excluded from the outset the flesh or substance is destined to perish There is no resurrection of the flesh but only of the soul say the so called Archontics a late gnostic group in Palestine 284 Islam Edit Main articles Islamic view of Jesus death and Jesus in Islam Muslims believe that ʿisa Jesus son of Mariam Mary was a holy prophet with a divine message The Islamic perspective is that Jesus was not crucified and will return to the world at the end of times But Allah raised him up to Himself And Allah is Ever All Powerful All Wise 285 The Quran says in Surah An Nisa Ch 004 Verse 157 And because of their saying We killed Messiah ʿisa son of Maryam the Messenger of Allah but they killed him not nor crucified him but it appeared so to them and those who differ therein are full of doubts 286 Islam Ahmadiyya Edit Ahmadi Muslims believe that as Jesus is the Messiah to the Children of Israel 287 his objective was to gather their following For this reason Ahmadis believe that Jesus survived the crucifixion as supported by the Qur an 288 289 290 291 as a death on the cross would be a cursed one supported by the Bible 292 This belief is held as Jesus had other sheep to tend to 293 After surviving the crucifixion Jesus and his mother migrated to another land 294 where he continued his mission See also EditChronology of Jesus Outline of Jesus Divine Mercy Sunday Dying and rising god Tomb of Jesus The ground on which The Church of the Holy Sepulchre stands is venerated by most Christians as Golgotha the Hill of Calvary where the New Testament says that Jesus was crucified This tomb is venerated as the tomb of Christ by the Catholic Church Eastern Orthodox churches and Oriental Orthodox churches The Garden Tomb discovered in the 19th century is considered the actual site of Jesus s grave by some Protestant Christians Talpiot Tomb discovered in 1980 subject of the controversial 2007 documentary The Lost Tomb of JesusNotes Edit a b c d See Why Was Resurrection on the Third Day Two Insights for explanations on the phrase third day According to Ernst Ludemann 32 and Pinchas Lapide third day may refer to Hosea 6 1 2 33 Come let us return to the Lord for he has torn us that he may heal us he has struck us down and he will bind us up After two days he will revive us on the third day he will raise us up that we may live before him See also 2 Kings 20 8 Hezekiah said to Isaiah What shall be the sign that the Lord will heal me and that I shall go up to the house of the Lord on the third day 34 According to Sheehan Paul s reference to Jesus having risen on the third day simply expresses the belief that Jesus was rescued from the fate of utter absence from God death and was admitted to the saving presence of God the eschatological future 35 a b EB Session at the right hand of the Father was apparently a Christian interpretation of the first verse of Psalm 110 It implied the elevation or as the doctrine of preexistence became clearer the restoration of Christ to a position of honour with God Taken together the Ascension and the session were a way of speaking about the presence of Christ with the Father during the interim between the Resurrection and the Second Advent web 1 a b These visions may mostly have appeared during corporate worship 177 Johan Leman contends that the communal meals provided a context in which participants entered a state of mind in which the presence of Jesus was felt 178 In 1 Corinthians 15 3 7 Paul passes on what Judaism valued as the best evidence first person testimony of the resurrection According to John Kloppenborg Paul s argumentation in chap 15 revolves around the reality of the resurrection the tradition adduced by Paul in support of his argument must have contained some element of proof of the resurrection i e witnesses otherwise there would have been no reason for Paul to adduce it in the first place 14 That this teaching predates Paul and the New Testament book that contains it has been almost universally acknowledged 15 Bart Ehrman dates the text to within one to two years of the crucifixion 16 However whether the pre Pauline material is from the earliest Aramaic speaking community or from the Jewish Hellenistic church is disputed 17 Early creed Neufeld The Earliest Christian Confessions Grand Rapids Eerdmans 1964 p 47 Reginald Fuller The Formation of the Resurrection Narratives New York Macmillan 1971 p 10 Wolfhart Pannenberg Jesus God and Man translated Lewis Wilkins and Duane Pribe Philadelphia Westminster 1968 p 90 Oscar Cullmann The Early Church Studies in Early Christian History and Theology ed A J B Higgins Philadelphia Westminster 1966 p 64 Hans Conzelmann 1 Corinthians translated James W Leitch Philadelphia Fortress 1969 p 251 Bultmann Theology of the New Testament vol 1 pp 45 80 82 293 R E Brown The Virginal Conception and Bodily Resurrection of Jesus New York Paulist Press 1973 pp 81 92 Most Fellows of the Jesus Seminar also concluded that this tradition dates to before Paul s conversion c AD 33 23 Origins within the Jerusalem apostolic community Wolfhart Pannenberg Jesus God and Man translated Lewis Wilkins and Duane Pribe Philadelphia Westminster 1968 p 90 Oscar Cullmann The Early church Studies in Early Christian History and Theology ed A J B Higgins Philadelphia Westminster 1966 pp 66 66 R E Brown The Virginal Conception and Bodily Resurrection of Jesus New York Paulist Press 1973 p 81 Thomas Sheehan First Coming How the Kingdom of God Became Christianity New York Random House 1986 pp 110 118 Ulrich Wilckens Resurrection translated A M Stewart Edinburgh Saint Andrew 1977 p 2 a b c d The kerygma from 1 Corinthians 15 3 5 refers to two mythologies the Greek myth of the noble dead to which the Maccabean notion of martyrdom and dying for ones people is related and the Jewish myth of the persecuted sage or righteous man c q the story of the child of wisdom 27 The notion of dying for refers to this martyrdom and persecution 28 James F McGrath refers to 4 Maccabees 29 which presents a martyr praying Be merciful to your people and let our punishment suffice for them Make my blood their purification and take my life in exchange for theirs 30 Clearly there were ideas that existed in the Judaism of the time that helped make sense of the death of the righteous in terms of atonement web 4 See also Herald Gandi 2018 The Resurrection According to the Scriptures referring to Isaiah 53 31 among others 4 Surely he has borne our infirmities and carried our diseases yet we accounted him stricken struck down by God and afflicted 5 But he was wounded for our transgressions crushed for our iniquities upon him was the punishment that made us whole and by his bruises we are healed 10 Yet it was the will of the Lord to crush him with pain When you make his life an offering for sin he shall see his offspring and shall prolong his days through him the will of the Lord shall prosper 11 Out of his anguish he shall see light he shall find satisfaction through his knowledge The righteous one my servant shall make many righteous and he shall bear their iniquities Allison refers to Crossan Historical Jesus 391 4 idem Jesus A Revolutionary Biography San Francisco HarperSanFrancisco 1994 123 58 idem Who Killed Jesus Exposing the Roots of Anti Semitism in the Gospel Story of the Death of Jesus San Francisco HarperSanFrancisco 1996 160 77 Allison refers to Crossan 1996 Who Killed Jesus In an earlier publication 2003 Ehrman recognized that Some scholars have argued that it s more plausible that in fact Jesus was placed in a common burial plot which sometimes happened or was as many other crucified people simply left to be eaten by scavenging animals but further elaborated by stating that T he accounts are fairly unanimous in saying that Jesus was in fact buried by this fellow Joseph of Arimathea and so it s relatively reliable that that s what happened 103 Wright 2009 p 22 argues that the burial of Christ is part of the earliest gospel traditions Bultmann dismisses the empty tomb story as an apologetic legend 118 a b According to Christian apologist Gary Habermas Many conservative scholars have spoken in support of a transformed bodily notion of Jesus resurrection web 3 According to Habermas Paul refers to a physical body in 1 Corinthians 15 44 154 Habermas notes that Paul doesn t use solely the word pneuma but speaks about spiritual pneumatikos body soma According to Habermas Paul refers to a physical body arguing that Paul says three things in one chapter of Philippians that indicates that he s talking about a physical resurrection The first is that Paul says that he is a Pharisee implying that he believes in a physical resurrection The second is that in Philippians 3 11 Paul says That I may attain the resurrection of the dead using the phrase eks anastasis eἰs tὴn ἐ3anastasin out resurrection resurrection from out among the dead ones And third in Philippians 3 20 21 He Jesus will change my body to be like His body Habermas further notes that in Philippians 3 20 21 Paul speaks of a glorious body which is resurrected web 8 According to Sheehan Paul s account of the resurrection is not meant to be taken as referring to a literal physical rising from the grave 139 Paul s understanding of the resurrection and perhaps Peter s as well is a metaphorical one with the stories of Jesus s figurative resurrection reflecting his triumphant entry into God s eschatological presence 140 Sheehan The word resurrection is a metaphor that unfortunately has been taken literally That s where the confusion begins In the New Testament the word for resurrection means literally awakening like waking up your kids in the morning The New Testament says not that God resurrected Jesus from the dead but that he awoke him Using metaphoric language the New Testament says God awoke Jesus from the sleep of death and brought him into God s heavenly presence There s nothing here about an event in space and time Resurrection doesn t mean coming back to life 139 Sheehan quotes Helmut Koester Resurrection is thus a mythological metaphor for God s victory over the powers of unrighteousness The preaching of Jesus resurrection was thus the proclamation that the new age had been ushered in The Structure and Criteria of Early Christian Beliefs in Robinson and Koester Trajectories 223 224 141 1 Cor 15 12 20 1 Pet 1 3 According to Habermas a Christian apologist both internal states of mind such as hallucinations conversion disorder and bereavement related visions as well as objective phenomena such as illusions have been proposed as possible natural explanations for what the disciples believed they saw 157 Gerd Ludemann 2012 552 cf 550 557 2004 159 cf 163 166 1994 174 cf 173 179 See also Bart Ehrman 2014 183 206 although Ehrman never describes the vision he proposes Other proponents of some form of vision hypothesis include Michael Goulder 1996 2000 2005 and James Crossley 2005 although Goulder proposes only a spiritual resurrection belief emerged initially and Crossley considers Jesus predictions of his own death historical and a contributing factor to the resurrection belief Ushering in the last days and the Kingdom of God James Dunn 2006 The Theology of Pual the Apostle p 240 the resurrection of Jesus was understood by Paul as those before him as ushering in a new age even the last days Paula Fredriksen 2018 When Christians Were Jews p 86 87 The Kingdom truly was at hand Jesus own resurrection was for them meaningful as the first of a cascade of anticipated Endtime events Wright 2003 p 272 He Paul believed himself to be living at a new stage in the eschatological timetable the age to come had already begun precisely with the Messiah s resurrection Novakovic quotes C E B Cranfield The Epistle to the Romans 1 62 171 See also Andrew Chester 2007 Messiah and Exaltation Jewish Messianic and Visionary Traditions and New Testament Christology Mohr Siebeck and Larry Huratdo 11 December 2012 Early High Christology A Recent Assessment of Scholarly Debate a b According to Sanders there seems to have been a competition I saw him so did I the women saw him first no I did they didn t see him at all and so on 227 Hurtado cites Green The Death of Jesus p 323 216 Vermes describes are eight possible theories to explain the resurrection of Jesus concluding that none of these six possibilities stands up to stringent scrutiny 218 and then stating that the resurrection is a resurrection in the hearts of men 219 According to Ludemann in the discussions about the strictness of adherence to the Jewish Law the more conservative faction of James the Just took the overhand over the more liberal position of Peter who soon lost influence 224 According to Dunn this was not an usurpation of power but a consequence of Peter s involvement in missionary activities 225 Atonement Briscoe and Ogilvie 2003 Paul says that Christ s ransom price is his blood 237 Cobb The question is whether Paul thought that God sacrificed Jesus to atone for human sins During the past thousand years this idea has often been viewed in the Western church as at the heart of Christianity and many of those who uphold it have appealed to Paul as its basis In fact the word atonement is lacking in many standard translations The King James Translation uses propitiation and the Revised Standard Version uses expiation The American Translation reads For God showed him publicly dying as a sacrifice of reconciliation to be taken advantage of through faith The Good News Bible renders the meaning as God offered him so that by his sacrificial death he should become the means by which people s sins are forgiven through their faith in him Despite this variety and the common avoidance of the word atonement all these translations agree with the New Revised Standard Version in suggesting that God sacrificed Jesus so that people could be reconciled to God through faith All thereby support the idea that is most directly formulated by the use of the word atonement web 15 According to The Jewish Encyclopedia 1906 The Mishnah says that sins are expiated 1 by sacrifice 2 by repentance at death or on Yom Kippur 3 in the case of the lighter transgressions of the positive or negative precepts by repentance at any time The graver sins according to Rabbi are apostasy heretical interpretation of the Torah and non circumcision Yoma 86a The atonement for sins between a man and his neighbor is an ample apology Yoma 85b web 17 The Jewish Virual Library writes Another important concept of sacrifices is the element of substitution The idea is that the thing being offered is a substitute for the person making the offering and the things that are done to the offering are things that should have been done to the person offering The offering is in some sense punished in place of the offerer It is interesting to note that whenever the subject of Karbanot is addressed in the Torah the name of G d used is the four letter name indicating G d s mercy web 18 The Jewish Encyclopedia further writes Most efficacious seemed to be the atoning power of suffering experienced by the righteous during the Exile This is the idea underlying the description of the suffering servant of God in Isa liii 4 12 Hebr of greater atoning power than all the Temple sacrifices was the suffering of the elect ones who were to be servants and witnesses of the Lord Isa xlii 1 4 xlix 1 7 l 6 This idea of the atoning power of the suffering and death of the righteous finds expression also in IV Macc vi 27 xvii 21 23 M Ḳ 28a Pesiḳ xxvii 174b Lev R xx and formed the basis of Paul s doctrine of the atoning blood of Christ Rom iii 25 web 19 Jordan Cooper Sanders sees Paul s motifs of salvation as more participationist than juristic The reformation overemphasized the judicial categories of forgiveness and escape from condemnation while ignoring the real heart of salvation which is a mystical participation in Christ Paul shows this in his argument in his first epistle to the Corinthians when arguing against sexual immorality It is wrong because it affects one s union with Christ by uniting himself to a prostitute Sin is not merely the violation of an abstract law This participationist language is also used in Corinthians in the discussion of the Lord s Supper wherein one participates in the body and blood of Christ web 20 References Edit a b c Novakovic 2014 p 152 SINISCALCHI 2011 p 363 a b Dunn 1985 p 53 a b Novakovic 2014 p 153 154 a b Hurtado 2003 pp 72 73 sfn error no target CITEREFHurtado2003 help a b c d e Koester 2000 pp 64 65 a b Vermes 2008b p 141 a b Ehrman 2014 pp 98 101 Hurtado 2003 p 74 84 sfn error no target CITEREFHurtado2003 help a b c Ehrman 2014 pp 109 110 2005 p 186 sfn error no target CITEREF2005 help a b c Vermes 2008a pp 151 152 Licona 2020 pp 223 235 Kloppenborg 1978 p 358 a b Kloppenborg 1978 p 351 23Bart Ehrman Did Jesus Exist New York Harper Collins 2012 pages 22 27 92 93 97 111 141 144 145 155 158 171 173 260 263 especially pages 131 132 157 164 170 251 254 Kloppenborg 1978 p 352 Powell 2018 p unpaginated Vermes 2008a p 141 1 Corinthians 15 3 8 Neufeld 1964 p 47 Taylor 2014 p 374 Funk Robert W and the Jesus Seminar The acts of Jesus the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus HarperSanFrancisco 1998 Empty Tomb Appearances amp Ascension pp 449 495 Vermes 2008a p 121 122 Hans Grass Ostergeschen und Osterberichte Second Edition Gottingen Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht 1962 p 96 Barnett Paul William 2009 Finding the Historical Christ Volume 3 of After Jesus Wm B Eerdmans Publishing p 182 ISBN 978 0802848901 Mack 1995 pp 86 87 Mack 1997 p 88 4 Maccabees 6 a b 4 Maccabees 6 28 29 Isaiah 53 a b Ludemann amp Ozen 1996 p 73 a b Hosea 6 1 2 2 Kings 20 8 Sheehan 1986 p 112 oremus Bible Browser 1 Corinthians 15 3 15 41 Hurtado 2003 p 131 sfn error no target CITEREFHurtado2003 help Isaiah 53 4 11 Lehtipuu 2015 p 42 Chester 2007 p 394 Romans 1 3 4 2 Timothy 2 8 1 Corinthians 15 3 7 a b Matthew 28 16 20 Mark 16 14 18 Luke 24 44 49 Acts 1 4 8 John 20 19 23 Castleman Robbie F The Last Word The Great Commission Ecclesiology PDF Themelios 32 3 68 Acts 1 8 Luke 24 46 47 John 20 12 23 Boring 2006 pp 3 14 Mark 16 16 Acts 1 3 Luke 24 50 51 Cotter 2001 p 127 Cotter 2001 pp 149 150 Luke 23 55 24 1 5 24 37 47 a b Burkett 2002 p 211 John 20 1 29 John 21 1 19 1 3 Brown 1973 p 103 Schafer 2003 pp 72 73 Schafer 2003 p 72 Van Voorst 2000 p 430 Mason 2001 p 169 Dan 12 2 Endsjo 2009 pp 124 125 Lehtipuu 2015 pp 31 32 Endsjo 2009 p 145 Lehtipuu 2015 pp 32 Wright 2003 p 56 76 Cotter 2001 p 131 Cotter 2001 pp 131 135 136 Wright 2003 p 76 Collins 2009 pp 46 51 Deuteronomy 21 22 23 Brown 1973 p 147 Dijkhuizen 2011 p 119 120 a b Dunn 2003b p 782 Evans 2005 Magness 2005 Evans 2005 p 195 Allison 2021 p 104 Magness 2005 p 144 a b Magness 2005 p 141 Hengel 1977 Allison 2021 p 94 Allison 2021 p 94 note 4 Allison 2021 p 94 95 Allison 2021 p 95 Crossan 2009 p 143 McCane 2003 p 89 a b Casey 2010 p 451 Casey 2010 Ehrman 2014 p 82 88 Ehrman 2014 p 82 Ehrman 2014 p 84 Bart Ehrman From Jesus to Constantine A History of Early Christianity Lecture 4 Oral and Written Traditions about Jesus The Teaching Company 2003 Ehrman 2014 p 85 Ehrman 2014 p 86 Ehrman 2014 p 87 Robinson 1973 p 131 Allison 2021 p 112 Dunn 2003b p 781 Dunn 2003b p 781 783 Loke Andrew 2020 Investigating the Resurrection of Jesus Christ A New Transdisciplinary Approach Abingdon Routledge p 141 Cook J 2011 Crucifixion and Burial New Testament Studies 57 2 193 213 doi 10 1017 S0028688510000214 p 213 Dunn2003b p 836 Ehrman 2014 p 88 e g https www christianpost com voices jesus twin brother and the truth about easter html or in The Gospel of Afranius Stroumsa 2004 p 270 a b Stroumsa 2004 pp 267 268 Bultmann 1968 p 290 sfnp error no target CITEREFBultmann1968 help Allison 2005 p 306 Aune 2013 p 169 Engelbrecht J The Empty Tomb Lk 24 1 12 in Historical Perspective Neotestamentica vol 23 no 2 1989 pp 245 a b c Wright 2003 p 711 Wright 2012 page needed Allison 2021 p 337 Smith 2010 pp 2 179 180 Smith 2003 sfn error no target CITEREFSmith2003 help a b Vermes 2008a p 142 a b Vermes 2008a p 148 Ehrman 2014 p 98 a b Ehrman 2014 p 90 a b Ware 2014 1 Corinthians 15 44 a b Ehrman 2014 p 94 Lehtipuu 2015 pp 42 43 Endsjo 2009 pp 141 145 Meditation and Piety in the Far East by Karl Ludvig Reichelt Sverre Holth 2004 ISBN 0 227 17235 3 p 30 a b Dunn 1997 p 115 Dunn 1997 p 116 a b McClory Robert 1989 The Gospel According to Thomas Sheehan The Chicago Sun Times Retrieved 31 March 2013 Sheehan 1986 p 111 Sheehan 1986 p 261 Dunn 1997 p 116 117 Dunn 1997 p 117 Wright 2003 pp 9 10 Wright 2003 p 398 Dunn 2009 p 149 Updated version of the Nicene Creed added at First Council of Constantinople in 381 AD in Norman Tanner New Short History of the Catholic Church p 33 Burns amp Oates 2011 ISBN 978 0 86012 455 9 Terry Miethe in Gary Habermas amp Anthony G N Flew Did Jesus Rise from the Dead The Resurrection Debate ed Terry Miethe San Francisco Harper and Row 1987 p xi Quoted by Michael Martin The Resurrection as Initially Improbable chapter In Price Robert M Lowder Jeffrey Jay eds 2005 The Empty Tomb Jesus Beyond the Grave Amherst Prometheus Books p 44 ISBN 1 59102 286 X John R Rice The Importance of Christ s Resurrection in the Christian Faith In Curtis Hutson 2000 Great Preaching on the Resurrection ISBN 0 87398 319 X pp 55 56 Master Nazareth Catechism Catechism of the Council of Trent Article V Catechism of the Catholic Church 647 Catechism of the Catholic Church IntraText 25 November 2021 Archived from the original on 25 November 2021 Wright 2003 p 272 cf 321 1 Corinthians 15 44 Blomberg 1987 p 253 De Conick 2006 p 6 Bergeron amp Habermas 2015 p 158 Ehrman 2014 p 107 Reginald H Fuller The Foundations of New Testament Christology New York Scribners 1965 p 11 Pagels 2005 p 40 Hurtado 2003 pp 53 54 64 65 72 73 sfn error no target CITEREFHurtado2003 help Hurtado 2003 pp 53 54 64 65 181 184 185 sfn error no target CITEREFHurtado2003 help Vermes 2008a p 138 Hurtado 2003 p 185 188 sfn error no target CITEREFHurtado2003 help Pagels 2005 pp 43 45 a b Ludemann amp Ozen 1996 p 116 Ehrman Bart D 1997 The New Testament A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 508481 8 Walter Richard 1894 The Gospel According to Peter A Study Longmans Green p 11 Retrieved 2 April 2022 a b Borg amp Crossan 2006 p 185 Novakovic 2014 p 135 Novakovic 2014 p 135 note 78 Hurtado 2005 pp 508 591 Hurtado 2003 p 179 sfn error no target CITEREFHurtado2003 help Hurtado 2003 p 181 sfn error no target CITEREFHurtado2003 help Hurtado 2005 p 181 182 Hurtado 2003 pp 64 65 181 184 185 sfn error no target CITEREFHurtado2003 help Hurtado 2003 p 73 sfn error no target CITEREFHurtado2003 help Leman 2015 pp 168 169 Hurtado 2003 p 184 sfn error no target CITEREFHurtado2003 help Hurtado 2003 p 53 sfn error no target CITEREFHurtado2003 help Hurtado 2003 pp 53 54 sfn error no target CITEREFHurtado2003 help Hurtado 2003 pp 72 73 185 sfn error no target CITEREFHurtado2003 help Ehrman 2014 p 99 a b Ehrman 2014 pp 101 102 a b c Ehrman 2014 p 125 Ehrman 2014 pp 120 122 Romans 1 4 Ehrman 2014 p 122 Loke 2017 a b Ehrman 2014 Talbert 2011 pp 3 6 Netland 2001 p 175 Loke 2017 p 3 Mack 1995 Ehrman 2003 a b c Bart Ehrman How Jesus became God Course Guide Loke 2017 pp 3 4 Talbert 2011 p 3 a b Brown 2008 p unpaginated Geza Vermez 2008 The Resurrection pp 138 139 Fredriksen 2008 p unpaginated a b Loke 2017 p 5 Harnack Adolf Von 1889 History of Dogma Edward E Hindson Daniel R Mitchell 2013 The Popular Encyclopedia of Church History The People Places and Events That Shaped Christianity Harvest House Publishers p 23 ISBN 9780736948074 Cross EA Livingston FL eds 1989 Ebionites The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church Oxford University Press Ebionites Encyclopaedia Britannica Kohler Kaufmann 1901 1906 Ebionites In Singer Isidore Alder Cyrus eds The Jewish Encyclopedia Hyam Maccoby 1987 The Mythmaker Paul and the Invention of Christianity HarperCollins pp 172 183 ISBN 0 06 250585 8 an abridgement Dunn 2006 p 282 Philippians 2 6 11 Capes Nelson Raymond Philippians 2 6 11 Pre Existence or Second Adam Christology A Comparison of the Exegeses of Three Modern Scholars with that of St John Chrysostom 2012 School of Divinity Master s Theses and Projects 6 Hurtado 2003 p 185 sfn error no target CITEREFHurtado2003 help 2003 p 186 sfn error no target CITEREF2003 help Hurtado 2003 p 186 sfn error no target CITEREFHurtado2003 help Hurtado 2003 p 187 sfn error no target CITEREFHurtado2003 help Hurtado 2003 p 187 n 55 sfn error no target CITEREFHurtado2003 help Dunn 1997 p 131 Vermes 2008a p 149 Vermes 2008a p 152 a b Ludemann amp Ozen 1996 pp 180 181 Ehrman 2014 p 100 a b c d Pagels 2005 p 45 Pagels 2005 pp 45 46 a b c Ludemann amp Ozen 1996 pp 116 117 Bockmuehl 2010 p 52 Ludemann amp Ozen 1996 pp 112 113 Jesus Christ Encyclopaedia Britannica 2007 Encyclopaedia Britannica Online 10 January 2007 Pagels 2005 p 43 Pagels 2005 pp 47 48 Donaldson 1997 p 259 Dunn 2009 p 352 Hultgren 2011 p 118 Newbigin 1989 p 5 The creed the apostolic faith in contemporary theology by Berard L Marthaler 2007 ISBN 0 89622 537 2 p 361 Vermes 2008b p xv 1 Corinthians 15 13 14 15 17 15 20 22 a b Briscoe amp Ogilvie 2003 Stubs 2008 pp 142 143 Charry 1999 p 35 Ehrman Bart Peter Paul and Mary Magdalene The Followers of Jesus in History and Legend Oxford University Press US 2006 ISBN 0 19 530013 0 2 Corinthians 5 14 Ignatius makes many passing references but two extended discussions are found in the Letter to the Trallians and the Letter to the Smyrnaeans Weaver 2001 p 2 Beilby amp Eddy 2009 pp 11 20 Cross F L ed The Oxford dictionary of the Christian Church p 124 entry Atonement New York Oxford University Press 2005 Oxenham 1865 p 114 a b Pugh 2015 p 5 Oxenham 1865 pp xliv 114 a b c Pugh 2015 p 4 Pugh 2015 pp 5 6 Pugh 2015 p 6 The resurrection and the icon by Michel Quenot 1998 ISBN 0 88141 149 3 p 72 Augustine ancient thought baptized by John M Rist 1996 ISBN 0 521 58952 5 p 110 Augustine and the Catechumenate by William Harmless 1995 ISBN 0 8146 6132 7 p 131 Augustine De doctrina Christiana by Saint Augustine R P H Green 1996 ISBN 0 19 826334 1 p 115 The Trinity by Saint Augustine Bishop of Hippo Edmund Hill John E Rotelle 1991 ISBN 0 911782 96 6 p 157 Adventus Domini eschatological thought in 4th century apses and catecheses by Geir Hellemo 1997 ISBN 90 04 08836 9 p 231 Vladimir Lossky 1982 The Meaning of Icons ISBN 978 0 913836 99 6 p 189 a b Lorenzen 2003 pp 3 4 Wright N T The Surprise of Resurrection Craig A Evans and NT Wright Jesus the Final Days What Really Happened ed Troy A Miller 2009 p 75 Warnock Adrian Raised With Christ Archived 12 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine Crossway 2010 Foundations of Christian Worship by Susan J White 2006 ISBN 0 664 22924 7 p 55 Dunn 2003 p 268 Mercer dictionary of the Bible by Watson E Mills Roger Aubrey Bullard 1998 ISBN 0 86554 373 9 p 224 1 Corinthians John Revelation 1 Peter 1 19 1 Peter 1 2 and the associated notes and Passion Week table in Barker Kenneth ed 2002 Zondervan NIV Study Bible Grand Rapids Zondervan p 1520 ISBN 0 310 92955 5 Larkin Clarence 2010 Dispensational Truth Or God s Plan and Purpose in the Ages Scanned copy of 1918 book ed Cosimo Inc p 159 ISBN 978 1 61640 266 2 Retrieved 19 December 2022 Understanding early Christian art by Robin Margaret Jensen 2000 ISBN 0 415 20454 2 p 149 Cross and Crucifix in the Christian Assembly Part I The Early Christian Period Crux Invicta Crux Gemmata Archived from the original on 24 June 2010 Retrieved 24 June 2010 The passion in art by Richard Harries 2004 ISBN 0 7546 5011 1 p 8 Ambrose On the Belief in the Resurrection 102 a b Images of redemption art literature and salvation by Patrick Sherry 2005 ISBN 0 567 08891 X p 73 Heaven on Earth art and the Church in Byzantium by Linda Safran 1998 ISBN 0 271 01670 1 p 133 The encyclopedia of Christianity Volume 5 by Erwin Fahlbusch Jan Milic Lochman Geoffrey William Bromiley John Mbiti 2008 ISBN 0 8028 2417 X p 490 Charles S Brown 2007 Bible Mysteries Explained ISBN 0 9582813 0 0 p 193 Peter Rinaldi 1972 The man in the Shroud ISBN 0 86007 010 7 p 45 Antonio Cassanelli 2001 The Holy Shroud a comparison between the Gospel narrative of the five stages of the Passion ISBN 0 85244 351 X p 13 Lorenzen 2003 p 13 Michael J Cook Jewish Perspectives on Jesus in Delbert Burkett editor The Blackwell Companion to Jesus pp 221 223 Blackwell Publishing Ltd 2011 ISBN 978 1 4051 9362 7 Gary R Habermas The Historical Jesus Ancient Evidence for the Life of Christ p 205 Thomas Nelson Inc 2008 ISBN 0 89900 732 5 Dan Joseph 2006 Toledot Yeshu In Michael Berenbaum and Fred Skolnik Encyclopaedia Judaica 20 2nd ed pp 28 29 Van Voorst Robert E 2000 Jesus Outside the New Testament An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence WmB Eerdmans Publishing ISBN 0 8028 4368 9 p 128 Michael J Cook Jewish Perspectives on Jesus Chapter 14 in The Blackwell Companion to Jesus edited by Delbert Burkett 2011 ISBN 978 1 4443 2794 6 Kurt Rudolph Gnosis The Nature amp History of Gnosticism p 190 T amp T Clark Ltd 1970 second and expanded edition 1980 1998 ISBN 0 567 08640 2 Qur an Surah 4 158 Qur an Surah 4 157 Ali Sher 1954 Holy Qur an Arabic text and English translation Alislam Archived from the original on 18 December 2020 Retrieved 26 March 2022 Ali Sher 1954 Holy Qur an Arabic text and English translation Alislam Archived from the original on 16 January 2021 Retrieved 26 March 2022 Ali Sher 1954 Holy Qur an Arabic text and English translation Alislam Archived from the original on 18 November 2020 Retrieved 26 March 2022 Ali Sher 1954 Holy Qur an Arabic text and English translation Alislam Archived from the original on 3 December 2020 Retrieved 26 March 2022 Ali Sher 1954 Holy Qur an Arabic text and English translation Alislam Archived from the original on 2 April 2020 Retrieved 26 March 2022 Deuteronomy 21 23 Biblehub Archived from the original on 12 February 2022 Retrieved 27 March 2022 John 10 16 Biblehub Archived from the original on 26 March 2022 Retrieved 27 March 2022 Ali Sher 1951 Holy Qur an Arabic text and English translation Alislam Archived from the original on 30 March 2021 Retrieved 26 March 2022 Sources EditPrinted sourcesAune David 2013 Jesus Gospel Tradition and Paul in the Context of Jewish and Greco Roman Antiquity Mohr Siebeck ISBN 9783161523151 Bauckham Richard 2008 The Fourth Gospel as the Testimony of the Beloved Disciple In Bauckham Richard Mosser Carl eds The Gospel of John and Christian Theology Eerdmans ISBN 9780802827173 Borg Marcus Crossan John Dominic 2006 The Last Week HarperCollins Evans Craig A 2011 Luke Baker Books ISBN 9781441236524 Harrington Daniel J 2004 What Are they Saying About Mark Paulist Press ISBN 9780809142637 Osiek Carolyn 2001 The Women at 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116 doi 10 1016 j jflm 2011 06 001 PMID 22390994 Blomberg Craig L 1987 The Historical Reliability of the Gospels Leicester UK Inter Varsity Press ISBN 9780877849926 OCLC 15415029 2nd ed 2007 Bockmuehl Markus N A 2010 The Remembered Peter In Ancient Reception and Modern Debate Mohr Siebeck Boring M Eugene 2006 Mark A Commentary Presbyterian Publishing Corp ISBN 978 0 664 22107 2 Briscoe D Stuatt Ogilvie Lloyd J 2003 The Preacher s Commentary Romans Vol 29 Thomas Nelson Brown R E 2008 Witherup Ronald D ed Christ in the Gospels of the Liturgical Year Paulist Press ISBN 9780814635315 Brown R E 1973 The Virginal Conception and Bodily Resurrection of Jesus Paulist Press ISBN 9780809117680 Burkett Delbert 2002 An introduction to the New Testament and the origins of Christianity Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0521007207 Bynum Caroline Walerk 1996 The Resurrection of the Body in Western Christianity 200 1336 New York Columbia University Press Casey Maurice 30 December 2010 Jesus of Nazareth An Independent Historian s Account of His Life and Teaching A amp C Black ISBN 978 0 567 64517 3 Charlesworth James H 2008 The Historical Jesus An Essential Guide Abingdon Press ISBN 978 1426724756 Charry Ellen T 1999 By the Renewing of Your Minds The Pastoral Function of Christian Doctrine Oxford University Press Chester Andrew 2007 Messiah and Exaltation Jewish Messianic and Visionary Traditions and New Testament Christology Mohr Siebeck ISBN 978 3161490910 Collins Adela Yarbro 2009 Ancient Notions of Transferal and Apotheosis in Seim Turid Karlsen Okland Jorunn eds Metamorphoses Resurrection Body and Transformative Practices in Early Christianity Walter de Gruyter ISBN 978 3110202991 Cook John Granger 2017 Resurrection in Paganism and the Question of an Empty Tomb in 1 Corinthians 15 New Testament Studies 63 1 56 75 doi 10 1017 S002868851600028X Granger Cook John 2018 Resurrection of Jesus Christ In Hunter David G van Geest Paul J J Lietaert Peerbolte Bert Jan eds Brill 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G 1997 Jesus and the Spirit A Study of the Religious and Charismatic Experience of Jesus and the First Christians as Reflected in the New Testament Eerdmans Dunn James D G 2003 Christology in the Making A New Testament Inquiry into the Origins of the Doctrine of the Incarnation Hymns Ancient and Modern Ltd Dunn James D G 2003b Jesus Remembered Christianity in the Making Volume 1 Wm B Eerdmans Publishing Dunn James D G 2006 Unity and Diversity in the New Testament 3rd ed scm press Dunn James D G 2009 Beginning from Jerusalem Christianity in the Making Eerdmans Dijkhuizen Petra 2011 Buried Shamefully Historical Reconstruction of Jesus Burial and Tomb Neotestamentica 45 1 2011 115 129 Ehrman Bart D 2003 Lost Christianities The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 972712 4 Ehrman Bart 2014 How Jesus Became God The Exaltation of a Jewish Preacher from Galilea Harperone Endsjo D 2009 Greek Resurrection Beliefs and the Success of 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Resurrection Research From 1975 to the Present What are Critical Scholars Saying Journal for the Study of the Historical Jesus 3 2 135 153 doi 10 1177 1476869005058192 af Hallstrom Gunnar 1988 Carnis Resurrection The Interpretation of a Credal Formula Societas Scientiarum Fennica Helsinki Harrington Daniel J 1991 The Gospel of Matthew Liturgical Press ISBN 9780814658031 Hengel Martin 1977 Crucifixion in the Ancient World and the Folly of the Message of the Cross Fortress Press ISBN 978 0 8006 1268 9 Hultgren Arland J 2011 Paul s Christology and his Mission to the Gentiels in Burke Trevor J Rosner Brian S eds Paul as Missionary Identity Activity Theology and Practice Bloomsbury Publishing Humphreys Colin J Waddington W G 1992 The Jewish Calendar a Lunar Eclipse and the Date of Christ s Crucifixion Tyndale Bulletin 43 2 331 351 doi 10 53751 001c 30487 S2CID 189519018 Hurtado Larry 2005 Lord Jesus Christ Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity Eerdmans Karkkainen Veli Matti 2017 Hope and Community A Constructive Christian Theology for the Pluralistic World vol 5 Wm B Eerdmans Publishing Company p 84 ISBN 978 1 4674 4874 1 Retrieved 2 December 2022 Koester Helmut 2000 Introduction to the New Testament Vol 2 History and Literature of Early Christianity Walter de Gruyter Kloppenborg John 1978 An Analysis of the Pre Pauline Formula 1 Cor 15 3b 5 In Light of Some Recent Literature The Catholic Biblical Quarterly 40 3 351 67 JSTOR 43715560 Kubitza Heinz Werner 2016 The Jesus Delusion How the Christians created their God The demystification of a world religion through scientific research Tectum Wissenschaftsverlag Lehtipuu Outi 2015 Debates Over the Resurrection of the Dead Constructing Early Christian Identity Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0198724810 Leman Johan 2015 Van totem tot verrezen Heer Een historisch antropologisch verhaal Pelckmans Licona Michael R 2020 The Resurrection of Jesus A New Historiographical Approach Inter Varsity Press ISBN 9781789740196 Loke Andrew Ter Ern 2017 The Origin of Divine Christology vol 169 Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 1 108 19142 5 Loke Andrew Ter Ern 2020 Investigating the Resurrection of Jesus Christ A New Transdisciplinary Approach Routledge ISBN 978 0 367 47756 1 Lorenzen Thorwald 2003 Resurrection Discipleship Justice Affirming the Resurrection of Jesus Christ Today Macon Georgia Smyth amp Helwys Ludemann Gerd Ozen Alf 1996 De opstanding van Jezus Een historische benadering Was mit Jesus wirklich geschah Die Auferstehung historisch betrachtet The Resurrection of Christ A Historical Inquiry The Have Averbode Mack Burton L 1995 1995 Who Wrote the New Testament The Making of the Christian Myth Mack Burton L 1997 1995 Wie schreven het Nieuwe Testament werkelijk Feiten mythen en motieven Who Wrote the New Testament The Making of the Christian Myth Uitgeverij Ankh Hermes bv Magness Jodi 2005 Ossuaries and the Burials of Jesus and James Journal of Biblical Literature 124 1 121 154 doi 10 2307 30040993 ISSN 0021 9231 JSTOR 30040993 Mason Steve 2001 Flavius Josephus on the Pharisees A Composition Critical Study BRILL McCane Byron 2003 Roll Back the Stone Death and Burial in the World of Jesus A amp C Black McGrath Alister E 2011 Christian Theology An Introduction John Wiley amp Sons ISBN 978 1444397703 Netland Harold 2001 Encountering Religious Pluralism The Challenge to Christian Faith amp Mission InterVarsity Press Newbigin Lesslie 1989 The Gospel in a Pluralist Society Eerdmans ISBN 2825409715 Neufeld 1964 The Earliest Christian Confessions Grand Rapids Eerdmans Novakovic Lidija 2014 Raised from the Dead According to Scripture The Role of the Old Testament in the Early Christian Interpretations of Jesus Resurrection A amp C Black Oxenham Henry 1865 The Catholic Doctrine of the Atonement Longman Green Longman Roberts and Green Pagels Elaine 2005 De Gnostische Evangelien The Gnostic Gospels Servire Park Eung Chun 2003 Either Jew Or Gentile Paul s Unfolding Theology of Inclusivity illustrated ed Westminster John Knox Press ISBN 9780664224530 Parker D C 1997 The Living Text of the Gospels Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0521599511 Pate C Marvin 2013 Apostle of the Last Days The Life Letters and Theology of Paul Kregel Academic ISBN 978 0825438929 Powell Mark Allan 2018 Introducing the New Testament A Historical Literary and Theological Survey Baker Books ISBN 9781441207043 Perkins Pheme 2014 Resurrection of Jesus in Evans Craig A ed The Routledge Encyclopedia of the Historical Jesus Routledge ISBN 978 1317722243 Plevnik Joseph 2009 What are They Saying about Paul and the End Time Paulist Press ISBN 978 0809145782 Pugh Ben 2015 Atonement Theories A Way through the Maze James Clarke amp Co Quast Kevin 1991 Reading the Gospel of John An Introduction Paulist Press ISBN 978 0809132973 Rohde Erwin 1925 Psyche The Cult of Souls and Belief in Immortality among the Greeks New York Harper amp Row Rees W Dewi 1971 The Hallucinations Of Widowhood The British Medical Journal 4 5778 37 41 doi 10 1136 bmj 4 5778 37 PMC 1799198 PMID 5096884 Robinson John A T 1973 The human face of God Philadelphia Westminster Press p 131 ISBN 978 0 664 20970 4 Sanders E P 1993 The Historical Figure of Jesus Penguin UK ISBN 978 0191034664 Schafer Peter 2003 The History of the Jews in the Greco Roman World Routledge ISBN 978 1134403165 Seesengood Robert Koosed Jennifer L 2013 Jesse s Lineage The Legendary Lives of David Jesus and Jesse James Bloomsbury ISBN 9780567515261 Sheehan Thomas 1986 The First Coming How the Kingdom of God Became Christianity Random House ISBN 978 0394511986 SINISCALCHI GLENN B 2011 Resurrecting Jesus and Critical Historiography William Lane Craig and Dale Allison in Dialogue Heythrop Journal 52 3 362 373 doi 10 1111 j 1468 2265 2010 00610 x Smith Daniel A 2010 Revisiting the Empty Tomb The Early History of Easter Fortress Press ISBN 9780800697013 Stubs David L 2008 The shape of soteriology and the pistis Christou debate Scottish Journal of Theology 61 2 137 157 doi 10 1017 S003693060800392X S2CID 170575588 Stroumsa Gedaliahu A G 2004 Christ s Laughter Docetic Origins Reconsidered Journal of Early Christian Studies Johns Hopkins University Press 12 3 267 288 doi 10 1353 earl 2004 0049 S2CID 170164256 Swinburne Richard 2003 The Resurrection of God Incarnate Clarendon Press ISBN 978 0199257454 Tabor James 2013 Paul and Jesus How the Apostle Transformed Christianity Simon and Schuster ISBN 978 1439123324 Talbert Charles H 2011 The Development of Christology during the First Hundred Years and Other Essays on Early Christian Christology Supplements to Novum Testamentum 140 Brill Taylor Mark 2014 1 Corinthians An Exegetical and Theological Exposition of Holy Scripture B amp H Publishing ISBN 978 0805401288 Telford W R 1999 The Theology of the Gospel of Mark Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0521439770 Van Voorst Robert E 2000 Eternal Life In Freedman David Noel Myers Allen C eds Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible Eerdmans ISBN 978 9053565032 Vermes Geza 2001 The Changing Faces of Jesus Penguin UK ISBN 978 0141912585 Vermes Geza 2008 The Resurrection History and Myth Crown Publishing Group ISBN 9780385525633 Vermes Geza 2008a The Resurrection London Penguin ISBN 9780141912639 Vermes Geza 2008b The Resurrection History and Myth New York Doubleday ISBN 978 0 7394 9969 6 Ware James 2014 Paul s Understanding of the Resurrection in 1 Corinthians 15 36 54 Journal of Biblical Literature 133 4 809 835 Weaver J Denny 2001 The Nonviolent Atonement Wm B Eerdmans Publishing Wedderburn A J M 1999 Beyond Resurrection Hendrickson Publishers Peabody Williams Guy J March 2013 Lawrence Louise ed Narrative Space Angelic Revelation and the End of Mark s Gospel Journal for the Study of the New Testament SAGE Publications 35 3 263 284 doi 10 1177 0142064X12472118 ISSN 1745 5294 S2CID 171065040 Wilson Barrie 2011 How Jesus Became Christian Hachette UK ISBN 9781780222066 Wright N T 2003 The Resurrection of the Son of God Minneapolis Fortress Press ISBN 978 0 8006 2679 2 Wright N T 2009 The Challenge of Easter Wright Tom 7 June 2012 The Resurrection of the Son of God SPCK ISBN 978 0 281 06750 3 Web sources a b c EB Incarnation and humiliation a b c d e f Justin Holcomb What Does It Mean that Jesus Is The Firstborn from the Dead a b c Habermas 2005 Research from 1975 to the Present What are Critical Scholars Saying a b James F McGrath 2007 What s Wrong With Penal Substitution a b Larry Hurtado 11 September 2014 Paul on Jesus Resurrection A New Study 1 Corinthians 15 44 14 May 2013 a b Taylor S Brown august3 2018 The Resurrection of the Body Spiritual Physical Both Actually John Ankerberg and Gary Habermas 2000 The Resurrection of Jesus Christ Was it Physical or Spiritual a b c Ehrman Bart D 14 February 2013 Incarnation Christology Angels and Paul The Bart Ehrman Blog Retrieved 2 May 2018 Larry Hurtado The Origin of Divine Christology Bouma Jeremy 27 March 2014 The Early High Christology Club and Bart Ehrman An Excerpt from How God Became Jesus Zondervan Academic Blog HarperCollins Christian Publishing Retrieved 2 May 2018 Larry Hurtado 10 July 2015 Early High Christology A Paradigm Shift New Perspective Bart Ehrman 5 October 2012 Gerd Ludemann on the Resurrection of Jesus David G Peterson 2009 Atonement in Paul s writing Archived 21 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine John B Cobb Did Paul Teach the Doctrine of the Atonement a b E P Sanders Saint Paul the Apostle Encyclopedia Britannica The Jewish Encyclopedia SIN Jeewish Virtual Library Jewish Practices amp Rituals Sacrifices and Offerings Karbanot The Jewish Encyclopedia 1906 Atonement a b Jordan Cooper E P Sanders and the New Perspective on PaulExternal links Edit Media related to Resurrection of Christ at Wikimedia Commons Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Resurrection of Jesus amp oldid 1152595084, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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