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List of ecoregions in North America (CEC)

December 28, 2022

This list of ecoregions of North America provides an overview of North American ecoregions designated by the Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC) in its North American Environmental Atlas. It should not be confused with Wikipedia articles based on the classification system developed by the World Wildlife Fund, such as List of ecoregions (WWF) and Lists of ecoregions by country.

The commission was established in 1994 by the member states of Canada, Mexico, and the United States to address regional environmental concerns under the North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation (NAAEC), the environmental side accord to the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). The commission's 1997 report, Ecological Regions of North America, provides a framework that may be used by government agencies, non-governmental organizations, and academic researchers as a basis for risk analysis, resource management, and environmental study of the continent's ecosystems.[1] Ecoregions may be identified by similarities in geology, physiography, vegetation, climate soils, land use, wildlife distributions, and hydrology.

The classification system has four levels. Only the first three levels are shown on this list. "Level I" divides North America into 15 broad ecoregions. "Level II" subdivides the continent into 52 smaller ecoregions. "Level III" subdivides those regions again into 182 ecoregions.[1][2] "Level IV" is a further subdivision of Level III ecoregions. Level IV mapping is still underway but is complete across most of the United States. For an example of Level IV data, see List of ecoregions in Oregon and the associated articles.

List

Level I Level II Level III
No. Name No. Name No. Name
1 Arctic Cordillera 1.1 Arctic Cordillera 1.1.1 Ellesmere and Devon Islands Ice Caps
1.1.2 Baffin and Torngat Mountains
2 Tundra 2.1 Northern Arctic 2.1.1 Sverdrup Islands Lowland
2.1.2 Ellesmere Mountains and Eureka Hills
2.1.3 Parry Islands Plateau
2.1.4 Lancaster and Borden Peninsula Plateaus
2.1.5 Foxe Uplands
2.1.6 Baffin Uplands
2.1.7 Gulf of Boothia and Foxe Basin Plains
2.1.8 Victoria Island Lowlands
2.1.9 Banks Island and Amundsen Gulf Lowlands
2.2 Alaska Tundra 2.2.1 Arctic Coastal Plain
2.2.2 Arctic Foothills
2.2.3 Subarctic Coastal Plains
2.2.4 Seward Peninsula
2.2.5 Bristol Bay-Nushagak Lowlands
2.2.6 Aleutian Islands
2.3 Brooks Range Tundra 2.3.1 Brooks Range/Richardson Mountains
2.4 Southern Arctic 2.4.1 Amundsen Plains
2.4.2 Aberdeen Plains
2.4.3 Central Angava Peninsula and Ottawa and Belcher Islands
2.4.4 Queen Maud Gulf and Chantrey Inlet Lowlands
3 Taiga 3.1 Alaska Boreal Interior 3.1.1 Interior Forested Lowlands and Uplands
3.1.2 Interior Bottomlands
3.1.3 Yukon Flats
3.2 Taiga Cordillera 3.2.1 Oglivie Mountains
3.2.2 Mackenzie and Selwyn Mountains
3.2.3 Peel River and Nahanni Plateaus
3.3 Taiga Plains 3.3.1 Great Bear Plains
3.3.2 Hay and Slave River Lowlands
3.4 Taiga Shield 3.4.1 Kazan Rvier and Selwyn Lake Uplands
3.4.2 La Grande Hills and New Quebec Central Pleateau
3.4.3 Smallwood Uplands
3.4.4 Ungava Bay Basin and George Plateau
3.4.5 Coppermine River and Tazin Lake Uplands
4 Hudson Plain 4.1 Hudson Plain 4.1.1 Coastal Hudson Bay Lowland
4.1.2 Hudson Bay and Hames Lowlands
5 Northern Forests 5.1 Softwood Shield 5.1.1 Athabasca Plain and Churchill River Upland
5.1.2 Lake Nipigon and Lac Seul Upland
5.1.3 Central Laurentians and Mecatina Plateau
5.1.4 Newfoundland Island
5.1.5 Hayes River Upland and Big Trout Lake
5.1.6 Abitibi Plains and Riviere Rupert Plateau
5.2 Mixed Wood Shield 5.2.1 Northern Lakes and Forests
5.2.2 Northern Minnesota Wetlands
5.2.3 Algonquin/Southern Laurentians
5.3 Atlantic Highlands 5.3.1 Northern Appalachians and Atlantic Maritime Highlands
5.3.2 North Central Appalachians
5.4 Boreal Plain 5.4.1 Mid-Boreal Uplands and Peac-Wabaska Lowlands
5.4.2 Clear Hills and Western Alberta Uplands
5.4.3 Mid-Boreal Lowland and Interlake Plains

Arctic Cordillera

Main article: Arctic Cordillera

Overview

The Arctic Cordillera is one of the world's fifteen diverse ecoregions, characterized by a vast mountain chain spanning the spine of the range. The geographic range is composed along the provinces of Labrador: including Eastern Baffin, Devon Island, Ellesmere, Bylot Island, the Thorngat Mountains, and some parts of the Northeastern fringe. The landscape is dominated by massive polar icefields, alpine glaciers, inland fjords, and large bordering bodies of water, distinctive of many similar arctic regions in the world. Although the terrain is infamous for its unforgiving conditions, humans maintained an established population of 1000 people – 80% of which were Inuit. In addition, the landscape is 75% covered by ice or exposed bedrock, with a continuous permafrost that persists throughout the year, making plant and animal life somewhat scarce. The temperature of the Arctic Cordillera ranges from 6 °C in summer, down to −16 °C in winter. Vegetation is largely absent in this area due to permanent ice and snow.[3]

Natural resources and human influence

The Arctic Cordillera is a cold, harsh environment making plant life and animal-life sparse; even soil is rare in this ecoregion. Moss, cottongrass, and Arctic heather are examples of plant life that can be found in valleys. Meanwhile, polar bears, seals, and walruses roam the shores and survive off the thriving marine ecosystem.[4] Fish, clams, and shrimp are just a few of the resources the local Inuit communities of Nunavut use in the highly productive waters to support their economy. Nunavut’s government is also investing in exploration of mineral resources; Breakwater Resources, for example, has Nanisivik Mine, a zinc-lead mine in Arctic Bay that just reopened in April 2003 after closing the year before due to declining resources.[5] Climate change is the strongest human influence in the Arctic Cordillera. Rising temperatures in the Arctic are causing ice shelves, and the habitats they provide, to shrink from year to year. Researchers of global warming also express concern for the economic, political, and social consequences of the resulting decline in fisheries stocks expected because of the changing climate.[6]

Climate

The Arctic Cordillera is one of Canada’s most inhospitable climates. The northern part is covered by the ice caps and glaciers cover a large part of the south. It was not always as cold as it is today. 40 million-year-old tree stumps found in 1985 on Axel Heiberg Island suggest that the area used to be warmer and wetter with much more biodiversity. Today the weather is generally very cold and dry with a few weeks of sun and rain in the summer. Snow is the most common form of precipitation in the Cordillera. The region only gets 20−60 centimeters of precipitation annually. The temperature in this ecoregion averages around 4 degrees Celsius during the summer. In the winter the temperature is −35 degrees Celsius on average. A polar cell is a system of winds that influence the climate of the Cordillera. It is made up of the Westerlies, which are winds that blow warm air east to west from 30 to 60 degrees latitude up to the poles, and the Polar Easterlies, which blow cold air back south where it will repeat the process.[7]

Hydrology

This region can be divided up into three major areas Ellesmere Island, Baffin Island, and the coastline of the most northern part of Labrador. Nearly 75% of the land within this ecoregion is exposed bedrock or ice. The majority of the water in this ecoregion is locked up in frozen ice and snow, therefore there are very few named rivers or other bodies of water within this region. The annual amount precipitation is about 200 mm, which usually falls down as snow or ice. Huge ice caps dominate the landscape, and they spawn large glaciers that are pushed down steep fjords and into the sea. When the temperature gets above freezing for an extended period time a little amount of runoff is created, which is generally under 200 mm annually.[8]

Geology, topography and soil

The Arctic Cordillera is dominated by vast mountain ranges stretching for thousands of miles, virtually untouched by man. These mountains were formed millions of years ago during the mid-Mesozoic when the North American Plate moved northward, pushing earth and rock upwards. The mountains of the north contain metamorphic and igneous rock, and are predominantly sedimentary rock. On the other hand, the southern mountains are greater, composed of granite gneiss and magmatic volcanic rock. These mountains are characterized as being highly erodible with very steep and jagged cliffs with narrow ledges. The highest peak in the Arctic Cordillera mountain range is Barbeau Peak – standing almost nine thousand feet tall. In general, the Arctic Cordillera Mountain Range is most similar (in composition and age) to the Appalachian Mountain Range of the United States. However, as the Appalachian Mountains are slightly older, their cliffs have been eroded, and are less jagged than those of the Arctic Cordillera. This ecoregion is also home to very limited amounts of exposed soil. Only in extremely sheltered places – such as that of caves – is surface soil present. The remaining soil is hidden beneath deep snow and ice, and is kept in a constant state of permafrost.[9]

Plant communities

The Arctic Cordillera is a very high stress environment for plants to try and grow and regenerate. Vegetation is largely absent due to permanent ice and snow. Due to the extremely cold, dry climate, along with the ice-fields and lack of soil materials, the high and mid-elevations are largely devoid of significant populations of plants. In the warmer valleys at low elevations and along coastal margins, the plant cover is more extensive, consisting of herbaceous and shrub-type communities. Stream-banks and coastlines are the most biologically productive areas here. The plants in this region have a history of being survivors and stress tolerant to high winds, low temperatures, few available macronutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus. Plants have adaptations such as fluffy seed masses, staying low to the ground, and use of other plant masses for extra insulation.[10]

Keystone species

Due to the harsh environments and extremely low temperatures that encompass the Arctic Cordillera, there is not a large variety of plants and animals that are able to survive and exist as a population. However, some animal species, both herbivores and carnivores, are able to survive the extreme weather and terrain. Among these animals are wolves, polar bears, Arctic foxes, musk-oxen, and caribou. For the most part, the large carnivores are the dominant species in the ecoregion, mainly the polar bear. It is the keystone species for the area due to many of its habits, including its diet and hunting strategies. In addition, the life history of the 22,000 polar bears in the Arctic clearly defines its current existence in the Arctic Cordillera.[11]

The large carnivorous species defines the ecoregion due to its intimate relationship with the ice as well as its extremely intelligent hunting tactics.[12] No other predatory animal defines the Arctic Cordillera as well as the large white polar bear and that is why when people think about arctic animals, they think about the polar bear. As long as the polar bear exists, it will be the keystone species of the Arctic Cordillera. However, this existence relies solely on the degree of ice melt that is encountered in the future.[13]

Endangered species

Polar bear
 
Polar bear

The polar bear is one of the most notably affected species in the Arctic Cordillera, mainly due to their heavy reliance on arctic ice for hunting and bedding grounds. Habitat loss, caused by global warming, has led to many dangerous behavioral changes including a new behavior called long swims. These are swims lasting as long as ten days performed by mother bears to attempt to find food for their cubs, which generally lead to the death of the cub.[14] Because of their stature and aggressiveness, direct conservation practices are not very useful to the polar bear. Instead, scientific observation to better understand these animals is the largest form of traditional conservation.[15]

Arctic black spruce

The Arctic black spruce is an example of a plant native to the Arctic Cordillera that is considered to be in ecological decline. The black spruce is a species of least concern because of habitat loss and deforestation from the spruce budworm moth.[16] In the Arctic Cordillera however, the black spruce population is in good health, and is slowly gaining habitat through the retreat of polar ice.[17]

Bowhead whale
 
Bowhead whale

Another species that is of great importance to this ecoregion is the endangered Bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus). Five total stocks of this species exist in the region within the arctic oceans and adjacent seas: the Spitsbergen stock, Baffin Bay/Davis Strait, stock and Hudson Bay/Foxe Basin Stock, Sea of Okhotsk Stock, and the Bering/Chukchi/Beaufort Stock. Historically, these whales have served as a cultural icon, and an important source of food and fuel to the Inuit. At this point in time,[when?] their populations were estimated between 30,000 and 50,000 individuals.

However, with the expansion of commercial whaling in the 16th and 17th century, this species was exploited to dangerously low numbers. Commercial hunting of bowheads was officially ended in 1921, when moratoria were established to protect the remaining 3,000 individuals left in the wild.[18]

Today, those same moratoria are still in effect, but the Bowhead population has been reinstated to a manageable population of between 7,000 and 10,000 individuals. Nonetheless, these whales have been (and remain) on the IUCN Red List since 1984.[19] One of the most important conservation efforts for this species is "legal" protection by the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling, which came into force in 1935. This convention was further strengthened and ratified by Canada in 1977 to support the International Whaling Commission’s (IWC) recommendation for full protection of the bowhead whale.[20] Further conservation efforts have involved more physically demanding solutions, including the recommended funding of specialized technical machines that have the capability to remove debris that commonly kills these whales due to entanglement and accidental indigestion.[19]

Tundra

 
The location of the tundra in North America is highlighted in light blue.

One of the planet's most recent biomes, a result of the last ice age only 10,000 years ago, the tundra contains unique flora and fauna formed during the last glaciation in areas unrestricted by permanent ice. The tundra region is found in high latitudes, primarily in Alaska, Canada, Russia, Greenland, Iceland, Scandinavia, as well as the Antarctic Islands. Consisting of the arctic, alpine and Antarctic regions, and stemming from the Samer language, tundra literally means a "high and dry place".

Plant communities

The adversity of soil and climatic conditions proves for low production levels, as well as little biomass accumulation due to slow rates of nutrient release in cold and wet soils, specifically as a result of limited nitrogen and phosphorus (Nadelhoffer et al. 1996) Additionally, there are low temperatures and strong winds in the tundra causing most vegetation to be dominated by woody plants that hug the soil. Within the tundra, some dominant plant species include lichen, cotton grass, and Arctic willow.

 
Lichens

Lichens dominate the tundra as the regions major primary producer. A symbiotic combination of algae and fungi, a lichen is able to survive in the harsh conditions of the tundra (Biodiversity Institute of Ontario et al. 2010). Their unique structure and survivability makes lichen a prominent and keystone plant species in the tundra ecosystem.

Cotton grass is another dominant plant species in the tundra producing much of its growth early in the summer. Being a member of the sedge family, it forms a large part of the vegetation in the tundra because it is able to deal with harsh and cold temperatures. This perennial plant contains flowering heads with dense brittles that are spread during heavy winds, enabling pollination (Wein and Bliss 1974). Additionally, its survivability in the tundra can be attributed to cotton grass’s ability to photosynthesize in low temperatures and low light.

The Arctic willow, commonly named rock willow, is found in the North American tundra. Most uniquely, the Arctic willow often has long trailing branches that root where they intersect with the surface of the ground, and the roots are shallow as to thrive in the frozen ground of the tundra (Wielgolaski 1972).

In addition to species such as lichens, cotton grass, and Arctic willows, shrubs, sedges, lichens, mosses, and vascular plants dominate the tundra plant community (Folch and Camarasa 2000). Despite the tundra eco-region’s reputation of being a cold and desolate ‘polar desert’, it is actually a varying landscape supporting a diverse amount of plant and animal species.

Animal species

Since the tundra has such a harsh environment, the animals who live here have adapted in a way to call the tundra their home. The keystone species of the tundra can be as small as a lemming to as large as a musk ox. The low biodiversity means that fluctuation in individual animals can substantially affect the entire ecosystem. The main predators of the tundra are the polar bear, the Arctic wolf and the Arctic fox. They all have thick white coats that help them blend into their environment and stalk prey.[21] The polar bear spends majority of its time out on the ice hunting seals and sometimes when small rodents are scarce on land the Arctic fox will follow the bears and eat their scraps. Wolves use teamwork to attack herds of caribou or musk ox for food.[22] Lemming are small rodents that fluctuate every three to four years and with their fluctuations also comes the fluctuation of their predators such as the Arctic fox and the snowy owl.[23] The keystone herbivores are the musk ox and the caribou. They have thick shaggy coats that they shed during the warmer months.[24] Caribou use their nimble legs to escape quickly from predators while the musk ox use each other to make a fierce wall of horns.[25] These animals help keep each other alive as well as the ecosystem around them.

Geology, topography and soil

The tundra is an extremely harsh, cold, windy and unique ecosystem found on the extreme north and south latitudes of our Earth. The soil consists mostly of frozen permafrost, which makes it difficult for extended root systems to grow, water to drain and support of a wide variety of plant life. This permafrost is also responsible for creating an extremely unusual topography. The land of the tundra is constantly changing as permafrost and snow melts and refreezes through the changing seasons. Land slumps and depressions occur as a result of melting permafrost that takes up less space when the soil was frozen. Depressions that occur as a result of melting permafrost are known as thermokarst, and are often in the form of pits, funnel-shaped sinkholes, valleys, ravines and sometimes caves. Pingos are another feature of the tundra, and can be defined as a cone shaped hill or mound of soil with a core of ice. Lastly, polygons make up a crucial part of the tundra and are created when two large cracks create a large ice wedge and slowly slumps into itself filling with water as heat from sunlight melts the permafrost. Often small lakes are formed from polygons on the surface of the tundra.

The flora and fauna must adapt to extremely harsh conditions, however has been able to do so successfully through evolutionary change. Many threats exist today to the tundra biome including mining, oil drilling, increased habitat loss, human habitations moving farther north and global warming which is melting more and more permafrost and changing the delicate balance of the soils. It is imperative that we fully understand how our ecosystems function in order to monitor their stability through our changing climate.

Climate

The tundra is characterized by a harsh, frost-laden landscape with negative temperatures, a lack of precipitation and nutrients, and extremely short seasons. In the winter it is cold and dark, and in the summer when the snow and the top layer of permafrost melt, it is very soggy and the tundra is covered with marshes, lakes, bogs and streams. Spring and fall are only short periods between winter and summer. In the peak of winter, average temperatures can reach −30 °F. In arctic regions, there generally is not a great difference between daytime highs and nighttime lows, as the sun generally never rises or simply hangs briefly on the horizon. Summers in the tundra, on the other hand, are very short, in some locations only lasting a few weeks. Daily temperatures can reach up to 60 °F but overnight lows go down into the 30s, 20s or lower, depending on the region. This results in daily average temperatures to come out to around 50 °F. It may rain or snow, and frost still occurs. The average annual temperature is −18 °F. Nights can last for weeks, and when the sun barely rises during some months in the winter, the temperature can drop to −94 °F. During the summer the sun shines almost 24 hours a day. Temperatures can get up to 54 °F but it can get as cold as 37 °F. Average summer temperatures range from 37 °F to 60 °F. The tundra is very much like a desert in terms of precipitation. Yearly average precipitation varies by region, but generally there is only about 6–10 inches (150–250 mm) of precipitation per year and in some regions it can have up to 20 inches (510 mm). This precipitation usually falls in the form of light, fluffy snow.

Environmental threats

Due to its vulnerable state, the powerful forces of climate change, ozone depletion, air pollution, and construction threaten the tundra's survival. The melting of permafrost increases as a result of global warming, which could drastically alter both the landscape and the biodiversity of the region. The ozone depletion at both the North and South Poles increase the strength of ultraviolet rays that harm the tundra. Air pollution around the world creates smog clouds that contaminate the lichen in the ecosystem, which is a major food source in the region. The construction of pipelines and roads to obtain oil, gas, and minerals cause physical disturbances and habitat fragmentation. There are a number of possible solutions, according to National Geographic, including switching to alternative energy, establishing protected areas and park reserves to restrict human influence, limit road construction, mining activities, and the building of pipelines in tundra habitat, and limiting tourism and respecting local cultures.[26] The creation of the Arctic National Refuge is an example of a measure being enacted to protect the North American tundra. The Arctic Refuge was originally created in 1960 by the Public Land Order 2214, which was created "for the purpose of preserving unique wildlife, wilderness and recreational values" and "withdrawn from all forms of appropriation under the public land laws, including the mining but not the mineral leasing laws, nor disposals of materials".[27] In 1980, the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act (ANILCA) re-designated the Range as a part of the larger Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, and declared "that the ‘production of oil and gas from the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge is prohibited and no leasing or other development leading to production of oil and gas from the [Refuge] shall be undertaken until authorized by an act of Congress’".[28]

Endangered species

Though species have adapted to the harsh climate of the tundra, several species have become endangered due to changing environmental factors. Both plant species and animal species have become endangered. The Aleutian shield fern is a plant species that has been endangered due to caribou tramping and grazing, slumping from growing substrate, and human foot traffic.[29] Animal species that are endangered in the tundra include the Arctic fox, caribou, and polar bears. These animals have been endangered due to overhunting, infestation of disease, loss of diet and habitat due to climate change, and human destructive activities, such as searches for natural gas and oil, mining, and road building.[30] In an effort to conserve these endangered species, many regulations and standards are being put into action along with establishing prohibition of unauthorized plant collecting. Standards are being set in regards to mining and mineral explorations. This will help in not disturbing the habitats as much. In addition to this, protection of caribou grounds has been established along with regulations in regards to removal of gravel roads for airstrips and road fill, which takes away from many of the animals’ critical territories.

Effects of climate change

The tundra is one of the first places on Earth we have noted the effects of climate change. As an indicator biome, the tundra is a crucial part of the whole global climate system and can help predict the changes the rest of the world will face. The Earth depends on regulating mechanisms and air circulation patterns the tundra provides to keep climates steady worldwide. Human-induced climate change is devastating the tundra because intense complications are present in remote areas, free from human interference. Changes in climate, permafrost, ice pack, and glacier formations pose a serious threat to the stability of global climate because these conditions are influenced and reinforced by positive feedback loops. Temperatures in the tundra are rising to the highest temperatures recorded in four centuries and are rising more rapidly than anywhere worldwide[31] The land surfaces in the tundra are no longer reflecting radiation from the sun out of the atmosphere. Soils and open water are absorbing heat from the sun and leading to more warming. Changes in the tundra influence climate change in lower latitudes because air pressure changes are shifting global air and ocean circulation patterns.[31] Sea ice extent in the tundra has reached lowest recorded levels in centuries and this will dramatically affect people and wildlife worldwide. Changes in climate will be noticed first and seen most intensely in the northern regions of the planet. The tundra will show effects from climate change the soonest and will hopefully serve as a catalyst for action for people all over the world.

Natural resources

According to the US Energy Information Administration, the arctic tundra holds an estimated 13% or 90 billion barrels of the world's undiscovered conventional oil sources. However, there are a number of challenges to oil exploration, drilling, and transportation in an arctic tundra environment that limits the profitability of the venture.[32] Oil and gas fields in the arctic need to be large, with lots of proven reserves, because oil companies need that money to make the investment profitable. Natural gas is a more recoverable resource than oil in tundra eco-regions. It is estimated that there are 221.4 million undiscovered, technically recoverable cubic feet of natural gas in the Arctic.[32] Oil sands, often pejoratively referred to as tar sands, are a phenomenon unique to the tundra environment and are profitable and plentiful in the Athabasca region of the Alberta sands.[33] Oil sands consist of bitumen, which contains petroleum, found in a natural state combined with clays, sands, and water.[33] Oil sands must be heavily processed and refined to yield synthetic crude oil, similar to conventional crude oil. Arctic tundra may contain minerals such as coal, copper, gold, iron, nickel, diamonds and the base feedstock for uranium oxide called pitchblende.[34]

Iconic components

The arctic tundra has an exceptionally short growing period, minimal sunlight and limited resources, creating a brutal environment for plants and animals. By adapting to these harsh conditions, animals and plants represent iconic characteristics of the tundra. Plants grow in aggregated formations which provide shelter from wind, ice and also improves seed success.[35] Animals have adapted with specialized organs, such as a rete mirabile, an organ that efficiently transfers heat. Frogs and amphibians use "anti-freeze" to prevent organ damage while hibernating. Polar bears, foxes and owls use insulated fur and feathers to protect for the cold conditions.[36] These complex interactions between plants, animals and abiotic factors in the tundra are held together by the permafrost layer, located 450 metres (1,480 ft) under the soil.[37] However climate change is causing this crucial layer of frozen soil to melt. As a result, tundra communities are becoming unstable and basic processes are breaking down. Other factors such as oil development and drilling in tundra ecosystems has completely disheveled the wildlife and vegetation populations. Tundra exploration vehicles used for oil development and polar bear tours ("an eco-friendly" industry) leave traces of tire marks for 20-plus years after disturbance occurs. Other factors such as high CO2 emissions from tourism and from warming tundra soil, creates a positive feedback loop, acceleration changes to the tundra.[38]

Northern Arctic

  • Sverdrup Islands Lowland (ecoregion)
  • Ellesmere Mountains and Eureka Hills (ecoregion)
  • Parry Islands Plateau (ecoregion)
  • Lancaster and Borden Peninsula Plateaus (ecoregion)
  • Foxe Uplands (ecoregion)
  • Baffin Uplands (ecoregion)
  • Gulf of Boothia and Foxe Basin Plains (ecoregion)
  • Victoria Island Lowlands (ecoregion)
  • Banks Island and Amundsen Gulf Lowlands (ecoregion)

Alaska Tundra

Brooks Range Tundra

Southern Arctic

  • Amundsen Plains (ecoregion)
  • Aberdeen Plains (ecoregion)
  • Central Ungava Peninsula and Ottawa and Belcher Islands (ecoregion)
  • Queen Maud Gulf and Chantrey Inlet Lowlands (ecoregion)

Taiga

Introduction

The taiga ecoregion includes much of the interior Alaska as well as the Yukon forested area, and extends on the west from the Bering Sea to the Richardson Mountains in on the east, with the Brooks Range on the north and the Alaska Range on the south end. It is a region with a vast mosaic of habitats and a fragile yet extensive patchwork of ecological characteristics. All aspects of the region such as soils and plant species, hydrology, and climate interact, and are affected by climate change, new emerging natural resources, and other environmental threats such as deforestation. These threats alter the biotic and abiotic components of the region, which lead to further degradation and to various endangered species.

 
Taiga in Alaska

Soils and plant species

The main type of soil in the taiga is a Spodosol. These soils contain a Spodic horizon, a sandy layer of soil that has high accumulations of iron and aluminum oxides, which lays underneath a leached A horizon. The color contrast between the Spodic horizon and the overlying horizon is very easy to identify. The color change is the result of the migration of iron and aluminum oxides from small, but consistent amounts of rainfall from the top horizon to the lower horizon of soil.

The decomposition of organic matter is very slow in the taiga because of the cold climate and low moisture. With slow decomposition of organic matter nutrient cycling is very slow and the nutrient level of the soil is also very low. The soils in the taiga are quite acidic as well. A relatively small amount of rainfall coupled with slow decomposition of organic material allows the acidic plant debris to sit and saturate the top horizons of the soil profile.

As a result of the infertile soil only a few plant species can really thrive in taiga. The common plant species in the taiga are coniferous trees. Not only do conifer trees thrive in acidic soils, they actually make the soil more acidic. Acidic leaflitter (or needles) from conifers falls to the forest floor and the precipitation leaches the acids down into the soil. Other species that can tolerate the acidic soils of the taiga are lichens and mosses, yellow nutsedge and water horsetail. The depth to bedrock has an effect on the plants that grow well in the taiga as well. A shallow depth to bedrock forces the plants to have shallow roots, limiting overall stability and water uptake.

Keystone species

Beaver, Canadian lynx, bobcat, wolverine, and snowshoe hare are all keystone species in the taiga area. These species are keystone because they have learned to adapt to the cold climate of the area and are able to survive year round.

These species survive year round in taiga by changing fur color and growing extra fur. They have adapted to use each other to survive too. All of the predators depend on the snowshoe hare at some point during the year. All of the species also depend on forests in the area for shelter.

Hydrology

Watersheds characterize much of the taiga ecoregion as interconnecting rivers, streams, lakes and coastline. Due to a cool climate, low evaporation levels keeps moisture levels high and enables water to have serious influences for ecosystems. The vast majority of water in the taiga is freshwater, occupying lakes and rivers.

Many watersheds are dominated by large rivers that dump huge amounts of freshwater into the ocean such as the Lena river in Central Siberia. This exportation of freshwater helps control the thermohaline circulation and the global climate. Flow rates of taiga rivers are variable and "flashy" due to the presence of a permafrost that keeps water from percolating deep into the soil. Due to global warming, flow rates have increased as more of the permafrost melts every year. In addition to "flashy" flow levels, the permafrost in the taiga allows dissolved inorganic nitrogen and organic carbon levels in the water to be higher while calcium, magnesium, sulfate, and hydrogen bicarbonate levels are shown to be much lower. As a dominant characteristic in the soil, the permafrost also influences the degree to which water percolates into the soil. Where there is a year-long permafrost, the water table is located much deeper in the soil and is less available to organisms, while a discontinuous permafrost provides much shallower access.

Lakes that cover the taiga are characteristically formed by receding glaciers, and therefore have many unique features. The vast majority of lakes and ponds in the taiga ecoregion are oligotrophic, and have much higher levels of allochthonous versus autochthonous matter. This is due to glacier formation and has implications in how trophic levels interact with limiting nutrients. These oligotrophic lakes show organic nitrogen and carbon as more limiting nutrients for trophic growth over phosphorus. This contrasts sharply with mesotrophic or eutrophic lakes from similar climates.

Climate

When we[who?] look at the climate of the taiga, we[who?] are looking at average temperatures, abiotic factors such as precipitation, and circulatory patterns. According to the study in Global Change Biology, the average yearly temperatures across the Alaskan and Canadian taiga ranged from −26.6 °C to 4.8 °C. This indicates the extreme cold weather the taiga has for the majority of the year. As for precipitation, the majority of it is snow, but rain is also an important factor. According to The International Journal of Climatology, precipitation in the form of rain ranged from 40 mm average in August, to 15 mm average in April over a multi-year study. Rain is not the only kind of precipitation that affects the taiga; the main factor in precipitation is usually snow. According to CEC Ecological Regions of North America, snow and freshwater ice can occupy the taiga for half to three quarters of the year. A CEC Ecological Regions of North America document states that the lowest average precipitation is on the western side of taiga; can be as little as 200 mm and on the east coast it can be as high as exceeding 1,000 mm. As for circulatory patterns, we're[who?] finding that the temperature increases have led to a seasons shift. Global Change Biology also has noted with the change in temperature over time, as well as the overall climate change, the growing season has lengthened. Their findings illustrate that the growing season has grown 2.66 days per ten years. This growing season change as a result of global warming is having an extreme effect on the taiga.

Environmental threats

Climate change has played its role in threatening the taiga ecoregion. Equally as harmful are the human effects like deforestation, however many associations and regulations are working to protect the taiga and reverse the damage. Climate change is resulting in rising temperatures, and decreases in moisture, which cause parasites and other insects to be more active thus causing tree stress and death. Thawing permafrost has led to many forests experiencing less stability and they become "drunken forests" (the decrease in soil stability causes the trees to lean or fall over). Increased tree death then leads to a carbon dioxide outflux, thus further propagating the increases in global warming. It is essential for climate change to be combated with global action, which is what the Kyoto Protocol in 1997 was created to do. Other measures to protect the taiga would be to prohibit unsustainable deforestation, switch to renewable energy, and protect old growth forests, (they sequester the most carbon dioxide). The taiga also suffers from more direct human effects such as logging and mining sites. Logging has been a very profitable business in the region, however fragmentation of forests leads to loss of habitats, relocation of keystone species, increases in erosion, increases in magnitude and frequency of flooding, and altered soil composition. Regions in which permafrost has thawed and trees have fallen take centuries to recover. Canadian and Russian governments enacted a Protection Belt, which covers 21.1 million ha, and initiatives like the Far East Association for the use of non-timber forest products, gives economic significance to the forests while avoiding logging. In addition to logging, studies have measured over 99,300 tones of airborne pollutants from just one metal extracting plant over a 50-year span. These pollutants are 90% sulfur dioxide, which is a precursor to acid rain. Other emissions include nitrogen oxides, sulfurous anhydrides, and inorganic dust. Forests in a 50 kilometres (31 mi) radius of these sites can serve little to no biological services once affected, and there has been little appearance of protection measures to regulate mining plants.

Endangered species

The taiga is inhabited by many species, some of which are endangered, and include the Canadian lynx, gray wolf, and grizzly bear. The Canadian lynx is one well-known animal to inhabit the North American taiga region and is listed as threatened in the U.S. The mother lynx will have a litter of about 4 kittens in the spring. Following the birth, the female is the sole caretaker, not letting them out of her sight until 12 months when they begin to learn to hunt. According to the USDS Forest Service, protection for the lynx has increased since 2000, which marks the date it became protected under the Endangered Species Act. Since much of the lynx’s habitat is land managed by the agency, efforts to maintain and increase the habitat for the Canadian lynx using forest management plans are underway.

The taiga region is also interspersed with various plant species. The endangered or threatened species include Labrador tea, lady’s slipper orchid, helleborine orchid, long leaf pine, ligonberry plant, Newfoundland pine marten, Methuselahs beard, lodgepole pine, and Scots pine. The life history of the long leaf pine is a tree species that has been around for quite sometime, and can reach more than 250 years in age. To begin the tree’s life, a seed falls from the parent in October to late November awaiting water to begin germination in a few weeks. For those individuals that make it, they will enter what is known as the grass stage. During this stage the roots are being established, and the bud of the tree is protected from fire. Years later, the long leaf will reach about 6–10 feet (1.8–3.0 m) in height and the diameter will increase with time. Somewhere around 30 years after the trees will begin to produce cones with fertile seeds and average about 110 feet (34 m) at maturity. One recent study discusses the effects of logging in the 1950s on pine species. Since then, conservation efforts have increased the number of pine (and other) tree species. The Nature Conservancy is prioritizing its protection efforts to rebuild long leaf pine forests through land purchases, conservation easements, and management of land sites. Restoration is also a large part of efforts to ensure the long leaf pine remains extant. By planting seedlings, controlling competitive vegetation, and controlled burning methods, scientists and volunteers are working to increase the number of the long leaf pine.

 
Canadian lynx near Whitehorse, Yukon

Effects of climate change

Over the next 100 years, global annual mean temperatures are expected to rise by 1.4−5.8 °C, but changes in high latitudes where the boreal biome exists will be much more extreme (perhaps as much as a 10 °C rise). Warming observed at high latitudes over the past 50 years exceeds the global average by as much as a factor of 5 (2–3 °C in Alaska versus the 0.53° global mean).

The effects of increased temperature on boreal forest growth has varied, often depending on tree species, site type and region, as well as whether or not the warming is accompanied by increases or decreases in precipitation. However, studies of tree rings from all parts of the boreal zone have indicated an inverse growth response to temperature, likely as a result of direct temperature and drought stress. As global warming increases, negative effects on growth are likely to become more widespread as ecosystems and species will be unable to adapt to increasingly extreme environmental conditions.

Perhaps the most significant effect of climate change on the boreal region is the increase in severity of disturbance regimes, particularly fire and insect outbreaks. Fire is the dominant type of disturbance in boreal North America, but the past 30 plus years have seen a gradual increase in fire frequency and severity as a result of warmer and drier conditions. From the 1960s to the 1990s, the annual area burned increased from an average of 1.4 to 3.1 million hectares per year. Insect outbreaks also represent an increasingly significant threat. Historically, temperatures have been low enough in the wintertime to control insect populations, but under global warming, many insects are surviving and reproducing during the winter months, causing severe damage to forests across the North American boreal. The main culprits are the mountain pine beetle in the western provinces of British Columbia and Alberta, and the spruce bark beetle in Alaska.

Traditional and emerging natural resources

Taiga (boreal forests) have amazing natural resources that are being exploited by humans. Human activities have a huge effect on the taiga ecoregions mainly through extensive logging, natural gas extraction and mine-fracking. This results in loss of habitat and increases the rate of deforestation. It is important to use the natural resources but its key to use natural resources sustainably and not over exploit them. In recent years rules and regulations have been set in place to conserve the forests in order to reduce the amount of trees that are cut. There has been an increase in oil extraction and mining throughout the United States and Canada. Exploitation of tar sands oil reserves has increased mining. This is a large operation that started in Alberta Canada. Oil extraction has a direct effect on the taiga forests because the most valuable and abundant oil resources come from taiga forests. Tar sands have affected over 75% of the habitat in Alberta taiga forest due to the clearing of the forests and the oil ponds that come from the extraction. These tar sands also create awful toxic oil ponds that affect the wildlife and surrounding vegetation. Oil extraction also affects the forest soil, which harms tree and plant growth.

Today, the world population has an increasingly high ecological footprint and a large part of that has to do with the populations carbon footprint. As a result of that, oil supplies have increased, which has spread across the U.S. and into other countries. This is detrimental to natural ecosystems. Taiga being the largest region is seeing major consequences of our actions on extracting oil and natural gas. This is also causing climate change temperatures to increase at a rapid rate, which is affecting wildlife and forests. However, even though Human activities are responsible for the exploitation of these natural resources humans are the solution and have the tools to fix this issue. It is crucial that humans reduce the consumption rate of these natural resources in order to increase environmental conditions.

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Alaska Boreal Interior

Taiga Cordillera

  • Ogilvie Mountains (ecoregion)
  • Mackenzie and Selwyn Mountains (ecoregion)
  • Peel River and Nahanni Plateaus (ecoregion)

Taiga Plain

See also: Taiga Plains Ecozone (CEC)
  • Great Bear Plains (ecoregion)
  • Hay and Slave River Lowlands (ecoregion)

Taiga Shield

  • Kazan River and Selwyn Lake Uplands (ecoregion)
  • La Grande Hills and New Quebec Central Plateau (ecoregion)
  • Smallwood Uplands (ecoregion)
  • Ungava Bay Basin and George Plateau (ecoregion)
  • Coppermine River and Tazin Lake Uplands (ecoregion)

Hudson Plain

Hudson Plain

  • Coastal Hudson Bay Lowland (ecoregion)
  • Hudson Bay and James Bay Lowlands (ecoregion)

Northern Forests

Softwood Shield

  • Athabasca Plain and Churchill River Upland (ecoregion)
  • Lake Nipigon and Lac Seul Upland (ecoregion)
  • Central Laurentians and Mecatina Plateau (ecoregion)
  • Newfoundland Island (ecoregion)
  • Hayes River Upland and Big Trout Lake (ecoregion)
  • Abitibi Plains and Riviere Rupert Plateau (ecoregion)

Mixed Wood Shield

Atlantic Highlands

  • Northern Appalachian and Atlantic Maritime Highlands (ecoregion)
  • North Central Appalachians (ecoregion)

Boreal Plain

See also: Boreal Plains Ecozone (CEC)
  • Mid-Boreal Uplands and Peace-Wabaska Lowlands (ecoregion)
  • Clear Hills and Western Alberta Upland (ecoregion)
  • Mid-Boreal Lowland and Interlake Plain (ecoregion)

Northwestern Forested Mountains

Hydrology: Major watersheds, rivers, and lakes

 
Crater Lake, Oregon

Most of the water in this ecoregion is fresh water and contained in rivers, lakes, and ground water. Washington, Oregon, and Idaho are mainly drained by the Columbia River, its tributaries, and other streams that flow to the Pacific Ocean. The Columbia River Basin is the fourth largest watershed in North America. According to a 2004 GIS inventory by the Environmental Protection Agency, there are approximately 10,535 lakes and reservoirs in the Pacific Northwest. The largest lakes in the Pacific Northwest include Lake Washington, Lake Roosevelt, Lake Chelan, Upper Klamath Lake, Lake Pend Oreille, Priest Lake, and Lake Coeur d’Alene.

In British Columbia the Fraser River watershed covers one-fourth of the land and extends from Mount Robson to the Georgia Strait and Gulf Islands. This basin is the fifth largest drainage basin in Canada and contains thirteen main sub-watersheds, each consisting of small rivers, streams, creeks, marshes, bogs, and swamps. The largest lake in British Columbia is Williston Lake which covers 680 square miles.

Alaska contains abundant natural resources which include ground and surface water. The southwestern part of Alaska is drained by the Yukon River and its tributaries that include the Porcupine, Tanana, and Koyukuk Rivers. The Yukon River is the third longest river and fourth largest drainage basin in North America with a drainage area of 832,700 square kilometers. Alaska contains over three million lakes and the largest is Lake Iliamna which covers an area of 1,000 square miles.

Vegetative cover

Vegetative cover is extremely diverse within the northwestern forested mountain ecological region as the region can be broken down into different zones based on elevation, temperature and mean annual rainfall. Alpine communities; areas of high elevation (> 8,200 feet) can support the growth of herbs, grasses, lichen, and shrubs well adapted for these harsh conditions. Common plants here include mountain sorrel, capitate sedge, mat muhly, Newberry knotweed, and red huckleberry. Lichens such as the witch’s hair lichen and cup lichen also persist here. Subalpine communities; located below the alpine communities (6,500-8,200 feet) support the presence of lodgepole pine, subalpine fir, pacific silver fir, grand fir, and Engelmann spruce. The Engelmann spruce–subalpine fir forest association occupies the greatest water-yielding areas in the Rocky Mountains and the natural adaptations of these trees are important in maintaining stable vegetation. The mountainous slopes and rolling plains slope from about 5,500 feet at the foot of the Rocky Mountains to about 2,000 feet in the lowest elevations. The dominant trees present in the region consist of; ponderosa pine, Rocky Mountain Douglas fir, lodgepole pine, and quaking aspen the drier southeast and central portions. Western hemlock, western red cedar, Douglas fir, and western white pine make up the majority of the moist west and southwest portions. White spruce is also found at this elevation and is a keystone tree species found in the Alaskan interior. The dry southern interior grasslands and forests generally occur at low elevations (under 4000 feet) and usually have a lower canopy closure than forests at higher elevations that receive more precipitation They are characterized by very warm to hot, dry summers, and moderately cool winters with little snowfall. Frequent low-severity, stand-maintaining fires are thought to have played a key historic role in shaping these ecosystems. Much of this area consists of small scrub like ponderosa pine with bluebunch wheatgrass, blue grass, June-grass, and big sagebrush dominating the understory.

Fauna

This ecoregion is abundant with varying types of mammals, fish, and birds. Many dominant animal species, such as the bighorn sheep and hoary marmot, have adapted to the terrain of the region. The talus slopes provide burrowing shelters for the hoary marmot, and the bighorn sheep have adapted to climb the steep slopes in order to find shelter from predators (National Park Service). Top carnivorous predators include coyotes, wolves, and cougars. The grizzly bear is a keystone species found in this region. As an "ecosystem engineer", they regulate the species they prey on, disperse plant seeds, aerate the soil as they dig, and bring salmon carcasses into the forest (Suzuki). The dominant fish species of the region, in which the grizzly bear preys on, is pacific salmon. The typical bird species that can be found here include blue grouse, Steller’s jay, and black-billed magpie (Commission for Environmental Cooperation, 2008).

Endangered species

The northern spotted owl (Strix occidentalis caurina) is considered a species of utmost concern in the Northwestern Forested Mountains region. This small raptor was listed as threatened under the Endangered Species Act of 1973. The current population is 15,000 birds, all of which are located in North America. Over 70% of the species’ habitat was destroyed in the 19th and 20th centuries, and the timber industry is causing that number to increase. Both northern spotted owls and the timber industry prefer old-growth forests, so as demand for timber products increases, the spotted owl’s habitat decreases. Forest management plans that stress limits on timber harvest and suggest alternative options are being formed, along with plans to prevent habitat fragmentation.

The barred owl is also causing a decrease in the population numbers of the northern spotted owl, as they are a larger, more competitive species that have begun to use the same habitat, however, no major plans have been formed to manage this situation.

Malheur wire-lettuce (Stephanomeria malheurensis) is also an endangered species in the region. Only one population of this plant survives in the wild, located in Harney, Oregon. The self-pollinating shrub is found at high elevations in volcanic soils. Because the range is so small, any disturbance in the habitat could be detrimental. One of the main threats is Cheatgrass, which can expand to completely cover the ground and use up resources also needed by Malheur wire-lettuce. It is generally agreed that in order to protect the species, efforts must be focused on forming new populations, and more importantly, maintaining the condition of the current site in Oregon.

Natural resources

The Northwestern Forested Mountain ecoregion is rich in natural resources. Historically the most sought after resources were the minerals found here. The presence of gold drove much of the early settlers to this ecoregion. These early settlers extracted gold from the streams, and timber for building, flora, and fauna. Today many more resources are utilized by the economies of this area. Large scale mining operations have become less common throughout the entirety of the region. There are a few prospective industrial mines lobbying for permitting to dig in both Canada and Alaska. Canada is the 6th-largest petroleum producer in the world. The largest point of extraction within this ecoregion is in Alberta, Canada. This area is abundant in tar sands, a crude form of petroleum. In order to begin this operation large tracts of boreal forest are removed. After the large pits are dug there is a constant risk of further environmental degradation through oil spillage. Logging in the past was often conducted through large clear cuts. The environmental effects of large clearcuts became apparent and are now less common. There are logging techniques that can benefit the ecological integrity of a system. Group selection can mimic natural processes and increase both horizontal and vertical structure to a forest. As well as increase biotic diversity of both flora and fauna. Tourism generates a considerable amount of revenue for the different economies of this area. Tourists come to these areas for a multitude of outdoor activities. In the winter tourists travel from all across the globe to ski the Rocky Mountains, British Columbia, and Alaska ranges. In the summer the national parks draw in millions. Other summer activities include but not limited to hunting, fishing, mountain biking, backpacking, rafting, kayaking, and wildlife viewing/ photography. Resource use and extraction is sustainable when a system can replenish resources faster than they are being used. A practice is unsustainable when usage exceeds this threshold thereby damaging the ecological integrity of the ecoregion.

Climate

Extending from the lower Yukon of Canada all the way into northern California and Nevada, the northwestern-forested mountains range in different about three climate zones; moist maritime, arid dry, and sub arctic.

The moist maritime climate of the Northwestern Forested Mountains is found along a narrow strip of coastal Oregon, Washington, British Columbia, and southern Alaska in North America. It is formed by westerly winds coming off of the Pacific Ocean, which hit the mountains and rise to a cooler atmosphere. This causes rainy, cloudy, and moist atmospheric conditions where up to 100 inches of rain per year can be seen, and is a temperate zone ranging from about 15 °F in the winter to about 65 °F in the winter.

The arid dry zone is west of the mountain ranges and doesn't receive much rain due to the north to south orientation of the mountains, which block clouds and precipitation. It can range from the upper 80s (°F) in the summer to single digits in the winter. It generally only receives about 20 inches (510 mm) of rain per year.

The sub arctic region ranges from Fairbanks, Alaska to the Yukon of Canada and averages a mean of 50 °F. in the summer and is often negative 13 in the winter. On the mountain tops it can receive up to 100 inches (2,500 mm) of precipitation per year, and often considered the snowiest place on earth.

The Northwestern Forested Mountains experience phenomena called decadal oscillations, the La Niña and El Niño. This is a shift in temperatures from warmer (La Niña) to colder (El Niño) and each phase generally last about a decade. These phases are caused by many factors including, jet streams, trade winds, precipitation, land surface, temperature, ocean surface temperature, and sea level pressure.

Environmental threats to the Northwestern Forested Mountains

The biggest threats to this region are fires and invasive pests. As fires occur, they alter the forest composition dramatically. Fire scars create entry for heart rot and other fatal conditions. Burned soils repel water and the runoff creates sediment and ash polluting rivers and streams, harming fish and wildlife that depend on these water sources. An especially troubling aspect of fires’ aftermath is the increased vulnerability of trees to non-native invasive pests. Burned stands create a perfect habitat for pests who will find shelter in the regrowth. These pests create tunneling galleries that further weaken a tree’s ability to fend off pathogens that lead to mortality.

Preventing forest fires and controlling pest populations go hand-in-hand, which leaves room for any combination of treatment plans. Especially helpful is the use of prescribed burns, which consists of randomly dropping a match on a grid that has been divided and planted at scattered time periods. After the fire, workers must go in to peel bark off felled logs, and, if possible, remove dead, dying, and severely damaged/stressed trees as soon as possible.

Climate change in the Northwestern Forested Mountains

The effects of fossil fuels emissions, the largest contributor to climate change, cause rising CO2 levels in the earth’s atmosphere. This raises atmospheric temperatures and levels of precipitation in the Northwestern Forested Mountains. Being a very mountainous region, weather patterns contribute higher levels of precipitation. This can cause landslides, channel erosion and floods. The warmer air temperatures also create more rain and less snow, something dangerous for many animal and tree species; with less snow pack comes more vulnerability for trees and insects.

A large contributor to fire susceptible forests is past land use; the higher air temperatures make wildfires more common. Wildfires are extremely detrimental for species inhabiting the landscape; they destroy habitats and it takes many years to restore the land to how it used to be.

These effects caused by climate change can destroy animal habitats and species diversity. Not only will these climate catastrophes directly reduce animal populations, but it will indirectly disrupt trophic levels by reducing food sources for many keystone species. Climate change contributes to a worsening economy in this region as well by taking away valuable resources for recreational uses, like snow for skiing and fish for fishing.

Boreal Cordillera

  • Interior Highlands and Klondike Plateau (ecoregion)
  • Alaska Range (ecoregion)
  • Copper Plateau (ecoregion)
  • Wrangell and St. Elias Mountains (ecoregion)
  • Watson Highlands (ecoregion)
  • Yukon-Stikine Highlands/Boreal Mountains and Plateaus (ecoregion)

Western Cordillera

Main article: North American Cordillera

Marine West Coast Forest

Topography/geography/soil

The region is strongly influenced by the large mountain ranges stretching throughout most of the coast. Changes in elevation cause changes in plant/animal diversity, this can be exemplified through observing the alpine tundra's vegetation which consists of shrubs, herbs, mosses, and lichens; while lower elevations, the temperate coastal forest hold magnificently large trees such as western hemlock, California redwood, and the red alder. These differences are in direct correlation with the availability of oxygen, and other nutrients at higher elevations.[39] The mountains also create rain-shadow areas due to the clouds having to release their precipitation in order to get over the mountains, or be blocked all together. Trees, which perform better under stress, grow in these areas such as the Douglas fir (www.countriesquest.com). As for the soil, the region generally has a thin podzol soil, causing it to be extremely acidic. Farmers must compensate by applying fertilizers and lime to lower the acidic levels for agricultural viability.[40] Digging even deeper the then soil within the region will reveal mostly igneous and sedimentary rock. Colluvium and morainal deposits make up most of the surface materials. Mountains, which so intensely affect the region, are massive formations resulting from upheaval caused by continental collisions[41]

Climate

The climate of the marine west coast forests is humid. According to the Köppen climate classification System, this climate is very damp throughout most of the year, receiving a great amount of rainfall along with heavy cloud cover. The marine climate can also be defined with its narrow range of temperatures throughout the year. Precipitation is ample and consistent in the marine west coast, with many days of rainfall and a large annual accumulation. Many areas in the marine west coast climate have more than 150 days of rainfall per a year, along with averaging around 50 to 250 centimeters per a year of total rainfall (Britannica, 2013). The average temperatures of areas within the marine west coast forests usually range from 10 °C to 15 °C (Britannica, 2013).

These mild temperatures are in collaboration with the moderating effect of ocean bodies on air temperatures due to the constant influx of oceanic air influencing the marine west coast throughout the year (Ritter, 2009). The marine west coast is located in the path of westerly winds from the ocean that contribute to its cloudy skies, significant amount of precipitation, and mild temperatures (Hollow, 2001). The rainfall, seasons, and temperature are all dependent on each other and are all affected by the global circulatory pattern.

Hydrology

The main watersheds in the region are the Puget Sound and Columbia River Watershed. Due to the region’s proximity to the Pacific Ocean, this ecoregion experiences large amounts of precipitation annually, creating a very humid and wet climate. The majority of river and stream activity is directly influenced by the annual precipitation patterns. In the rainy season from October to May, most of the low elevation rivers and streams experience peak run off levels. Rivers and streams at higher elevation are more influenced by snow melt and therefore experience peak run off from late spring into early summer due to the snowmelt. The permeability levels of bedrock in the area of interest dictate surface water in the region. Volcanic parent material, as found in Oregon, tends to result in lower levels of ground water due to the low permeability of the rock. Although areas with volcanic parent material may have fewer ground water aquifers, these areas tend to have better developed stream networks and higher stream drainage levels (Moore, 765). Areas with newer volcanic bedrock have higher levels of permeability, and are therefore more likely to have ground water aquifers. These areas will experience lower stream drainage densities and less developed stream networks due to the greater rate of ground water recharge (Moore, 765).

Keystone plants

The plants in this region are responsible for holding the geography and geology of the area intact. The north–south orientation of the mountain ranges combines with the moist polar air masses and mild westerlies coming eastward off the Pacific Ocean to form a weather pattern that dominates the area. This pattern consists of a temperate moist zone on the west side of the mountains and a drier moderate climate on the east side. The moist conditions along with glacial valleys cut by the glaciers allow for a variety of plant life to thrive.

The softwood stands of the highlands are keystone species in maintaining land integrity. The ability of the firs and spruces to populate the high altitude and shallow soil works like glue to hold the soil in place. As you drop in altitude pines and cedars do the same for the lower slopes. Erosion control is key to keeping the glacial valleys and their rivers free from silt build up, which has the ability to devastate the salmon population, as well as holding the integrity of the mountain ranges.

Dominant species

Marine West Coast Forests combine aquatic ecosystems with temperate rainforests to provide habitat for an abundance of wildlife. The sea otter is considered a keystone species because of the critical role it plays in maintaining the structure of the ecosystem. Sea otters feed on sea urchins, which are herbivores of kelps. A large mass of kelp can become an underwater kelp forest, which is considered by many to be one of the most productive and dynamic ecosystems on Earth. Two more dominant species found in the Marine West Coast Forest are the gray wolf and grizzly bears. Grizzly bears provide a connection between the marine coast and the forests when they eat nitrogen-rich salmon and transfer the nutrients to the forests. The Pacific salmon provide strong sources of nitrogen for the aquatic ecosystems. Due to the high precipitation in this Eco region, the nitrogen levels can be very low. The Pacific salmon helps to normalize the nitrogen levels. Without anyone of these species, the ecosystem would fall apart. The Marine West Coast Forests are a unique habitat for a diverse group of species.

Threatened and endangered species

Several species struggle to survive in the ever disappearing and degrading ecosystems of the northwest. These species face a high risk of extinction; some iconic examples of those listed as threatened or endangered in this ecoregion include the giant sequoia, coast redwood, and marbled murrelet.

The giant sequoia and coast redwood are listed as a vulnerable under the IUCN Red List standards (Conifer Specialist Group 1998). Large-scale logging, felling 90 to 95 percent of the old-growth forest between 1856 and 1955, is primarily to blame for these species’ now limited range. The remainder of most populations of giant sequoias and coast redwoods is now almost entirely in parks and reserves (Farjon & Page 1999). Fire prevention policy, however, is most to blame for the continued declining of populations, as the build-up of undergrowth hampers the regeneration of both species (Vankat 1977). Luckily, plans to improve management and plant trees on cleared land are in place (Farjon & Page 1999).

Though the marbled murrelet is still considered abundant, its population has undergone a rapid decline, principally because the old-growth forests in which they breed are subject to logging (Piatt et al. 2006). Current estimates are nearly half of historic numbers, suggesting just 350,000 to 420,000 remain (Piatt et al. 2007). The IUCN has listed the species as endangered (BirdLife International 2012). Hard forest edges resulting from forest fragmentation greatly subject murrelet nests to corvid predation and other associated disturbances (Peery et al. 2004). Declines in areas where logging is not an issue can be explained by the overexploitation and subsequent collapse of the pacific sardine fishery. Nylon gill-nets in shallow waters and oil spills have cause considerable mortality, as well (Piatt & Naslund 1995). In response, conservation measures have been implemented to slow the species’ decline, including: the prevention of logging within identified breeding areas (Nelson 1997), the development of detailed research and recovery plans (Kaiser et al. 1994, CMMRT 2003, Escene 2007), and the protection of 179 square kilometers on Afognak Island by the Exxon Valdex Trustee Council (EVOSTC 1995).

Environmental threats

The Marine West Coast Forest's primary environmental threats are human development and population growth, logging, spruce bark beetle populations, and invasive species. This ecological region is home to large cities like Vancouver, Portland, Anchorage, and Seattle. As these cities continue to grow in population, greater tracts of land are being developed, and more resources are needed to accommodate these higher populations. Logging is another large human induced environmental threat to the ecoregion. Logging causes habitat fragmentation and adversely affects important species such as spotted owl, grizzly bear, and Kermode "spirit" bears, who all require large tracts of land to survive (Demarchi, Nelson, Kavanagh, Sims, Mann, 2013). The spruce-bark beetle is an insect that destroys spruce trees by tunneling into the bark of the trees. These beetles are widespread in the northern part of the ecoregion in states such as Alaska (Alaska Department of Fish and Game, 2013). The beetle’s distribution and survival rate has increased in the last decade due to climate change. Invasive species are also rampant in the ecoregion. These foreign plants and animals disrupt naturally occurring species in the ecoregion. Several solutions have been enacted to solve the environmental threats of the Marine West Coast Forest. Public land ownership is positively correlated with environmental preservation, as seen by the parts of the ecoregion located in Alaska (Alaska Department of Fish and Game, 2013). When land is privately owned, the most effective measures are education of the beautiful natural areas, smart land use, and planned efficient growth (Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife, 2006).

Climate change

The Marine West Coast Forests are located along the coast and some islands of northern California up to Alaska. The rise of the sea level will increase soil erosion of these marine areas (Coastal Areas Impacts and Adaptation). Depending on to what degree the sea level will rise, the introduction of salt water to the soil in the marine forest can slow and or destroy the growth of marine forest plants as well as the habitat of forest animals (Oberrecht). Freshwater flow will greatly disrupt the ecology of the Marine West Coast Forest. The trend seems to be that wet regions are getting wetter and the dry regions are getting drier (Song). The Marine West Coastal Region is a wet region that will most likely see these increases in precipitation levels.

The precipitation level increasing will change the stream chemistry of vital spawning areas for salmon. Spawning salmon are most successful when the water is cold and with a steady flow (Coastal Areas Impacts & Adaptation). The rising temperature of the streams from rainfall instead of snowfall will be more likely to also develop and spread disease through salmon (Coastal Areas Impacts & Adaptation). The estuaries, where the ocean and river water meet is a very vulnerable area. The rising sea level will bring more salt water into the estuaries (Oberrecht). The salinity of the water will increase further up rivers and this can alter the mixing and flushing rates of the estuary, increasing pollution dramatically (Oberrecht). The change of balance in an estuary will also decrease the buffer effect that estuaries have against storms (Oberrecht).

References

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  • An Overview of Marine Biodiversity in United States Waters (U.S. Marine Biodiversity) Fautin, Daphne; Dalton, Penelope; Incze, Lewis S; Leong, Jo-Ann C; Pautzke, Clarence; Rosenberg, Andrew; Sandifer, Paul; Sedberry, George; Tunnell. Retrieved February 26, 2013, from UVM Library
  • Bailey, Robert (2009). Ecoregions of the United States. Retrieved from https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-0-387-89516-1_7?LI=true.
  • BirdLife International. 2012. Brachyramphus marmoratus. In: IUCN 2012. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.2. www.iucnredlist.org. Downloaded on 25 February 2013.
  • CMMRT (Canadian Marbled Murrelet Recovery Team). 2003. Marbled Murrelet Conservation Assessment 2003, Part B – Marbled Murrelet Recovery Team advisory document on conservation and management. Canadian Wildlife Service, Delta, BC.
  • Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC). (1997). "Ecological Regions of the North America: Towards a Common Perspective."
  • "Coastal Areas Impacts & Adaptation." EPA. Environmental Protection Agency, 14 June 2012. Web. 7 March 2013.
  • Conifer Specialist Group. 1998. Sequoiadendron giganteum. In: IUCN 2012. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.2. www.iucnredlist.org. Downloaded on 25 February 2013.
  • Demarchi, D., Nelson, J., Kavanagh, K., Sims, M., Mann, G. (2013). "British Columbia mainland coastal forests." World Wildlife Fund http://worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/na0506
  • Escene, D. P. (2007). "Marbled Murrelet Technical Committee". Pacific Seabirds. 34 (1): 32–33.
  • Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council. 1995. 1995 status report. Anchorage, Alaska.
  • Farjon, A., & Page, C. N. (1999). Conifers. Status survey and conservation action plan. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN).
  • Hollow, Anne (2001). "Pacific Basin Climate Variability and Patterns of Northeast Pacific Marine Fish Production". Progress in Oceanography. 49 (1): 257–282. Bibcode:2001PrOce..49..257H. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.587.2968. doi:10.1016/S0079-6611(01)00026-X.
  • Integrated Land Management Bureau, British Columbia Government. Central and North Coast District. (2013) Central and North Coast EBM Implementation. In Coast Land Use Decision. Retrieved from
  • Kaiser, G. W., Marbled Murrelet Recovery Team, RENEW (Canada), Canadian Wildlife Federation. 1994. National Recovery Plan for the Marbled Murrelet. Canadian Wildlife Federation.
  • Kerr, Richard A. Science, March 14, 1997, Vol.275(5306), p. 1564(2) [Peer Reviewed Journal]. Why the West stands tall. Retrieved February 26, 2013, from UVM Library
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  • McGinley, M., & Hogan, M. (2004, November 4). Marine West Coast Forests ecoregion (CEC). Encyclopedia of Earth. Retrieved February 26, 2013, from http://www.eoearth.org/article/Marine_West_Coast_Forests_ecoregion_(CEC
  • Marine West Coast Climate (2013). Retrieved from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/365348/marine-west-coast-climate.
  • Marine West Coast - Climatic Regions of the United States - Climates and Climatic Regions - Geography - USA - North America: usa geography, ft search, Oregon Washington, California giant, dairy farming. (n.d.). Countries Quest. Retrieved February 26, 2013, from http://www.countriesquest.com/north_america[permanent dead link]
  • Moore, D. & Wondzell, S. (2005). Physical hydrology and the effects of forest harvesting in the pacific northwest: a review. Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 04056.
  • Nelson, S. K. 1997. Marbled Murrelet( Brachyramphus marmoratus). In: Poole, A.; Gill, F. (ed.), The birds of North America, No. 276, pp. 1–32. The Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia and The American Ornithologists' Union, Philadelphia and Washington, DC.
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  • Oberrecht, Kenn. "Effects of Rising Sea Levels." Oregnon.gov. Oregon State Government, n.d. Web. 24 February 2013.
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  • Peery, M. Z.; Beissinger, S. R.; Newman, S.; Burkett, E. B.; Williams, T.D. (2004). "Applying the declining population paradigm: diagnosing causes of poor reproduction in the Marbled Murrelet". Conservation Biology. 18 (4): 1088–1098. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2004.00134.x. S2CID 17717476.
  • Perakis, S.S, L.H Geiser, and E.A Lilleskov. "Marine West Coast Forest." National Forest Service, n.d. Web. 20 February 2013.
  • Perakis, S., Geiser, L., & Lilleskov, E. (n.d.). MARINE WEST COAST FORESTS. nrs.fs.fed.us. Retrieved February 26, 2013, from www.nrs.fs.fed.us/pubs/gtr/gtr-nrs-80chapters/9-perakis.pdf
  • Piatt, J. F., Kuletz, K. J., Burger, A. E., Hatch, S. A., Friesen, V. L., Birt, T. P., Arimitsu, M. L., Drew, G. S., Harding, A. M. A. and Bixler, K. S. 2006. Status Review of the Marbled Murrelet (Brachyramphus marmoratus) in Alaska and British Columbia. Open-File Report 2006–1387. U.S. Geological Survey.
  • Piatt, J. F.; Kuletz, K. J.; Burger, A. E.; Hatch, S. A.; Friesen, V. L.; Birt, T. P.; Arimitsu, M. L.; Drew, G. S.; Harding, A. M. A.; Bixler, K. S. 2007. Status review of the Marbled Murrelet (Brachyramphus marmoratus) in Alaska and British Columbia.
  • Piatt, J. F.; Naslund, N. L. 1995. Abundance, distribution and population status of Marbled Murrelet in Alaska. In: Ralph, C.J.; Hunt Jr, G.L.; Raphael, M.G.; Piatt, J.F. (ed.), Ecology and conservation of the Marbled Murrelet, pp. 295–312. Pacific Southwest Research Station (Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-152), Albany, California.
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  • Tuchmann, T., Davis, C. Oregon Department of Forestry. (2013). Background: Northwest Forest Plan. In O&C Lands Report. Retrieved from http://www.oregon.gov/gov/GNRO/docs/OCLandsReport.pdf
  • U.S. Department of Fish & Wildlife. Marbled murrelet nesting in old growth tree. [Photograph], Retrieved March 9, 2013, from: [3]
  • Vankat, J. L. (1977). "Fire and Man in Sequoia National Park". Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 67 (1): 17–27. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8306.1977.tb01117.x.
  • Williams, W. University of Southern California, Dana and David Dornsife College of Letters, Arts, and Sciences. (2009). American Indian History & Culture: Illustrations of the First Nations. In Cultural Areas: Northwest Coast. Retrieved from

Marine West Coast Forest

  • Ahklun Mountains and Kilbuck Mountains (ecoregion)
  • Alaska Peninsula Mountains (ecoregion)
  • Cook Inlet (ecoregion)
  • Pacific Coastal Mountains (ecoregion)
  • Coastal Western Hemlock-Sitka Spruce Forests (ecoregion)
  • Pacific and Nass Ranges (ecoregion)
  • Strait of Georgia/Puget Lowland (ecoregion)
  • Coast Range (ecoregion)
  • Willamette Valley (ecoregion)

Mediterranean California chaparral and woodlands

Main article: California chaparral and woodlands
 
Silverado Canyon and chaparral habitat, in the Peninsular Ranges of Southern California.
 
California oak woodland habitat, of the California chaparral and woodlands ecoregion, in San Luis Obispo County.

Climate

Very few places in the world have the Mediterranean climate of California. It is one of the more rare in the world, with only five locations: the Mediterranean Basin, Southwest Australia, the Cape Province—Western Cape of South Africa, the Chilean Matorral, and the California chaparral and woodlands ecoregion of California and the Baja California Peninsula. The region is typified by warm dry summers and mild wet winters. This is unusual as most climates have more precipitation in the summer. There are three variations to the Mediterranean climate in California, a cool summer/cool winter variation, a cool summer/cool winter with summer fog variation, and a hot summer/cool winter variation. The average temperatures for the cool summer variations are below 71 °F in the summer and between 64 and 27 degrees Fahrenheit in the winter. Average summer temperatures for the hot summer variation are above 71 degrees Fahrenheit. Average annual precipitation for this climate is 25–100 inches (640–2,540 mm) per year.

Hydrology

Defined by the Pacific Coast on the west, the Sierra Nevada (mountains) and the deserts of California on the east, and the Northern California Coast Ranges on the north, the Mediterranean California ecoregion has unique physical characteristics that play a large role in the natural systems of the region, including hydrology.

Precipitation

The unusual precipitation pattern of the Mediterranean climate is due to subtropical high-pressure systems in the summer and the polar jet stream in the winter. Rainfall in the summer is uncommon because the marine layer becomes capped with dry sinking air. The marine layer is an air mass over a large body of water brought about by a temperature inversion from the cooling effect of the water on the warmer air. The marine layer is often accompanied by fog. The polar jet stream in the winter brings with it rain and snow. The jet stream is an extremely powerful air current flowing west to east often at over 100 miles per hour.

The precipitation in the region is closely associated with winter frontal storms from the Pacific Ocean, which bring cool air and rain to the area. The annual rainfall varies in different elevations, but the average range is between 400–800 millimetres (16–31 in) annually. Much of the rain in Central and Northern California flows out the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers, which with numerous tributaries run through an upper part of the ecoregion.

Fog is also an important aspect of the hydrologic cycle in this ecoregion; the cooling of air over the warm seawater create a dense fog that covers large areas of the coast. This fog affects the vegetation and overall environment on the coast. On the contrary, fire also influences this region. The fire-flood sequence that occurs post-fire can greatly effect populations of species in the region. The combination of the geophysical characteristics, little rainfall, and the bodies of water in the region make it a unique, distinct environment.

Geology

Mediterranean climate California's geology is characterized by the meeting of the North American Plate and Pacific Plate, with much of its region near or influenced by the San Andreas Fault along the junction. When the two plates collided the Pacific Plate was pushed under the North American Plate, and the California Coast Ranges and Sierra Nevada were uplifted. The Coast Ranges are largely metamorphic rock formed from the submergence of the Pacific Plate, and the Sierra are uplifted granite batholiths. Not along the San Andreas Fault, the granitic Peninsular Ranges system also uplifted with the collision, and runs from Southern California, down the Baja California Peninsula, into Baja California Sur state, northwest Mexico. The Transverse Ranges are another major Southern California mountain system primarily in the Mediterranean climate zone. Large earthquakes can do considerable damage to populated areas, and to the state's water, transportation, and energy infrastructure.

The Central Valley of California is a significant feature of Mediterranean climate California. It was an ancient oceanic inlet that eventually sediment filled in, the deposition supplied by erosion of the surrounding mountain ranges. The soil is composed of both the metamorphic, oceanic crust-like Coastal Range sediment and the mineral-rich granitic Sierra sediment. The combination creates very fertile soil. The flatness and fertility of the soil, along with the almost year-round sunshine has attracted much agriculture to the area. As a result, native species no longer dominate the landscape. The southern portion, named the San Joaquin Valley, also produces two-thirds of California’s oil from underground reserves. Fossils are found where adjacent tar pits occur.

 
California towhee (Pipilo crissalis), in San Luis Obispo.

Biota

See also: Category:California chaparral and woodlands

Dominant animal species

See also: Category:Fauna of the California chaparral and woodlands

The Mediterranean California ecoregion, is well known for its large variety and abundance of animals. One of these important animals is the American golden eagle, which plays a massive role in maintaining the ecoregion’s ecosystem through its top-down predation on smaller, more abundant animals. The golden eagle is considered to be the apex predator of this community, and there are no other species bigger than them on the food chain. Their lifespan can be up to around 30 years in the wild and even longer in captivity. Native to mountain areas and grasslands, California is a great region for this bird of prey to thrive in. The main reason for the golden eagle being a keystone species of this ecoregion is their ability to keep small herbivorous mammal populations in line. "Prairie Dogs, ground squirrels, other rodents, hares, and rabbits, all of which eat grass and seeds, constitute 77.9% of the golden eagles diet." They also are known to prey on animals such as, cranes, black-tailed jack rabbits, swans, deer, coyotes, badgers, mountain goats, bobcats, and various fish species.

Another less popular species, but yet still keystone to this region, is the kangaroo rat. Studies have shown that kangaroo rats play very large roles in maintaining the population sizes and animal diversity throughout the region. Although they are small and on the verge of extinction, these animals play a large role in maintaining plant diversity, which helps the various herbivores with food supply, and also protection for other small animals seeking shelter. kangaroo rats occupy many land habitats ranging from desserts, and grasslands, to chaparral areas making them present in all areas of the Mediterranean California ecoregion. Kangaroo rats like to feed on many various grass seeds, as well as mesquite beans and thus is the reason that plants tend to not grow as well when sharing the same community with these rats. On occasions though, these animals like to feed on green vegetation, and insects. Unfortunately for the rat though, it is preyed upon by many predators. These predators include, owls, snakes, bobcats, foxes, badgers, coyotes, cats and dogs, and many more. Other dominant species in the region include, mountain lions, coyotes, sea otters, brown bears, and various large birds of prey.

Dominant plant communities

See also: Category:Flora of California chaparral and woodlands

The vegetation in the Mediterranean California ecoregion is a mixture of grasses and shrubs called chaparral with some oak forests as well. This area is very highly populated and agriculture is prevalent in the valleys (Comm. of Env. Coop. 2011). Evergreen trees and shrubs—such as heaths—mainly dominate Mediterranean vegetation with a shrubby to herbaceous understory. Mediterranean vegetation embodies less than 5% of terrestrial ecosystems around the world. A very important aspect of this ecosystem is its frequent wildfires leading to most of its vegetation adapting fire response mechanisms (Vilà and Sardans 1999). Common shrubs within this region are chamise or greasewood (Adenostoma fasciculatum), manzanita (Arctostaphylos spp.), coast sagebrush (Artemisia californica), and California-lilacs (Ceanothus spp.) (Conrad 1987).

Because the climate is so dry and experiences frequent fires, competition is high among plants within this ecoregion. The Mediterranean community found in southern California is said to have a successional stage after wildfires. The fire leaves patches of bare ground which then are quickly filled with newly germinated seeds. Native and introduced herbs persist for the first year following a fire. Shrubs and subshrubs slowly fill in and hit their peak at four to eight years after the fire. Extinctions, unlike many other communities are frequently the cause of environmental extremes rather than competitive invasive species (Zedler et al. 1983). Human disturbance can increase wildfires with the introduction of grasses such as Bromus rubens which can be readily established in the newly burned, cleared patches. These grasses are more densely compacted and create more fuel for fires. Agricultural grazing can also greatly decrease the chaparral (tangled shrubby brush habitat), which is the home of many native endemic species (Fleming et al. 2009, Zedler et al. 1983).

Endangered species

An endangered species is a species of organisms, either flora or fauna, which face a very high risk of extinction in a proximate time frame, much sooner than the long-term horizon in which species typically persist. There are many species of birds, mammals, reptiles, amphibians and plants that live in the Mediterranean California chaparral and woodlands ecoregion. Yet due to a variety of factors including habitat loss due to the 30 million humans who share the land, some species are endangered.

Endangered, threatened, and vulnerable species of the Mediterranean California chaparral and woodlands ecoregion include:

The California condor (Gymnogyps californianus) is one of the most iconic species in the state. With over a 9 feet (2.7 m) wingspan, condors are the largest flying land bird in North America. They are opportunistic scavengers that prey on large dead mammals. The main factors that led to the species endangered status were settlement of the west, shooting, poisoning from lead and DDT, egg collecting, and general habitat degradation. Serious conservation efforts have been made since the 1960s and this severely endangered species has begun a recovery path. A condor recovery program has been started and a wild population is steadily growing.

Another species is the tiny and secretive San Joaquin kit fox (Vulpes macrotis subsp. mutica) is one of the most endangered animals in California. The kit fox is the size of a cat, with big ears, a long bushy tail and furry toes that help to keep it cool in its hot and dry Californian Mediterranean environment. Biologists state that there are fewer than 7,000 San Joaquin kit foxes. San Joaquin kit fox populations rise and fall with the amount of annual rainfall: more rain means more kit foxes. Changes in precipitation patterns, including reduced rainfall and increase changes of drought, all caused by climate change, would affect San Joaquin kit fox populations. The change in the Central Valley from open grasslands to farms, orchards, houses and roads has most affected San Joaquin kit foxes, causing death, illness, injury, difficulty in finding a mate and difficulty in finding food. These kit foxes also are killed and out competed for resources by coyotes and red foxes. Another threat is poison used to kill rats and mice. A recent decision by the federal government to limit to use of these poisons outdoors may keep kit foxes safe.

Natural resources

Humans have used resources of this ecoregion for many years, dating all the way back to early Native Americans. Some traditional resources that are still used today are in danger of being overharvested. These include the Pacific Ocean fisheries, the dwindling timber industry, the rivers flowing from the mountains and the grasslands. All of these resources are either being over harvested or destroyed through agricultural and industrial development. Grasslands hold many native oak trees that are being lost due to overgrazing or forest fires. The overgrazing is attributed to the increasing number of cattle farms while the forest fires come from the use of natural water for human and agricultural use. As more water is used, oak trees lose out without this key component and fires increase due to drying out of the grasslands and forests. The government has tried to install conservation programs to halter the increased use of the land and waterways, but more must be done to create a truly sustainable environment.

Emerging resources from the region are mainly high value agricultural crops. These include stone fruits, sugar beets, rice, nuts, grapes, cotton and specialized cattle systems. Many of these cannot be grown in other parts of the country and thrive in this type of climate. However, because of the dry seasons, these products require large amounts of water as well as varied chemicals and fertilizers to increase production. Many of these farming enterprises are enormous and not sustainable. They leach out chemicals, bring in mass amounts of inputs, and degrade a lot of the land. As with the traditional resources, the government has implemented conservation programs, but only a limited amount.

Climate change

Climate change in the Mediterranean California ecoregion is expected[by whom?] to ultimately have negative effects on the ecosystem and the region's biodiversity. The coast of California is expected to warm by as much as 2 °C in the next 50 years. This is going to cause hotter and drier seasons; the normally wet winters (when a majority of the ecosystem's rain in received) will be drier, and the summers will be especially hotter as well. Increased wildfires will result from the region's warming – mainly in the summer. The shrubbery and trees characteristic of the California chaparral will not fare well in the warmer (and increased fire) region; grasses that are able to regrow asexually or from special off chutes will fare the best. Ultimately the soil quality is going to degrade due to the increased burnings and increased temperatures. Overall, climate change does not bode well for the Mediterranean California ecosystem.[according to whom?]

Environmental threats to the region

There are several large threats to this region. Many of California’s large population centers are located within it which causes stress on the surrounding environment because people have a desire to move to California so new homes and industry have to be established in order to accommodate all of the people moving into the region and this requires expansion. Research shows that this eco region is already 20% urban environments and 15% agricultural lands. The research also concluded that population density and urban area has increased by 13% between 1990 and 2000 while agricultural lands in the region have only expanded by 1%. The study conducted also showed direct relationships between the growth of the population and the number of species that were threatened in the area. Expansion will break up the contiguous landscape and move humans closer to the native flora and fauna which will over pressure species that need large open tracts of land to thrive and harm the species diversity of the region. Prevailing winds coming from the west off of the Pacific Ocean all of the pollution created gets carried up to these higher inland sites and causes the species there to suffer with the pollution generated.

The region is also plagued by wildfires. The area is becoming arid species diversity will drop as organisms adapted for dryer climates thrive. No current management plans are in place, a Species refugia to save struggling species that inhabit this region has been proposed by some. Forests similar to these are more resilient to such events due to the spatial arrangement, it would be possible to replicate this in the current forest and make it resilient to the fires that will increase in the near future.

 
Humboldt lily (Lilium humboldtii), endemic to Southern California.

See also

Sources cited

  • Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum. (2008). Merriam's kangaroo rat. Retrieved from http://www.desertmuseum.org/kids/oz/long-fact-sheets/krat.php
  • B. Romans, "Geologic Context and History of the San Joaquin Valley", QUEST (blog), http://science.kqed.org/quest/2010/08/12/geologic-context-and-history-of-the-san-joaquin-river/
  • "Basic Facts About San Joaquin Kit Foxes." San Joaquin Kit Fox. Defenders of Wildlife, n.d. Web. 25 February 2013.
  • Brown, N.L., C.D. Johnson, P.A Kelly, and D.F. Williams. "Endangered Species Recovery Program." Species Profile. N.p., n.d. Web. 25 February 2013. "California Condor Recovery." California Condor Recovery. Arizona Game and Fish Department, n.d. Web. 25 February 2013
  • Commission for Environmental Cooperation (Lead Author);C Michael Hogan (Contributing Author);Mark McGinley (Topic Editor) "Mediterranean California ecoregion (CEC)". In: Encyclopedia of Earth. Eds. Cutler J. Cleveland (Washington, D.C.: Environmental Information Coalition, National Council for Science and the Environment). First published in the Encyclopedia of Earth March 2, 2010; Last revised Date June 2, 2011; Retrieved February 25, 2013 <http://www.eoearth.org/article/Mediterranean_California_ecoregion_(CEC)
  • Conrad, E. 1987. Common shrubs of chaparral and associated ecosystems of southern California. Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Berkeley, CA.
  • "Chaparral Biome." Animal Facts and Information RSS, Web. 24 February 2013. <http://bioexpedition.com/chaparral-biome/>.
  • "Ecological Regions of North America." Ftp.epa.gov. Commission for Environmental Cooperation, 1997. Web. 24 February 2013. <ftp://ftp.epa.gov/wed/ecoregions/cec_na/CEC_NAeco.pdf>.
  • F. DeCourten, Geology of Southern California, Department of Earth-Science, Sierra College.
  • Fleming, G., J. Diffendorfer, P. Zedler. 2009. The relative importance of distribution and exotic-plant abundance in California coastal sage scrub" Ecological Applications, Vol 19, No. 9 (2210-2227).
  • Germanorum), (Lessingia. National Park Service, n.d. Web. 25 February 2013. "GGNP Endangered Species Big Year." San Francisco Lessingia. N.p., n.d. Web. 25 February 2013.
  • Hogan, M. Encyclopedia of Earth 2011 "Mediterranean California Ecoregion" http://www.eoearth.org/article/Mediterranean_California_ecoregion_(CEC)
  • J. Bartolome, "Ecological History of the California Mediterranean-type Landscape", In Proc. of the Man and the Biosphere Symposium, Landscape Ecology: Study of Mediterranean Grazed Ecosystems, UC Davis, 1989, pg 2-15
  • Jurek, Ronald M. "California Condor." - California Department of Fish and Wildlife. Ed. Carie Battistone. N.p., n.d. Web. 25 February 2013.
  • Litman, L., Nakamura, G. 2007 "Forest History" University of California Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, http://anrcatalog.ucdavis.edu/pdf/8234.pdf
  • "Managing Mediterranean Forests: Restoration Is Not Enough." – Environmentalresearchweb, Web. 24 February 2013 <>.
  • "Mediterranean California." LandScope America. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 February 2013. <http://www.landscope.org/explore/natural_geographies/divisions/mediterranean_california/>. National Geographic. (2013). Golden eagle. Retrieved fromhttp://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/birds/golden-eagle/
  • Olendorff, R. R. (1976). "The food habits of North American golden eagles". American Midland Naturalist. 95 (1): 231–236. doi:10.2307/2424254. JSTOR 2424254.
  • "Species Profile for San Francisco Lessingia (Lessingia Germanorum)." Species Profile for San Francisco Lessingia (Lessingia Germanorum). N.p., n.d. Web.

25 February 2013.

[42]

Eastern Temperate Forests

Description

The Eastern Temperate Forests of North America are a vast and diverse region. Stretching inland from the Atlantic coast about 385 miles (620 km), they reach from Michigan in the north and Texas in the south; they cover the land of New England to Florida, Alabama to Michigan, and Missouri to the Appalachian Mountains. This ecoregion enjoys a mild and moist climate, though it is generally warmer as latitude decreases and drier as longitude increases.[43] Warm summers and mild to cool winters have provided favorable growing conditions for a number of plant species, the dominant being large, broadleaf, deciduous trees and (to a lesser extent) needle-leaf, coniferous, evergreen trees. Indeed, before the arrival of Europeans, this area was almost completely forested. After their arrival a few centuries ago, much of the eastern forests had been cleared for timber and to make way for cropland. In more recent time, however, these open areas have been abandoned and are slowly returning to forest. Although heavily influenced by people, the Eastern Temperate Forests have proven to be a very resilient region; these great forests still provide habitat for many birds, animals, reptiles, amphibians, and insects, as well as recreational and economic benefits for the people of the region.[44]

Climate

The Eastern Temperate Forest region has a wide range of fluctuating temperatures dependent on time of year. In this region, there are four distinct seasons- winter, spring, summer, and fall. This seasonal variation is caused by exposure to both warm and cold air masses due to the biomes mid-latitude positioning between the polar regions and the tropics and is reflected in both the seasonal temperatures and precipitation levels. The highest temperatures, averaging 21 °C, occur during the summer months of July and August, and the lowest temperatures, averaging 0 °C, occur during the winter months of December, January, and February. The year-round average temperature within the region is 10 °C.[45] Levels of precipitation vary with the seasons as well, with the highest levels of precipitation, averaging 95 mm/month, occurring in May and August, and the lowest, averaging 60 mm/month, occurring in June and the winter months of January, February, March, and December.[46] The Eastern Temperate Forest region can thus be described as "warm, humid, and temperate" with abundant levels of precipitation year-round.

There are many global patterns that affect and contribute to the climate of the Eastern Temperate Forest region, such as global ocean currents, El Nino, La Nina, the Gulf Stream current, and global air circulation patterns. El Niño, caused by warmer sea-surface temperatures in the Pacific Ocean, can lead to "wet winters" and warm episodes occurring between the months of December and February in the southeastern region of the United States Eastern Temperate Forest.[47] La Niña is caused by cooler than normal sea-surface temperatures in the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean, it leads to drier than normal conditions in the winter months in the Southeast region of the Eastern Temperate Forest.[48] The global ocean current that effects the Eastern Temperate Forest most is the Gulf Stream current which brings a warm flow of water from South to North along the eastern coast of North America in the Atlantic Ocean, it keeps temperatures in this region relatively warm. The winds that have the greatest effect on the climate of the region are the prevailing westerlies and the tropical easterlies. The prevailing westerlies, caused by the Coriolis Effect, explain why most major events that occur in North America come from the west and proceed east, which is where the majority of the Eastern Temperate Forest is located.[49]

Dominant plant and animal species

 
Fall foliage of the Eastern Temperate Forests

The Eastern Temperate Forest Ecoregion has favorable growing conditions for a number of plant species, the dominant being large, broadleaf, deciduous trees.[44] Before the arrival of Europeans, this area was almost completely forested. After their arrival a few centuries ago, much of these forests had been cleared for timber and to make way for cropland. In more recent time, however, these open areas have been abandoned and are slowly returning to forest. Of the many plant species that inhabit the Eastern Temperate Forests today, those of the oak (Quercus), beech (Fagus), maple (Acer), basswood (Tilia), and pine (Pinus) genera are the most characteristic and defining of this ecoregion.[50] These plants can be broken down into several main communities: northern hardwood, beech-maple, maple-basswood, mixed mesophytic, oak-hickory, and southern mixed hardwood forests. With the exception of Pinus, all of these species are angiosperms, meaning that they produce flowers and fruits, an important food source to many animals who inhabit the region. The flowers of angiosperms provide nectar, their leaves are important vegetable matter for herbivores, and their seeds are rich in fat and protein rich that allow many animals to fatten up for their winter hibernation. The trees of the Eastern Temperate Forests provide food, shelter, and a suitable habitat for countless species of both flora and fauna; they yield lumber, fuel, recreation, and aesthetic enjoyment to not only the people who live in this region, but also those who visit and enjoy products produced from the resources gleaned from these vast forests.

Arboreal species are widely found in the region due to the high density of tree cover, providing a suitable habitat and food source for the animals; this includes birds and many ground squirrels. Migratory songbirds are common in the eastern temperate forests once the canopy opens up in the spring. Mammals that are native to the eastern forests are white-tailed deer, black bears, ground squirrels (gray squirrels and chipmunks), as well as red and grey foxes. Bird species include, the black-throated warbler, piping plover, and the yellow- breasted chat. Amphibious species that are common to the region are the American toad and the box turtle.

White-tailed deer populations are very large across the eastern US, making it both a dominant and defining species. The white-tailed deer competes with other herbivores for limited food resources directly affecting the ecosystem, as well as indirectly affecting the area by altering habitats for small vertebrates and mammals. According to the Virginia Journal of Science’s research on white-tailed deer, deer are grazers primarily, feeding on the leaves of shrubs and such; however in the winter months they are found browsing the woody stems of shrubs and saplings. White-tailed deer have four stomachs, each with their own specific digestive action. The complex breaking down of food allows the deer to each woody plants and other things that most animals cannot digest. Areas with high deer populations, will see a dramatic shift in forest cover because small saplings and shrubs growth will be retarded on hindered due to their browsing habits. White tailed deer are polygamous; in the northern parts of the region they will mate in November and for more southern dwelling populations mating occurs in January. A female will give birth to one to three fawns, after a 6-month gestation period. After about 3 months, the young will leave their parents. White tailed deer typically live about three years but can live up to 15 years. White-tailed deer exemplify a "k-selection" species. They have long gestation periods, can reproduce more than once in a lifetime and are only a few offspring are produced at once.

Endangered species

The United States has more endangered species than all of the other continents combined, the Eastern Temperate Forest’s endangered and threatened species make up a little less than a quarter of that number.[51] Endangered and threatened mammals (but not limited to) include, the Louisiana black bear, the red wolf, the Key deer, the eastern puma (cougar) the West Indian manatee, the North Atlantic right whale, the Mississippi sandhill crane, the piping plover, and the leatherback sea turtle. Endangered and threatened flowering/non-flowering plants include, the Virginia round-leaf birch, the Tennessee yellow-eyed grass, the Michaux's sumac, the Florida torreya and the Louisiana quillwort, among many others. The region is also home to the only two endangered lichen species, rock gnome lichen and Florida perforate reindeer lichen.[52][53]

 
Piping plover, Charadrius melodus

The piping plover is a bird that has been on the endangered species list since 1985 in the Great Lakes watershed (including: NY, PA, IL, MI, and WI.) This species nearly became extinct after over hunting in the 19th and early 20th century due to use of feathers for fashion hats.[54] Current potential sources of endangerment include, the development of coastlines for recreation, and detrimental material washing up to shore.[55] The management of the habitat sites, closing off sections of the beach where birds are nesting, creation of a mimic habitat, predation management, restriction of beach vehicles, and vegetation control are current conservation efforts being enforced.[56]

The Louisiana quillwort has been on the list of endangered species since 1992; contrary to its name it is only now found in MI and AL.[57] Threats to this species include, pollution (herbicides and chemicals), construction in proximity to stream, vehicle traffic on or near stream, changes in flow rate and erosion (these two factors most likely caused from climate change.)[58] Conservation efforts being enforces are, updates to where the population status is, permanently protecting existing habitats (through local and federal levels), look for potential populations that are not accounted for, preserve the genetic stock of the species remaining, and more in-depth habitat studies leading to population fluctuation.[57]

Geology, topography, and soils

The Appalachian Mountains are a main topic of research, regarding the geology of the surrounding area. They formed when the ancestral continents of North America and Africa collided together and are about 480 million years old. The folded and thrust faulted igneous rocks, marine sedimentary rock and rocks that look like that of the ancient ocean floor, reveal that they got pushed up during plate collisions.[59] Ice ages, during the Pleistocene epoch (after the Appalachians formed), contributed a great deal to the current appearance of the surrounding area. Surfaces that were once covered by ice were eroded and smoothed out during glacier movement. Therefore, the Appalachians used to be much taller when they formed, than they are today.[59] Glaciers also deposited parent materials of the underlying bedrocks, which contribute to the formation of soils later on.

There are very clear soil horizons, when looking at a cross section of this land. These are labeled and described (see Figure 2) as: O: organic matter, A: fine particles of organic matter and mineral material, B: material layer where most nutrients accumulate, C: parent material, and R: bedrock1. The U.S. Soil Taxonomy classifies Inceptisols, Mollisols, and Spodosols as good soils that can support temperate forests that like mature soils that can support deep root systems1. Different levels of nitrogen also have a big effect on a soils capability of supporting life. The presence of too much nitrogen can cause declines in species richness and abundance.[43] The types of vegetation that exist in the Appalachian area heavily rely on the existing soil types and amount of nutrients available.[60]

Traditional and emerging natural resources

The Eastern Temperate region has a vast wealth of natural resources that are utilized by people. The two most common traditional resources include timber and coal. Timber specifically hardwoods, which make up the majority of timber from this region, are utilized widely for furniture production. In 1997 there was about 6 billion dollars worth of solid wood exports with 36% coming from the eastern United States.[61] Coal is the other major traditional resource of the region. Coal is found on the western slopes of the Appalachian mountain range as well as in parts of Illinois and Indiana. In 2003 U.S. coal production was about 1.07 billion short tons and while not all of this comes from the eastern region a large portion of it does as 6 of the top 10 coal producing states are from within this region as of 2012.[62][63]

Natural gas and oil from hydraulic fracturing is an interesting relatively new emerging resource from the region. "Fracking" as it is commonly known involves sending pressurized water or sand into shale deposits into order to open up more cracks for which natural gas and oil can flow through, into the pipes and out of the ground. There were 8.982 drills as of 2011 in Pennsylvania alone that operated under hydraulic fracturing.[64] Though this is an intriguing emerging resource for the region it also is extremely controversial as oil and gas from the "fracking" process can sometimes seep into ground water and contaminate it.

Current environmental threats/ Impact of climate change

There are three major current threats to the Eastern Temperate Forest. These include agriculture, invasive species and overpopulation/urbanization. A major use of land in the eastern temperate forest is for agricultural purposes due to the rich soils which are easily converted to farmland. Pesticides in particular threaten the health of the eastern temperate forest region because they are used in massive quantities for agricultural production but are also widely popular in homes, businesses, schools, hospitals, and parks to maintain lawns or fields.

Another problem with no easy solution that faces the eastern temperate forest are non-native invasive species like the emerald ash borer. The emerald ash borer is thought to have been introduced to Michigan from China about 15 years ago.[65] The adult beetles target ash trees as places to lay their eggs, when the larvae hatch they bore through the bark and kill the tree. The health of the ash population is of major concern because they provide habitat for many wildlife species and edible seeds for birds, mammals, and insects.

The biggest threat besides climate change to the eastern temperate forest is its high density of human inhabitants. According to the Commission for Environmental Cooperation approximately 160 million people or over 40 percent of North America’s population, lives within the ecological region of the eastern temperate forest12. Such population density can be attributed to the concentration of the continents economic, political, and industrial power in this region. Major cities and sprawling suburban communities between them have drastically changed the regions landscape and fragmented local habitat. Roads and highways divide habitat and limit migration while urbanization and deforestation eliminate suitable habitat and food sources. Studies conducted by Kansas State University have shown that fragmentation can decrease population productivity by isolating populations, crowding species, and causing edge effect.[66]

As the planet faces more intense and severe effects of climate changes, each element of the eastern temperate region will be affected, from flora and fauna, to soil and water. Vegetation mortality, soil content, species existence, water levels, and overall functionality of the Eco region will continue to change and be altered as global warming and the concentration of greenhouse gases increases. Climate change correlates with disturbances such as insect outbreaks, harsh weather, and susceptibility of forests to invasive species, all of which can affect the functions of a forest. Insect breakouts can completely destroy an entire habitat within one season. With increased drought and higher temperatures, the weakened forest can suffer from multiple tree species loss, along with the loss of animals and creatures that serve vital predatory roles within the ecosystem. Plants that are considered to be moist-forest herbs, such as Cohoosh and Clintonia, are threatened by the lack of available water that is vital to their survival. As climate change more rapidly progresses, temperature increases will affect the length of the growing season. Tree species growing range will shift to adapt to the new climates, typically moving to higher altitudes or more northern regions. For example, mountaintop tree species like the red spruce will potentially die out because there is no higher altitude that is available for relocation. In addition to the northern migration, southern species such as the red oak have expanded their territories. Therefore, as species that thrive in the lower areas of the region are expanding into a greater space, they are beginning to compete for resources and nutrients with pre-existing native species. This can be said for many bird species as well. A study conducted by the USDA Forest Service confirms that 27 out of 38 bird species that inhabit eastern temperate forests, have expanded their territory further north. The water cycle is also incredibly susceptible to the effects of climate change. The water quality and ecosystems within lakes, streams, and rivers are all greatly affected by the alterations of precipitation patterns. Increases in runoff potentially increase the chemical contents within the water, such as nitrate and acid pulses. Aquatic species are stressed by not only the warmer temperatures themselves, but also the low flows and timing of ice-outs and thaws. Such factors affect oxygenation cycles, productive cycles, and reproductive cycles. Seeing as though the Eastern Temperate Forest region is considered to be a significant evolutionary zone for fauna, the effects of climate change can substantially alter the balances and chains of not only the Ecoregion, but the planet as well.

Level II (Sub) Ecoregions

The Eastern Temperate Forest ecoregion is divided into five Level II ecoregions: Mixed Wood plains, Central USA plains, Southeastern USA plains, Ozark and Ouachita- Appalachian Forests, and Mississippi Alluvial and Southeastern Coastal Plains.

The land formation of the 490,590 square kilometres (189,420 sq mi) area of the Mixed Wood plains is predominantly plains, with some hills, and the bodies of water are many small lakes. The surface materials of the region are moraines and lacustrine and the soil composition includes forest soils and fine textured soils. The mean annual precipitation of the area ranges from 720–1,200 millimetres (28–47 in) and the mean annual temperature generally varies between 4–10 °C.[43] In this area, human activity includes fruit and dairy agriculture, major urban areas, and some forestry and tourism attractions. The most prominent wildlife observed are white tailed deer, moose, and the grey squirrel, and vegetation includes a wide range of trees such as oak, hickory, maple, beech, and some pine and basswood species.

The second sub-ecoregion is the Central USA Plains, an area of 253,665 square kilometres (97,941 sq mi), that has a landform of smooth plains. The majority of this region’s surface material is moraine with some lacustrine, and the soil consists of calcium enriched prairie soils and forest soils on moraine. The climate consists of a mean annual precipitation of 760–1,100 mm and average temperatures varying from 7–13 °C.[43] Human activities largely include corn and soybean agriculture, major urban areas, and local dairy operations. Vegetation is mostly prairie type in the west, but also includes oak, hickory, elm, ash, beech, and maple. White tailed deer, cottontail rabbits, and grey squirrels are the most commonly represented wildlife.

The Southeastern USA plains are the third Level II ecoregion and have a land area of 946,770 square kilometres (365,550 sq mi). The majority of this land consists of irregular plains with low hills, which is made up of predominantly residuum and some loess on weakly developed soils. The climate of this region is an annual precipitation of 1,000–1,600 millimetres (39–63 in) and average temperatures of 13−19 °C.[43] Human activities include predominantly forestry with tobacco, hog, and cotton agriculture, along with major urban areas. There is a wide array of wildlife which can include white-tailed deer, grey squirrels, armadillos, wild turkeys, northern cardinals, and mockingbirds. The vegetation of the area is less diverse and includes oak, hickory, loblolly, and shortleaf pines.

The Ozark and Ouachita-Appalachian Forests region is an area mostly consisting of hills and low mountains, with some wild valleys that make up the 518,690 square kilometres (200,270 sq mi) of land. This land is primarily residuum and colluvium matter on weakly developed soils and is put to use by humans through forestry, coal mining, some local agriculture, and tourism operations. The temperature averages around 17–18 °C annually and precipitation can be anywhere from 1,000–2,000 millimetres (39–79 in), which provides a suitable environment for mixed oaks and hickory, white pine, birch, beech, maple, and hemlock trees.[43] In this environment, black bears, white tailed deer, chipmunks, and wild turkeys are commonly found

The final of the five Level II ecoregions in the Eastern Temperate Forest is Mississippi Alluvial and Southeastern Coastal Plains. The 368,720 square kilometres (142,360 sq mi) of land in this region is home to a very vast amount of organisms including animals such as white-tailed deer, opossums, armadillos, American alligators, mockingbirds, and egrets, along with varying vegetation from bottomland forests (ash, oak, tupelo, bald cypress) and southern mixed forests (beech, sweet gum, magnolias, oaks, pine, saw palmetto). The climate of 13−27 °C and precipitation varying between 1,100–1,800 millimetres (43–71 in) annually provides adequate conditions for forestry, citrus, soybean, and cotton agriculture, fishing, and tourism.[43]

Mixed Wood Plains

Central USA Plains

Southeastern USA Plains

Ozark, Ouachita-Appalachian Forests

Mississippi Alluvial and Southeast USA Coastal Plains

Humid Gulf of Mexico Coastal Plains and Hills

Tropical Wet Forests

 
Tropical Wet Forest canopy

The Tropical Wet Forests ecoregion in North America includes the southern tip of the Florida Peninsula in the United States; within Mexico, the Gulf Coastal Plain, the western and southern part of the Pacific Coastal Plain, most of the Yucatán Peninsula and the lowlands of the Chiapas Sierra Madre, which continue south to Central and South America.[67]

Climate

The tropical wet forests of North America have an average year round temperatures between 68 and 78.8 °F. Thus, frost does not occur under these conditions.[68] The temperatures remain fairly uniform throughout the year; therefore there is not a change of seasons. There is also no dry season, as all months experience precipitation. The average annual precipitation ranges from eight to fourteen feet per year. The high levels of precipitation usually cause poor soil quality because soluble nutrients are lost due to the nutrient leaching process. The average humidity is between 77 and 88%. Nine out of twelve months of the year are considered "wet" months. The overall climate of the tropical wet forests ecoregion can best be described as humid, warm, and wet. George Hadley, a scientist who researched during the 18th century suggested that warm tropical air rises and moves north. Colder high latitude air flows south nearer to the Earth’s surface where it displaces the former air. Hadley’s explanation is highly accepted and still expanded upon today. The warm, moist air in tropical wet forests is unstable; meaning as soon as the air rises it becomes saturated.[69] In addition, there are large amounts of heat, or convection occurring at the same time. The vast bulk of vertical movement of air occurs in the Hadley cell and thus provides an explanation for the global circulation patterns.[70]

The direction of the wind at various levels of the atmosphere determines local climate and can result in severe weather patterns. For example, in an El Nino winter the presence of warm water in the eastern Pacific Ocean can shift the position of a subtropical jet stream. This results in heavy rainfall in the tropical wet forest ecoregion. Also, in a warming climate the Hadley cell could increase the severity of climate. As a result, the ecoregion may become hotter and wetter for longer periods of time.[71]

Hydrology

Hydrology in Tropical Wet Rainforests keeps the flow of water throughout the ecosystem, which nourishes plants, keeps local aquifers and rivers active and the environment in the area functioning.[72] The watershed and basin pattern have three major contexts; first, low-gradient drainage, second, typically high ground water table, and third, extensive drainage canal network. This idea applies to all areas, but have unique outcomes in Tropical Wet Rain Forests in North America specifically. Tropical Wet Rainforests have an excess of vegetation, compared to many other ecoregion types such as savannahs, and therefore have a much slower drainage rate than other ecosystems.[73] When an ecosystem has a high ground water table it separates the time between drainage and absorption of water in an area. It helps organisms to absorb nutrients, while also slowly filling up aquifers in the ecosystem. So primarily the down time between rainfall and drainage is slowed due to vegetation and climate, but now due to the vastness of the ecosystem, the drainage canal network is large and water can fall in one place, and end up in many other places at the end of the draining process.[73]

Geology, topography, and soil

Wet tropical forests in North America span from sea level to an altitude of 1,000 metres (3,300 ft). They have particular geologic, topographic and soil conditions that characterize them. These characteristics influence biotic structures and relationships and have contributed to the high biodiversity of the ecoregion.

The geology of these forests is primarily composed of folded and metamorphic hills, which are covered by a thin layer of alluvium (loose sediments and soil).[74] The bedrock is sedimentary and rich in silica and dates back to the Precenozoic periods when much of the region was underwater.[75]

The topography of wet tropical forests includes valleys, hills, ridges and low mountains. Depending on elevation and the location of such features, areas as referred to as either lowland or highland.[76] These elevation and topographical changes allow for a higher variety of specialized conditions, which increases habitat. The inclination changes (or slope) of the forest floor greatly affects water drainage and the leaching of nutrients, and valleys can have an accumulation of sediments and nutrients versus plateaus and ridges.[77] But the most important topographic characteristic is the extensive network of rivers that weave across the landscape, acting as a drainage system to the forest that can receive upwards of 250 inches of rain a year.[78]

 
Tropical Forest river

The soils in wet tropical forests are some of the most diverse of any region, and they are the cause for many biological adaptations. There is a combination of highly weathered and leached soils as well as less weathered alluvial soils, categorized as "oxisols" and "ultisols".[79] Their pH can vary immensely, sometimes being as acidic as 4.0. The soils are generally shallow, often only a few inches deep.

The soil is produced from decomposing organic matter and the breakdown of bedrock, but is generally poor in nutrients; most nutrients are found as superficial detritus and within the living components of the ecosystem. There are multiple reasons for why the soil is generally very poor in nutrients. Firstly, the warm and humid climate allows for a rapid decomposition rate, meaning that nutrients do not stay present in or on top of the soil for long before being absorbed by the biota. Secondly, the acidity of the soil, caused by the few cation exchange sites to be occupied by hydrogen ions, increases the loss of minerals such as iron, aluminium oxides and phosphorus. Thirdly, leaching, which is the continuous downward movement and loss of solutes and minerals from the soil, happens regularly due to the heavy rainfall.[80] An observer would not be able to tell that the soil is poor from the lush, dense vegetation in these wet tropical forests; but shortly after an area of forest is cleared for agriculture (usually through slash-and-burn) the small amount of nutrients wash away and the soil becomes infertile.[81]

The ecosystems have developed highly specialized ways of mitigating effects such as leaching, but these functions are fragile, and need to be protected. This includes tree adaptations such as buttress roots and thick root mats that grow laterally along the forest floor. These adaptations mitigate nutrient loss by capturing the nutrients in falling detritus, before the nutrients are absorbed and decomposed into the soil, and lost from leaching by the heavy rains.[82] The geologic, topographic and soil changes across wet tropical forest ecosystems has contributed to the astonishing biodiversity in biota we see today.

 
Buttress roots

Plant communities

The plant communities of the tropical wet forest are the most diverse, abundant, and lush plant life in the world. The plants define the tropical wet forest by contributing to ecosystem functions, such as producing nourished rainfall and storing atmospheric carbon. Tropical wet forests are characterized by the complex, physical structure of the ecosystem. There are many layers of plant communities, though they are rarely visible from the ground. Shrubs and creepers fill the forest floor with saplings dispersed throughout. Large trees hold their full crowns in the canopy, prohibiting sunlight to plants below. Beneath the canopy of trees lies a network of stout branches, thick limbs, and climbers. Sometimes even above these trees, the largest of canopies fill the sky like individual islands.[83]

 

Large trees, such as the pacque, allspice, and breadnut tree, provide habitat for most animal species and other plant species. The leaves are usually oval, thick, and waxy with pointed drip-tips to alleviate water collection. Roots are often buttressed (flaring from above ground), radiated across the forest floor, or stilted as prop roots. Lichens, orchids, and mosses cover the trunks of trees, retaining moisture and hosting small invertebrates. Most tropical trees have large, colorful, fragrant blossoms and plump fruits, perfect feeding for animals and insects.[83] Climbers, hemiepiphytes, and epiphytes are the major groups of non-tree species, although they tend to inhabit trees. Climbers provide a road system in canopies for motile animals.[84] Vines are large in biomass and are an essential food source to many fauna. Hemiepiphytes have the most unusual growth forms and are parasitic to larger trees. Epiphytes claim space on a branch and set roots, trap minimal soil, and photosynthesize. They adhere tightly to the bark of trees but, are not internally parasitic. As rain forests become drier and more disturbed, these native species become more rare. The loss of these plant communities severely affects the world, in regard to increase of carbon dioxide, high floods, and impure water.

Key animal species

 
Jaguar-Biouniverzoo

The two main keystone species of the Tropical Wet Forest ecoregion are the American crocodile and the Mexican jaguar. They are both top predators and influence the population of their pray. American crocodiles create habitat for many creatures through their water holes and the paths they create. Their diet consists of fish, snails, birds, frogs, and mammals that come to the water’s edge.[85] Males can grow up to 15 feet long and weigh up to 2,000 pounds while females range from 8–13 feet. Their average life span is around 45 years. Females lay a clutch between 20 and 60 eggs which hatch after an average of 85 days. The mother leaves the young to fend for themselves after a few days.[86] The jaguar is the third largest cat in the world and the largest in North America. It is between 5 and 8 feet, nose to tail, and weighs between 140 and 300 pounds. Their average lifespan in the wild is 12–16 years while in captivity it ranges from 20 to 27 years. They have been observed to prey on around 85 different species, the most common of which are terrestrial mammals, they prefer giant anteaters, capybaras.[87] Females become sexually mature around 2–3 years while males become sexually mature around 3–4 years. They have a gestation period about 100 days and give birth to an average litter of 2 cubs. The cubs are able to open their eyes after about 8 days and are able to walk 10 days after that. They stay with their mother for a year and half.[88]

Natural resources

Tropical wet forests are known for their wide diversity of natural resources. Historically, the primary harvestable products they produce are from plants including exotic lumber such as mahogany, red cedar, and also gum tree for rubber. Other plants that can be utilized from this region include common food items such as bananas, cacao, oranges, coffee, sesame, alfalfa, cotton, and a variety of peppers.

Following Spanish and English colonization of the area there was a shift towards larger scaled agriculture plantations. With these plantations came increased production of sugar cane, beans, pineapples, and chiles as well as an increase in harvesting of precious lumbers. This trend continued largely up into the 1960s when large swaths of land were cleared to make room for cattle ranches.

Consecutively came the influx from the petrochemical industry to extract the vast reservoirs of oil that exist underground. This new development led to even larger portions of land being cleared for oil drilling sites and roads compounding the existing problem of deforestation in the region.

One ray of hope for the future of natural resource procurement in tropical wet forests is the search for medicinally valuable plant secondary compounds. Plants that contain compounds that can treat ailments ranging from analgesics, antibiotics, heart drugs, enzymes, hormones, diuretics, anti-parasitics, dentifrices, laxatives, dysentery treatments, anti-coagulants and hundreds more exist and could prove to be a valuable economically viable as well as sustainable alternative to current resources being utilized in the area.

Environmental threats

Deforestation is the main threat to the North Americans tropical wet forests and has devastating consequences. Deforestation causes habitat loss and habitat fragmentation which have drastic effects on biodiversity.[89] Deforestation of tropical wet forests has caused many native species to become endangered or extinct at an alarming rate. The Tropical Wet Forests around the global are being deforested at an alarming rate. For example, some counties like Florida have lost 50%[90] of their tropical wet forest habitat and Costa Rica has lost about 90%.[91]

Protection of the tropical wet forests we have left is very important for its continued existence. Many Reserves have been created in an attempt to protect the little we have left of these forests. Some examples of this in the United States are Florida's Everglades National Park and the Big Cypress National Preserve.

Another important tool for the continued existence of tropical wet forests is Restoration. There have been successful restoration projects of a tropical wet forest with native species in Costa Rica. These restoration projects have been shown to significantly improve the native animal and plant species survival.[92] It is necessary for good management plans to be developed if we are to use tropical wet forests sustainably.

Endangered species, threats, and conservation

 
Harpy eagle

The IUCN Red List has 65,521 species listed as threatened in the tropical wet forests.[93] The Harpia harpyja, harpy eagle is one threatened species in the tropical wet forests, they are the largest neotropical bird of prey, nest in the tallest trees, prey mostly on animals that live in trees, lay between 1−2 eggs but only allowing 1 egg to hatch, reproduce every 2–4 years, and reaches sexual maturity between the ages of 4 and 5.[94][95] The harpy eagle is suffering because of slow reproductive rates, hunting, food competition, fragmentation, and habitat destruction.[94] There are many orchid species that are threatened in the tropical wet forests. Orchids are a smart plant that manipulate other species into pollinating them, and once pollinated they produce seeds that are eventually released in hopes to be carried to a specific type of fungi (depending on the orchid) where it will attach for mycorrhizal symbioses, and then bloom after a few years or decades depending on the environment and species.[96][97][98] Many orchid species are suffering because of overharvesting, burning, clearing, and development.[99] Many efforts are being done to help save both species. Spreading knowledge (educating), creating reserves, and coming up with alternatives are the top three actions being done to conserve both species.[100][101]

Effects of climate change

Over the last 100 years the Earth's temperature has increased 0.6 degrees Celsius and it is predicted to increase an additional 3.5 degrees over the next century.[102] Tropical wet forests account for only 6% of earth's land surface yet are responsible for 40% of earth’s oxygen production.[103] Any type of change to this system can prove to have significant detrimental effects in terms of global oxygen availability. In addition, due to the sensitivity and fragile interactions between organisms and the atmosphere, ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration rates, will experience even larger adverse effects.

Amounts of precipitation and moisture availability are also areas of concern. Global precipitation is expected to rise two-fold in tropical areas. This will cause shifts in vegetation as moist forest species expand into new areas of moisture. Increasing atmospheric emissions also plays an integral role in precipitation patterns.[104] Annual rainfall is projected to decrease across the Everglades National Park causing a hydrologic change across the entire region. Dry vegetative communities will outnumber hydric vegetative communities in this particular area.[105]

Furthermore, a one degree increase in atmospheric temperature is the result from a doubling of atmospheric CO2. Effects of this increase on forest soil temperature include reduced tree growth and higher decomposition rates of deep soil organic matter.[106] Ultimately, as the forests become a larger carbon source to the atmosphere, ecosystem services cease to function, and the delicate balance found in the tropics is disrupted, the climate warming cycle intensifies.

The iconic ecosystems of the region

An iconic ecosystem of this region is the complex interaction and the variety of biota along with fairly consistent abiotic factors; even though this eco region covers roughly seven percent of the earth's surface, its tree community is the most diverse on the planet.[107] It would not be unusual to have 100 different tree species coexisting within a one-hectare plot.[108] The tree community contains many broad-leafed evergreen trees, which form a high canopy (30–40 meters) above the ground.[109] The understory contains a variety of more shade tolerant plants, which is a necessity for survival due to the thick canopy above. The vegetation is "spatially heterogeneous".[110] This plant community survives in nutrient-poor soils conditions making disturbances (such as deforestation) to have greater effects because regeneration of the forest takes much longer. Tributaries and river systems have formed from the large amount of rainfall and typically carry a lot of sediments, but increase water demands and the construction of dams can further alter and strain these ecosystems.[111]

  • Humid Gulf of Mexico Coastal Plain (ecoregion)
  • Humid Gulf of Mexico Coastal Hills (ecoregion)

Plain and Hills of the Yucatan Peninsula

  • Yucatan Peninsula Plain/Deciduous Tropical Forest (ecoregion)
  • Yucatan Peninsula Plain/Semi-Evergreen Tropical Forest (ecoregion)
  • Yucatan Peninsula Hills (ecoregion)

Sierra Los Tuxtlas

Everglades

  • Southern Florida Coastal Plain (ecoregion)

Western Pacific Plain and Hills

  • Nayarit and Sinaloa Plain (ecoregion)
  • Jalisco/Nayarit Hills and Plains (ecoregion)

Coastal Plain and Hills of Soconusco

  • Coastal Plain and Hills of Soconusco (ecoregion)

References

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North American Deserts

Introduction

The North American Deserts include both cold and hot deserts, which supply a variety of climates. Due to this fact, they are often used for agricultural, business, or petroleum purposes. These factors have been taking a toll on the desert climate, organisms, and landscape. These deserts are the Mojave, Sonoran, Chihuahuan and the Great Basin.

Plant communities

The North American Deserts are home to a variety of plant species. These plants are categorized as either xerophytes, adapted to the arid conditions of the desert, or phreatophytes, which are plants with very deep roots that are dependent on a permanent water supply and survive by tapping groundwater.[112]

 
Agave lophantha

These species have come to possess several adaptations that allow them to survive and thrive in these dry and harsh conditions. One of the most common of these species is the barrel cactus (Echinocactus and Ferocactus). This plant was important to Native Americans and served a number of purposes, including use for food and water and creating fish hooks from the spines. Another common species is the Shin Digger (Agave lechuguilla).

With its shallow roots, it is able to take in a large quantity of water and store it in its pedals for extended periods of time.[113] The Ocotillo (Fouquieria splendens) is another plant frequently found in this area, which is a very unusually shaped plant. Because of this, it is often referred to as a "vine cactus." This plant has an adaptive ability to photosynthesize during very dry conditions and gather large quantities of water when it is available.[114] The Great Basin is also home to the oldest species in the world, the bristlecone pine (Pinus longaeva). Its needles allow it to retain water and use very little of it during its lifetime. It is able to grow on exposed rocky surfaces in higher elevations about forested areas. With these advantages come some drawbacks, including its very slow growth rate, which leaves it vulnerable to being out-competed by faster growing trees.[115]

Dominant/characteristic species

There are a variety of mammals that define the North American Deserts such as the bighorn sheep, mule deer, white-tailed deer, ground squirrel, coyote, prairie dog, cottontail rabbit, desert packrat, and mountain lion. There are a number of birds and reptiles that thrive in these ecosystems as well. The cactus wren, Gambel's quail, burrowing owl, red-tailed hawk, hummingbird, desert tortoise, and vulture to name a few.

An example of a keystone species in the North American deserts would be the coyote or mountain lion. These two predators can control the population and distribution of a large number of prey species. A single mountain lion can roam an area of hundreds of kilometers, in which deer, rabbits, and bird species are partly controlled by a predator of this caliber. They will change the feeding behavior or where they decide to nest or burrow is largely a reaction to the mountain lions activity. Another example, such as the hummingbird, new plants or animals could also come into the habitat and push out native species. In the Sonoran Desert, the hummingbird pollinates many native species of cactus and other plants. The hummingbirds in this region, such as the Costa's hummingbird, have evolved to have very long beaks and tongues that wrap around the skull in order to reach the nectar for that sweet sugar staple.

Topography, geology, and soils

The Great Basin Desert is the only Cold desert, bordered by the Rocky Mountain range to the east, and the Sierra Nevada – Cascade to the west. The northernmost part of the desert lies 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) above sea level, and due to high summer temperatures, not all of the fallen precipitation is fully absorbed into the soil, resulting in a high sodium concentration.[116] In other areas, mountain erosion has caused deep soils of fine particles, which allows for standing lakes.

The Mojave lies between the Sonoran (south) and the Great Basin (north). Here, soil is shallow, rocky, and dry. The average elevation is between 3,000–6,000 feet (910–1,830 m) above sea level. The Mojave has several mountain range boundaries, the Garlock and the San Andres. They are made up of the two largest faults in the state of California.

The Sonoran is referred to as the Base and Range geologic province. Here, the Mogollon rim exists of sandstone and limestone piled over millions of years. The basin and valley were made from volcanic eruption 40 million years ago, and the underlying rock is made primarily of cretaceous (aged granites).

The Chihuahuan desert is made up of calcareous soils that have a high pH and calcium concentration. The soil is thin, sandy, and gravel like, and rests atop deep layers of limestone. Higher elevations allow water to sink deeper into soils that are made of finer particles, and deep sedimentary fans exist. Limestone beds show that this desert was at one point fully submerged beneath the sea. This desert features elevations ranging from 1,200 metres (3,900 ft) above sea level, to 350 metres (1,150 ft) below.

Hydrology

There are common patterns of hydrological cycles throughout the North American Deserts, but specifics of times and source of water range. All four deserts rely on rivers, precipitation, and underground aquifers to replenish their water supply.[117] The water in the North American desert is mainly freshwater. There is an ephemeral flow of underground water during the wet seasons that slows during each sub-desert’s dry season.[118] Oases form in all four deserts when the groundwater reaches the surface and pools in the hollows of the desert basins.[119] Being surrounded by mountains provides a rain shadow effect that contributes to the dry climate and creates the desert ecosystem.[120] All four deserts experience times of drought and times of intense precipitation.[121] The Colorado River flows through the Mojave, Great Basin, and Sonoran desert.[117]

But, differences in seasonal rain create the differing hydrological cycles. The Great Basin receives most its rainfall in the winter.[117] This leads to creation of playa lakes in the spring, as the snowfall melts and flows down surrounding mountains.[122] The Sonoran Desert has a bimodal precipitation pattern that includes winter storms and summer monsoons, which help sustain flora.[123] The Chihuahuan Desert relies primarily on its intense summer monsoon for water. During the summer is when the area sees the accumulation of playa lakes.[119] They may all have similar characteristics, but the difference in location and evaluation attribute to the diversity of their hydrological sources and cycles. Although the Northern American Deserts are characteristically dry, they still contain the water necessary to fuel their ecosystem and sustain the life of humans, animals, and plants alike.

Climate

North American deserts can be categorized by climate categories of hot and cold deserts. The cold deserts include the Thompson Okanagan Plateau, Columbian Plateau, Northern and Central Basins, Colorado Plateaus, and the Snake River Plane. All of these North American Deserts are included in the cold category, which indicates that they have a dry mid-latitude steppe or desert climate. These areas are affected by their interior position within the continent leading to broader temperature ranges and considerable rainfall. More specifically, these areas are affected by the rain shadow created by neighboring mountain ranges, acting as a barrier to westerly flowing air carrying moisture. All of these cold deserts experience about 100–300 mm of precipitation in a year indicating a semi-arid climate.

The warm deserts of North America include The Mojave Basin and Range, the Sonoran desert, and the Chihuahuan desert. These areas have a tropical desert climate, and are known as the hottest and driest place on the continent. This is due to the continental interior location on the leeward side of mountains, with constant subtropical high pressures. The high temperatures throughout the year are due to the high percentage of sunshine caused by high sun angles. Increased distance from a body of water leads to a lack of clouds, which is associated with much cooler nighttime temperatures because all the heat of the day is lost. The only source of water in the warm deserts is an oasis; this creates an arid climate in the area distinguishable by the lack of moisture in the soil due to annual precipitation being less than half of the annual potential evapotranspiration.

Ecological concerns

The North American Desert biome is facing a variety of ecological threats. Human disturbance poses the number one concern to this fragile ecosystem. The Sonoran desert contains the two large cities of Tucson and Phoenix, Arizona, which contain over 3 million people.[124] These dense human populations deplete the water table of the entire desert and are sending the desert towards desertification. Also, the Chihuahuan desert is seeing the effects of agricultural expansions, invasive species, illegal poaching, and extractions of resources such as salt, lime, and sand.[125] These activities in the desert lead to eventual desertification and a loss of overall biodiversity. A number of organizations such as the United States Nature Conservancy and the World Wildlife Fund have begun working together to conserve the threatened desert ecosystem. The less heavily populated areas of the desert are being sought out and conserved in order to prevent future human habitation and disturbance.[124] Also, several organizations are now monitoring the use and health of the Rio Grande system located in the Chihuahuan desert, while also building new low tech water treatment facilities that will help to prevent overall water table depletion. The World Wildlife Fund is replanting disturbed, upland vegetation in order to retain species habitat and biodiversity. These measures are helping to protect and preserve the four North American Desert ecosystems.

Endangered species

The giant kangaroo rat is one of the most peculiar looking rodents around. The Dipodomys ingens can grow up to 34.7 centimeters in length and have a tail of up to 19.8 centimeters long. They can weigh up to 180 grams. It is mainly found in the San Joaquin Valley in California. The giant kangaroo rat forages for food from sunset to sunrise. Its diet consists mainly of seeds, that are sun dried and some greenery. They store food in their cheeks until they bring it back to their burrow systems, where they store food that could last them up to 2 years of drought. The giant kangaroo rats develop rather quickly. Depending on the environmental conditions, they can reproduce after about 5 months. Their litter size varies but averages about 3.75 offspring. These rodents are rather resilient when it comes to surviving under natural conditions, such as drought and low plant productivity. However, when the human factor is introduced, they have a much less successful survival rate. Aqueducts and other water projects started crisscrossing the giant kangaroo rat habitat. Agriculture moved in because of the new water routes and suddenly the habitat of many species became agricultural land.[126] Kangaroo rats became a pest for farmers and rodenticide-treated grain became common practice which took out another chunk of their population.

Nichol's Turk's head cactus (Echinocactus horizonthalonius var. nicholii) is one of multiple species of Echinocactus horizonthalonius. The Nichol’s Turk’s head cactus ranges from blue-green to yellow-green. It tends to be around 46 centimeters tall and has about a 20 centimeter diameter. It has 8 ribs that are lined with spines. The cactus blooms from April to May with a purple flower and white, hairy fruit.[127] Like many cacti, it is rather slow growing at a rate of just 2 inches in 10 years, due to minimal nutrient input.[128] Its habitat is located mainly in the Vekol and Waterman Mountains in Arizona and it has a population in the Sierra del Viejo Mountains of northwestern Sonora.[129] The cactus is particularly fond of Horquilla limestone outcrops.[130] The biggest threats to these cacti are habitat loss to new development, vehicle/off-roading damage, mining, and human collection. Among other threats, erosion from foot traffic from drug and human trafficking in the area.

Climate change

North American Deserts, as in most arid systems, experience water and temperature change as the most limiting factors in this ecoregion. Climate change's major effects thus far have been an increase in average annual temperature as well as an increase in average annual rainfall.

The most prevalent factor is the increase in rainfall events and the severity of the events. Between 1931 and 2000, there have been measurable increases in seasonal rainfall during the summertime monsoon in the southern United States and northern Mexico. Because of this increase in rainfall, changes in the vegetative cover have caused native species to disappear and invasive species populations to rise. The kangaroo rat, which also supported Mojave rattlesnake and burying owl populations, has essentially disappeared from the Chihuahan Desert, while the non-native Bailey’s pocket mouse has colonized the area. Increased rainfall has also led to decrease in soil quality and less vegetative cover, which leads to increasingly higher temperatures. In the Sonoran Desert, anthropogenic land degradation as well as natural erosion from increased rainfall has caused a 4–5 degree increase in average afternoon temperatures, which means for many species less available water and nutrients they need to survive. These effects will lead to less biodiversity in the area, which is one of the main combatant factors that biota have against climate change.

As the effects of climate change continue to develop, North American Deserts will be increasingly affected, leading worsening biodiversity loss and decreases in the ecoregion productivity. Deserts are one of the most delicate ecosystems, relying on limited water and nutrient sources to survive. When these careful relationships are disturbed by the unpredictable and worsening effects of climate change, it will be very hard for these ecosystems to recover or endure.

 
Bailey's pocket mouse

Natural resources

In the North American Deserts there are emerging natural resources within the ecosystem. A few natural resources within the desert consist of oil, sunlight, copper, zinc, and water.[131] Some of these resources are renewable and some are non-renewable. Most of these resources are being exploited by humans and most actions are not sustainable. Sunlight is one of the deserts most important resource as it is renewable and has sustainable exploitations. Deserts within North America tend to have fields of solar panels, so they can reuse the sun as energy. Areas such as New Mexico, Texas, Arizona, and the Great Basin area, put up fields for green energy.[132] We monitored how the sun provides energy for resources such as plants and animals; we decided to make solar panels to produce energy for us.[131] Water is also a resource found in the desert that can be reused and has sustainable exploitations.

Oil is the most exploited resource within the deserts. In the North American desert most of the oil is found within the Great Basin region and this resource is non-renewable.[133] Oil is mined out of rocks and creates massive holes that disrupt the ecosystem.[134] The process with taking oil is not sustainable and this resource is scarce. Another resource that is mined is copper. Along with oil, this resource is also scarce as it is non-renewable and also has the same mining affects as oil does. This resource can be used for things such as computers, TVs, cell phones, and other electronics.[133] Copper is mainly found in California.[133] Other mined resources consist of zinc, uranium, rocks, jade, crystals, gold, and quartz.[132]

Notes

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See also

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December 28, 2022
list, ecoregions, north, america, this, article, contain, excessive, amount, intricate, detail, that, interest, only, particular, audience, please, help, spinning, relocating, relevant, information, removing, excessive, detail, that, against, wikipedia, inclus. This article may contain an excessive amount of intricate detail that may interest only a particular audience Please help by spinning off or relocating any relevant information and removing excessive detail that may be against Wikipedia s inclusion policy December 2022 Learn how and when to remove this template message This list of ecoregions of North America provides an overview of North American ecoregions designated by the Commission for Environmental Cooperation CEC in its North American Environmental Atlas It should not be confused with Wikipedia articles based on the classification system developed by the World Wildlife Fund such as List of ecoregions WWF and Lists of ecoregions by country The commission was established in 1994 by the member states of Canada Mexico and the United States to address regional environmental concerns under the North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation NAAEC the environmental side accord to the North American Free Trade Agreement NAFTA The commission s 1997 report Ecological Regions of North America provides a framework that may be used by government agencies non governmental organizations and academic researchers as a basis for risk analysis resource management and environmental study of the continent s ecosystems 1 Ecoregions may be identified by similarities in geology physiography vegetation climate soils land use wildlife distributions and hydrology The classification system has four levels Only the first three levels are shown on this list Level I divides North America into 15 broad ecoregions Level II subdivides the continent into 52 smaller ecoregions Level III subdivides those regions again into 182 ecoregions 1 2 Level IV is a further subdivision of Level III ecoregions Level IV mapping is still underway but is complete across most of the United States For an example of Level IV data see List of ecoregions in Oregon and the associated articles Contents 1 List 2 Arctic Cordillera 2 1 Overview 2 1 1 Natural resources and human influence 2 1 2 Climate 2 1 3 Hydrology 2 1 4 Geology topography and soil 2 1 5 Plant communities 2 1 6 Keystone species 2 1 7 Endangered species 2 1 7 1 Polar bear 2 1 7 2 Arctic black spruce 2 1 7 3 Bowhead whale 3 Tundra 3 1 Plant communities 3 2 Animal species 3 3 Geology topography and soil 3 4 Climate 3 5 Environmental threats 3 6 Endangered species 3 7 Effects of climate change 3 8 Natural resources 3 9 Iconic components 3 10 Northern Arctic 3 11 Alaska Tundra 3 12 Brooks Range Tundra 3 13 Southern Arctic 4 Taiga 4 1 Introduction 4 2 Soils and plant species 4 3 Keystone species 4 4 Hydrology 4 5 Climate 4 6 Environmental threats 4 7 Endangered species 4 8 Effects of climate change 4 9 Traditional and emerging natural resources 4 10 References 4 11 Alaska Boreal Interior 4 12 Taiga Cordillera 4 13 Taiga Plain 4 14 Taiga Shield 5 Hudson Plain 5 1 Hudson Plain 6 Northern Forests 6 1 Softwood Shield 6 2 Mixed Wood Shield 6 3 Atlantic Highlands 6 4 Boreal Plain 7 Northwestern Forested Mountains 7 1 Hydrology Major watersheds rivers and lakes 7 2 Vegetative cover 7 3 Fauna 7 4 Endangered species 7 5 Natural resources 7 6 Climate 7 7 Environmental threats to the Northwestern Forested Mountains 7 8 Climate change in the Northwestern Forested Mountains 7 9 Boreal Cordillera 7 10 Western Cordillera 8 Marine West Coast Forest 8 1 Topography geography soil 8 2 Climate 8 3 Hydrology 8 4 Keystone plants 8 5 Dominant species 8 6 Threatened and endangered species 8 7 Environmental threats 8 8 Climate change 8 9 References 8 10 Marine West Coast Forest 9 Mediterranean California chaparral and woodlands 9 1 Climate 9 2 Hydrology 9 3 Geology 9 4 Biota 9 4 1 Dominant animal species 9 4 2 Dominant plant communities 9 4 3 Endangered species 9 5 Natural resources 9 5 1 Climate change 9 5 2 Environmental threats to the region 10 See also 10 1 Sources cited 11 Eastern Temperate Forests 11 1 Description 11 2 Climate 11 3 Dominant plant and animal species 11 4 Endangered species 11 5 Geology topography and soils 11 6 Traditional and emerging natural resources 11 7 Current environmental threats Impact of climate change 11 8 Level II Sub Ecoregions 11 9 Mixed Wood Plains 11 10 Central USA Plains 11 11 Southeastern USA Plains 11 12 Ozark Ouachita Appalachian Forests 11 13 Mississippi Alluvial and Southeast USA Coastal Plains 11 14 Humid Gulf of Mexico Coastal Plains and Hills 12 Tropical Wet Forests 12 1 Climate 12 2 Hydrology 12 3 Geology topography and soil 12 4 Plant communities 12 5 Key animal species 12 6 Natural resources 12 7 Environmental threats 12 8 Endangered species threats and conservation 12 9 Effects of climate change 12 10 The iconic ecosystems of the region 12 11 Plain and Hills of the Yucatan Peninsula 12 12 Sierra Los Tuxtlas 12 13 Everglades 12 14 Western Pacific Plain and Hills 12 15 Coastal Plain and Hills of Soconusco 12 16 References 13 North American Deserts 13 1 Introduction 13 2 Plant communities 13 3 Dominant characteristic species 13 4 Topography geology and soils 13 5 Hydrology 13 6 Climate 13 7 Ecological concerns 13 8 Endangered species 13 9 Climate change 13 10 Natural resources 14 Notes 15 See also 16 ReferencesList EditThis list is incomplete you can help by adding missing items December 2022 Level I Level II Level IIINo Name No Name No Name1 Arctic Cordillera 1 1 Arctic Cordillera 1 1 1 Ellesmere and Devon Islands Ice Caps1 1 2 Baffin and Torngat Mountains2 Tundra 2 1 Northern Arctic 2 1 1 Sverdrup Islands Lowland2 1 2 Ellesmere Mountains and Eureka Hills2 1 3 Parry Islands Plateau2 1 4 Lancaster and Borden Peninsula Plateaus2 1 5 Foxe Uplands2 1 6 Baffin Uplands2 1 7 Gulf of Boothia and Foxe Basin Plains2 1 8 Victoria Island Lowlands2 1 9 Banks Island and Amundsen Gulf Lowlands2 2 Alaska Tundra 2 2 1 Arctic Coastal Plain2 2 2 Arctic Foothills2 2 3 Subarctic Coastal Plains2 2 4 Seward Peninsula2 2 5 Bristol Bay Nushagak Lowlands2 2 6 Aleutian Islands2 3 Brooks Range Tundra 2 3 1 Brooks Range Richardson Mountains2 4 Southern Arctic 2 4 1 Amundsen Plains2 4 2 Aberdeen Plains2 4 3 Central Angava Peninsula and Ottawa and Belcher Islands2 4 4 Queen Maud Gulf and Chantrey Inlet Lowlands3 Taiga 3 1 Alaska Boreal Interior 3 1 1 Interior Forested Lowlands and Uplands3 1 2 Interior Bottomlands3 1 3 Yukon Flats3 2 Taiga Cordillera 3 2 1 Oglivie Mountains3 2 2 Mackenzie and Selwyn Mountains3 2 3 Peel River and Nahanni Plateaus3 3 Taiga Plains 3 3 1 Great Bear Plains3 3 2 Hay and Slave River Lowlands3 4 Taiga Shield 3 4 1 Kazan Rvier and Selwyn Lake Uplands3 4 2 La Grande Hills and New Quebec Central Pleateau3 4 3 Smallwood Uplands3 4 4 Ungava Bay Basin and George Plateau3 4 5 Coppermine River and Tazin Lake Uplands4 Hudson Plain 4 1 Hudson Plain 4 1 1 Coastal Hudson Bay Lowland4 1 2 Hudson Bay and Hames Lowlands5 Northern Forests 5 1 Softwood Shield 5 1 1 Athabasca Plain and Churchill River Upland5 1 2 Lake Nipigon and Lac Seul Upland5 1 3 Central Laurentians and Mecatina Plateau5 1 4 Newfoundland Island5 1 5 Hayes River Upland and Big Trout Lake5 1 6 Abitibi Plains and Riviere Rupert Plateau5 2 Mixed Wood Shield 5 2 1 Northern Lakes and Forests5 2 2 Northern Minnesota Wetlands5 2 3 Algonquin Southern Laurentians5 3 Atlantic Highlands 5 3 1 Northern Appalachians and Atlantic Maritime Highlands5 3 2 North Central Appalachians5 4 Boreal Plain 5 4 1 Mid Boreal Uplands and Peac Wabaska Lowlands5 4 2 Clear Hills and Western Alberta Uplands5 4 3 Mid Boreal Lowland and Interlake PlainsArctic Cordillera EditMain article Arctic Cordillera Overview Edit The Arctic Cordillera is one of the world s fifteen diverse ecoregions characterized by a vast mountain chain spanning the spine of the range The geographic range is composed along the provinces of Labrador including Eastern Baffin Devon Island Ellesmere Bylot Island the Thorngat Mountains and some parts of the Northeastern fringe The landscape is dominated by massive polar icefields alpine glaciers inland fjords and large bordering bodies of water distinctive of many similar arctic regions in the world Although the terrain is infamous for its unforgiving conditions humans maintained an established population of 1000 people 80 of which were Inuit In addition the landscape is 75 covered by ice or exposed bedrock with a continuous permafrost that persists throughout the year making plant and animal life somewhat scarce The temperature of the Arctic Cordillera ranges from 6 C in summer down to 16 C in winter Vegetation is largely absent in this area due to permanent ice and snow 3 Natural resources and human influence Edit The Arctic Cordillera is a cold harsh environment making plant life and animal life sparse even soil is rare in this ecoregion Moss cottongrass and Arctic heather are examples of plant life that can be found in valleys Meanwhile polar bears seals and walruses roam the shores and survive off the thriving marine ecosystem 4 Fish clams and shrimp are just a few of the resources the local Inuit communities of Nunavut use in the highly productive waters to support their economy Nunavut s government is also investing in exploration of mineral resources Breakwater Resources for example has Nanisivik Mine a zinc lead mine in Arctic Bay that just reopened in April 2003 after closing the year before due to declining resources 5 Climate change is the strongest human influence in the Arctic Cordillera Rising temperatures in the Arctic are causing ice shelves and the habitats they provide to shrink from year to year Researchers of global warming also express concern for the economic political and social consequences of the resulting decline in fisheries stocks expected because of the changing climate 6 Climate Edit The Arctic Cordillera is one of Canada s most inhospitable climates The northern part is covered by the ice caps and glaciers cover a large part of the south It was not always as cold as it is today 40 million year old tree stumps found in 1985 on Axel Heiberg Island suggest that the area used to be warmer and wetter with much more biodiversity Today the weather is generally very cold and dry with a few weeks of sun and rain in the summer Snow is the most common form of precipitation in the Cordillera The region only gets 20 60 centimeters of precipitation annually The temperature in this ecoregion averages around 4 degrees Celsius during the summer In the winter the temperature is 35 degrees Celsius on average A polar cell is a system of winds that influence the climate of the Cordillera It is made up of the Westerlies which are winds that blow warm air east to west from 30 to 60 degrees latitude up to the poles and the Polar Easterlies which blow cold air back south where it will repeat the process 7 Hydrology Edit This region can be divided up into three major areas Ellesmere Island Baffin Island and the coastline of the most northern part of Labrador Nearly 75 of the land within this ecoregion is exposed bedrock or ice The majority of the water in this ecoregion is locked up in frozen ice and snow therefore there are very few named rivers or other bodies of water within this region The annual amount precipitation is about 200 mm which usually falls down as snow or ice Huge ice caps dominate the landscape and they spawn large glaciers that are pushed down steep fjords and into the sea When the temperature gets above freezing for an extended period time a little amount of runoff is created which is generally under 200 mm annually 8 Geology topography and soil Edit The Arctic Cordillera is dominated by vast mountain ranges stretching for thousands of miles virtually untouched by man These mountains were formed millions of years ago during the mid Mesozoic when the North American Plate moved northward pushing earth and rock upwards The mountains of the north contain metamorphic and igneous rock and are predominantly sedimentary rock On the other hand the southern mountains are greater composed of granite gneiss and magmatic volcanic rock These mountains are characterized as being highly erodible with very steep and jagged cliffs with narrow ledges The highest peak in the Arctic Cordillera mountain range is Barbeau Peak standing almost nine thousand feet tall In general the Arctic Cordillera Mountain Range is most similar in composition and age to the Appalachian Mountain Range of the United States However as the Appalachian Mountains are slightly older their cliffs have been eroded and are less jagged than those of the Arctic Cordillera This ecoregion is also home to very limited amounts of exposed soil Only in extremely sheltered places such as that of caves is surface soil present The remaining soil is hidden beneath deep snow and ice and is kept in a constant state of permafrost 9 Plant communities Edit The Arctic Cordillera is a very high stress environment for plants to try and grow and regenerate Vegetation is largely absent due to permanent ice and snow Due to the extremely cold dry climate along with the ice fields and lack of soil materials the high and mid elevations are largely devoid of significant populations of plants In the warmer valleys at low elevations and along coastal margins the plant cover is more extensive consisting of herbaceous and shrub type communities Stream banks and coastlines are the most biologically productive areas here The plants in this region have a history of being survivors and stress tolerant to high winds low temperatures few available macronutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus Plants have adaptations such as fluffy seed masses staying low to the ground and use of other plant masses for extra insulation 10 Keystone species Edit Due to the harsh environments and extremely low temperatures that encompass the Arctic Cordillera there is not a large variety of plants and animals that are able to survive and exist as a population However some animal species both herbivores and carnivores are able to survive the extreme weather and terrain Among these animals are wolves polar bears Arctic foxes musk oxen and caribou For the most part the large carnivores are the dominant species in the ecoregion mainly the polar bear It is the keystone species for the area due to many of its habits including its diet and hunting strategies In addition the life history of the 22 000 polar bears in the Arctic clearly defines its current existence in the Arctic Cordillera 11 The large carnivorous species defines the ecoregion due to its intimate relationship with the ice as well as its extremely intelligent hunting tactics 12 No other predatory animal defines the Arctic Cordillera as well as the large white polar bear and that is why when people think about arctic animals they think about the polar bear As long as the polar bear exists it will be the keystone species of the Arctic Cordillera However this existence relies solely on the degree of ice melt that is encountered in the future 13 Endangered species Edit Polar bear Edit Polar bear The polar bear is one of the most notably affected species in the Arctic Cordillera mainly due to their heavy reliance on arctic ice for hunting and bedding grounds Habitat loss caused by global warming has led to many dangerous behavioral changes including a new behavior called long swims These are swims lasting as long as ten days performed by mother bears to attempt to find food for their cubs which generally lead to the death of the cub 14 Because of their stature and aggressiveness direct conservation practices are not very useful to the polar bear Instead scientific observation to better understand these animals is the largest form of traditional conservation 15 Arctic black spruce Edit The Arctic black spruce is an example of a plant native to the Arctic Cordillera that is considered to be in ecological decline The black spruce is a species of least concern because of habitat loss and deforestation from the spruce budworm moth 16 In the Arctic Cordillera however the black spruce population is in good health and is slowly gaining habitat through the retreat of polar ice 17 Bowhead whale Edit Bowhead whale Another species that is of great importance to this ecoregion is the endangered Bowhead whale Balaena mysticetus Five total stocks of this species exist in the region within the arctic oceans and adjacent seas the Spitsbergen stock Baffin Bay Davis Strait stock and Hudson Bay Foxe Basin Stock Sea of Okhotsk Stock and the Bering Chukchi Beaufort Stock Historically these whales have served as a cultural icon and an important source of food and fuel to the Inuit At this point in time when their populations were estimated between 30 000 and 50 000 individuals However with the expansion of commercial whaling in the 16th and 17th century this species was exploited to dangerously low numbers Commercial hunting of bowheads was officially ended in 1921 when moratoria were established to protect the remaining 3 000 individuals left in the wild 18 Today those same moratoria are still in effect but the Bowhead population has been reinstated to a manageable population of between 7 000 and 10 000 individuals Nonetheless these whales have been and remain on the IUCN Red List since 1984 19 One of the most important conservation efforts for this species is legal protection by the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling which came into force in 1935 This convention was further strengthened and ratified by Canada in 1977 to support the International Whaling Commission s IWC recommendation for full protection of the bowhead whale 20 Further conservation efforts have involved more physically demanding solutions including the recommended funding of specialized technical machines that have the capability to remove debris that commonly kills these whales due to entanglement and accidental indigestion 19 Tundra Edit The location of the tundra in North America is highlighted in light blue One of the planet s most recent biomes a result of the last ice age only 10 000 years ago the tundra contains unique flora and fauna formed during the last glaciation in areas unrestricted by permanent ice The tundra region is found in high latitudes primarily in Alaska Canada Russia Greenland Iceland Scandinavia as well as the Antarctic Islands Consisting of the arctic alpine and Antarctic regions and stemming from the Samer language tundra literally means a high and dry place Plant communities Edit The adversity of soil and climatic conditions proves for low production levels as well as little biomass accumulation due to slow rates of nutrient release in cold and wet soils specifically as a result of limited nitrogen and phosphorus Nadelhoffer et al 1996 Additionally there are low temperatures and strong winds in the tundra causing most vegetation to be dominated by woody plants that hug the soil Within the tundra some dominant plant species include lichen cotton grass and Arctic willow Lichens Lichens dominate the tundra as the regions major primary producer A symbiotic combination of algae and fungi a lichen is able to survive in the harsh conditions of the tundra Biodiversity Institute of Ontario et al 2010 Their unique structure and survivability makes lichen a prominent and keystone plant species in the tundra ecosystem Cotton grass is another dominant plant species in the tundra producing much of its growth early in the summer Being a member of the sedge family it forms a large part of the vegetation in the tundra because it is able to deal with harsh and cold temperatures This perennial plant contains flowering heads with dense brittles that are spread during heavy winds enabling pollination Wein and Bliss 1974 Additionally its survivability in the tundra can be attributed to cotton grass s ability to photosynthesize in low temperatures and low light The Arctic willow commonly named rock willow is found in the North American tundra Most uniquely the Arctic willow often has long trailing branches that root where they intersect with the surface of the ground and the roots are shallow as to thrive in the frozen ground of the tundra Wielgolaski 1972 In addition to species such as lichens cotton grass and Arctic willows shrubs sedges lichens mosses and vascular plants dominate the tundra plant community Folch and Camarasa 2000 Despite the tundra eco region s reputation of being a cold and desolate polar desert it is actually a varying landscape supporting a diverse amount of plant and animal species Animal species Edit Since the tundra has such a harsh environment the animals who live here have adapted in a way to call the tundra their home The keystone species of the tundra can be as small as a lemming to as large as a musk ox The low biodiversity means that fluctuation in individual animals can substantially affect the entire ecosystem The main predators of the tundra are the polar bear the Arctic wolf and the Arctic fox They all have thick white coats that help them blend into their environment and stalk prey 21 The polar bear spends majority of its time out on the ice hunting seals and sometimes when small rodents are scarce on land the Arctic fox will follow the bears and eat their scraps Wolves use teamwork to attack herds of caribou or musk ox for food 22 Lemming are small rodents that fluctuate every three to four years and with their fluctuations also comes the fluctuation of their predators such as the Arctic fox and the snowy owl 23 The keystone herbivores are the musk ox and the caribou They have thick shaggy coats that they shed during the warmer months 24 Caribou use their nimble legs to escape quickly from predators while the musk ox use each other to make a fierce wall of horns 25 These animals help keep each other alive as well as the ecosystem around them Geology topography and soil Edit The tundra is an extremely harsh cold windy and unique ecosystem found on the extreme north and south latitudes of our Earth The soil consists mostly of frozen permafrost which makes it difficult for extended root systems to grow water to drain and support of a wide variety of plant life This permafrost is also responsible for creating an extremely unusual topography The land of the tundra is constantly changing as permafrost and snow melts and refreezes through the changing seasons Land slumps and depressions occur as a result of melting permafrost that takes up less space when the soil was frozen Depressions that occur as a result of melting permafrost are known as thermokarst and are often in the form of pits funnel shaped sinkholes valleys ravines and sometimes caves Pingos are another feature of the tundra and can be defined as a cone shaped hill or mound of soil with a core of ice Lastly polygons make up a crucial part of the tundra and are created when two large cracks create a large ice wedge and slowly slumps into itself filling with water as heat from sunlight melts the permafrost Often small lakes are formed from polygons on the surface of the tundra The flora and fauna must adapt to extremely harsh conditions however has been able to do so successfully through evolutionary change Many threats exist today to the tundra biome including mining oil drilling increased habitat loss human habitations moving farther north and global warming which is melting more and more permafrost and changing the delicate balance of the soils It is imperative that we fully understand how our ecosystems function in order to monitor their stability through our changing climate Climate Edit The tundra is characterized by a harsh frost laden landscape with negative temperatures a lack of precipitation and nutrients and extremely short seasons In the winter it is cold and dark and in the summer when the snow and the top layer of permafrost melt it is very soggy and the tundra is covered with marshes lakes bogs and streams Spring and fall are only short periods between winter and summer In the peak of winter average temperatures can reach 30 F In arctic regions there generally is not a great difference between daytime highs and nighttime lows as the sun generally never rises or simply hangs briefly on the horizon Summers in the tundra on the other hand are very short in some locations only lasting a few weeks Daily temperatures can reach up to 60 F but overnight lows go down into the 30s 20s or lower depending on the region This results in daily average temperatures to come out to around 50 F It may rain or snow and frost still occurs The average annual temperature is 18 F Nights can last for weeks and when the sun barely rises during some months in the winter the temperature can drop to 94 F During the summer the sun shines almost 24 hours a day Temperatures can get up to 54 F but it can get as cold as 37 F Average summer temperatures range from 37 F to 60 F The tundra is very much like a desert in terms of precipitation Yearly average precipitation varies by region but generally there is only about 6 10 inches 150 250 mm of precipitation per year and in some regions it can have up to 20 inches 510 mm This precipitation usually falls in the form of light fluffy snow Environmental threats Edit Due to its vulnerable state the powerful forces of climate change ozone depletion air pollution and construction threaten the tundra s survival The melting of permafrost increases as a result of global warming which could drastically alter both the landscape and the biodiversity of the region The ozone depletion at both the North and South Poles increase the strength of ultraviolet rays that harm the tundra Air pollution around the world creates smog clouds that contaminate the lichen in the ecosystem which is a major food source in the region The construction of pipelines and roads to obtain oil gas and minerals cause physical disturbances and habitat fragmentation There are a number of possible solutions according to National Geographic including switching to alternative energy establishing protected areas and park reserves to restrict human influence limit road construction mining activities and the building of pipelines in tundra habitat and limiting tourism and respecting local cultures 26 The creation of the Arctic National Refuge is an example of a measure being enacted to protect the North American tundra The Arctic Refuge was originally created in 1960 by the Public Land Order 2214 which was created for the purpose of preserving unique wildlife wilderness and recreational values and withdrawn from all forms of appropriation under the public land laws including the mining but not the mineral leasing laws nor disposals of materials 27 In 1980 the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act ANILCA re designated the Range as a part of the larger Arctic National Wildlife Refuge and declared that the production of oil and gas from the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge is prohibited and no leasing or other development leading to production of oil and gas from the Refuge shall be undertaken until authorized by an act of Congress 28 Endangered species Edit Though species have adapted to the harsh climate of the tundra several species have become endangered due to changing environmental factors Both plant species and animal species have become endangered The Aleutian shield fern is a plant species that has been endangered due to caribou tramping and grazing slumping from growing substrate and human foot traffic 29 Animal species that are endangered in the tundra include the Arctic fox caribou and polar bears These animals have been endangered due to overhunting infestation of disease loss of diet and habitat due to climate change and human destructive activities such as searches for natural gas and oil mining and road building 30 In an effort to conserve these endangered species many regulations and standards are being put into action along with establishing prohibition of unauthorized plant collecting Standards are being set in regards to mining and mineral explorations This will help in not disturbing the habitats as much In addition to this protection of caribou grounds has been established along with regulations in regards to removal of gravel roads for airstrips and road fill which takes away from many of the animals critical territories Effects of climate change Edit The tundra is one of the first places on Earth we have noted the effects of climate change As an indicator biome the tundra is a crucial part of the whole global climate system and can help predict the changes the rest of the world will face The Earth depends on regulating mechanisms and air circulation patterns the tundra provides to keep climates steady worldwide Human induced climate change is devastating the tundra because intense complications are present in remote areas free from human interference Changes in climate permafrost ice pack and glacier formations pose a serious threat to the stability of global climate because these conditions are influenced and reinforced by positive feedback loops Temperatures in the tundra are rising to the highest temperatures recorded in four centuries and are rising more rapidly than anywhere worldwide 31 The land surfaces in the tundra are no longer reflecting radiation from the sun out of the atmosphere Soils and open water are absorbing heat from the sun and leading to more warming Changes in the tundra influence climate change in lower latitudes because air pressure changes are shifting global air and ocean circulation patterns 31 Sea ice extent in the tundra has reached lowest recorded levels in centuries and this will dramatically affect people and wildlife worldwide Changes in climate will be noticed first and seen most intensely in the northern regions of the planet The tundra will show effects from climate change the soonest and will hopefully serve as a catalyst for action for people all over the world Natural resources Edit According to the US Energy Information Administration the arctic tundra holds an estimated 13 or 90 billion barrels of the world s undiscovered conventional oil sources However there are a number of challenges to oil exploration drilling and transportation in an arctic tundra environment that limits the profitability of the venture 32 Oil and gas fields in the arctic need to be large with lots of proven reserves because oil companies need that money to make the investment profitable Natural gas is a more recoverable resource than oil in tundra eco regions It is estimated that there are 221 4 million undiscovered technically recoverable cubic feet of natural gas in the Arctic 32 Oil sands often pejoratively referred to as tar sands are a phenomenon unique to the tundra environment and are profitable and plentiful in the Athabasca region of the Alberta sands 33 Oil sands consist of bitumen which contains petroleum found in a natural state combined with clays sands and water 33 Oil sands must be heavily processed and refined to yield synthetic crude oil similar to conventional crude oil Arctic tundra may contain minerals such as coal copper gold iron nickel diamonds and the base feedstock for uranium oxide called pitchblende 34 Iconic components Edit The arctic tundra has an exceptionally short growing period minimal sunlight and limited resources creating a brutal environment for plants and animals By adapting to these harsh conditions animals and plants represent iconic characteristics of the tundra Plants grow in aggregated formations which provide shelter from wind ice and also improves seed success 35 Animals have adapted with specialized organs such as a rete mirabile an organ that efficiently transfers heat Frogs and amphibians use anti freeze to prevent organ damage while hibernating Polar bears foxes and owls use insulated fur and feathers to protect for the cold conditions 36 These complex interactions between plants animals and abiotic factors in the tundra are held together by the permafrost layer located 450 metres 1 480 ft under the soil 37 However climate change is causing this crucial layer of frozen soil to melt As a result tundra communities are becoming unstable and basic processes are breaking down Other factors such as oil development and drilling in tundra ecosystems has completely disheveled the wildlife and vegetation populations Tundra exploration vehicles used for oil development and polar bear tours an eco friendly industry leave traces of tire marks for 20 plus years after disturbance occurs Other factors such as high CO2 emissions from tourism and from warming tundra soil creates a positive feedback loop acceleration changes to the tundra 38 Northern Arctic Edit Sverdrup Islands Lowland ecoregion Ellesmere Mountains and Eureka Hills ecoregion Parry Islands Plateau ecoregion Lancaster and Borden Peninsula Plateaus ecoregion Foxe Uplands ecoregion Baffin Uplands ecoregion Gulf of Boothia and Foxe Basin Plains ecoregion Victoria Island Lowlands ecoregion Banks Island and Amundsen Gulf Lowlands ecoregion Alaska Tundra Edit Arctic Coastal Plain ecoregion Arctic Foothills ecoregion Subarctic Coastal Plains ecoregion Seward Peninsula ecoregion Bristol Bay Nushagak Lowlands ecoregion Aleutian Islands ecoregion Brooks Range Tundra Edit Brooks Range Richardson Mountains ecoregion Southern Arctic Edit Amundsen Plains ecoregion Aberdeen Plains ecoregion Central Ungava Peninsula and Ottawa and Belcher Islands ecoregion Queen Maud Gulf and Chantrey Inlet Lowlands ecoregion Taiga EditIntroduction Edit The taiga ecoregion includes much of the interior Alaska as well as the Yukon forested area and extends on the west from the Bering Sea to the Richardson Mountains in on the east with the Brooks Range on the north and the Alaska Range on the south end It is a region with a vast mosaic of habitats and a fragile yet extensive patchwork of ecological characteristics All aspects of the region such as soils and plant species hydrology and climate interact and are affected by climate change new emerging natural resources and other environmental threats such as deforestation These threats alter the biotic and abiotic components of the region which lead to further degradation and to various endangered species Taiga in Alaska Soils and plant species Edit The main type of soil in the taiga is a Spodosol These soils contain a Spodic horizon a sandy layer of soil that has high accumulations of iron and aluminum oxides which lays underneath a leached A horizon The color contrast between the Spodic horizon and the overlying horizon is very easy to identify The color change is the result of the migration of iron and aluminum oxides from small but consistent amounts of rainfall from the top horizon to the lower horizon of soil The decomposition of organic matter is very slow in the taiga because of the cold climate and low moisture With slow decomposition of organic matter nutrient cycling is very slow and the nutrient level of the soil is also very low The soils in the taiga are quite acidic as well A relatively small amount of rainfall coupled with slow decomposition of organic material allows the acidic plant debris to sit and saturate the top horizons of the soil profile As a result of the infertile soil only a few plant species can really thrive in taiga The common plant species in the taiga are coniferous trees Not only do conifer trees thrive in acidic soils they actually make the soil more acidic Acidic leaflitter or needles from conifers falls to the forest floor and the precipitation leaches the acids down into the soil Other species that can tolerate the acidic soils of the taiga are lichens and mosses yellow nutsedge and water horsetail The depth to bedrock has an effect on the plants that grow well in the taiga as well A shallow depth to bedrock forces the plants to have shallow roots limiting overall stability and water uptake Keystone species Edit Beaver Canadian lynx bobcat wolverine and snowshoe hare are all keystone species in the taiga area These species are keystone because they have learned to adapt to the cold climate of the area and are able to survive year round These species survive year round in taiga by changing fur color and growing extra fur They have adapted to use each other to survive too All of the predators depend on the snowshoe hare at some point during the year All of the species also depend on forests in the area for shelter Hydrology Edit Watersheds characterize much of the taiga ecoregion as interconnecting rivers streams lakes and coastline Due to a cool climate low evaporation levels keeps moisture levels high and enables water to have serious influences for ecosystems The vast majority of water in the taiga is freshwater occupying lakes and rivers Many watersheds are dominated by large rivers that dump huge amounts of freshwater into the ocean such as the Lena river in Central Siberia This exportation of freshwater helps control the thermohaline circulation and the global climate Flow rates of taiga rivers are variable and flashy due to the presence of a permafrost that keeps water from percolating deep into the soil Due to global warming flow rates have increased as more of the permafrost melts every year In addition to flashy flow levels the permafrost in the taiga allows dissolved inorganic nitrogen and organic carbon levels in the water to be higher while calcium magnesium sulfate and hydrogen bicarbonate levels are shown to be much lower As a dominant characteristic in the soil the permafrost also influences the degree to which water percolates into the soil Where there is a year long permafrost the water table is located much deeper in the soil and is less available to organisms while a discontinuous permafrost provides much shallower access Lakes that cover the taiga are characteristically formed by receding glaciers and therefore have many unique features The vast majority of lakes and ponds in the taiga ecoregion are oligotrophic and have much higher levels of allochthonous versus autochthonous matter This is due to glacier formation and has implications in how trophic levels interact with limiting nutrients These oligotrophic lakes show organic nitrogen and carbon as more limiting nutrients for trophic growth over phosphorus This contrasts sharply with mesotrophic or eutrophic lakes from similar climates Climate Edit When we who look at the climate of the taiga we who are looking at average temperatures abiotic factors such as precipitation and circulatory patterns According to the study in Global Change Biology the average yearly temperatures across the Alaskan and Canadian taiga ranged from 26 6 C to 4 8 C This indicates the extreme cold weather the taiga has for the majority of the year As for precipitation the majority of it is snow but rain is also an important factor According to The International Journal of Climatology precipitation in the form of rain ranged from 40 mm average in August to 15 mm average in April over a multi year study Rain is not the only kind of precipitation that affects the taiga the main factor in precipitation is usually snow According to CEC Ecological Regions of North America snow and freshwater ice can occupy the taiga for half to three quarters of the year A CEC Ecological Regions of North America document states that the lowest average precipitation is on the western side of taiga can be as little as 200 mm and on the east coast it can be as high as exceeding 1 000 mm As for circulatory patterns we re who finding that the temperature increases have led to a seasons shift Global Change Biology also has noted with the change in temperature over time as well as the overall climate change the growing season has lengthened Their findings illustrate that the growing season has grown 2 66 days per ten years This growing season change as a result of global warming is having an extreme effect on the taiga Environmental threats Edit Climate change has played its role in threatening the taiga ecoregion Equally as harmful are the human effects like deforestation however many associations and regulations are working to protect the taiga and reverse the damage Climate change is resulting in rising temperatures and decreases in moisture which cause parasites and other insects to be more active thus causing tree stress and death Thawing permafrost has led to many forests experiencing less stability and they become drunken forests the decrease in soil stability causes the trees to lean or fall over Increased tree death then leads to a carbon dioxide outflux thus further propagating the increases in global warming It is essential for climate change to be combated with global action which is what the Kyoto Protocol in 1997 was created to do Other measures to protect the taiga would be to prohibit unsustainable deforestation switch to renewable energy and protect old growth forests they sequester the most carbon dioxide The taiga also suffers from more direct human effects such as logging and mining sites Logging has been a very profitable business in the region however fragmentation of forests leads to loss of habitats relocation of keystone species increases in erosion increases in magnitude and frequency of flooding and altered soil composition Regions in which permafrost has thawed and trees have fallen take centuries to recover Canadian and Russian governments enacted a Protection Belt which covers 21 1 million ha and initiatives like the Far East Association for the use of non timber forest products gives economic significance to the forests while avoiding logging In addition to logging studies have measured over 99 300 tones of airborne pollutants from just one metal extracting plant over a 50 year span These pollutants are 90 sulfur dioxide which is a precursor to acid rain Other emissions include nitrogen oxides sulfurous anhydrides and inorganic dust Forests in a 50 kilometres 31 mi radius of these sites can serve little to no biological services once affected and there has been little appearance of protection measures to regulate mining plants Endangered species Edit The taiga is inhabited by many species some of which are endangered and include the Canadian lynx gray wolf and grizzly bear The Canadian lynx is one well known animal to inhabit the North American taiga region and is listed as threatened in the U S The mother lynx will have a litter of about 4 kittens in the spring Following the birth the female is the sole caretaker not letting them out of her sight until 12 months when they begin to learn to hunt According to the USDS Forest Service protection for the lynx has increased since 2000 which marks the date it became protected under the Endangered Species Act Since much of the lynx s habitat is land managed by the agency efforts to maintain and increase the habitat for the Canadian lynx using forest management plans are underway The taiga region is also interspersed with various plant species The endangered or threatened species include Labrador tea lady s slipper orchid helleborine orchid long leaf pine ligonberry plant Newfoundland pine marten Methuselahs beard lodgepole pine and Scots pine The life history of the long leaf pine is a tree species that has been around for quite sometime and can reach more than 250 years in age To begin the tree s life a seed falls from the parent in October to late November awaiting water to begin germination in a few weeks For those individuals that make it they will enter what is known as the grass stage During this stage the roots are being established and the bud of the tree is protected from fire Years later the long leaf will reach about 6 10 feet 1 8 3 0 m in height and the diameter will increase with time Somewhere around 30 years after the trees will begin to produce cones with fertile seeds and average about 110 feet 34 m at maturity One recent study discusses the effects of logging in the 1950s on pine species Since then conservation efforts have increased the number of pine and other tree species The Nature Conservancy is prioritizing its protection efforts to rebuild long leaf pine forests through land purchases conservation easements and management of land sites Restoration is also a large part of efforts to ensure the long leaf pine remains extant By planting seedlings controlling competitive vegetation and controlled burning methods scientists and volunteers are working to increase the number of the long leaf pine Canadian lynx near Whitehorse Yukon Effects of climate change Edit Over the next 100 years global annual mean temperatures are expected to rise by 1 4 5 8 C but changes in high latitudes where the boreal biome exists will be much more extreme perhaps as much as a 10 C rise Warming observed at high latitudes over the past 50 years exceeds the global average by as much as a factor of 5 2 3 C in Alaska versus the 0 53 global mean The effects of increased temperature on boreal forest growth has varied often depending on tree species site type and region as well as whether or not the warming is accompanied by increases or decreases in precipitation However studies of tree rings from all parts of the boreal zone have indicated an inverse growth response to temperature likely as a result of direct temperature and drought stress As global warming increases negative effects on growth are likely to become more widespread as ecosystems and species will be unable to adapt to increasingly extreme environmental conditions Perhaps the most significant effect of climate change on the boreal region is the increase in severity of disturbance regimes particularly fire and insect outbreaks Fire is the dominant type of disturbance in boreal North America but the past 30 plus years have seen a gradual increase in fire frequency and severity as a result of warmer and drier conditions From the 1960s to the 1990s the annual area burned increased from an average of 1 4 to 3 1 million hectares per year Insect outbreaks also represent an increasingly significant threat Historically temperatures have been low enough in the wintertime to control insect populations but under global warming many insects are surviving and reproducing during the winter months causing severe damage to forests across the North American boreal The main culprits are the mountain pine beetle in the western provinces of British Columbia and Alberta and the spruce bark beetle in Alaska Traditional and emerging natural resources Edit Taiga boreal forests have amazing natural resources that are being exploited by humans Human activities have a huge effect on the taiga ecoregions mainly through extensive logging natural gas extraction and mine fracking This results in loss of habitat and increases the rate of deforestation It is important to use the natural resources but its key to use natural resources sustainably and not over exploit them In recent years rules and regulations have been set in place to conserve the forests in order to reduce the amount of trees that are cut There has been an increase in oil extraction and mining throughout the United States and Canada Exploitation of tar sands oil reserves has increased mining This is a large operation that started in Alberta Canada Oil extraction has a direct effect on the taiga forests because the most valuable and abundant oil resources come from taiga forests Tar sands have affected over 75 of the habitat in Alberta taiga forest due to the clearing of the forests and the oil ponds that come from the extraction These tar sands also create awful toxic oil ponds that affect the wildlife and surrounding vegetation Oil extraction also affects the forest soil which harms tree and plant growth Today the world population has an increasingly high ecological footprint and a large part of that has to do with the populations carbon footprint As a result of that oil supplies have increased which has spread across the U S and into other countries This is detrimental to natural ecosystems Taiga being the largest region is seeing major consequences of our actions on extracting oil and natural gas This is also causing climate change temperatures to increase at a rapid rate which is affecting wildlife and forests However even though Human activities are responsible for the exploitation of these natural resources humans are the solution and have the tools to fix this issue It is crucial that humans reduce the consumption rate of these natural resources in order to increase environmental conditions References Edit A Justin Bobcat Felis Rufus Bobcat Felis Rufus N p 2001 Web 24 February 2013 Alaska Peninsula Montane Taiga 2013 R Hagenstein T Ricketts World Wildlife Fund Retrieved March 12 2013 http worldwildlife org ecoregions na0601 Beavers A Keystone Species in North America Beavers A Keystone Species in North America N p n d Web 24 February 2013 Commission of Environmental Corporation 1997 Ecological Regions of North America Towards a Common Perspective Commission of Environmental Corporation Secretariat Retrieved from ftp ftp epa gov wed ecoregions cec na CEC NAeco pdf Day T amp Garratt R 2006 Threats to the taiga Human Impacts on the Tundra Taiga Zone Dynamics The Case of the Russian Lesotundra pp 144 163 New York Chelsea House Dimitriu Pedro Grayston Susan Prescott Cindy Quideau Sylvie 2010 Impact of reclamation of surface mined boreal forest soils on microbial community composition and function Soil Biology amp Biochemistry 42 12 2289 2297 doi 10 1016 j soilbio 2010 09 001 Dillon B 2000 Northern Lynx Taiga Animals Retrieved from https web archive org web 20130419103809 http www blueplanetbiomes org taiga animal page htm Ferguson C Nelson E amp Sherman G 2008 Turning up the heat Global warming and the degradation of Canada s boreal forest Greenpeace Retrieved from 2 Gashkina N N Moiseenko T T 2010 Trophicity limitation in small lakes by mainnutrients Doklady Earth Sciences 435 1 1539 1543 Bibcode 2010DokES 435 1539G doi 10 1134 S1028334X10110280 S2CID 129205042 Glick Daniel Tar Sands Trouble Dec 2011 Jan 2012 National Wildlife World Edition vol 50 issue 1 page 26 29 Gulledge J Schimel J 2009 Controls on soil carbon dioxide and methane fluxes in a variety of taiga forest stands in interior Alaska Ecosystems 3 3 269 282 doi 10 1007 s100210000025 S2CID 5651554 Hagenstein R Ricketts T Sims M Kavanagh K amp Mann G 2012 Interior Alaska Yukon lowland taiga ecoregions WWF Endangered Species Conservation World Wildlife Fund Retrieved February 22 2013 from http worldwildlife org ecoregions na0607 Jeffries A Menckeberg P 2011 Taiga Endangered Species Retrieved from http priynspecies weebly com endangered species list html Keyser A R Kimball J S Nemani R R Running S W 2002 Simulating the Effects of Climate Change on the Carbon Balance of North American High Latitude Forests Global Change Biology 6 S1 189 195 Bibcode 2000GCBio 6S 185K CiteSeerX 10 1 1 496 8613 doi 10 1046 j 1365 2486 2000 06020 x PMID 35026932 S2CID 85187678 La Roi George H 1967 Ecological Studies in the Boreal Spruce Fir Forest in the North American Taiga I Analysis of the Vascular Flora Ecological Monographs 37 3 229 253 doi 10 2307 1948439 JSTOR 1948439 Liu B Yang D Ye B Berezovskaya S 2005 Long term open water season stream temperature variations and changes over Lena River Basin in Siberia PDF Global and Planetary Change 48 1 3 96 111 Bibcode 2005GPC 48 96L doi 10 1016 j gloplacha 2004 12 007 MacLean R Oswood M W Irons III McDowell W H 1999 The effect of permafrost on stream biogeochemistry a case study of two streams in the Alaskan U S A taiga Biogeochemistry 47 3 239 267 doi 10 1007 bf00992909 S2CID 189917911 McGinley M 2008 North American Taiga Retrieved from http www eoearth org article Taiga ecoregion CEC topic 58071 Olsson R 2009 Boreal forest and climate change Air Pollution amp Climate Secretariat Retrieved from http www airclim org sites default files documents APC23 borealforest 0 pdf Onuchin A Balzter H Borisova H Blyth E 2006 Climatic and geographic patterns of river runoff formation in Northern Eurasia Advances in Water Resources 29 9 1314 1327 Bibcode 2006AdWR 29 1314O doi 10 1016 j advwatres 2005 10 006 hdl 2381 4682 Schraer M Stoltze J 1993 Biology The Study of Life 5th ed Chapter 38 Seal U S Foose T 1983 Species survival plan for Siberian tigers in North American zoos a strategy for survival American Association of Zoo Veterinarians 1983 Retrieved from http apps webofknowledge com full record do product UA amp search mode Refine amp qid 5 amp SID 3D9 HGh192PlaAKBM6F amp page 5 amp doc 42 permanent dead link Seguin M Stein J Nilo O Jalbert C Ding Y 1998 Hydrogeophysical Investigation of the Wolf Creek Watershed Yukon Territory Canada Wolf Creek Research Basin Hydrology Ecology Environment Snowshoe Rabbit Snowshoe Rabbit Missouri Botanical Garden 2006 Web 24 February 2013 Species Profile for Canada Lynx Lynx Canadensis Species Profile for Canada Lynx Lynx Canadensis N p n d Web 24 February 2013 Spence Christopher Rausch Jara 2005 Autumn Synoptic Conditions and Rainfall in the Subarctic Canadian Shield of the Northwest Territories Canada International Journal of Climatology 25 11 1452 1506 Bibcode 2005IJCli 25 1493S doi 10 1002 joc 1185 S2CID 129580027 Spodosol soil Type Encyclopaedia Britannica Online Encyclopaedia Britannica n d Web 24 February 2013 http education nationalgeographic com education encyclopedia taiga ar a Suzuki K Kubota J Ohata T Vuglinsky V 2006 Influence of snow ablation and frozen ground on spring runoff generation in the Mogot Experimental Watershed southern mountainous taiga of eastern Siberia Nordic Hydrology 37 1 21 29 doi 10 2166 nh 2006 0002 Sykes M amp Prentice I 2010 Taiga rescue network the boreal forest The Great Northern Kingdom Retrieved February 23 2013 from http www taigarescue org Taiga Case Studies Taiga Deforestation 1997 retrieved February 25 2013 https web archive org web 20130514002252 http www1 american edu TED TAIGA HTM Taiga Internet Geology 2009 Retrieved February 24 2013 http www geography learnontheinternet co uk topics taiga html where The Life of a Longleaf 2002 Retrieved from https web archive org web 20130128192821 http www auburn edu academic forestry wildlife longleafalliance ecosystem longleaftree longleaftree5 htm Van Cleve K Chapin F S Dyrness C T Viereck L A 1991 Element Cycling in Taiga Forests State Factor Control BioScience 41 2 78 88 doi 10 2307 1311560 JSTOR 1311560 Vlassova T K 2007 Physiological Boundaries Human Impacts on the Tundra Taiga Zone Dynamics The Case of the Russian Lesotundra pp 30 36 New York Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences Springer Publications Walsh Joe 2000 Protection Increased for Canada Lynx USDS Forest Service Retrieved from http www fs fed us news 2000 03 03212000 shtml Woods Hole Research Center 2012 Ecosystem studies and management Retrieved from https web archive org web 20130517084257 http www whrc org ecosystem highlatitude climate html Zhirin VM Knyazeva SV 2012 Changes in the forest cover after intense logging in southern taiga of the Russian federation Contemporary Problems of Ecology 5 7 669 676 doi 10 1134 S1995425512070104 S2CID 15905818 Alaska Boreal Interior Edit Interior Forested Lowlands and Uplands ecoregion Interior Bottomlands ecoregion Yukon Flats ecoregion Taiga Cordillera Edit Ogilvie Mountains ecoregion Mackenzie and Selwyn Mountains ecoregion Peel River and Nahanni Plateaus ecoregion Taiga Plain Edit See also Taiga Plains Ecozone CEC Great Bear Plains ecoregion Hay and Slave River Lowlands ecoregion Taiga Shield Edit Kazan River and Selwyn Lake Uplands ecoregion La Grande Hills and New Quebec Central Plateau ecoregion Smallwood Uplands ecoregion Ungava Bay Basin and George Plateau ecoregion Coppermine River and Tazin Lake Uplands ecoregion Hudson Plain EditHudson Plain Edit Coastal Hudson Bay Lowland ecoregion Hudson Bay and James Bay Lowlands ecoregion Northern Forests EditSoftwood Shield Edit Athabasca Plain and Churchill River Upland ecoregion Lake Nipigon and Lac Seul Upland ecoregion Central Laurentians and Mecatina Plateau ecoregion Newfoundland Island ecoregion Hayes River Upland and Big Trout Lake ecoregion Abitibi Plains and Riviere Rupert Plateau ecoregion Mixed Wood Shield Edit Northern Lakes and Forests ecoregion Northern Minnesota Wetlands ecoregion Algonquin Southern Laurentians ecoregion Atlantic Highlands Edit Northern Appalachian and Atlantic Maritime Highlands ecoregion North Central Appalachians ecoregion Boreal Plain Edit See also Boreal Plains Ecozone CEC Mid Boreal Uplands and Peace Wabaska Lowlands ecoregion Clear Hills and Western Alberta Upland ecoregion Mid Boreal Lowland and Interlake Plain ecoregion Northwestern Forested Mountains EditHydrology Major watersheds rivers and lakes Edit Crater Lake Oregon Most of the water in this ecoregion is fresh water and contained in rivers lakes and ground water Washington Oregon and Idaho are mainly drained by the Columbia River its tributaries and other streams that flow to the Pacific Ocean The Columbia River Basin is the fourth largest watershed in North America According to a 2004 GIS inventory by the Environmental Protection Agency there are approximately 10 535 lakes and reservoirs in the Pacific Northwest The largest lakes in the Pacific Northwest include Lake Washington Lake Roosevelt Lake Chelan Upper Klamath Lake Lake Pend Oreille Priest Lake and Lake Coeur d Alene In British Columbia the Fraser River watershed covers one fourth of the land and extends from Mount Robson to the Georgia Strait and Gulf Islands This basin is the fifth largest drainage basin in Canada and contains thirteen main sub watersheds each consisting of small rivers streams creeks marshes bogs and swamps The largest lake in British Columbia is Williston Lake which covers 680 square miles Alaska contains abundant natural resources which include ground and surface water The southwestern part of Alaska is drained by the Yukon River and its tributaries that include the Porcupine Tanana and Koyukuk Rivers The Yukon River is the third longest river and fourth largest drainage basin in North America with a drainage area of 832 700 square kilometers Alaska contains over three million lakes and the largest is Lake Iliamna which covers an area of 1 000 square miles Vegetative cover Edit Vegetative cover is extremely diverse within the northwestern forested mountain ecological region as the region can be broken down into different zones based on elevation temperature and mean annual rainfall Alpine communities areas of high elevation gt 8 200 feet can support the growth of herbs grasses lichen and shrubs well adapted for these harsh conditions Common plants here include mountain sorrel capitate sedge mat muhly Newberry knotweed and red huckleberry Lichens such as the witch s hair lichen and cup lichen also persist here Subalpine communities located below the alpine communities 6 500 8 200 feet support the presence of lodgepole pine subalpine fir pacific silver fir grand fir and Engelmann spruce The Engelmann spruce subalpine fir forest association occupies the greatest water yielding areas in the Rocky Mountains and the natural adaptations of these trees are important in maintaining stable vegetation The mountainous slopes and rolling plains slope from about 5 500 feet at the foot of the Rocky Mountains to about 2 000 feet in the lowest elevations The dominant trees present in the region consist of ponderosa pine Rocky Mountain Douglas fir lodgepole pine and quaking aspen the drier southeast and central portions Western hemlock western red cedar Douglas fir and western white pine make up the majority of the moist west and southwest portions White spruce is also found at this elevation and is a keystone tree species found in the Alaskan interior The dry southern interior grasslands and forests generally occur at low elevations under 4000 feet and usually have a lower canopy closure than forests at higher elevations that receive more precipitation They are characterized by very warm to hot dry summers and moderately cool winters with little snowfall Frequent low severity stand maintaining fires are thought to have played a key historic role in shaping these ecosystems Much of this area consists of small scrub like ponderosa pine with bluebunch wheatgrass blue grass June grass and big sagebrush dominating the understory Fauna Edit This ecoregion is abundant with varying types of mammals fish and birds Many dominant animal species such as the bighorn sheep and hoary marmot have adapted to the terrain of the region The talus slopes provide burrowing shelters for the hoary marmot and the bighorn sheep have adapted to climb the steep slopes in order to find shelter from predators National Park Service Top carnivorous predators include coyotes wolves and cougars The grizzly bear is a keystone species found in this region As an ecosystem engineer they regulate the species they prey on disperse plant seeds aerate the soil as they dig and bring salmon carcasses into the forest Suzuki The dominant fish species of the region in which the grizzly bear preys on is pacific salmon The typical bird species that can be found here include blue grouse Steller s jay and black billed magpie Commission for Environmental Cooperation 2008 Endangered species Edit The northern spotted owl Strix occidentalis caurina is considered a species of utmost concern in the Northwestern Forested Mountains region This small raptor was listed as threatened under the Endangered Species Act of 1973 The current population is 15 000 birds all of which are located in North America Over 70 of the species habitat was destroyed in the 19th and 20th centuries and the timber industry is causing that number to increase Both northern spotted owls and the timber industry prefer old growth forests so as demand for timber products increases the spotted owl s habitat decreases Forest management plans that stress limits on timber harvest and suggest alternative options are being formed along with plans to prevent habitat fragmentation The barred owl is also causing a decrease in the population numbers of the northern spotted owl as they are a larger more competitive species that have begun to use the same habitat however no major plans have been formed to manage this situation Malheur wire lettuce Stephanomeria malheurensis is also an endangered species in the region Only one population of this plant survives in the wild located in Harney Oregon The self pollinating shrub is found at high elevations in volcanic soils Because the range is so small any disturbance in the habitat could be detrimental One of the main threats is Cheatgrass which can expand to completely cover the ground and use up resources also needed by Malheur wire lettuce It is generally agreed that in order to protect the species efforts must be focused on forming new populations and more importantly maintaining the condition of the current site in Oregon Natural resources Edit The Northwestern Forested Mountain ecoregion is rich in natural resources Historically the most sought after resources were the minerals found here The presence of gold drove much of the early settlers to this ecoregion These early settlers extracted gold from the streams and timber for building flora and fauna Today many more resources are utilized by the economies of this area Large scale mining operations have become less common throughout the entirety of the region There are a few prospective industrial mines lobbying for permitting to dig in both Canada and Alaska Canada is the 6th largest petroleum producer in the world The largest point of extraction within this ecoregion is in Alberta Canada This area is abundant in tar sands a crude form of petroleum In order to begin this operation large tracts of boreal forest are removed After the large pits are dug there is a constant risk of further environmental degradation through oil spillage Logging in the past was often conducted through large clear cuts The environmental effects of large clearcuts became apparent and are now less common There are logging techniques that can benefit the ecological integrity of a system Group selection can mimic natural processes and increase both horizontal and vertical structure to a forest As well as increase biotic diversity of both flora and fauna Tourism generates a considerable amount of revenue for the different economies of this area Tourists come to these areas for a multitude of outdoor activities In the winter tourists travel from all across the globe to ski the Rocky Mountains British Columbia and Alaska ranges In the summer the national parks draw in millions Other summer activities include but not limited to hunting fishing mountain biking backpacking rafting kayaking and wildlife viewing photography Resource use and extraction is sustainable when a system can replenish resources faster than they are being used A practice is unsustainable when usage exceeds this threshold thereby damaging the ecological integrity of the ecoregion Climate Edit Extending from the lower Yukon of Canada all the way into northern California and Nevada the northwestern forested mountains range in different about three climate zones moist maritime arid dry and sub arctic The moist maritime climate of the Northwestern Forested Mountains is found along a narrow strip of coastal Oregon Washington British Columbia and southern Alaska in North America It is formed by westerly winds coming off of the Pacific Ocean which hit the mountains and rise to a cooler atmosphere This causes rainy cloudy and moist atmospheric conditions where up to 100 inches of rain per year can be seen and is a temperate zone ranging from about 15 F in the winter to about 65 F in the winter The arid dry zone is west of the mountain ranges and doesn t receive much rain due to the north to south orientation of the mountains which block clouds and precipitation It can range from the upper 80s F in the summer to single digits in the winter It generally only receives about 20 inches 510 mm of rain per year The sub arctic region ranges from Fairbanks Alaska to the Yukon of Canada and averages a mean of 50 F in the summer and is often negative 13 in the winter On the mountain tops it can receive up to 100 inches 2 500 mm of precipitation per year and often considered the snowiest place on earth The Northwestern Forested Mountains experience phenomena called decadal oscillations the La Nina and El Nino This is a shift in temperatures from warmer La Nina to colder El Nino and each phase generally last about a decade These phases are caused by many factors including jet streams trade winds precipitation land surface temperature ocean surface temperature and sea level pressure Environmental threats to the Northwestern Forested Mountains Edit The biggest threats to this region are fires and invasive pests As fires occur they alter the forest composition dramatically Fire scars create entry for heart rot and other fatal conditions Burned soils repel water and the runoff creates sediment and ash polluting rivers and streams harming fish and wildlife that depend on these water sources An especially troubling aspect of fires aftermath is the increased vulnerability of trees to non native invasive pests Burned stands create a perfect habitat for pests who will find shelter in the regrowth These pests create tunneling galleries that further weaken a tree s ability to fend off pathogens that lead to mortality Preventing forest fires and controlling pest populations go hand in hand which leaves room for any combination of treatment plans Especially helpful is the use of prescribed burns which consists of randomly dropping a match on a grid that has been divided and planted at scattered time periods After the fire workers must go in to peel bark off felled logs and if possible remove dead dying and severely damaged stressed trees as soon as possible Climate change in the Northwestern Forested Mountains Edit The effects of fossil fuels emissions the largest contributor to climate change cause rising CO2 levels in the earth s atmosphere This raises atmospheric temperatures and levels of precipitation in the Northwestern Forested Mountains Being a very mountainous region weather patterns contribute higher levels of precipitation This can cause landslides channel erosion and floods The warmer air temperatures also create more rain and less snow something dangerous for many animal and tree species with less snow pack comes more vulnerability for trees and insects A large contributor to fire susceptible forests is past land use the higher air temperatures make wildfires more common Wildfires are extremely detrimental for species inhabiting the landscape they destroy habitats and it takes many years to restore the land to how it used to be These effects caused by climate change can destroy animal habitats and species diversity Not only will these climate catastrophes directly reduce animal populations but it will indirectly disrupt trophic levels by reducing food sources for many keystone species Climate change contributes to a worsening economy in this region as well by taking away valuable resources for recreational uses like snow for skiing and fish for fishing Boreal Cordillera Edit Interior Highlands and Klondike Plateau ecoregion Alaska Range ecoregion Copper Plateau ecoregion Wrangell and St Elias Mountains ecoregion Watson Highlands ecoregion Yukon Stikine Highlands Boreal Mountains and Plateaus ecoregion Western Cordillera Edit Main article North American Cordillera Skeena Omineca Central Canadian Rocky Mountains ecoregion Chilcotin Ranges and Fraser Plateau ecoregion Columbia Mountains Northern Rockies ecoregion Canadian Rockies ecoregion North Cascades ecoregion Cypress Upland ecoregion Cascades ecoregion Eastern Cascades Slopes and Foothills ecoregion Blue Mountains ecoregion Middle Rockies ecoregion Klamath Mountains ecoregion Sierra Nevada ecoregion Wasatch and Uinta Mountains ecoregion Southern Rockies ecoregion Idaho Batholith ecoregion Marine West Coast Forest EditTopography geography soil Edit The region is strongly influenced by the large mountain ranges stretching throughout most of the coast Changes in elevation cause changes in plant animal diversity this can be exemplified through observing the alpine tundra s vegetation which consists of shrubs herbs mosses and lichens while lower elevations the temperate coastal forest hold magnificently large trees such as western hemlock California redwood and the red alder These differences are in direct correlation with the availability of oxygen and other nutrients at higher elevations 39 The mountains also create rain shadow areas due to the clouds having to release their precipitation in order to get over the mountains or be blocked all together Trees which perform better under stress grow in these areas such as the Douglas fir www countriesquest com As for the soil the region generally has a thin podzol soil causing it to be extremely acidic Farmers must compensate by applying fertilizers and lime to lower the acidic levels for agricultural viability 40 Digging even deeper the then soil within the region will reveal mostly igneous and sedimentary rock Colluvium and morainal deposits make up most of the surface materials Mountains which so intensely affect the region are massive formations resulting from upheaval caused by continental collisions 41 Climate Edit The climate of the marine west coast forests is humid According to the Koppen climate classification System this climate is very damp throughout most of the year receiving a great amount of rainfall along with heavy cloud cover The marine climate can also be defined with its narrow range of temperatures throughout the year Precipitation is ample and consistent in the marine west coast with many days of rainfall and a large annual accumulation Many areas in the marine west coast climate have more than 150 days of rainfall per a year along with averaging around 50 to 250 centimeters per a year of total rainfall Britannica 2013 The average temperatures of areas within the marine west coast forests usually range from 10 C to 15 C Britannica 2013 These mild temperatures are in collaboration with the moderating effect of ocean bodies on air temperatures due to the constant influx of oceanic air influencing the marine west coast throughout the year Ritter 2009 The marine west coast is located in the path of westerly winds from the ocean that contribute to its cloudy skies significant amount of precipitation and mild temperatures Hollow 2001 The rainfall seasons and temperature are all dependent on each other and are all affected by the global circulatory pattern Hydrology Edit The main watersheds in the region are the Puget Sound and Columbia River Watershed Due to the region s proximity to the Pacific Ocean this ecoregion experiences large amounts of precipitation annually creating a very humid and wet climate The majority of river and stream activity is directly influenced by the annual precipitation patterns In the rainy season from October to May most of the low elevation rivers and streams experience peak run off levels Rivers and streams at higher elevation are more influenced by snow melt and therefore experience peak run off from late spring into early summer due to the snowmelt The permeability levels of bedrock in the area of interest dictate surface water in the region Volcanic parent material as found in Oregon tends to result in lower levels of ground water due to the low permeability of the rock Although areas with volcanic parent material may have fewer ground water aquifers these areas tend to have better developed stream networks and higher stream drainage levels Moore 765 Areas with newer volcanic bedrock have higher levels of permeability and are therefore more likely to have ground water aquifers These areas will experience lower stream drainage densities and less developed stream networks due to the greater rate of ground water recharge Moore 765 Keystone plants Edit The plants in this region are responsible for holding the geography and geology of the area intact The north south orientation of the mountain ranges combines with the moist polar air masses and mild westerlies coming eastward off the Pacific Ocean to form a weather pattern that dominates the area This pattern consists of a temperate moist zone on the west side of the mountains and a drier moderate climate on the east side The moist conditions along with glacial valleys cut by the glaciers allow for a variety of plant life to thrive The softwood stands of the highlands are keystone species in maintaining land integrity The ability of the firs and spruces to populate the high altitude and shallow soil works like glue to hold the soil in place As you drop in altitude pines and cedars do the same for the lower slopes Erosion control is key to keeping the glacial valleys and their rivers free from silt build up which has the ability to devastate the salmon population as well as holding the integrity of the mountain ranges Dominant species Edit Marine West Coast Forests combine aquatic ecosystems with temperate rainforests to provide habitat for an abundance of wildlife The sea otter is considered a keystone species because of the critical role it plays in maintaining the structure of the ecosystem Sea otters feed on sea urchins which are herbivores of kelps A large mass of kelp can become an underwater kelp forest which is considered by many to be one of the most productive and dynamic ecosystems on Earth Two more dominant species found in the Marine West Coast Forest are the gray wolf and grizzly bears Grizzly bears provide a connection between the marine coast and the forests when they eat nitrogen rich salmon and transfer the nutrients to the forests The Pacific salmon provide strong sources of nitrogen for the aquatic ecosystems Due to the high precipitation in this Eco region the nitrogen levels can be very low The Pacific salmon helps to normalize the nitrogen levels Without anyone of these species the ecosystem would fall apart The Marine West Coast Forests are a unique habitat for a diverse group of species Threatened and endangered species Edit Several species struggle to survive in the ever disappearing and degrading ecosystems of the northwest These species face a high risk of extinction some iconic examples of those listed as threatened or endangered in this ecoregion include the giant sequoia coast redwood and marbled murrelet The giant sequoia and coast redwood are listed as a vulnerable under the IUCN Red List standards Conifer Specialist Group 1998 Large scale logging felling 90 to 95 percent of the old growth forest between 1856 and 1955 is primarily to blame for these species now limited range The remainder of most populations of giant sequoias and coast redwoods is now almost entirely in parks and reserves Farjon amp Page 1999 Fire prevention policy however is most to blame for the continued declining of populations as the build up of undergrowth hampers the regeneration of both species Vankat 1977 Luckily plans to improve management and plant trees on cleared land are in place Farjon amp Page 1999 Though the marbled murrelet is still considered abundant its population has undergone a rapid decline principally because the old growth forests in which they breed are subject to logging Piatt et al 2006 Current estimates are nearly half of historic numbers suggesting just 350 000 to 420 000 remain Piatt et al 2007 The IUCN has listed the species as endangered BirdLife International 2012 Hard forest edges resulting from forest fragmentation greatly subject murrelet nests to corvid predation and other associated disturbances Peery et al 2004 Declines in areas where logging is not an issue can be explained by the overexploitation and subsequent collapse of the pacific sardine fishery Nylon gill nets in shallow waters and oil spills have cause considerable mortality as well Piatt amp Naslund 1995 In response conservation measures have been implemented to slow the species decline including the prevention of logging within identified breeding areas Nelson 1997 the development of detailed research and recovery plans Kaiser et al 1994 CMMRT 2003 Escene 2007 and the protection of 179 square kilometers on Afognak Island by the Exxon Valdex Trustee Council EVOSTC 1995 Environmental threats Edit The Marine West Coast Forest s primary environmental threats are human development and population growth logging spruce bark beetle populations and invasive species This ecological region is home to large cities like Vancouver Portland Anchorage and Seattle As these cities continue to grow in population greater tracts of land are being developed and more resources are needed to accommodate these higher populations Logging is another large human induced environmental threat to the ecoregion Logging causes habitat fragmentation and adversely affects important species such as spotted owl grizzly bear and Kermode spirit bears who all require large tracts of land to survive Demarchi Nelson Kavanagh Sims Mann 2013 The spruce bark beetle is an insect that destroys spruce trees by tunneling into the bark of the trees These beetles are widespread in the northern part of the ecoregion in states such as Alaska Alaska Department of Fish and Game 2013 The beetle s distribution and survival rate has increased in the last decade due to climate change Invasive species are also rampant in the ecoregion These foreign plants and animals disrupt naturally occurring species in the ecoregion Several solutions have been enacted to solve the environmental threats of the Marine West Coast Forest Public land ownership is positively correlated with environmental preservation as seen by the parts of the ecoregion located in Alaska Alaska Department of Fish and Game 2013 When land is privately owned the most effective measures are education of the beautiful natural areas smart land use and planned efficient growth Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife 2006 Climate change Edit The Marine West Coast Forests are located along the coast and some islands of northern California up to Alaska The rise of the sea level will increase soil erosion of these marine areas Coastal Areas Impacts and Adaptation Depending on to what degree the sea level will rise the introduction of salt water to the soil in the marine forest can slow and or destroy the growth of marine forest plants as well as the habitat of forest animals Oberrecht Freshwater flow will greatly disrupt the ecology of the Marine West Coast Forest The trend seems to be that wet regions are getting wetter and the dry regions are getting drier Song The Marine West Coastal Region is a wet region that will most likely see these increases in precipitation levels The precipitation level increasing will change the stream chemistry of vital spawning areas for salmon Spawning salmon are most successful when the water is cold and with a steady flow Coastal Areas Impacts amp Adaptation The rising temperature of the streams from rainfall instead of snowfall will be more likely to also develop and spread disease through salmon Coastal Areas Impacts amp Adaptation The estuaries where the ocean and river water meet is a very vulnerable area The rising sea level will bring more salt water into the estuaries Oberrecht The salinity of the water will increase further up rivers and this can alter the mixing and flushing rates of the estuary increasing pollution dramatically Oberrecht The change of balance in an estuary will also decrease the buffer effect that estuaries have against storms Oberrecht References Edit Alaska Department of Fish and Game 2013 Alaska s 32 Ecoregions http www adfg alaska gov static species wildlife action plan section3b pdf An Overview of Marine Biodiversity in United States Waters U S Marine Biodiversity Fautin Daphne Dalton Penelope Incze Lewis S Leong Jo Ann C Pautzke Clarence Rosenberg Andrew Sandifer Paul Sedberry George Tunnell Retrieved February 26 2013 from UVM Library Bailey Robert 2009 Ecoregions of the United States Retrieved from https link springer com chapter 10 1007 2F978 0 387 89516 1 7 LI true BirdLife International 2012 Brachyramphus marmoratus In IUCN 2012 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species Version 2012 2 www iucnredlist org Downloaded on 25 February 2013 CMMRT Canadian Marbled Murrelet Recovery Team 2003 Marbled Murrelet Conservation Assessment 2003 Part B Marbled Murrelet Recovery Team advisory document on conservation and management Canadian Wildlife Service Delta BC Commission for Environmental Cooperation CEC 1997 Ecological Regions of the North America Towards a Common Perspective https web archive org web 20120913045750 http www cec org Storage 42 3484 eco eng EN pdf Coastal Areas Impacts amp Adaptation EPA Environmental Protection Agency 14 June 2012 Web 7 March 2013 Conifer Specialist Group 1998 Sequoiadendron giganteum In IUCN 2012 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species Version 2012 2 www iucnredlist org Downloaded on 25 February 2013 Demarchi D Nelson J Kavanagh K Sims M Mann G 2013 British Columbia mainland coastal forests World Wildlife Fund http worldwildlife org ecoregions na0506 Escene D P 2007 Marbled Murrelet Technical Committee Pacific Seabirds 34 1 32 33 Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council 1995 1995 status report Anchorage Alaska Farjon A amp Page C N 1999 Conifers Status survey and conservation action plan International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources IUCN Hollow Anne 2001 Pacific Basin Climate Variability and Patterns of Northeast Pacific Marine Fish Production Progress in Oceanography 49 1 257 282 Bibcode 2001PrOce 49 257H CiteSeerX 10 1 1 587 2968 doi 10 1016 S0079 6611 01 00026 X Integrated Land Management Bureau British Columbia Government Central and North Coast District 2013 Central and North Coast EBM Implementation In Coast Land Use Decision Retrieved from https web archive org web 20110805062738 http archive ilmb gov bc ca slrp lrmp nanaimo central north coast index html Kaiser G W Marbled Murrelet Recovery Team RENEW Canada Canadian Wildlife Federation 1994 National Recovery Plan for the Marbled Murrelet Canadian Wildlife Federation Kerr Richard A Science March 14 1997 Vol 275 5306 p 1564 2 Peer Reviewed Journal Why the West stands tall Retrieved February 26 2013 from UVM Library Koppen Climate Classification Retrieved from https web archive org web 20120904122713 http www elmhurst edu richs EC 101 KoppenClimateClassification pdf McGinley M amp Hogan M 2004 November 4 Marine West Coast Forests ecoregion CEC Encyclopedia of Earth Retrieved February 26 2013 from http www eoearth org article Marine West Coast Forests ecoregion CEC Marine West Coast Climate 2013 Retrieved from http www britannica com EBchecked topic 365348 marine west coast climate Marine West Coast Climatic Regions of the United States Climates and Climatic Regions Geography USA North America usa geography ft search Oregon Washington California giant dairy farming n d Countries Quest Retrieved February 26 2013 from http www countriesquest com north america permanent dead link Moore D amp Wondzell S 2005 Physical hydrology and the effects of forest harvesting in the pacific northwest a review Journal of the American Water Resources Association 04056 Nelson S K 1997 Marbled Murrelet Brachyramphus marmoratus In Poole A Gill F ed The birds of North America No 276 pp 1 32 The Academy of Natural Sciences Philadelphia and The American Ornithologists Union Philadelphia and Washington DC Newsroom British Columbia Government 2013 Economy In New British Columbia Prosperity Fun Will Ensure Lasting Benefits Retrieved from https web archive org web 20140827131603 http www newsroom gov bc ca 2013 02 new british columbia prosperity fund will ensure lasting benefits html Oberrecht Kenn Effects of Rising Sea Levels Oregnon gov Oregon State Government n d Web 24 February 2013 Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife 2006 Coast Range Ecoregion https web archive org web 20130423082619 http www dfw state or us conservationstrategy docs document pdf b eco cr pdf Peery M Z Beissinger S R Newman S Burkett E B Williams T D 2004 Applying the declining population paradigm diagnosing causes of poor reproduction in the Marbled Murrelet Conservation Biology 18 4 1088 1098 doi 10 1111 j 1523 1739 2004 00134 x S2CID 17717476 Perakis S S L H Geiser and E A Lilleskov Marine West Coast Forest National Forest Service n d Web 20 February 2013 Perakis S Geiser L amp Lilleskov E n d MARINE WEST COAST FORESTS nrs fs fed us Retrieved February 26 2013 from www nrs fs fed us pubs gtr gtr nrs 80chapters 9 perakis pdf Piatt J F Kuletz K J Burger A E Hatch S A Friesen V L Birt T P Arimitsu M L Drew G S Harding A M A and Bixler K S 2006 Status Review of the Marbled Murrelet Brachyramphus marmoratus in Alaska and British Columbia Open File Report 2006 1387 U S Geological Survey Piatt J F Kuletz K J Burger A E Hatch S A Friesen V L Birt T P Arimitsu M L Drew G S Harding A M A Bixler K S 2007 Status review of the Marbled Murrelet Brachyramphus marmoratus in Alaska and British Columbia Piatt J F Naslund N L 1995 Abundance distribution and population status of Marbled Murrelet in Alaska In Ralph C J Hunt Jr G L Raphael M G Piatt J F ed Ecology and conservation of the Marbled Murrelet pp 295 312 Pacific Southwest Research Station Gen Tech Rep PSW GTR 152 Albany California Ritter Michael 2009 The physical environment Retrieved from https web archive org web 20120829175105 http www4 uwsp edu geo faculty ritter geog101 textbook climate systems marine west coast html Scavia Donald Climate Change Impacts on U S Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Estuaries Springer Link 1 April 2002 Web 7 March 2013 SolveClimate Lisa Song at Freshwater Flow Into Oceans Steadily Rising Reuters Thomson Reuters 8 October 2010 Web 7 March 2013 Tuchmann T Davis C Oregon Department of Forestry 2013 Background Northwest Forest Plan In O amp C Lands Report Retrieved from http www oregon gov gov GNRO docs OCLandsReport pdf U S Department of Fish amp Wildlife Marbled murrelet nesting in old growth tree Photograph Retrieved March 9 2013 from 3 Vankat J L 1977 Fire and Man in Sequoia National Park Annals of the Association of American Geographers 67 1 17 27 doi 10 1111 j 1467 8306 1977 tb01117 x Williams W University of Southern California Dana and David Dornsife College of Letters Arts and Sciences 2009 American Indian History amp Culture Illustrations of the First Nations In Cultural Areas Northwest Coast Retrieved from https web archive org web 20121230062603 http dornsife usc edu americanindian culture northwest cfmMarine West Coast Forest Edit Ahklun Mountains and Kilbuck Mountains ecoregion Alaska Peninsula Mountains ecoregion Cook Inlet ecoregion Pacific Coastal Mountains ecoregion Coastal Western Hemlock Sitka Spruce Forests ecoregion Pacific and Nass Ranges ecoregion Strait of Georgia Puget Lowland ecoregion Coast Range ecoregion Willamette Valley ecoregion Mediterranean California chaparral and woodlands EditMain article California chaparral and woodlands Silverado Canyon and chaparral habitat in the Peninsular Ranges of Southern California California oak woodland habitat of the California chaparral and woodlands ecoregion in San Luis Obispo County Redshanks Adenostoma sparsifolium and bigpod ceanothus Ceanothus megacarpus in chaparral habitat of the Santa Monica Mountains Climate Edit Very few places in the world have the Mediterranean climate of California It is one of the more rare in the world with only five locations the Mediterranean Basin Southwest Australia the Cape Province Western Cape of South Africa the Chilean Matorral and the California chaparral and woodlands ecoregion of California and the Baja California Peninsula The region is typified by warm dry summers and mild wet winters This is unusual as most climates have more precipitation in the summer There are three variations to the Mediterranean climate in California a cool summer cool winter variation a cool summer cool winter with summer fog variation and a hot summer cool winter variation The average temperatures for the cool summer variations are below 71 F in the summer and between 64 and 27 degrees Fahrenheit in the winter Average summer temperatures for the hot summer variation are above 71 degrees Fahrenheit Average annual precipitation for this climate is 25 100 inches 640 2 540 mm per year Hydrology Edit Defined by the Pacific Coast on the west the Sierra Nevada mountains and the deserts of California on the east and the Northern California Coast Ranges on the north the Mediterranean California ecoregion has unique physical characteristics that play a large role in the natural systems of the region including hydrology PrecipitationThe unusual precipitation pattern of the Mediterranean climate is due to subtropical high pressure systems in the summer and the polar jet stream in the winter Rainfall in the summer is uncommon because the marine layer becomes capped with dry sinking air The marine layer is an air mass over a large body of water brought about by a temperature inversion from the cooling effect of the water on the warmer air The marine layer is often accompanied by fog The polar jet stream in the winter brings with it rain and snow The jet stream is an extremely powerful air current flowing west to east often at over 100 miles per hour The precipitation in the region is closely associated with winter frontal storms from the Pacific Ocean which bring cool air and rain to the area The annual rainfall varies in different elevations but the average range is between 400 800 millimetres 16 31 in annually Much of the rain in Central and Northern California flows out the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers which with numerous tributaries run through an upper part of the ecoregion Fog is also an important aspect of the hydrologic cycle in this ecoregion the cooling of air over the warm seawater create a dense fog that covers large areas of the coast This fog affects the vegetation and overall environment on the coast On the contrary fire also influences this region The fire flood sequence that occurs post fire can greatly effect populations of species in the region The combination of the geophysical characteristics little rainfall and the bodies of water in the region make it a unique distinct environment Geology Edit Mediterranean climate California s geology is characterized by the meeting of the North American Plate and Pacific Plate with much of its region near or influenced by the San Andreas Fault along the junction When the two plates collided the Pacific Plate was pushed under the North American Plate and the California Coast Ranges and Sierra Nevada were uplifted The Coast Ranges are largely metamorphic rock formed from the submergence of the Pacific Plate and the Sierra are uplifted granite batholiths Not along the San Andreas Fault the granitic Peninsular Ranges system also uplifted with the collision and runs from Southern California down the Baja California Peninsula into Baja California Sur state northwest Mexico The Transverse Ranges are another major Southern California mountain system primarily in the Mediterranean climate zone Large earthquakes can do considerable damage to populated areas and to the state s water transportation and energy infrastructure The Central Valley of California is a significant feature of Mediterranean climate California It was an ancient oceanic inlet that eventually sediment filled in the deposition supplied by erosion of the surrounding mountain ranges The soil is composed of both the metamorphic oceanic crust like Coastal Range sediment and the mineral rich granitic Sierra sediment The combination creates very fertile soil The flatness and fertility of the soil along with the almost year round sunshine has attracted much agriculture to the area As a result native species no longer dominate the landscape The southern portion named the San Joaquin Valley also produces two thirds of California s oil from underground reserves Fossils are found where adjacent tar pits occur California towhee Pipilo crissalis in San Luis Obispo Palos Verdes blue Glaucopsyche lygdamus palosverdesensis butterfly endemic to the Palos Verdes Peninsula Biota Edit See also Category California chaparral and woodlands Dominant animal species Edit See also Category Fauna of the California chaparral and woodlands The Mediterranean California ecoregion is well known for its large variety and abundance of animals One of these important animals is the American golden eagle which plays a massive role in maintaining the ecoregion s ecosystem through its top down predation on smaller more abundant animals The golden eagle is considered to be the apex predator of this community and there are no other species bigger than them on the food chain Their lifespan can be up to around 30 years in the wild and even longer in captivity Native to mountain areas and grasslands California is a great region for this bird of prey to thrive in The main reason for the golden eagle being a keystone species of this ecoregion is their ability to keep small herbivorous mammal populations in line Prairie Dogs ground squirrels other rodents hares and rabbits all of which eat grass and seeds constitute 77 9 of the golden eagles diet They also are known to prey on animals such as cranes black tailed jack rabbits swans deer coyotes badgers mountain goats bobcats and various fish species Another less popular species but yet still keystone to this region is the kangaroo rat Studies have shown that kangaroo rats play very large roles in maintaining the population sizes and animal diversity throughout the region Although they are small and on the verge of extinction these animals play a large role in maintaining plant diversity which helps the various herbivores with food supply and also protection for other small animals seeking shelter kangaroo rats occupy many land habitats ranging from desserts and grasslands to chaparral areas making them present in all areas of the Mediterranean California ecoregion Kangaroo rats like to feed on many various grass seeds as well as mesquite beans and thus is the reason that plants tend to not grow as well when sharing the same community with these rats On occasions though these animals like to feed on green vegetation and insects Unfortunately for the rat though it is preyed upon by many predators These predators include owls snakes bobcats foxes badgers coyotes cats and dogs and many more Other dominant species in the region include mountain lions coyotes sea otters brown bears and various large birds of prey Dominant plant communities Edit See also Category Flora of California chaparral and woodlands California poppy Eschscholzia californica field at the Antelope Valley California Poppy Reserve The vegetation in the Mediterranean California ecoregion is a mixture of grasses and shrubs called chaparral with some oak forests as well This area is very highly populated and agriculture is prevalent in the valleys Comm of Env Coop 2011 Evergreen trees and shrubs such as heaths mainly dominate Mediterranean vegetation with a shrubby to herbaceous understory Mediterranean vegetation embodies less than 5 of terrestrial ecosystems around the world A very important aspect of this ecosystem is its frequent wildfires leading to most of its vegetation adapting fire response mechanisms Vila and Sardans 1999 Common shrubs within this region are chamise or greasewood Adenostoma fasciculatum manzanita Arctostaphylos spp coast sagebrush Artemisia californica and California lilacs Ceanothusspp Conrad 1987 Because the climate is so dry and experiences frequent fires competition is high among plants within this ecoregion The Mediterranean community found in southern California is said to have a successional stage after wildfires The fire leaves patches of bare ground which then are quickly filled with newly germinated seeds Native and introduced herbs persist for the first year following a fire Shrubs and subshrubs slowly fill in and hit their peak at four to eight years after the fire Extinctions unlike many other communities are frequently the cause of environmental extremes rather than competitive invasive species Zedler et al 1983 Human disturbance can increase wildfires with the introduction of grasses such as Bromus rubens which can be readily established in the newly burned cleared patches These grasses are more densely compacted and create more fuel for fires Agricultural grazing can also greatly decrease the chaparral tangled shrubby brush habitat which is the home of many native endemic species Fleming et al 2009 Zedler et al 1983 California condor Gymnogyps californianus in flight San Joaquin kit fox Vulpes macrotis subsp mutica sitting Endangered species Edit An endangered species is a species of organisms either flora or fauna which face a very high risk of extinction in a proximate time frame much sooner than the long term horizon in which species typically persist There are many species of birds mammals reptiles amphibians and plants that live in the Mediterranean California chaparral and woodlands ecoregion Yet due to a variety of factors including habitat loss due to the 30 million humans who share the land some species are endangered Endangered threatened and vulnerable species of the Mediterranean California chaparral and woodlands ecoregion include Fauna Bay checkerspot butterfly Euphydryas editha bayensis California condor clapper rail least tern least Bell s vireo California gnatcatcher Smith s blue butterfly several species of kangaroo rat Mission blue butterfly Aricia icarioides missionensis salt marsh harvest mouse San Joaquin kit fox blunt nosed leopard lizard San Francisco garter snake Santa Cruz long toed salamander tidewater goby green sea turtle southern sea otter and the Guadalupe fur seal Flora coast redwood Sequoia sempervirens giant redwood Sequoiadendron giganteum coastal sage scrub oak Quercus dumosa Pitkin Marsh lily Lilium pardalinum subsp pitkinense Santa Cruz cypress Cupressus abramsiana Southern California black walnut Juglans californica The California condor Gymnogyps californianus is one of the most iconic species in the state With over a 9 feet 2 7 m wingspan condors are the largest flying land bird in North America They are opportunistic scavengers that prey on large dead mammals The main factors that led to the species endangered status were settlement of the west shooting poisoning from lead and DDT egg collecting and general habitat degradation Serious conservation efforts have been made since the 1960s and this severely endangered species has begun a recovery path A condor recovery program has been started and a wild population is steadily growing Another species is the tiny and secretive San Joaquin kit fox Vulpes macrotis subsp mutica is one of the most endangered animals in California The kit fox is the size of a cat with big ears a long bushy tail and furry toes that help to keep it cool in its hot and dry Californian Mediterranean environment Biologists state that there are fewer than 7 000 San Joaquin kit foxes San Joaquin kit fox populations rise and fall with the amount of annual rainfall more rain means more kit foxes Changes in precipitation patterns including reduced rainfall and increase changes of drought all caused by climate change would affect San Joaquin kit fox populations The change in the Central Valley from open grasslands to farms orchards houses and roads has most affected San Joaquin kit foxes causing death illness injury difficulty in finding a mate and difficulty in finding food These kit foxes also are killed and out competed for resources by coyotes and red foxes Another threat is poison used to kill rats and mice A recent decision by the federal government to limit to use of these poisons outdoors may keep kit foxes safe Natural resources Edit Humans have used resources of this ecoregion for many years dating all the way back to early Native Americans Some traditional resources that are still used today are in danger of being overharvested These include the Pacific Ocean fisheries the dwindling timber industry the rivers flowing from the mountains and the grasslands All of these resources are either being over harvested or destroyed through agricultural and industrial development Grasslands hold many native oak trees that are being lost due to overgrazing or forest fires The overgrazing is attributed to the increasing number of cattle farms while the forest fires come from the use of natural water for human and agricultural use As more water is used oak trees lose out without this key component and fires increase due to drying out of the grasslands and forests The government has tried to install conservation programs to halter the increased use of the land and waterways but more must be done to create a truly sustainable environment Emerging resources from the region are mainly high value agricultural crops These include stone fruits sugar beets rice nuts grapes cotton and specialized cattle systems Many of these cannot be grown in other parts of the country and thrive in this type of climate However because of the dry seasons these products require large amounts of water as well as varied chemicals and fertilizers to increase production Many of these farming enterprises are enormous and not sustainable They leach out chemicals bring in mass amounts of inputs and degrade a lot of the land As with the traditional resources the government has implemented conservation programs but only a limited amount Climate change Edit Climate change in the Mediterranean California ecoregion is expected by whom to ultimately have negative effects on the ecosystem and the region s biodiversity The coast of California is expected to warm by as much as 2 C in the next 50 years This is going to cause hotter and drier seasons the normally wet winters when a majority of the ecosystem s rain in received will be drier and the summers will be especially hotter as well Increased wildfires will result from the region s warming mainly in the summer The shrubbery and trees characteristic of the California chaparral will not fare well in the warmer and increased fire region grasses that are able to regrow asexually or from special off chutes will fare the best Ultimately the soil quality is going to degrade due to the increased burnings and increased temperatures Overall climate change does not bode well for the Mediterranean California ecosystem according to whom Environmental threats to the region Edit There are several large threats to this region Many of California s large population centers are located within it which causes stress on the surrounding environment because people have a desire to move to California so new homes and industry have to be established in order to accommodate all of the people moving into the region and this requires expansion Research shows that this eco region is already 20 urban environments and 15 agricultural lands The research also concluded that population density and urban area has increased by 13 between 1990 and 2000 while agricultural lands in the region have only expanded by 1 The study conducted also showed direct relationships between the growth of the population and the number of species that were threatened in the area Expansion will break up the contiguous landscape and move humans closer to the native flora and fauna which will over pressure species that need large open tracts of land to thrive and harm the species diversity of the region Prevailing winds coming from the west off of the Pacific Ocean all of the pollution created gets carried up to these higher inland sites and causes the species there to suffer with the pollution generated The region is also plagued by wildfires The area is becoming arid species diversity will drop as organisms adapted for dryer climates thrive No current management plans are in place a Species refugia to save struggling species that inhabit this region has been proposed by some Forests similar to these are more resilient to such events due to the spatial arrangement it would be possible to replicate this in the current forest and make it resilient to the fires that will increase in the near future Humboldt lily Lilium humboldtii endemic to Southern California See also Edit Environment portal Ecology portal Earth sciences portal Geography portalChaparral California chaparral and woodlands California coastal sage and chaparral ecoregion California interior chaparral and woodlands California montane chaparral and woodlands California oak woodland Media related to California chaparral and woodlands at Wikimedia Commons California red legged frog Rana draytonii a vulnerable species Sources cited Edit Arizona Sonora Desert Museum 2008 Merriam s kangaroo rat Retrieved from http www desertmuseum org kids oz long fact sheets krat php B Romans Geologic Context and History of the San Joaquin Valley QUEST blog http science kqed org quest 2010 08 12 geologic context and history of the san joaquin river Basic Facts About San Joaquin Kit Foxes San Joaquin Kit Fox Defenders of Wildlife n d Web 25 February 2013 Brown N L C D Johnson P A Kelly and D F Williams Endangered Species Recovery Program Species Profile N p n d Web 25 February 2013 California Condor Recovery California Condor Recovery Arizona Game and Fish Department n d Web 25 February 2013 Commission for Environmental Cooperation Lead Author C Michael Hogan Contributing Author Mark McGinley Topic Editor Mediterranean California ecoregion CEC In Encyclopedia of Earth Eds Cutler J Cleveland Washington D C Environmental Information Coalition National Council for Science and the Environment First published in the Encyclopedia of Earth March 2 2010 Last revised Date June 2 2011 Retrieved February 25 2013 lt http www eoearth org article Mediterranean California ecoregion CEC Conrad E 1987 Common shrubs of chaparral and associated ecosystems of southern California Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station Berkeley CA Chaparral Biome Animal Facts and Information RSS Web 24 February 2013 lt http bioexpedition com chaparral biome gt Ecological Regions of North America Ftp epa gov Commission for Environmental Cooperation 1997 Web 24 February 2013 lt ftp ftp epa gov wed ecoregions cec na CEC NAeco pdf gt F DeCourten Geology of Southern California Department of Earth Science Sierra College Fleming G J Diffendorfer P Zedler 2009 The relative importance of distribution and exotic plant abundance in California coastal sage scrub Ecological Applications Vol 19 No 9 2210 2227 Germanorum Lessingia National Park Service n d Web 25 February 2013 GGNP Endangered Species Big Year San Francisco Lessingia N p n d Web 25 February 2013 Hogan M Encyclopedia of Earth 2011 Mediterranean California Ecoregion http www eoearth org article Mediterranean California ecoregion CEC J Bartolome Ecological History of the California Mediterranean type Landscape In Proc of the Man and the Biosphere Symposium Landscape Ecology Study of Mediterranean Grazed Ecosystems UC Davis 1989 pg 2 15 Jurek Ronald M California Condor California Department of Fish and Wildlife Ed Carie Battistone N p n d Web 25 February 2013 Litman L Nakamura G 2007 Forest History University of California Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources http anrcatalog ucdavis edu pdf 8234 pdf Managing Mediterranean Forests Restoration Is Not Enough Environmentalresearchweb Web 24 February 2013 lt https web archive org web 20101123090930 http environmentalresearchweb org cws article news 43071 gt Mediterranean California LandScope America N p n d Web 24 February 2013 lt http www landscope org explore natural geographies divisions mediterranean california gt National Geographic 2013 Golden eagle Retrieved fromhttp animals nationalgeographic com animals birds golden eagle Olendorff R R 1976 The food habits of North American golden eagles American Midland Naturalist 95 1 231 236 doi 10 2307 2424254 JSTOR 2424254 Species Profile for San Francisco Lessingia Lessingia Germanorum Species Profile for San Francisco Lessingia Lessingia Germanorum N p n d Web 25 February 2013 Threats to Biodiversity in the Mediterranean Biome Diversity and Distributions 2008 Blackwell Publishing Ltd 24 February 2013 lt http www clas ufl edu users mbinford GEOXXXX Biogeography Literature reports by students Report 5 everittjournalpdf5 pdf gt Upper San Joaquin River Watershed Crcd org N p n d Web 24 February 2013 lt https web archive org web 20120308030124 http www crcd org MC2SJRiver 20rev final pdf Vela M Sardans J 1999 Plant competition 9in Mediterranean type vegetation Journal of Vegetation Science 10 2 281 294 doi 10 2307 3237150 JSTOR 3237150 S2CID 56019467 Wells Wade G Hydrology of Mediterranean Type Ecosystems A Summary and Synthesis Fs fed us US Forest Service n d Web 13 March 2013 lt http www fs fed us psw publications documents psw gtr058 psw gtr0 58 5a wells pdf gt Zedler P Gautier R McMaster G 1983 Vegetation change in response to extreme events the effect of a short interval between fires in California chaparral and coastal scrub Ecology 64 4 809 818 doi 10 2307 1937204 JSTOR 1937204 42 Eastern Temperate Forests EditDescription Edit The Eastern Temperate Forests of North America are a vast and diverse region Stretching inland from the Atlantic coast about 385 miles 620 km they reach from Michigan in the north and Texas in the south they cover the land of New England to Florida Alabama to Michigan and Missouri to the Appalachian Mountains This ecoregion enjoys a mild and moist climate though it is generally warmer as latitude decreases and drier as longitude increases 43 Warm summers and mild to cool winters have provided favorable growing conditions for a number of plant species the dominant being large broadleaf deciduous trees and to a lesser extent needle leaf coniferous evergreen trees Indeed before the arrival of Europeans this area was almost completely forested After their arrival a few centuries ago much of the eastern forests had been cleared for timber and to make way for cropland In more recent time however these open areas have been abandoned and are slowly returning to forest Although heavily influenced by people the Eastern Temperate Forests have proven to be a very resilient region these great forests still provide habitat for many birds animals reptiles amphibians and insects as well as recreational and economic benefits for the people of the region 44 Climate Edit The Eastern Temperate Forest region has a wide range of fluctuating temperatures dependent on time of year In this region there are four distinct seasons winter spring summer and fall This seasonal variation is caused by exposure to both warm and cold air masses due to the biomes mid latitude positioning between the polar regions and the tropics and is reflected in both the seasonal temperatures and precipitation levels The highest temperatures averaging 21 C occur during the summer months of July and August and the lowest temperatures averaging 0 C occur during the winter months of December January and February The year round average temperature within the region is 10 C 45 Levels of precipitation vary with the seasons as well with the highest levels of precipitation averaging 95 mm month occurring in May and August and the lowest averaging 60 mm month occurring in June and the winter months of January February March and December 46 The Eastern Temperate Forest region can thus be described as warm humid and temperate with abundant levels of precipitation year round There are many global patterns that affect and contribute to the climate of the Eastern Temperate Forest region such as global ocean currents El Nino La Nina the Gulf Stream current and global air circulation patterns El Nino caused by warmer sea surface temperatures in the Pacific Ocean can lead to wet winters and warm episodes occurring between the months of December and February in the southeastern region of the United States Eastern Temperate Forest 47 La Nina is caused by cooler than normal sea surface temperatures in the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean it leads to drier than normal conditions in the winter months in the Southeast region of the Eastern Temperate Forest 48 The global ocean current that effects the Eastern Temperate Forest most is the Gulf Stream current which brings a warm flow of water from South to North along the eastern coast of North America in the Atlantic Ocean it keeps temperatures in this region relatively warm The winds that have the greatest effect on the climate of the region are the prevailing westerlies and the tropical easterlies The prevailing westerlies caused by the Coriolis Effect explain why most major events that occur in North America come from the west and proceed east which is where the majority of the Eastern Temperate Forest is located 49 Dominant plant and animal species Edit Fall foliage of the Eastern Temperate Forests The Eastern Temperate Forest Ecoregion has favorable growing conditions for a number of plant species the dominant being large broadleaf deciduous trees 44 Before the arrival of Europeans this area was almost completely forested After their arrival a few centuries ago much of these forests had been cleared for timber and to make way for cropland In more recent time however these open areas have been abandoned and are slowly returning to forest Of the many plant species that inhabit the Eastern Temperate Forests today those of the oak Quercus beech Fagus maple Acer basswood Tilia and pine Pinus genera are the most characteristic and defining of this ecoregion 50 These plants can be broken down into several main communities northern hardwood beech maple maple basswood mixed mesophytic oak hickory and southern mixed hardwood forests With the exception of Pinus all of these species are angiosperms meaning that they produce flowers and fruits an important food source to many animals who inhabit the region The flowers of angiosperms provide nectar their leaves are important vegetable matter for herbivores and their seeds are rich in fat and protein rich that allow many animals to fatten up for their winter hibernation The trees of the Eastern Temperate Forests provide food shelter and a suitable habitat for countless species of both flora and fauna they yield lumber fuel recreation and aesthetic enjoyment to not only the people who live in this region but also those who visit and enjoy products produced from the resources gleaned from these vast forests Arboreal species are widely found in the region due to the high density of tree cover providing a suitable habitat and food source for the animals this includes birds and many ground squirrels Migratory songbirds are common in the eastern temperate forests once the canopy opens up in the spring Mammals that are native to the eastern forests are white tailed deer black bears ground squirrels gray squirrels and chipmunks as well as red and grey foxes Bird species include the black throated warbler piping plover and the yellow breasted chat Amphibious species that are common to the region are the American toad and the box turtle White tailed deer populations are very large across the eastern US making it both a dominant and defining species The white tailed deer competes with other herbivores for limited food resources directly affecting the ecosystem as well as indirectly affecting the area by altering habitats for small vertebrates and mammals According to the Virginia Journal of Science s research on white tailed deer deer are grazers primarily feeding on the leaves of shrubs and such however in the winter months they are found browsing the woody stems of shrubs and saplings White tailed deer have four stomachs each with their own specific digestive action The complex breaking down of food allows the deer to each woody plants and other things that most animals cannot digest Areas with high deer populations will see a dramatic shift in forest cover because small saplings and shrubs growth will be retarded on hindered due to their browsing habits White tailed deer are polygamous in the northern parts of the region they will mate in November and for more southern dwelling populations mating occurs in January A female will give birth to one to three fawns after a 6 month gestation period After about 3 months the young will leave their parents White tailed deer typically live about three years but can live up to 15 years White tailed deer exemplify a k selection species They have long gestation periods can reproduce more than once in a lifetime and are only a few offspring are produced at once Endangered species Edit The United States has more endangered species than all of the other continents combined the Eastern Temperate Forest s endangered and threatened species make up a little less than a quarter of that number 51 Endangered and threatened mammals but not limited to include the Louisiana black bear the red wolf the Key deer the eastern puma cougar the West Indian manatee the North Atlantic right whale the Mississippi sandhill crane the piping plover and the leatherback sea turtle Endangered and threatened flowering non flowering plants include the Virginia round leaf birch the Tennessee yellow eyed grass the Michaux s sumac the Florida torreya and the Louisiana quillwort among many others The region is also home to the only two endangered lichen species rock gnome lichen and Florida perforate reindeer lichen 52 53 Piping plover Charadrius melodus The piping plover is a bird that has been on the endangered species list since 1985 in the Great Lakes watershed including NY PA IL MI and WI This species nearly became extinct after over hunting in the 19th and early 20th century due to use of feathers for fashion hats 54 Current potential sources of endangerment include the development of coastlines for recreation and detrimental material washing up to shore 55 The management of the habitat sites closing off sections of the beach where birds are nesting creation of a mimic habitat predation management restriction of beach vehicles and vegetation control are current conservation efforts being enforced 56 The Louisiana quillwort has been on the list of endangered species since 1992 contrary to its name it is only now found in MI and AL 57 Threats to this species include pollution herbicides and chemicals construction in proximity to stream vehicle traffic on or near stream changes in flow rate and erosion these two factors most likely caused from climate change 58 Conservation efforts being enforces are updates to where the population status is permanently protecting existing habitats through local and federal levels look for potential populations that are not accounted for preserve the genetic stock of the species remaining and more in depth habitat studies leading to population fluctuation 57 Geology topography and soils Edit The Appalachian Mountains are a main topic of research regarding the geology of the surrounding area They formed when the ancestral continents of North America and Africa collided together and are about 480 million years old The folded and thrust faulted igneous rocks marine sedimentary rock and rocks that look like that of the ancient ocean floor reveal that they got pushed up during plate collisions 59 Ice ages during the Pleistocene epoch after the Appalachians formed contributed a great deal to the current appearance of the surrounding area Surfaces that were once covered by ice were eroded and smoothed out during glacier movement Therefore the Appalachians used to be much taller when they formed than they are today 59 Glaciers also deposited parent materials of the underlying bedrocks which contribute to the formation of soils later on There are very clear soil horizons when looking at a cross section of this land These are labeled and described see Figure 2 as O organic matter A fine particles of organic matter and mineral material B material layer where most nutrients accumulate C parent material and R bedrock1 The U S Soil Taxonomy classifies Inceptisols Mollisols and Spodosols as good soils that can support temperate forests that like mature soils that can support deep root systems1 Different levels of nitrogen also have a big effect on a soils capability of supporting life The presence of too much nitrogen can cause declines in species richness and abundance 43 The types of vegetation that exist in the Appalachian area heavily rely on the existing soil types and amount of nutrients available 60 Traditional and emerging natural resources Edit The Eastern Temperate region has a vast wealth of natural resources that are utilized by people The two most common traditional resources include timber and coal Timber specifically hardwoods which make up the majority of timber from this region are utilized widely for furniture production In 1997 there was about 6 billion dollars worth of solid wood exports with 36 coming from the eastern United States 61 Coal is the other major traditional resource of the region Coal is found on the western slopes of the Appalachian mountain range as well as in parts of Illinois and Indiana In 2003 U S coal production was about 1 07 billion short tons and while not all of this comes from the eastern region a large portion of it does as 6 of the top 10 coal producing states are from within this region as of 2012 62 63 Natural gas and oil from hydraulic fracturing is an interesting relatively new emerging resource from the region Fracking as it is commonly known involves sending pressurized water or sand into shale deposits into order to open up more cracks for which natural gas and oil can flow through into the pipes and out of the ground There were 8 982 drills as of 2011 in Pennsylvania alone that operated under hydraulic fracturing 64 Though this is an intriguing emerging resource for the region it also is extremely controversial as oil and gas from the fracking process can sometimes seep into ground water and contaminate it Current environmental threats Impact of climate change Edit There are three major current threats to the Eastern Temperate Forest These include agriculture invasive species and overpopulation urbanization A major use of land in the eastern temperate forest is for agricultural purposes due to the rich soils which are easily converted to farmland Pesticides in particular threaten the health of the eastern temperate forest region because they are used in massive quantities for agricultural production but are also widely popular in homes businesses schools hospitals and parks to maintain lawns or fields Another problem with no easy solution that faces the eastern temperate forest are non native invasive species like the emerald ash borer The emerald ash borer is thought to have been introduced to Michigan from China about 15 years ago 65 The adult beetles target ash trees as places to lay their eggs when the larvae hatch they bore through the bark and kill the tree The health of the ash population is of major concern because they provide habitat for many wildlife species and edible seeds for birds mammals and insects The biggest threat besides climate change to the eastern temperate forest is its high density of human inhabitants According to the Commission for Environmental Cooperation approximately 160 million people or over 40 percent of North America s population lives within the ecological region of the eastern temperate forest12 Such population density can be attributed to the concentration of the continents economic political and industrial power in this region Major cities and sprawling suburban communities between them have drastically changed the regions landscape and fragmented local habitat Roads and highways divide habitat and limit migration while urbanization and deforestation eliminate suitable habitat and food sources Studies conducted by Kansas State University have shown that fragmentation can decrease population productivity by isolating populations crowding species and causing edge effect 66 As the planet faces more intense and severe effects of climate changes each element of the eastern temperate region will be affected from flora and fauna to soil and water Vegetation mortality soil content species existence water levels and overall functionality of the Eco region will continue to change and be altered as global warming and the concentration of greenhouse gases increases Climate change correlates with disturbances such as insect outbreaks harsh weather and susceptibility of forests to invasive species all of which can affect the functions of a forest Insect breakouts can completely destroy an entire habitat within one season With increased drought and higher temperatures the weakened forest can suffer from multiple tree species loss along with the loss of animals and creatures that serve vital predatory roles within the ecosystem Plants that are considered to be moist forest herbs such as Cohoosh and Clintonia are threatened by the lack of available water that is vital to their survival As climate change more rapidly progresses temperature increases will affect the length of the growing season Tree species growing range will shift to adapt to the new climates typically moving to higher altitudes or more northern regions For example mountaintop tree species like the red spruce will potentially die out because there is no higher altitude that is available for relocation In addition to the northern migration southern species such as the red oak have expanded their territories Therefore as species that thrive in the lower areas of the region are expanding into a greater space they are beginning to compete for resources and nutrients with pre existing native species This can be said for many bird species as well A study conducted by the USDA Forest Service confirms that 27 out of 38 bird species that inhabit eastern temperate forests have expanded their territory further north The water cycle is also incredibly susceptible to the effects of climate change The water quality and ecosystems within lakes streams and rivers are all greatly affected by the alterations of precipitation patterns Increases in runoff potentially increase the chemical contents within the water such as nitrate and acid pulses Aquatic species are stressed by not only the warmer temperatures themselves but also the low flows and timing of ice outs and thaws Such factors affect oxygenation cycles productive cycles and reproductive cycles Seeing as though the Eastern Temperate Forest region is considered to be a significant evolutionary zone for fauna the effects of climate change can substantially alter the balances and chains of not only the Ecoregion but the planet as well Level II Sub Ecoregions Edit The Eastern Temperate Forest ecoregion is divided into five Level II ecoregions Mixed Wood plains Central USA plains Southeastern USA plains Ozark and Ouachita Appalachian Forests and Mississippi Alluvial and Southeastern Coastal Plains The land formation of the 490 590 square kilometres 189 420 sq mi area of the Mixed Wood plains is predominantly plains with some hills and the bodies of water are many small lakes The surface materials of the region are moraines and lacustrine and the soil composition includes forest soils and fine textured soils The mean annual precipitation of the area ranges from 720 1 200 millimetres 28 47 in and the mean annual temperature generally varies between 4 10 C 43 In this area human activity includes fruit and dairy agriculture major urban areas and some forestry and tourism attractions The most prominent wildlife observed are white tailed deer moose and the grey squirrel and vegetation includes a wide range of trees such as oak hickory maple beech and some pine and basswood species The second sub ecoregion is the Central USA Plains an area of 253 665 square kilometres 97 941 sq mi that has a landform of smooth plains The majority of this region s surface material is moraine with some lacustrine and the soil consists of calcium enriched prairie soils and forest soils on moraine The climate consists of a mean annual precipitation of 760 1 100 mm and average temperatures varying from 7 13 C 43 Human activities largely include corn and soybean agriculture major urban areas and local dairy operations Vegetation is mostly prairie type in the west but also includes oak hickory elm ash beech and maple White tailed deer cottontail rabbits and grey squirrels are the most commonly represented wildlife The Southeastern USA plains are the third Level II ecoregion and have a land area of 946 770 square kilometres 365 550 sq mi The majority of this land consists of irregular plains with low hills which is made up of predominantly residuum and some loess on weakly developed soils The climate of this region is an annual precipitation of 1 000 1 600 millimetres 39 63 in and average temperatures of 13 19 C 43 Human activities include predominantly forestry with tobacco hog and cotton agriculture along with major urban areas There is a wide array of wildlife which can include white tailed deer grey squirrels armadillos wild turkeys northern cardinals and mockingbirds The vegetation of the area is less diverse and includes oak hickory loblolly and shortleaf pines The Ozark and Ouachita Appalachian Forests region is an area mostly consisting of hills and low mountains with some wild valleys that make up the 518 690 square kilometres 200 270 sq mi of land This land is primarily residuum and colluvium matter on weakly developed soils and is put to use by humans through forestry coal mining some local agriculture and tourism operations The temperature averages around 17 18 C annually and precipitation can be anywhere from 1 000 2 000 millimetres 39 79 in which provides a suitable environment for mixed oaks and hickory white pine birch beech maple and hemlock trees 43 In this environment black bears white tailed deer chipmunks and wild turkeys are commonly foundThe final of the five Level II ecoregions in the Eastern Temperate Forest is Mississippi Alluvial and Southeastern Coastal Plains The 368 720 square kilometres 142 360 sq mi of land in this region is home to a very vast amount of organisms including animals such as white tailed deer opossums armadillos American alligators mockingbirds and egrets along with varying vegetation from bottomland forests ash oak tupelo bald cypress and southern mixed forests beech sweet gum magnolias oaks pine saw palmetto The climate of 13 27 C and precipitation varying between 1 100 1 800 millimetres 43 71 in annually provides adequate conditions for forestry citrus soybean and cotton agriculture fishing and tourism 43 Mixed Wood Plains Edit Eastern Great Lakes and Hudson Lowlands ecoregion Lake Erie Lowland ecoregion Northern Appalachian Plateau and Uplands ecoregion North Central Hardwood Forests ecoregion Driftless Area ecoregion S Michigan N Indiana Drift Plains ecoregion Northeastern Coastal Zone ecoregion Maine New Brunswick Plains and Hills ecoregion Maritime Lowlands ecoregion Erie Drift Plain ecoregion Central USA Plains Edit Southeastern Wisconsin Till Plains ecoregion Huron Erie Lake Plains ecoregion Central Corn Belt Plains ecoregion Eastern Corn Belt Plains ecoregion Southeastern USA Plains Edit Northern Piedmont ecoregion Interior River Valleys and Hills ecoregion Interior Plateau ecoregion Piedmont ecoregion Southeastern Plains ecoregion Mississippi Valley Loess Plains ecoregion South Central Plains ecoregion East Central Texas Plains ecoregion Ozark Ouachita Appalachian Forests Edit Ridge and Valley ecoregion Central Appalachians ecoregion Western Allegheny Plateau ecoregion Blue Ridge ecoregion Ozark Highlands ecoregion Boston Mountains ecoregion Arkansas Valley ecoregion Ouachita Mountains ecoregion Southwestern Appalachians ecoregion Mississippi Alluvial and Southeast USA Coastal Plains Edit Middle Atlantic Coastal Plain ecoregion Mississippi Alluvial Plain ecoregion Southern Coastal Plain ecoregion Atlantic Coastal Pine Barrens ecoregion Humid Gulf of Mexico Coastal Plains and Hills Edit This section is empty You can help by adding to it April 2013 Tropical Wet Forests Edit Tropical Wet Forest canopy The Tropical Wet Forests ecoregion in North America includes the southern tip of the Florida Peninsula in the United States within Mexico the Gulf Coastal Plain the western and southern part of the Pacific Coastal Plain most of the Yucatan Peninsula and the lowlands of the Chiapas Sierra Madre which continue south to Central and South America 67 Climate Edit The tropical wet forests of North America have an average year round temperatures between 68 and 78 8 F Thus frost does not occur under these conditions 68 The temperatures remain fairly uniform throughout the year therefore there is not a change of seasons There is also no dry season as all months experience precipitation The average annual precipitation ranges from eight to fourteen feet per year The high levels of precipitation usually cause poor soil quality because soluble nutrients are lost due to the nutrient leaching process The average humidity is between 77 and 88 Nine out of twelve months of the year are considered wet months The overall climate of the tropical wet forests ecoregion can best be described as humid warm and wet George Hadley a scientist who researched during the 18th century suggested that warm tropical air rises and moves north Colder high latitude air flows south nearer to the Earth s surface where it displaces the former air Hadley s explanation is highly accepted and still expanded upon today The warm moist air in tropical wet forests is unstable meaning as soon as the air rises it becomes saturated 69 In addition there are large amounts of heat or convection occurring at the same time The vast bulk of vertical movement of air occurs in the Hadley cell and thus provides an explanation for the global circulation patterns 70 The direction of the wind at various levels of the atmosphere determines local climate and can result in severe weather patterns For example in an El Nino winter the presence of warm water in the eastern Pacific Ocean can shift the position of a subtropical jet stream This results in heavy rainfall in the tropical wet forest ecoregion Also in a warming climate the Hadley cell could increase the severity of climate As a result the ecoregion may become hotter and wetter for longer periods of time 71 Hydrology Edit Hydrology in Tropical Wet Rainforests keeps the flow of water throughout the ecosystem which nourishes plants keeps local aquifers and rivers active and the environment in the area functioning 72 The watershed and basin pattern have three major contexts first low gradient drainage second typically high ground water table and third extensive drainage canal network This idea applies to all areas but have unique outcomes in Tropical Wet Rain Forests in North America specifically Tropical Wet Rainforests have an excess of vegetation compared to many other ecoregion types such as savannahs and therefore have a much slower drainage rate than other ecosystems 73 When an ecosystem has a high ground water table it separates the time between drainage and absorption of water in an area It helps organisms to absorb nutrients while also slowly filling up aquifers in the ecosystem So primarily the down time between rainfall and drainage is slowed due to vegetation and climate but now due to the vastness of the ecosystem the drainage canal network is large and water can fall in one place and end up in many other places at the end of the draining process 73 Geology topography and soil Edit Wet tropical forests in North America span from sea level to an altitude of 1 000 metres 3 300 ft They have particular geologic topographic and soil conditions that characterize them These characteristics influence biotic structures and relationships and have contributed to the high biodiversity of the ecoregion The geology of these forests is primarily composed of folded and metamorphic hills which are covered by a thin layer of alluvium loose sediments and soil 74 The bedrock is sedimentary and rich in silica and dates back to the Precenozoic periods when much of the region was underwater 75 The topography of wet tropical forests includes valleys hills ridges and low mountains Depending on elevation and the location of such features areas as referred to as either lowland or highland 76 These elevation and topographical changes allow for a higher variety of specialized conditions which increases habitat The inclination changes or slope of the forest floor greatly affects water drainage and the leaching of nutrients and valleys can have an accumulation of sediments and nutrients versus plateaus and ridges 77 But the most important topographic characteristic is the extensive network of rivers that weave across the landscape acting as a drainage system to the forest that can receive upwards of 250 inches of rain a year 78 Tropical Forest river The soils in wet tropical forests are some of the most diverse of any region and they are the cause for many biological adaptations There is a combination of highly weathered and leached soils as well as less weathered alluvial soils categorized as oxisols and ultisols 79 Their pH can vary immensely sometimes being as acidic as 4 0 The soils are generally shallow often only a few inches deep The soil is produced from decomposing organic matter and the breakdown of bedrock but is generally poor in nutrients most nutrients are found as superficial detritus and within the living components of the ecosystem There are multiple reasons for why the soil is generally very poor in nutrients Firstly the warm and humid climate allows for a rapid decomposition rate meaning that nutrients do not stay present in or on top of the soil for long before being absorbed by the biota Secondly the acidity of the soil caused by the few cation exchange sites to be occupied by hydrogen ions increases the loss of minerals such as iron aluminium oxides and phosphorus Thirdly leaching which is the continuous downward movement and loss of solutes and minerals from the soil happens regularly due to the heavy rainfall 80 An observer would not be able to tell that the soil is poor from the lush dense vegetation in these wet tropical forests but shortly after an area of forest is cleared for agriculture usually through slash and burn the small amount of nutrients wash away and the soil becomes infertile 81 The ecosystems have developed highly specialized ways of mitigating effects such as leaching but these functions are fragile and need to be protected This includes tree adaptations such as buttress roots and thick root mats that grow laterally along the forest floor These adaptations mitigate nutrient loss by capturing the nutrients in falling detritus before the nutrients are absorbed and decomposed into the soil and lost from leaching by the heavy rains 82 The geologic topographic and soil changes across wet tropical forest ecosystems has contributed to the astonishing biodiversity in biota we see today Buttress roots Plant communities Edit The plant communities of the tropical wet forest are the most diverse abundant and lush plant life in the world The plants define the tropical wet forest by contributing to ecosystem functions such as producing nourished rainfall and storing atmospheric carbon Tropical wet forests are characterized by the complex physical structure of the ecosystem There are many layers of plant communities though they are rarely visible from the ground Shrubs and creepers fill the forest floor with saplings dispersed throughout Large trees hold their full crowns in the canopy prohibiting sunlight to plants below Beneath the canopy of trees lies a network of stout branches thick limbs and climbers Sometimes even above these trees the largest of canopies fill the sky like individual islands 83 Large trees such as the pacque allspice and breadnut tree provide habitat for most animal species and other plant species The leaves are usually oval thick and waxy with pointed drip tips to alleviate water collection Roots are often buttressed flaring from above ground radiated across the forest floor or stilted as prop roots Lichens orchids and mosses cover the trunks of trees retaining moisture and hosting small invertebrates Most tropical trees have large colorful fragrant blossoms and plump fruits perfect feeding for animals and insects 83 Climbers hemiepiphytes and epiphytes are the major groups of non tree species although they tend to inhabit trees Climbers provide a road system in canopies for motile animals 84 Vines are large in biomass and are an essential food source to many fauna Hemiepiphytes have the most unusual growth forms and are parasitic to larger trees Epiphytes claim space on a branch and set roots trap minimal soil and photosynthesize They adhere tightly to the bark of trees but are not internally parasitic As rain forests become drier and more disturbed these native species become more rare The loss of these plant communities severely affects the world in regard to increase of carbon dioxide high floods and impure water Key animal species Edit Jaguar Biouniverzoo The two main keystone species of the Tropical Wet Forest ecoregion are the American crocodile and the Mexican jaguar They are both top predators and influence the population of their pray American crocodiles create habitat for many creatures through their water holes and the paths they create Their diet consists of fish snails birds frogs and mammals that come to the water s edge 85 Males can grow up to 15 feet long and weigh up to 2 000 pounds while females range from 8 13 feet Their average life span is around 45 years Females lay a clutch between 20 and 60 eggs which hatch after an average of 85 days The mother leaves the young to fend for themselves after a few days 86 The jaguar is the third largest cat in the world and the largest in North America It is between 5 and 8 feet nose to tail and weighs between 140 and 300 pounds Their average lifespan in the wild is 12 16 years while in captivity it ranges from 20 to 27 years They have been observed to prey on around 85 different species the most common of which are terrestrial mammals they prefer giant anteaters capybaras 87 Females become sexually mature around 2 3 years while males become sexually mature around 3 4 years They have a gestation period about 100 days and give birth to an average litter of 2 cubs The cubs are able to open their eyes after about 8 days and are able to walk 10 days after that They stay with their mother for a year and half 88 Natural resources Edit Tropical wet forests are known for their wide diversity of natural resources Historically the primary harvestable products they produce are from plants including exotic lumber such as mahogany red cedar and also gum tree for rubber Other plants that can be utilized from this region include common food items such as bananas cacao oranges coffee sesame alfalfa cotton and a variety of peppers Following Spanish and English colonization of the area there was a shift towards larger scaled agriculture plantations With these plantations came increased production of sugar cane beans pineapples and chiles as well as an increase in harvesting of precious lumbers This trend continued largely up into the 1960s when large swaths of land were cleared to make room for cattle ranches Consecutively came the influx from the petrochemical industry to extract the vast reservoirs of oil that exist underground This new development led to even larger portions of land being cleared for oil drilling sites and roads compounding the existing problem of deforestation in the region One ray of hope for the future of natural resource procurement in tropical wet forests is the search for medicinally valuable plant secondary compounds Plants that contain compounds that can treat ailments ranging from analgesics antibiotics heart drugs enzymes hormones diuretics anti parasitics dentifrices laxatives dysentery treatments anti coagulants and hundreds more exist and could prove to be a valuable economically viable as well as sustainable alternative to current resources being utilized in the area Environmental threats Edit Deforestation is the main threat to the North Americans tropical wet forests and has devastating consequences Deforestation causes habitat loss and habitat fragmentation which have drastic effects on biodiversity 89 Deforestation of tropical wet forests has caused many native species to become endangered or extinct at an alarming rate The Tropical Wet Forests around the global are being deforested at an alarming rate For example some counties like Florida have lost 50 90 of their tropical wet forest habitat and Costa Rica has lost about 90 91 Protection of the tropical wet forests we have left is very important for its continued existence Many Reserves have been created in an attempt to protect the little we have left of these forests Some examples of this in the United States are Florida s Everglades National Park and the Big Cypress National Preserve Another important tool for the continued existence of tropical wet forests is Restoration There have been successful restoration projects of a tropical wet forest with native species in Costa Rica These restoration projects have been shown to significantly improve the native animal and plant species survival 92 It is necessary for good management plans to be developed if we are to use tropical wet forests sustainably Endangered species threats and conservation Edit Harpy eagle The IUCN Red List has 65 521 species listed as threatened in the tropical wet forests 93 The Harpia harpyja harpy eagle is one threatened species in the tropical wet forests they are the largest neotropical bird of prey nest in the tallest trees prey mostly on animals that live in trees lay between 1 2 eggs but only allowing 1 egg to hatch reproduce every 2 4 years and reaches sexual maturity between the ages of 4 and 5 94 95 The harpy eagle is suffering because of slow reproductive rates hunting food competition fragmentation and habitat destruction 94 There are many orchid species that are threatened in the tropical wet forests Orchids are a smart plant that manipulate other species into pollinating them and once pollinated they produce seeds that are eventually released in hopes to be carried to a specific type of fungi depending on the orchid where it will attach for mycorrhizal symbioses and then bloom after a few years or decades depending on the environment and species 96 97 98 Many orchid species are suffering because of overharvesting burning clearing and development 99 Many efforts are being done to help save both species Spreading knowledge educating creating reserves and coming up with alternatives are the top three actions being done to conserve both species 100 101 Effects of climate change Edit Over the last 100 years the Earth s temperature has increased 0 6 degrees Celsius and it is predicted to increase an additional 3 5 degrees over the next century 102 Tropical wet forests account for only 6 of earth s land surface yet are responsible for 40 of earth s oxygen production 103 Any type of change to this system can prove to have significant detrimental effects in terms of global oxygen availability In addition due to the sensitivity and fragile interactions between organisms and the atmosphere ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration rates will experience even larger adverse effects Amounts of precipitation and moisture availability are also areas of concern Global precipitation is expected to rise two fold in tropical areas This will cause shifts in vegetation as moist forest species expand into new areas of moisture Increasing atmospheric emissions also plays an integral role in precipitation patterns 104 Annual rainfall is projected to decrease across the Everglades National Park causing a hydrologic change across the entire region Dry vegetative communities will outnumber hydric vegetative communities in this particular area 105 Furthermore a one degree increase in atmospheric temperature is the result from a doubling of atmospheric CO2 Effects of this increase on forest soil temperature include reduced tree growth and higher decomposition rates of deep soil organic matter 106 Ultimately as the forests become a larger carbon source to the atmosphere ecosystem services cease to function and the delicate balance found in the tropics is disrupted the climate warming cycle intensifies The iconic ecosystems of the region Edit An iconic ecosystem of this region is the complex interaction and the variety of biota along with fairly consistent abiotic factors even though this eco region covers roughly seven percent of the earth s surface its tree community is the most diverse on the planet 107 It would not be unusual to have 100 different tree species coexisting within a one hectare plot 108 The tree community contains many broad leafed evergreen trees which form a high canopy 30 40 meters above the ground 109 The understory contains a variety of more shade tolerant plants which is a necessity for survival due to the thick canopy above The vegetation is spatially heterogeneous 110 This plant community survives in nutrient poor soils conditions making disturbances such as deforestation to have greater effects because regeneration of the forest takes much longer Tributaries and river systems have formed from the large amount of rainfall and typically carry a lot of sediments but increase water demands and the construction of dams can further alter and strain these ecosystems 111 Humid Gulf of Mexico Coastal Plain ecoregion Humid Gulf of Mexico Coastal Hills ecoregion Plain and Hills of the Yucatan Peninsula Edit Yucatan Peninsula Plain Deciduous Tropical Forest ecoregion Yucatan Peninsula Plain Semi Evergreen Tropical Forest ecoregion Yucatan Peninsula Hills ecoregion Sierra Los Tuxtlas Edit Los Tuxtlas SierraEverglades Edit Southern Florida Coastal Plain ecoregion Western Pacific Plain and Hills Edit Nayarit and Sinaloa Plain ecoregion Jalisco Nayarit Hills and Plains ecoregion Coastal Plain and Hills of Soconusco Edit Coastal Plain and Hills of Soconusco ecoregion References Edit Azevedo F C C Murray D L 2007 Spatial organization and food habits of jaguars panthera onca in a floodplain forest Biological Conservation 137 3 391 402 doi 10 1016 j biocon 2007 02 022 Bailey R G 2009 Ecoregions of the United States New York NY Springer New York Retrieved from 4 permanent dead link BirdLife International 2012 Harpia harpyja In IUCN 2012 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species Version 2012 2 Retrieved 24 February 2013 from www iucnredlist org Botany Wisconsin Tropical Rainforests Lecture Retrieved 28 February 2013 from http www botany wisc edu courses botany 422 Lecture Lect05TropRain html Bryant F 2013 Florida fish and wildlife conservation commission Retrieved from http myfwc com Cain M L Bowman W D amp Hacker S D 2011 The Physical Environment Ecology 2nd ed pp 54 55 Sunderland Sinauer Associates Catternal Carla P Freeman Amanda N D Kanowski John Freebody Kylie 2012 Can active restoration of tropical rainforest rescue biodiversity A case with bird community indicators Conservation Biology 146 1 53 61 doi 10 1016 j biocon 2011 10 033 Clark David B Clark Deborah A 2006 Tree growth mortality physical condition and microsite in an old growth lowland tropical rain forest Ecology 87 8 2132 2133 doi 10 1890 0012 9658 2006 87 2132 tgmpca 2 0 co 2 S2CID 86116500 Climate Tropical Rain Forest N p n d Web 24 February 2013 from http www marietta edu biol biomes troprain htm Coley P D 1998 Possible effects of climate change on plant herbivore interaction in moist tropical forests Climatic Change 39 2 3 445 475 doi 10 1023 A 1005307620024 S2CID 154230857 Commission for Environmental Cooperation 1997 Ecological Regions of North America Retrieved 12 March 2013 from ftp ftp epa gov wed ecoregions cec na CEC NAeco pdf Davis S M Gunderson L H Park W A Richardson J R and Mattson J E 1994 Landscape dimension composition and function in a changing Everglades ecosystem In Everglades The Ecosystem and Its Restoration S M Davis and J C Ogden eds pp 419 44 Deborah A Clark Regeneration of canopy trees in tropical wet forests Trends in Ecology amp Evolution Volume 1 Issue 6 December 1986 Pages 150 154 doi 10 1016 0169 5347 86 90043 1 General circulation of the atmosphere n d Retrieved from https web archive org web 20130509072426 http www nc climate ncsu edu edu k12 atmosphere circulation Ghazoul J amp Sheil D 2010 Tropical rain forest ecology diversity and conservation Oxford Oxford University Press Guernsey Paul TYPES OF ENDANGERED RAINFOREST ANIMALS All About Wildlife RSS Paul Guernsey 24 February 2013 from http www allaboutwildlife com types of endangered rainforest animals Holste E Kobe R and Vriesendorp C 2011 Seedling growth responses to soil resources in the understory of a wet tropical forest Ecology 2011 Volume 92 Issue 9 Pages 1828 1838 http www esajournals org doi pdf 10 1890 10 1697 1 permanent dead link Kricher J C 2011 Tropical ecology Princeton N J Princeton University Press Kushnir Y 2000 General circulation and climate zones Retrieved from http eesc columbia edu courses ees climate lectures gen circ index html Leopold A Carl 2005 Toward Restoration of a Wet Tropical Forest in Costa Rica A Ten Year Report Ecology Restoratioon 23 4 230 234 Lerner H L Johnson J A Lindsay A R Kiff L F amp Mindell D P 2009 It s not too Late for the Harpy Eagle Harpia harpyja High Levels Of Genetic Diversity and Differentiation Can Fuel Conservation Programs Retrieved 24 February Plos ONE 4 10 1 10 doi 10 1371 journal pone 0007336 Lindsey R Simmon R March 30 2007 Tropical Deforestation NASA earth observatory Retrieved from http earthobservatory nasa gov Features Deforestation Losos Elizabeth C Leigh Egbert G 2004 Tropical Forest Diversity and Dynamism Findings From a Large Scale Plot Network Published by The University of Chicago Press Chicago Mazzotti F 1999 American crocodiles crocodylus acutus in Florida Retrieved from http edis ifas ufl edu uw157 Mazzotti F Best G Brandt L Cherkiss M Jeffery B Rice K 2009 Alligators and crocodiles as indicators for restoration of everglades ecosystems Ecological Indicators 9 6 S137 S149 doi 10 1016 j ecolind 2008 06 008 National Park Florida Ecohydrology 5 326 336 Rainforest Conservation Fund 2013 L Tropical Soils Retrieved 2 March 2013 from http www rainforestconservation org rainforest primer rainforest primer table of contents l tropical soils Schwndenmann L Veldkamp E 2006 Long term CO2 production from deeply weathered soils of a tropical rain forest evidence for a potential positive feedback to climate warming Global Change Biology 12 10 1878 1893 Bibcode 2006GCBio 12 1878S doi 10 1111 j 1365 2486 2006 01235 x S2CID 59031870 Sibona T 2001 Tropical Rainforest Blue Planet Biomes Retrieved 2 March 2013 from http www blueplanetbiomes org rainforest htm The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species Retrieved February 24 2013 from http www iucnredlist org Todd M J Muneepeerakul R Miralles Wilhelm F Rinaldo A and Rodriguez Iturbe I 2012 Possible climate change impacts on the hydrological and vegetative character of EvergladesTropical rain forests n d Retrieved from http www marietta edu biol biomes troprain htm Turner I M 1996 Species Loss in Fragments of Tropical Rain Forest A Review of the Evidence Journal of Applied Ecology 33 2 200 209 doi 10 2307 2404743 JSTOR 2404743 Wright S J 2010 The future of tropical forests Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1195 1 1 27 Bibcode 2010NYASA1195 1W doi 10 1111 j 1749 6632 2010 05455 x PMID 20536814 S2CID 13965367 North American Deserts EditIntroduction Edit The North American Deserts include both cold and hot deserts which supply a variety of climates Due to this fact they are often used for agricultural business or petroleum purposes These factors have been taking a toll on the desert climate organisms and landscape These deserts are the Mojave Sonoran Chihuahuan and the Great Basin Plant communities Edit The North American Deserts are home to a variety of plant species These plants are categorized as either xerophytes adapted to the arid conditions of the desert or phreatophytes which are plants with very deep roots that are dependent on a permanent water supply and survive by tapping groundwater 112 Agave lophantha These species have come to possess several adaptations that allow them to survive and thrive in these dry and harsh conditions One of the most common of these species is the barrel cactus Echinocactus and Ferocactus This plant was important to Native Americans and served a number of purposes including use for food and water and creating fish hooks from the spines Another common species is the Shin Digger Agave lechuguilla With its shallow roots it is able to take in a large quantity of water and store it in its pedals for extended periods of time 113 The Ocotillo Fouquieria splendens is another plant frequently found in this area which is a very unusually shaped plant Because of this it is often referred to as a vine cactus This plant has an adaptive ability to photosynthesize during very dry conditions and gather large quantities of water when it is available 114 The Great Basin is also home to the oldest species in the world the bristlecone pine Pinus longaeva Its needles allow it to retain water and use very little of it during its lifetime It is able to grow on exposed rocky surfaces in higher elevations about forested areas With these advantages come some drawbacks including its very slow growth rate which leaves it vulnerable to being out competed by faster growing trees 115 Dominant characteristic species Edit There are a variety of mammals that define the North American Deserts such as the bighorn sheep mule deer white tailed deer ground squirrel coyote prairie dog cottontail rabbit desert packrat and mountain lion There are a number of birds and reptiles that thrive in these ecosystems as well The cactus wren Gambel s quail burrowing owl red tailed hawk hummingbird desert tortoise and vulture to name a few An example of a keystone species in the North American deserts would be the coyote or mountain lion These two predators can control the population and distribution of a large number of prey species A single mountain lion can roam an area of hundreds of kilometers in which deer rabbits and bird species are partly controlled by a predator of this caliber They will change the feeding behavior or where they decide to nest or burrow is largely a reaction to the mountain lions activity Another example such as the hummingbird new plants or animals could also come into the habitat and push out native species In the Sonoran Desert the hummingbird pollinates many native species of cactus and other plants The hummingbirds in this region such as the Costa s hummingbird have evolved to have very long beaks and tongues that wrap around the skull in order to reach the nectar for that sweet sugar staple Topography geology and soils Edit The Great Basin Desert is the only Cold desert bordered by the Rocky Mountain range to the east and the Sierra Nevada Cascade to the west The northernmost part of the desert lies 2 000 metres 6 600 ft above sea level and due to high summer temperatures not all of the fallen precipitation is fully absorbed into the soil resulting in a high sodium concentration 116 In other areas mountain erosion has caused deep soils of fine particles which allows for standing lakes The Mojave lies between the Sonoran south and the Great Basin north Here soil is shallow rocky and dry The average elevation is between 3 000 6 000 feet 910 1 830 m above sea level The Mojave has several mountain range boundaries the Garlock and the San Andres They are made up of the two largest faults in the state of California The Sonoran is referred to as the Base and Range geologic province Here the Mogollon rim exists of sandstone and limestone piled over millions of years The basin and valley were made from volcanic eruption 40 million years ago and the underlying rock is made primarily of cretaceous aged granites The Chihuahuan desert is made up of calcareous soils that have a high pH and calcium concentration The soil is thin sandy and gravel like and rests atop deep layers of limestone Higher elevations allow water to sink deeper into soils that are made of finer particles and deep sedimentary fans exist Limestone beds show that this desert was at one point fully submerged beneath the sea This desert features elevations ranging from 1 200 metres 3 900 ft above sea level to 350 metres 1 150 ft below Hydrology Edit There are common patterns of hydrological cycles throughout the North American Deserts but specifics of times and source of water range All four deserts rely on rivers precipitation and underground aquifers to replenish their water supply 117 The water in the North American desert is mainly freshwater There is an ephemeral flow of underground water during the wet seasons that slows during each sub desert s dry season 118 Oases form in all four deserts when the groundwater reaches the surface and pools in the hollows of the desert basins 119 Being surrounded by mountains provides a rain shadow effect that contributes to the dry climate and creates the desert ecosystem 120 All four deserts experience times of drought and times of intense precipitation 121 The Colorado River flows through the Mojave Great Basin and Sonoran desert 117 But differences in seasonal rain create the differing hydrological cycles The Great Basin receives most its rainfall in the winter 117 This leads to creation of playa lakes in the spring as the snowfall melts and flows down surrounding mountains 122 The Sonoran Desert has a bimodal precipitation pattern that includes winter storms and summer monsoons which help sustain flora 123 The Chihuahuan Desert relies primarily on its intense summer monsoon for water During the summer is when the area sees the accumulation of playa lakes 119 They may all have similar characteristics but the difference in location and evaluation attribute to the diversity of their hydrological sources and cycles Although the Northern American Deserts are characteristically dry they still contain the water necessary to fuel their ecosystem and sustain the life of humans animals and plants alike Climate Edit North American deserts can be categorized by climate categories of hot and cold deserts The cold deserts include the Thompson Okanagan Plateau Columbian Plateau Northern and Central Basins Colorado Plateaus and the Snake River Plane All of these North American Deserts are included in the cold category which indicates that they have a dry mid latitude steppe or desert climate These areas are affected by their interior position within the continent leading to broader temperature ranges and considerable rainfall More specifically these areas are affected by the rain shadow created by neighboring mountain ranges acting as a barrier to westerly flowing air carrying moisture All of these cold deserts experience about 100 300 mm of precipitation in a year indicating a semi arid climate The warm deserts of North America include The Mojave Basin and Range the Sonoran desert and the Chihuahuan desert These areas have a tropical desert climate and are known as the hottest and driest place on the continent This is due to the continental interior location on the leeward side of mountains with constant subtropical high pressures The high temperatures throughout the year are due to the high percentage of sunshine caused by high sun angles Increased distance from a body of water leads to a lack of clouds which is associated with much cooler nighttime temperatures because all the heat of the day is lost The only source of water in the warm deserts is an oasis this creates an arid climate in the area distinguishable by the lack of moisture in the soil due to annual precipitation being less than half of the annual potential evapotranspiration Ecological concerns Edit The North American Desert biome is facing a variety of ecological threats Human disturbance poses the number one concern to this fragile ecosystem The Sonoran desert contains the two large cities of Tucson and Phoenix Arizona which contain over 3 million people 124 These dense human populations deplete the water table of the entire desert and are sending the desert towards desertification Also the Chihuahuan desert is seeing the effects of agricultural expansions invasive species illegal poaching and extractions of resources such as salt lime and sand 125 These activities in the desert lead to eventual desertification and a loss of overall biodiversity A number of organizations such as the United States Nature Conservancy and the World Wildlife Fund have begun working together to conserve the threatened desert ecosystem The less heavily populated areas of the desert are being sought out and conserved in order to prevent future human habitation and disturbance 124 Also several organizations are now monitoring the use and health of the Rio Grande system located in the Chihuahuan desert while also building new low tech water treatment facilities that will help to prevent overall water table depletion The World Wildlife Fund is replanting disturbed upland vegetation in order to retain species habitat and biodiversity These measures are helping to protect and preserve the four North American Desert ecosystems Endangered species Edit The giant kangaroo rat is one of the most peculiar looking rodents around The Dipodomys ingens can grow up to 34 7 centimeters in length and have a tail of up to 19 8 centimeters long They can weigh up to 180 grams It is mainly found in the San Joaquin Valley in California The giant kangaroo rat forages for food from sunset to sunrise Its diet consists mainly of seeds that are sun dried and some greenery They store food in their cheeks until they bring it back to their burrow systems where they store food that could last them up to 2 years of drought The giant kangaroo rats develop rather quickly Depending on the environmental conditions they can reproduce after about 5 months Their litter size varies but averages about 3 75 offspring These rodents are rather resilient when it comes to surviving under natural conditions such as drought and low plant productivity However when the human factor is introduced they have a much less successful survival rate Aqueducts and other water projects started crisscrossing the giant kangaroo rat habitat Agriculture moved in because of the new water routes and suddenly the habitat of many species became agricultural land 126 Kangaroo rats became a pest for farmers and rodenticide treated grain became common practice which took out another chunk of their population Nichol s Turk s head cactus Echinocactus horizonthalonius var nicholii is one of multiple species of Echinocactus horizonthalonius The Nichol s Turk s head cactus ranges from blue green to yellow green It tends to be around 46 centimeters tall and has about a 20 centimeter diameter It has 8 ribs that are lined with spines The cactus blooms from April to May with a purple flower and white hairy fruit 127 Like many cacti it is rather slow growing at a rate of just 2 inches in 10 years due to minimal nutrient input 128 Its habitat is located mainly in the Vekol and Waterman Mountains in Arizona and it has a population in the Sierra del Viejo Mountains of northwestern Sonora 129 The cactus is particularly fond of Horquilla limestone outcrops 130 The biggest threats to these cacti are habitat loss to new development vehicle off roading damage mining and human collection Among other threats erosion from foot traffic from drug and human trafficking in the area Climate change Edit North American Deserts as in most arid systems experience water and temperature change as the most limiting factors in this ecoregion Climate change s major effects thus far have been an increase in average annual temperature as well as an increase in average annual rainfall The most prevalent factor is the increase in rainfall events and the severity of the events Between 1931 and 2000 there have been measurable increases in seasonal rainfall during the summertime monsoon in the southern United States and northern Mexico Because of this increase in rainfall changes in the vegetative cover have caused native species to disappear and invasive species populations to rise The kangaroo rat which also supported Mojave rattlesnake and burying owl populations has essentially disappeared from the Chihuahan Desert while the non native Bailey s pocket mouse has colonized the area Increased rainfall has also led to decrease in soil quality and less vegetative cover which leads to increasingly higher temperatures In the Sonoran Desert anthropogenic land degradation as well as natural erosion from increased rainfall has caused a 4 5 degree increase in average afternoon temperatures which means for many species less available water and nutrients they need to survive These effects will lead to less biodiversity in the area which is one of the main combatant factors that biota have against climate change As the effects of climate change continue to develop North American Deserts will be increasingly affected leading worsening biodiversity loss and decreases in the ecoregion productivity Deserts are one of the most delicate ecosystems relying on limited water and nutrient sources to survive When these careful relationships are disturbed by the unpredictable and worsening effects of climate change it will be very hard for these ecosystems to recover or endure Bailey s pocket mouse Natural resources Edit In the North American Deserts there are emerging natural resources within the ecosystem A few natural resources within the desert consist of oil sunlight copper zinc and water 131 Some of these resources are renewable and some are non renewable Most of these resources are being exploited by humans and most actions are not sustainable Sunlight is one of the deserts most important resource as it is renewable and has sustainable exploitations Deserts within North America tend to have fields of solar panels so they can reuse the sun as energy Areas such as New Mexico Texas Arizona and the Great Basin area put up fields for green energy 132 We monitored how the sun provides energy for resources such as plants and animals we decided to make solar panels to produce energy for us 131 Water is also a resource found in the desert that can be reused and has sustainable exploitations Oil is the most exploited resource within the deserts In the North American desert most of the oil is found within the Great Basin region and this resource is non renewable 133 Oil is mined out of rocks and creates massive holes that disrupt the ecosystem 134 The process with taking oil is not sustainable and this resource is scarce Another resource that is mined is copper Along with oil this resource is also scarce as it is non renewable and also has the same mining affects as oil does This resource can be used for things such as computers TVs cell phones and other electronics 133 Copper is mainly found in California 133 Other mined resources consist of zinc uranium rocks jade crystals gold and quartz 132 Notes Edit a b Ecological Regions of North America Toward a Common Perspective PDF Commission for Environmental Cooperation 1997 Archived PDF from the original on 2018 09 15 Retrieved 2008 04 10 Ecoregion Maps and GIS Resources United States Environmental Protection Agency Retrieved 2008 04 10 Arctic Cordillera Bell Trevor Arctic Cordillera Ecozone Natural Environment J R Smallwood Centre for Newfoundland Studies November 2002 Web Government of Canada 12 19 2012 Human Activity and the Environment Statistics Canada Retrieved March 10 2013 from http www statcan gc ca pub 16 201 x 2007000 10542 eng htm Jeffers Jennifer Climate Change and the Arctic Adapting to Changes in Fisheries Stocks and Governance Regimes Ecology Law Quarterly 37 3 2010 917 66 ELQ Web Landforms and Climate of the Arctic Cordillera Ecozone Hydrology of Canada 2007 01 09 Bernhardt Torsten Canadian Biodiversity Ecozones Arctic Cordillera Archived from the original on 2008 01 27 Retrieved 2013 04 27 Prowse Terry D Furgal Chris Bonsal Barrie R Peters Daniel L 1 July 2009 Climate Impacts on Northern Canada Regional Background Ambio A Journal of the Human Environment 38 5 248 256 doi 10 1579 0044 7447 38 5 248 PMID 19714957 S2CID 9710763 Kerr R 2002 A warmer arctic means change for all August 30 2002 Retrieved from http sfx uvm edu UVM March 11 2013 Durner G M 2009 November 05 Polar bear sea ice relationships Alaska science center Richardson E 2009 Polar Bear Life History and Population Dynamics InfoNorth Retrieved from http pubs aina ucalgary ca arctic Arctic62 4 491 pdf Pagano A M Durner G M Amstrup S C Simac K S York G S 27 April 2012 Long distance swimming by polar bears Ursus maritimus of the southern Beaufort Sea during years of extensive open water Can J Zool 90 5 663 676 doi 10 1139 z2012 033 Conservation of Polar Bears in Canada Government of Canada Environment Canada N p 20 August 2012 Web 25 February 2013 Fellin D and J Dewey March 1992 Western Spruce Budworm Forest Insect amp Disease Leaflet 53 U S Forest Service Retrieved on September 14 2008 Kokelj S V Burn C R 2003 Drunken forest and near surface ground ice in Mackenzie Delta Northwest Territories Canada In Marcia Phillips Sarah Springman Lukas Arenson Proceedings of the 8th Int l Conf on Permafrost Rotterdam A A Balkema ISBN 9058095827 Retrieved 2 April 2013 Bowhead Whale Balaena Mysticetus Office of Protected Resources NOAA Fisheries Bowhead Whale Balaena Mysticetus Office of Protected Resources NOAA Fisheries NOAA Fisheries Office of Protected Resources 5 December 2012 Web 24 February 2013 a b Finley K J 2001 Natural History and Conservation of the Greenland Whale or Bowhead in the Northwest Atlantic Arctic 54 1 55 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 500 2600 doi 10 14430 arctic764 Lambertsen R H Rasmussen K J Lancaster W C Hintz R J 2005 Functional Morphology of the Mouth of the Bowhead Whale and its Implications for Conservation Journal of Mammalogy 96 2 342 352 doi 10 1644 ber 123 1 Society National Geographic Animals Animal Pictures Wild Animal Facts Nat Geo Wild National Geographic Arctic Wolf Arctic Tundra Archived from the original on 2013 03 07 Retrieved 2013 04 08 Chernov I I 1985 8 The living tundra pp 174 176 Cambridge Cambridge University Press Tundra Animals Tundra Animals n d Tundra Animals Retrieved March 11 2013 from http www tundraanimals net Tundra Threats 2013 Public Land Order 2214 2008 Purposes of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge Alaska Endangered Plants Alaska Nature Explore the Wonders of Alaska Endangered Animals in the Tundra Animal Port a b Overpeck et al 1997harvnb error no target CITEREFOverpeck et al1997 help a b Budzik 2009 a b USEIA 2012 Dowie 2009 Fletcher B Gornal Poyatos Press Stoy Huntley Baxter 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