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Horizon Guyot

February 06, 2023

Horizon Guyot is a presumably Cretaceous guyot (tablemount) in the Mid-Pacific Mountains, Pacific Ocean. It is an elongated ridge, over 300 kilometres (190 mi) long and 4.3 kilometres (2.7 mi) high, that stretches in a northeast-southwest direction and has two flat tops; it rises to a minimum depth of 1,443 metres (4,730 ft). The Mid-Pacific Mountains lie west of Hawaii and northeast of the Line Islands.

Horizon Guyot
Summit depth1,443 metres (4,734 ft)
Location
Coordinates19°07.9′N 169°27.6′W / 19.1317°N 169.4600°W / 19.1317; -169.4600[1]
Geology
TypeGuyot
Horizon
class=notpageimage|
Location in the North Pacific Ocean

It was probably formed by a hotspot, but the evidence is conflicting. Volcanic activity occurred during the Turonian-Cenomanian eras 100.5–89.8 million years ago and another stage has been dated to have occurred 88–82 million years ago. Between these volcanic episodes, carbonate deposition from lagoonal and reefal environments set in and formed limestone. Volcanic islands developed on Horizon Guyot as well and were colonised by plants.

Horizon Guyot became a seamount during the Coniacian-Campanian period. Since then, pelagic ooze has accumulated on the seamount, forming a thick layer that is further modified by ocean currents and by various organisms that live on the seamount; sediments also underwent landsliding. Ferromanganese crusts were deposited on exposed rocks.

Name and research history

The seamount is named after the research vessel RV Horizon[2] and is also known as Horizon Ridge,[3] Horizon Tablemount, Gora Khorayzn and Гора Хорайзн.[4] During the Deep Sea Drilling Project, the drill cores called Site 44 and Site 171 were taken on Horizon Guyot in 1969 and 1971, respectively;[5][6] a further drill core was obtained north of the seamount at Site 313[7] in 1973.[8] This seamount is the best studied seamount of the Mid-Pacific Mountains[9] and more is known about its morphology than any other seamount of the Mid-Pacific Mountains.[10]

Geography and geology

Local setting

Horizon Guyot lies west of Hawaii[1] and is part of the Mid-Pacific Mountains.[11] Unlike conventional island chains in the Pacific Ocean, the Mid-Pacific Mountains feature an oceanic plateau[12] with guyots[13] (also known as tablemounts[14]) which become progressively younger towards the east.[15] Other guyots in the Mid-Pacific Mountains are Sio South, Darwin, Thomas, Heezen, Allen, Caprina, Jacqueline, Allison[16] and Resolution.[13] South of Horizon Guyot, deep water in the "Horizon passage" leads into the Line Islands[17][18] and Horizon Guyot is sometimes considered to be a member of that chain.[19]

The seamount rises 3.4 kilometres (2.1 mi)[20]-3.5 kilometres (2.2 mi)[21] to a minimum depth of 1,443 metres (4,734 ft)[20]–1,440 metres (4,720 ft), and is a ridge 75 kilometres (47 mi) wide and over 300 kilometres (190 mi) long;[3][21] Horizon Guyot is the largest seamount in the Mid-Pacific Mountains.[22] It trends in a southwest-northeast direction[23] with an orientation matching that of other structures in the region[24] such as fracture zones on the seafloor.[25] Faulting has been observed on the western side of the seamount.[26]

Two summit platforms lie on the ridge.[3] The eastern one is the larger of these platforms[27] and the western oval-shaped platform lies close to the western end of the ridge.[2] These platforms are relatively flat and are surrounded by a slope break beyond which the guyot falls off steeply to the surrounding abyssal plain.[3] This appearance characterises Horizon Guyot as a guyot[28] although the elongated shape is unlike that of most guyots in the region which have one circular summit platform.[29] At the margin of the platform, lie terraces which are up to 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) wide and up to 100 metres (330 ft) high and that discontinuously surround the summit platform;[30] the flat surfaces of the terraces may be former fringing reefs.[31] On the eastern summit platform there are buried terraces beneath the sediment cover.[32]

Sediment layers cover almost the entire summit of Horizon Guyot,[23] and consist mainly of sand, with clay and silt making up a minor part.[33] Features on the sedimented seafloor are flat areas, hummocks, ripples and sediment waves.[34] Seismic transects have revealed[32] a relief of about 150 metres (490 ft) in the underlying basement[31] and the presence of a central peak.[32] Material obtained in drill cores includes chalk, chert, hyaloclastite, limestone, ooze and sandstone;[35] basalt and chert outcrop in some places.[36] In certain areas boulders and cobbles cover the seafloor;[37] ferromanganese crusts cover exposed rocks.[38]

The seamount shows evidence of repeated mass failures; including hummocky terrain, scarps and slump blocks,[39] which are on average 30 metres (98 ft) thick.[40] Landsliding is probably triggered by earthquakes;[39] after the failure the landslides either stay coherent and do not travel far but some advance quickly and far.[41] Talus blocks up to 5 metres (16 ft) in size cover the seafloor[38] around Horizon Guyot.[21]

Regional setting

The West Pacific Ocean seafloor contains many guyots of Mesozoic age (251.902 ± 0.024[a] – 66 million years ago[42]) that developed in unusually shallow seas.[16] These are submarine mountains which are characterised by a flat top and usually the presence of carbonate platforms that rose above the sea surface during the middle Cretaceous (c. 145–66 million years ago[42]).[44] During the Second World War, it was discovered that the seafloor of the Western Pacific Ocean was dotted with numerous flat-topped seamounts. These were promptly identified as sunken islands; at first, it was believed that they had sunk below the water in the Precambrian (over 541 ± 1 million years ago[42]), before the presence of Cretaceous reefs on many of them was noticed.[45] About 6% of the Pacific seafloor is covered with almost a million seamounts.[46]

While there are some differences to present-day reef systems,[b][47][48] many of these seamounts were formerly atolls. All these structures originally formed as volcanoes in the Mesozoic ocean. Fringing reefs may have developed on the volcanoes, which then became barrier reefs as the volcano subsided and turned into an atoll; the barrier reefs[49] in turn surround a lagoon or tidal flat.[50] The crust underneath these seamounts tends to subside as it cools, and thus the islands and seamounts sink.[51] Continued subsidence balanced by upward growth of the reefs led to the formation of thick carbonate platforms.[52] Sometimes volcanic activity continued even after the formation of the atoll or atoll-like structure, and during episodes where the platforms rose above sea level erosional features such as channels and blue holes[c] developed.[54]

The formation of many such seamounts has been explained by the hotspot theory.[55] According to this theory, an active volcano lies on a spot of the lithosphere heated from below; as the plate above this hotspot moves, the volcano is moved away from the heat source and volcanic activity ceases. The hotspot will then heat the area of the plate now above it, producing another active volcano. In this way, a chain of volcanoes that get progressively older away from the currently active one is generated.[56] With some exceptions, radiometric dating of the Mid-Pacific Mountains has yielded evidence of an eastward movement of volcanism which is consistent with the hotspot theory;[57] in the case of Horizon Guyot, volcanism may have migrated southwestward which is not entirely consistent with the hotspot theory.[d][58] When it formed, Horizon Guyot may have been located close to a spreading centre.[59]

Composition

Volcanic rocks dredged from Horizon Guyot are of basaltic composition and define a tholeiitic suite. Augite,[3] labradorite,[27] olivine, plagioclase and pyroxene form phenocrysts while pigeonite is found in the groundmass.[60] Other guyots and samples from the Mid-Pacific Mountains have similar compositions to these found on Horizon Guyot.[61] Some volcanic rocks occur in the form of hyaloclastite which contains palagonite and sideromelane.[27] Dredged volcanic rocks are heavily altered;[2] this has given rise to analcime, augite, calcite, clay, clinoptilolite,[62][63] iddingsite,[64] ilmenite, labradorite, magnetite[62] iron oxides and talc.[27]

Carbonates are found as limestone and siltstone;[35] some limestones were formed by living beings.[65] At one point in the drill core, carbonates were found mixed with volcanic rocks; presumably this is a place where hyaloclastite accumulated and was reworked by sea currents.[63] The limestone contains fossils of algae,[63] bryozoans, echinoids, foraminiferans, molluscs and ostracods;[66] dinoflagellates, pollen and scolecodonts are also found.[35] Some limestones have been modified by silicification and phosphatisation.[67]

Clinoptilolite, pyrite, radiolarian fossils and yellow glass shards are found in the ooze,[35] and some volcanic rocks and manganese rocks are cemented by indurated ooze.[68] Ferromanganese[69] and phosphorite crusts coat rocks.[27] These ferromanganese crusts consist of iron oxides and manganese oxides and are related to manganese nodules[70] and might become targets for future mining efforts.[37] Other materials found on Horizon Guyot are analcime,[63][11] barite,[71] calcite, celadonite,[11][63] cristobalite,[71] glauconite,[72] gypsum,[73] ironstone,[74] kaolinite, mica, montmorillonite, mudstone, quartz,[71] sapropel,[35] smectite and zeolite.[11][63]

Geologic history

Horizon Guyot is at least of Albian (c. 113–100.5 million years ago[42]) age and is perhaps as much as 120 million years old.[27] Radiometric dating has yielded ages of 88.1 ± 0.4 million years and more recently of 82.5 ± 0.4 million years; this may reflect either prolonged volcanism or that the older date is incorrect.[75] About 100 and 80 million years ago a pulse of volcanism occurred in the Pacific Ocean; the formation of Horizon Guyot may have coincided with this pulse.[76]

Volcanism

Basalt lava flows were emplaced on Horizon Guyot during the Cretaceous,[1] before or during the Albian.[77] A second volcanic phase occurred during the Turonian (93.9 – 89.8 ± 0.3 million years ago[42]) and Cenomanian (100.5 – 93.9 million years ago[42]);[78] thus volcanic activity on Horizon Guyot was recurrent.[79] The basalts include both typical ocean island basalts and basalts resembling mid-ocean ridge basalts, with the former found deeper in drill cores.[63] Hyaloclastites which outcrop at the margin of the summit platform[29] indicate the occurrence of submarine eruptions.[27]

Eruptions probably occurred on aligned vents, explaining the elongated shape of Horizon Guyot.[80] At first the formation of the terraces was also attributed to volcanic activity;[81] an origin as wave cut terraces was considered to be unlikely[82] but when it was found that Horizon Guyot had risen above sea level in the Cretaceous a wave cut origin was reproposed.[83]

Carbonate island phase and renewed volcanism

During the Cretaceous, carbonates accumulated on Horizon Guyot[66] while it subsided, forming a carbonate deposit which in one drill core is 134 metres (440 ft) thick.[84] The carbonates accumulated directly on the previous volcano[57] and reefs started growing when volcanic activity was still underway;[85] Horizon Guyot featured lagoonal environments with algal reefs.[84] Prior to 1973 there was no evidence that Horizon Guyot had ever formed an island[86] but later a stage of emergence was postulated.[87] The seamount was an island for at least 6 million years.[88]

During the late Cretaceous, a second volcanic episode took place on Horizon Guyot[89] and produced volcanites and volcanic sediments[66] which buried older limestones.[78] At that time, volcanic activity was underway not only on this seamount but also in the Line Islands;[89] on Horizon Guyot this phase occurred perhaps as much as 30 million years after the previous volcanic stage.[77]

Before this volcanic phase, Horizon Guyot had emerged from the sea and erosion had reworked some older rocks;[87] also, plants grew on the now exposed island.[27] Shallow water deposition in Coniacian (89.8 ± 0.3 – 86.3 ± 0.5 million years ago[42]) or Santonian (86.3 ± 0.5 – 83.6 ± 0.2 million years ago[42]) to Maastrichtian (72.1 ± 0.2 – 66 million years ago[42]) time has been inferred from the presence of unstable[e] coccoliths of such age in drill cores.[90]

Drowning and sedimentation

Horizon Guyot reached above sea level at least until the Cenomanian,[91] unlike other Mid-Pacific Mountains guyots which sank below sea level during the Albian.[92] Plant remnants are found in rocks of Turonian and Coniacian age,[78] implying that Horizon Guyot was still emergent at that time;[87] but by the Coniacian, Horizon Guyot was submerging.[28] It is not known why Horizon Guyot drowned but the burial of the reefs by volcanic activity may have played a role.[93]

Pelagic sedimentation commenced in the Campanian[78] (83.6 ± 0.2 – 72.1 ± 0.2 million years ago[42]) when Horizon Guyot had already sunk to a depth of 1,500 metres (4,900 ft).[94] Since the Miocene (23.03 – 5.333 million years ago[42]), sedimentation rates appear to have decreased as the guyot moved away from waters with high biological productivity and at some point in the last 10 million years erosion increased due to bottom currents[28] linked to the glaciation of Antarctica.[95]

Pelagic sediments accumulate on some guyots after they have drowned. A dome-shaped[20] cap of pelagic ooze accumulated on top of Horizon Guyot during the Tertiary,[96] reaching a maximum thickness of 110 metres (360 ft)[20]-160 metres (520 ft) in some places.[34] In the saddle between the summit platforms it is about 500 metres (1,600 ft) thick;[21] an unconformity separates it from Cretaceous deposits.[97] The sediment layers span a timespan encompassing the Eocene (56 – 33.9 million years ago[42]) to the Quaternary (last 2.58 million years[42]) with gaps in the sediment sequence between the Cretaceous and the Eocene and between the Eocene and the Oligocene (33.9 – 23.03 million years ago[42]).[72] During the Eocene and Oligocene, older foraminifera were redeposited;[97] there is evidence that sediments were actively eroded.[72] During Tertiary[98] phases of low sea level, sea currents swept sediments off the surface of Horizon Guyot,[99] with fine sediments being particularly affected.[96]

Present state

The top[100] and almost all the upper slopes of Horizon Guyot are covered by sediments.[101] Chert and chalk are found within the sediments;[1][97] chert forms seismically reflective layers within the sediment cap.[21] These layers crop out at the margin of the sediment platform.[29] The seamount lies in a region of the Pacific with nutrient poor surface waters.[102]

Sea currents are unusually strong on the top of Horizon Guyot,[34] probably due to the interaction of the slopes of Horizon Guyot with tidal currents.[103] The seamount induces its own semidiurnal tide and the sea currents reach their maximum at the margin of the summit platform where 20 centimetres per second (7.9 in/s) have been measured.[104] Scour marks have been observed.[39] The currents sweep down the seamount slopes and may act to remove sediment from the seamount surface;[105] this also results in sediments accumulating to form steep slopes that undergo landsliding.[106] Most of the sediments however are transported upslope;[29] those which do end up at the bottom of the seamount form talus deposits around Horizon Guyot.[40]

Ecology

Video of animal life on Horizon Guyot

The surfaces of Horizon Guyot are inhabited by many organisms.[101] Fish found on Horizon Guyot include batfish, bathypteroids, chimeras, morids, sharks and synaphobranchid eels.[107] Brittle stars, chaetognatha (arrow worms), copepods, corals, crustaceans, hydroids, loricifera, molluscs, nematodes, nemertinea, ophiuroids, ostracods, polychaetes, sipuncula, squat lobsters, vermes[37][108] and xenophyophorans make up the bulk of the fauna on Horizon Guyot today.[109] At least 29 macrofaunal species have been found.[69] Other lifeforms presently active on the seamount are barnacles, crinoids,[110] echiurids, enteropneusts (acorn worms),[111] gorgonians,[110] holothuroids (sea cucumbers), pennatulids (sea pens),[111] sponges[110] and starfish.[111] Unidentified stalk or twig-like creatures have also been observed on the platform, which are among the most common lifeforms there.[110] Bacteria are also found in the sediment.[112]

Biological activity has left traces in the sediments such as mounds, pits, and trails on the surface.[113] There is a certain zonation in the ecology of Horizon Guyot; for example suspension feeders live on the margin of the summit platform.[114] Genetic differences between individuals of a given species which live on the top and these which live at the foot of the guyot have been noted.[115] Some ostracods found on Horizon Guyot such as Cytherelloidea appear to have evolved from Cretaceous shallow water species as the seamount sank into colder waters.[116]

Notes

  1. ^ The beginning of the Mesozoic coincides with the end of the Permian, the beginning of the Triassic[42] and the Permian-Triassic extinction event, the largest mass extinction in over half a billion years; in order to determine its cause the chronology of the Permian-Triassic transition has been measured to a high precision.[43]
  2. ^ Carbonate precipitates and grains or sediments are common in Cretaceous reefs, while in Cenozoic reefs reef-building organisms deposited carbonates within their bodies.[47]
  3. ^ Pit-like depressions within carbonate rocks that are filled with water.[53]
  4. ^ There is also an eastward movement of volcanism, which together with the southwestward movement implies a movement into two opposite directions[58] rather than one chain as in the normal hotspot theory.[56]
  5. ^ Some fossils dissolve in deep water and thus are found only in shallow water sediments.[90]

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  92. ^ Winterer & Metzler 1984, p. 9978.
  93. ^ Rougerie, Francis; Fagerstrom, J.A. (1994). "Cretaceous history of Pacific Basin guyot reefs: a reappraisal based on geothermal endo-upwelling". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 112 (3–4): 254. Bibcode:1994PPP...112..239R. doi:10.1016/0031-0182(94)90075-2. ISSN 0031-0182.
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  112. ^ Smith, Baldwin & Edelman 1989, p. 1923.
  113. ^ Kaufmann, Wakefield & Genin 1989, p. 1879.
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  115. ^ Shank, Timothy (2010). "Seamounts: Deep-Ocean Laboratories of Faunal Connectivity, Evolution, and Endemism". Oceanography. 23 (1): 116. doi:10.5670/oceanog.2010.65.
  116. ^ Boomer, I.; Whatley, R. (1995). "Cenozoic Ostracoda from Guyots in the Western Pacific: Holes 865B and 866B (Leg 143)" (PDF). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, 143 Scientific Results. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program. Vol. 143. Ocean Drilling Program. p. 75. doi:10.2973/odp.proc.sr.143.249.1995. Retrieved 2018-10-03.

Sources

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  • Davis, A. S.; Gray, L. B.; Clague, D. A.; Hein, J. R. (2002). "The Line Islands revisited: New Ar/Ar geochronologic evidence for episodes of volcanism due to lithospheric extension". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. 3 (3): 1–28. doi:10.1029/2001GC000190. S2CID 129902568.
  • Douglas, R.G. (1973). "Benthonic Foraminerfal Biostratigraphy in the Central North Pacific, Leg 17, Deep Sea Drilling Project" (PDF). Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, 17. Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project. Vol. 17. U.S. Government Printing Office. pp. 607–671. doi:10.2973/dsdp.proc.17.121.1973. Retrieved 2018-10-03.
  • Genin, Amatzia; Noble, Marlene; Lonsdale, Peter F. (1989). "Tidal currents and anticyclonic motions on two North Pacific seamounts". Deep Sea Research Part A. Oceanographic Research Papers. 36 (12): 1803–1815. Bibcode:1989DSRA...36.1803G. doi:10.1016/0198-0149(89)90113-1. ISSN 0198-0149.
  • Hamilton, Edwin L. (1956). "Sunken Islands of the Mid-Pacific Mountains". 64 : Sunken Islands of the Mid-Pacific Mountains. Geological Society of America Memoirs. Vol. 64. Geological Society of America. pp. 1–92. doi:10.1130/mem64-p1. Retrieved 2018-10-05.
  • Heezen, B.C.; Matthews, J.L.; Catalano, R.; Natland, J.; Coogan, A.; Tharp, M.; Rawson, M. (1973). "Western Pacific Guyots" (PDF). Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, 20. Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project. Vol. 20. U.S. Government Printing Office. pp. 653–723. doi:10.2973/dsdp.proc.20.132.1973. Retrieved 2018-10-03.
  • Hein, James R.; Manheim, Frank T.; Schwab, William C.; Davis, Alice S. (1985). "Ferromanganese crusts from Necker Ridge, Horizon Guyot and S.P. Lee Guyot: Geological considerations". Marine Geology. 69 (1–2): 25–54. Bibcode:1985MGeol..69...25H. doi:10.1016/0025-3227(85)90132-X. ISSN 0025-3227.
  • Hein, James R; Hsueh-Wen, Yeh; Gunn, Susan H; Gibbs, Ann E; Chung-ho, Wang (1994). "Composition and origin of hydrothermal ironstones from central Pacific seamounts". Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. 58 (1): 179–189. Bibcode:1994GeCoA..58..179H. doi:10.1016/0016-7037(94)90455-3. ISSN 0016-7037.
  • Karig, D.E.; Peterson, M.N.A.; Short, G.G. (1970). "Sediment-capped guyots in the Mid-Pacific mountains". Deep Sea Research and Oceanographic Abstracts. 17 (2): 373–378. Bibcode:1970DSRA...17..373K. doi:10.1016/0011-7471(70)90029-X. ISSN 0011-7471.
  • Kaufmann, Ronald S.; Wakefield, W. Waldo; Genin, Amatzia (1989). "Distribution of epibenthic megafauna and lebensspuren on two central North Pacific seamounts". Deep Sea Research Part A. Oceanographic Research Papers. 36 (12): 1863–1896. Bibcode:1989DSRA...36.1863K. doi:10.1016/0198-0149(89)90116-7. ISSN 0198-0149.
  • Kayen, R.E.; Schwab, W.C.; Lee, H.J.; Torresan, M.E.; Hein, J.R.; Quinterno, P.J.; Levin, L.A. (1989). "Morphology of sea-floor landslides on Horizon Guyot: application of steady-state geotechnical analysis". Deep Sea Research Part A. Oceanographic Research Papers. 36 (12): 1817–1839. Bibcode:1989DSRA...36.1817K. doi:10.1016/0198-0149(89)90114-3. ISSN 0198-0149.
  • Krasheninnikov, V.A. (1981). "Paleogene Planktonic Foraminifers from Deep Sea Drilling Project Leg 62 Sites and Adjacent Areas of the Northwest Pacific" (PDF). Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, 62. Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project. Vol. 62. U.S. Government Printing Office. pp. 365–376. doi:10.2973/dsdp.proc.62.109.1981. Retrieved 2018-10-03.
  • Ladd, Harry S.; Newman, William A. (1973). "Geologic History of Horizon Güyot, Mid-Pacific Mountains: Discussion". Geological Society of America Bulletin. 84 (4): 1501–1504. Bibcode:1973GSAB...84.1501L. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1973)84<1501:GHOHGM>2.0.CO;2.
  • Levin, Lisa A.; Thomas, Cynthia L. (1989). "The influence of hydrodynamic regime on infaunal assemblages inhabiting carbonate sediments on central Pacific seamounts". Deep Sea Research Part A. Oceanographic Research Papers. 36 (12): 1897–1915. Bibcode:1989DSRA...36.1897L. doi:10.1016/0198-0149(89)90117-9. ISSN 0198-0149.
  • Lonsdale, Peter; Normark, William R.; Newman, W. A. (1972). "Sedimentation and Erosion on Horizon Guyot". Geological Society of America Bulletin. 83 (2): 289–315. Bibcode:1972GSAB...83..289L. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1972)83[289:SAEOHG]2.0.CO;2.
  • Waasbergen, Robert J. Van; Winterer, Edward L. (1993). "Summit Geomorphology of Western Pacific Guyots". In Pringle, Malcolm S.; Sager, William W.; Sliter, William V.; Stein, Seth (eds.). The Mesozoic Pacific: Geology, Tectonics, and Volcanism: A Volume in Memory of Sy Schlanger. Geophysical Monograph Series. Vol. 77. doi:10.1029/gm077. ISBN 978-0-87590-036-0. ISSN 0065-8448.
  • Röhl, Ursula; Ogg, James G. (1996). "Aptian-Albian sea level history from Guyots in the western Pacific". Paleoceanography. 11 (5): 595–624. Bibcode:1996PalOc..11..595R. doi:10.1029/96pa01928. ISSN 0883-8305.
  • Röhl, U.; Strasser, A. (1995). "Diagenetic Alterations and Geochemical Trends in Early Cretaceous Shallow-Water Limestones of Allison and Resolution Guyots (Sites 865 to 868)" (PDF). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, 143 Scientific Results. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program. Vol. 143. Ocean Drilling Program. pp. 197–229. doi:10.2973/odp.proc.sr.143.224.1995. Retrieved 2018-09-30.
  • Schwab, W.C.; Hein, J.R.; Smith, K.L.; de Moustier, C. P.; Levin, L.A.; Genin, Amatzia; Wakefield, W.W.; Baldwin, R.J. (1988). "Maps showing the Seabeam bathymetry and sedimentologic and biologic sample locations on Horizon Guyot, Mid-Pacific Mountains and a summary of existing data". Open-File Report: 1–14. doi:10.3133/ofr88298. ISSN 2331-1258.
  • The Shipboard Scientific Party (1973). "Site 171" (PDF). Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, 17. Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project. Vol. 17. U.S. Government Printing Office. pp. 283–334. doi:10.2973/dsdp.proc.17.109.1973. Retrieved 2018-10-03.
  • Smith, K.L.; Baldwin, R.J.; Edelman, J.L. (1989). "Supply of and demand for organic matter by sediment communities on two central North Pacific seamounts". Deep Sea Research Part A. Oceanographic Research Papers. 36 (12): 1917–1932. Bibcode:1989DSRA...36.1917S. doi:10.1016/0198-0149(89)90118-0. ISSN 0198-0149.
  • Wilson, Raymond R.; Smith, Kenneth L.; Rosenblatt, Richard H. (1985). "Megafauna associated with bathyal seamounts in the central North Pacific Ocean". Deep Sea Research Part A. Oceanographic Research Papers. 32 (10): 1243–1254. Bibcode:1985DSRA...32.1243W. doi:10.1016/0198-0149(85)90007-X. ISSN 0198-0149.
  • Winterer, E.L. (1976). "Bathymetry and Regional Tectonic Setting of the Line Islands Chain" (PDF). Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, 33. Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project. Vol. 33. U.S. Government Printing Office. pp. 731–747. doi:10.2973/dsdp.proc.33.125.1976. Retrieved 2018-10-03.
  • Winterer, Edward L.; Metzler, Christopher V. (1984). "Origin and subsidence of Guyots in Mid-Pacific Mountains". Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth. 89 (B12): 9969–9979. Bibcode:1984JGR....89.9969W. doi:10.1029/jb089ib12p09969. ISSN 0148-0227.
  • Winterer, E.L.; Sager, W.W. (1995). "Synthesis of Drilling Results from the Mid-Pacific Mountains: Regional Context and Implications" (PDF). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, 143 Scientific Results. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program. Vol. 143. Ocean Drilling Program. pp. 497–535. doi:10.2973/odp.proc.sr.143.245.1995. Retrieved 2018-10-03.

External links

  • NOAA videos
  • "Horizon Guyot". Seamount Catalog. Retrieved 5 October 2018.

February 06, 2023
horizon, guyot, presumably, cretaceous, guyot, tablemount, pacific, mountains, pacific, ocean, elongated, ridge, over, kilometres, long, kilometres, high, that, stretches, northeast, southwest, direction, flat, tops, rises, minimum, depth, metres, pacific, mou. Horizon Guyot is a presumably Cretaceous guyot tablemount in the Mid Pacific Mountains Pacific Ocean It is an elongated ridge over 300 kilometres 190 mi long and 4 3 kilometres 2 7 mi high that stretches in a northeast southwest direction and has two flat tops it rises to a minimum depth of 1 443 metres 4 730 ft The Mid Pacific Mountains lie west of Hawaii and northeast of the Line Islands Horizon GuyotSummit depth1 443 metres 4 734 ft LocationCoordinates19 07 9 N 169 27 6 W 19 1317 N 169 4600 W 19 1317 169 4600 1 GeologyTypeGuyotHorizonclass notpageimage Location in the North Pacific Ocean It was probably formed by a hotspot but the evidence is conflicting Volcanic activity occurred during the Turonian Cenomanian eras 100 5 89 8 million years ago and another stage has been dated to have occurred 88 82 million years ago Between these volcanic episodes carbonate deposition from lagoonal and reefal environments set in and formed limestone Volcanic islands developed on Horizon Guyot as well and were colonised by plants Horizon Guyot became a seamount during the Coniacian Campanian period Since then pelagic ooze has accumulated on the seamount forming a thick layer that is further modified by ocean currents and by various organisms that live on the seamount sediments also underwent landsliding Ferromanganese crusts were deposited on exposed rocks Contents 1 Name and research history 2 Geography and geology 2 1 Local setting 2 2 Regional setting 2 3 Composition 3 Geologic history 3 1 Volcanism 3 2 Carbonate island phase and renewed volcanism 3 3 Drowning and sedimentation 3 4 Present state 4 Ecology 5 Notes 6 References 6 1 Sources 7 External linksName and research history EditThe seamount is named after the research vessel RV Horizon 2 and is also known as Horizon Ridge 3 Horizon Tablemount Gora Khorayzn and Gora Horajzn 4 During the Deep Sea Drilling Project the drill cores called Site 44 and Site 171 were taken on Horizon Guyot in 1969 and 1971 respectively 5 6 a further drill core was obtained north of the seamount at Site 313 7 in 1973 8 This seamount is the best studied seamount of the Mid Pacific Mountains 9 and more is known about its morphology than any other seamount of the Mid Pacific Mountains 10 Geography and geology EditLocal setting Edit Horizon Guyot lies west of Hawaii 1 and is part of the Mid Pacific Mountains 11 Unlike conventional island chains in the Pacific Ocean the Mid Pacific Mountains feature an oceanic plateau 12 with guyots 13 also known as tablemounts 14 which become progressively younger towards the east 15 Other guyots in the Mid Pacific Mountains are Sio South Darwin Thomas Heezen Allen Caprina Jacqueline Allison 16 and Resolution 13 South of Horizon Guyot deep water in the Horizon passage leads into the Line Islands 17 18 and Horizon Guyot is sometimes considered to be a member of that chain 19 The seamount rises 3 4 kilometres 2 1 mi 20 3 5 kilometres 2 2 mi 21 to a minimum depth of 1 443 metres 4 734 ft 20 1 440 metres 4 720 ft and is a ridge 75 kilometres 47 mi wide and over 300 kilometres 190 mi long 3 21 Horizon Guyot is the largest seamount in the Mid Pacific Mountains 22 It trends in a southwest northeast direction 23 with an orientation matching that of other structures in the region 24 such as fracture zones on the seafloor 25 Faulting has been observed on the western side of the seamount 26 Two summit platforms lie on the ridge 3 The eastern one is the larger of these platforms 27 and the western oval shaped platform lies close to the western end of the ridge 2 These platforms are relatively flat and are surrounded by a slope break beyond which the guyot falls off steeply to the surrounding abyssal plain 3 This appearance characterises Horizon Guyot as a guyot 28 although the elongated shape is unlike that of most guyots in the region which have one circular summit platform 29 At the margin of the platform lie terraces which are up to 3 kilometres 1 9 mi wide and up to 100 metres 330 ft high and that discontinuously surround the summit platform 30 the flat surfaces of the terraces may be former fringing reefs 31 On the eastern summit platform there are buried terraces beneath the sediment cover 32 Sediment layers cover almost the entire summit of Horizon Guyot 23 and consist mainly of sand with clay and silt making up a minor part 33 Features on the sedimented seafloor are flat areas hummocks ripples and sediment waves 34 Seismic transects have revealed 32 a relief of about 150 metres 490 ft in the underlying basement 31 and the presence of a central peak 32 Material obtained in drill cores includes chalk chert hyaloclastite limestone ooze and sandstone 35 basalt and chert outcrop in some places 36 In certain areas boulders and cobbles cover the seafloor 37 ferromanganese crusts cover exposed rocks 38 The seamount shows evidence of repeated mass failures including hummocky terrain scarps and slump blocks 39 which are on average 30 metres 98 ft thick 40 Landsliding is probably triggered by earthquakes 39 after the failure the landslides either stay coherent and do not travel far but some advance quickly and far 41 Talus blocks up to 5 metres 16 ft in size cover the seafloor 38 around Horizon Guyot 21 Regional setting Edit The West Pacific Ocean seafloor contains many guyots of Mesozoic age 251 902 0 024 a 66 million years ago 42 that developed in unusually shallow seas 16 These are submarine mountains which are characterised by a flat top and usually the presence of carbonate platforms that rose above the sea surface during the middle Cretaceous c 145 66 million years ago 42 44 During the Second World War it was discovered that the seafloor of the Western Pacific Ocean was dotted with numerous flat topped seamounts These were promptly identified as sunken islands at first it was believed that they had sunk below the water in the Precambrian over 541 1 million years ago 42 before the presence of Cretaceous reefs on many of them was noticed 45 About 6 of the Pacific seafloor is covered with almost a million seamounts 46 While there are some differences to present day reef systems b 47 48 many of these seamounts were formerly atolls All these structures originally formed as volcanoes in the Mesozoic ocean Fringing reefs may have developed on the volcanoes which then became barrier reefs as the volcano subsided and turned into an atoll the barrier reefs 49 in turn surround a lagoon or tidal flat 50 The crust underneath these seamounts tends to subside as it cools and thus the islands and seamounts sink 51 Continued subsidence balanced by upward growth of the reefs led to the formation of thick carbonate platforms 52 Sometimes volcanic activity continued even after the formation of the atoll or atoll like structure and during episodes where the platforms rose above sea level erosional features such as channels and blue holes c developed 54 The formation of many such seamounts has been explained by the hotspot theory 55 According to this theory an active volcano lies on a spot of the lithosphere heated from below as the plate above this hotspot moves the volcano is moved away from the heat source and volcanic activity ceases The hotspot will then heat the area of the plate now above it producing another active volcano In this way a chain of volcanoes that get progressively older away from the currently active one is generated 56 With some exceptions radiometric dating of the Mid Pacific Mountains has yielded evidence of an eastward movement of volcanism which is consistent with the hotspot theory 57 in the case of Horizon Guyot volcanism may have migrated southwestward which is not entirely consistent with the hotspot theory d 58 When it formed Horizon Guyot may have been located close to a spreading centre 59 Composition Edit Volcanic rocks dredged from Horizon Guyot are of basaltic composition and define a tholeiitic suite Augite 3 labradorite 27 olivine plagioclase and pyroxene form phenocrysts while pigeonite is found in the groundmass 60 Other guyots and samples from the Mid Pacific Mountains have similar compositions to these found on Horizon Guyot 61 Some volcanic rocks occur in the form of hyaloclastite which contains palagonite and sideromelane 27 Dredged volcanic rocks are heavily altered 2 this has given rise to analcime augite calcite clay clinoptilolite 62 63 iddingsite 64 ilmenite labradorite magnetite 62 iron oxides and talc 27 Carbonates are found as limestone and siltstone 35 some limestones were formed by living beings 65 At one point in the drill core carbonates were found mixed with volcanic rocks presumably this is a place where hyaloclastite accumulated and was reworked by sea currents 63 The limestone contains fossils of algae 63 bryozoans echinoids foraminiferans molluscs and ostracods 66 dinoflagellates pollen and scolecodonts are also found 35 Some limestones have been modified by silicification and phosphatisation 67 Clinoptilolite pyrite radiolarian fossils and yellow glass shards are found in the ooze 35 and some volcanic rocks and manganese rocks are cemented by indurated ooze 68 Ferromanganese 69 and phosphorite crusts coat rocks 27 These ferromanganese crusts consist of iron oxides and manganese oxides and are related to manganese nodules 70 and might become targets for future mining efforts 37 Other materials found on Horizon Guyot are analcime 63 11 barite 71 calcite celadonite 11 63 cristobalite 71 glauconite 72 gypsum 73 ironstone 74 kaolinite mica montmorillonite mudstone quartz 71 sapropel 35 smectite and zeolite 11 63 Geologic history EditHorizon Guyot is at least of Albian c 113 100 5 million years ago 42 age and is perhaps as much as 120 million years old 27 Radiometric dating has yielded ages of 88 1 0 4 million years and more recently of 82 5 0 4 million years this may reflect either prolonged volcanism or that the older date is incorrect 75 About 100 and 80 million years ago a pulse of volcanism occurred in the Pacific Ocean the formation of Horizon Guyot may have coincided with this pulse 76 Volcanism Edit Basalt lava flows were emplaced on Horizon Guyot during the Cretaceous 1 before or during the Albian 77 A second volcanic phase occurred during the Turonian 93 9 89 8 0 3 million years ago 42 and Cenomanian 100 5 93 9 million years ago 42 78 thus volcanic activity on Horizon Guyot was recurrent 79 The basalts include both typical ocean island basalts and basalts resembling mid ocean ridge basalts with the former found deeper in drill cores 63 Hyaloclastites which outcrop at the margin of the summit platform 29 indicate the occurrence of submarine eruptions 27 Eruptions probably occurred on aligned vents explaining the elongated shape of Horizon Guyot 80 At first the formation of the terraces was also attributed to volcanic activity 81 an origin as wave cut terraces was considered to be unlikely 82 but when it was found that Horizon Guyot had risen above sea level in the Cretaceous a wave cut origin was reproposed 83 Carbonate island phase and renewed volcanism Edit During the Cretaceous carbonates accumulated on Horizon Guyot 66 while it subsided forming a carbonate deposit which in one drill core is 134 metres 440 ft thick 84 The carbonates accumulated directly on the previous volcano 57 and reefs started growing when volcanic activity was still underway 85 Horizon Guyot featured lagoonal environments with algal reefs 84 Prior to 1973 there was no evidence that Horizon Guyot had ever formed an island 86 but later a stage of emergence was postulated 87 The seamount was an island for at least 6 million years 88 During the late Cretaceous a second volcanic episode took place on Horizon Guyot 89 and produced volcanites and volcanic sediments 66 which buried older limestones 78 At that time volcanic activity was underway not only on this seamount but also in the Line Islands 89 on Horizon Guyot this phase occurred perhaps as much as 30 million years after the previous volcanic stage 77 Before this volcanic phase Horizon Guyot had emerged from the sea and erosion had reworked some older rocks 87 also plants grew on the now exposed island 27 Shallow water deposition in Coniacian 89 8 0 3 86 3 0 5 million years ago 42 or Santonian 86 3 0 5 83 6 0 2 million years ago 42 to Maastrichtian 72 1 0 2 66 million years ago 42 time has been inferred from the presence of unstable e coccoliths of such age in drill cores 90 Drowning and sedimentation Edit Horizon Guyot reached above sea level at least until the Cenomanian 91 unlike other Mid Pacific Mountains guyots which sank below sea level during the Albian 92 Plant remnants are found in rocks of Turonian and Coniacian age 78 implying that Horizon Guyot was still emergent at that time 87 but by the Coniacian Horizon Guyot was submerging 28 It is not known why Horizon Guyot drowned but the burial of the reefs by volcanic activity may have played a role 93 Pelagic sedimentation commenced in the Campanian 78 83 6 0 2 72 1 0 2 million years ago 42 when Horizon Guyot had already sunk to a depth of 1 500 metres 4 900 ft 94 Since the Miocene 23 03 5 333 million years ago 42 sedimentation rates appear to have decreased as the guyot moved away from waters with high biological productivity and at some point in the last 10 million years erosion increased due to bottom currents 28 linked to the glaciation of Antarctica 95 Pelagic sediments accumulate on some guyots after they have drowned A dome shaped 20 cap of pelagic ooze accumulated on top of Horizon Guyot during the Tertiary 96 reaching a maximum thickness of 110 metres 360 ft 20 160 metres 520 ft in some places 34 In the saddle between the summit platforms it is about 500 metres 1 600 ft thick 21 an unconformity separates it from Cretaceous deposits 97 The sediment layers span a timespan encompassing the Eocene 56 33 9 million years ago 42 to the Quaternary last 2 58 million years 42 with gaps in the sediment sequence between the Cretaceous and the Eocene and between the Eocene and the Oligocene 33 9 23 03 million years ago 42 72 During the Eocene and Oligocene older foraminifera were redeposited 97 there is evidence that sediments were actively eroded 72 During Tertiary 98 phases of low sea level sea currents swept sediments off the surface of Horizon Guyot 99 with fine sediments being particularly affected 96 Present state Edit The top 100 and almost all the upper slopes of Horizon Guyot are covered by sediments 101 Chert and chalk are found within the sediments 1 97 chert forms seismically reflective layers within the sediment cap 21 These layers crop out at the margin of the sediment platform 29 The seamount lies in a region of the Pacific with nutrient poor surface waters 102 Sea currents are unusually strong on the top of Horizon Guyot 34 probably due to the interaction of the slopes of Horizon Guyot with tidal currents 103 The seamount induces its own semidiurnal tide and the sea currents reach their maximum at the margin of the summit platform where 20 centimetres per second 7 9 in s have been measured 104 Scour marks have been observed 39 The currents sweep down the seamount slopes and may act to remove sediment from the seamount surface 105 this also results in sediments accumulating to form steep slopes that undergo landsliding 106 Most of the sediments however are transported upslope 29 those which do end up at the bottom of the seamount form talus deposits around Horizon Guyot 40 Ecology Edit source source source source source source source source source source source source Video of animal life on Horizon Guyot The surfaces of Horizon Guyot are inhabited by many organisms 101 Fish found on Horizon Guyot include batfish bathypteroids chimeras morids sharks and synaphobranchid eels 107 Brittle stars chaetognatha arrow worms copepods corals crustaceans hydroids loricifera molluscs nematodes nemertinea ophiuroids ostracods polychaetes sipuncula squat lobsters vermes 37 108 and xenophyophorans make up the bulk of the fauna on Horizon Guyot today 109 At least 29 macrofaunal species have been found 69 Other lifeforms presently active on the seamount are barnacles crinoids 110 echiurids enteropneusts acorn worms 111 gorgonians 110 holothuroids sea cucumbers pennatulids sea pens 111 sponges 110 and starfish 111 Unidentified stalk or twig like creatures have also been observed on the platform which are among the most common lifeforms there 110 Bacteria are also found in the sediment 112 Biological activity has left traces in the sediments such as mounds pits and trails on the surface 113 There is a certain zonation in the ecology of Horizon Guyot for example suspension feeders live on the margin of the summit platform 114 Genetic differences between individuals of a given species which live on the top and these which live at the foot of the guyot have been noted 115 Some ostracods found on Horizon Guyot such as Cytherelloidea appear to have evolved from Cretaceous shallow water species as the seamount sank into colder waters 116 Notes Edit The beginning of the Mesozoic coincides with the end of the Permian the beginning of the Triassic 42 and the Permian Triassic extinction event the largest mass extinction in over half a billion years in order to determine its cause the chronology of the Permian Triassic transition has been measured to a high precision 43 Carbonate precipitates and grains or sediments are common in Cretaceous reefs while in Cenozoic reefs reef building organisms deposited carbonates within their bodies 47 Pit like depressions within carbonate rocks that are filled with water 53 There is also an eastward movement of volcanism which together with the southwestward movement implies a movement into two opposite directions 58 rather than one chain as in the normal hotspot theory 56 Some fossils dissolve in deep water and thus are found only in shallow water sediments 90 References Edit a b c d e Bukry 1973 p 877 a b c Hamilton 1956 p 5 a b c d e Heezen et al 1973 p 667 Horizon Tablemount Marine Regions Flanders Marine Institute Retrieved 17 August 2019 Winterer E L 1973 Introduction PDF Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project 17 Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project Vol 17 U S Government Printing Office p 5 doi 10 2973 dsdp proc 17 101 1973 Retrieved 2018 10 05 Krasheninnikov 1981 p 365 Krasheninnikov 1981 p 371 Larson R L Moberly R Gardner James V 1975 Site 313 Mid Pacific Mountains Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project 32 Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project Vol 32 U S Government Printing Office p 313 doi 10 2973 dsdp proc 32 112 1975 Archived from the original on 2018 12 30 Retrieved 2019 08 17 Kayen et al 1989 p 1817 Ladd amp Newman 1973 p 1502 a b c d Bass 1976 p 428 Winterer amp Sager 1995 p 508 a b Baker P E Castillo P R Condliffe E 1995 Petrology and Geochemistry of Igneous Rocks from Allison and Resolution Guyots Sites 865 and 866 PDF Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program 143 Scientific Results Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program Vol 143 Ocean Drilling Program p 245 doi 10 2973 odp proc sr 143 216 1995 Retrieved 2018 09 30 Bouma Arnold H 1990 Naming of undersea features Geo Marine Letters 10 3 121 Bibcode 1990GML 10 119B doi 10 1007 bf02085926 ISSN 0276 0460 S2CID 128836166 Rohl amp Strasser 1995 p 198 a b McNutt M K Winterer E L Sager W W Natland J H Ito G 1990 The Darwin Rise A Cretaceous superswell Geophysical Research Letters 17 8 1101 Bibcode 1990GeoRL 17 1101M doi 10 1029 gl017i008p01101 ISSN 0094 8276 S2CID 51837887 Winterer 1976 p 731 Edmond John M Chung Y Sclater J G 1971 Pacific Bottom Water Penetration east around Hawaii Journal of Geophysical Research 76 33 8089 Bibcode 1971JGR 76 8089E doi 10 1029 jc076i033p08089 ISSN 0148 0227 Davis et al 2002 p 3 a b c d Karig Peterson amp Short 1970 p 373 a b c d e Hein et al 1985 p 35 Wilson Smith amp Rosenblatt 1985 p 1243 a b Karig Peterson amp Short 1970 p 374 Winterer 1976 p 739 Davis et al 2002 p 16 Winterer amp Metzler 1984 p 9971 a b c d e f g h Heezen et al 1973 p 668 a b c Schwab et al 1988 p 1 a b c d Lonsdale Normark amp Newman 1972 p 289 Lonsdale Normark amp Newman 1972 p 301 a b Karig Peterson amp Short 1970 p 377 a b c Karig Peterson amp Short 1970 p 375 Levin amp Thomas 1989 p 1907 a b c Levin amp Thomas 1989 p 1898 a b c d e The Shipboard Scientific Party 1973 p 287 Kayen et al 1989 p 1825 a b c Kelley Elliott Mashkoor Malik 2017 Okeanos Explorer ROV dive summary EX1706 July 13 2017 NOAA p 3 Archived from the original on October 6 2018 Retrieved October 5 2018 a b Kayen et al 1989 p 1821 a b c Kayen et al 1989 p 1819 a b Kayen et al 1989 p 1820 Kayen et al 1989 p 1831 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o International Chronostratigraphic Chart PDF International Commission on Stratigraphy 2018 Archived PDF from the original on 7 September 2018 Retrieved 22 October 2018 Burgess Seth D Bowring Samuel Shen Shu zhong 2014 High precision timeline for Earth s most severe extinction Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111 9 3316 3321 Bibcode 2014PNAS 111 3316B doi 10 1073 pnas 1317692111 ISSN 0027 8424 PMC 3948271 PMID 24516148 Winterer E L Sager W W Firth J V Sinton J M eds May 1995 Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program 143 Scientific Results Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program Vol 143 Ocean Drilling Program p 471 doi 10 2973 odp proc sr 143 242 1995 Heezen et al 1973 p 653 Levin amp Thomas 1989 p 1897 a b Iryu Yasufumi Yamada Tsutomu 1999 Biogeochemical contrasts between mid Cretaceous carbonate platforms and Cenozoic reefs The Island Arc 8 4 475 doi 10 1046 j 1440 1738 1999 00250 x ISSN 1038 4871 S2CID 128968750 Rohl amp Strasser 1995 p 211 Waasbergen amp Winterer 1993 p 359 Rohl amp Ogg 1996 p 596 Rohl amp Ogg 1996 pp 595 596 Strasser A Arnaud H Baudin F Rohl U 1995 Small Scale Shallow Water Carbonate Sequences of Resolution Guyot Sites 866 867 and 868 PDF Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program 143 Scientific Results Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program Vol 143 Ocean Drilling Program p 119 doi 10 2973 odp proc sr 143 228 1995 Retrieved 2018 09 30 Mylroie John E Carew James L Moore Audra I 1995 Blue holes Definition and genesis Carbonates and Evaporites 10 2 225 doi 10 1007 bf03175407 ISSN 0891 2556 S2CID 140604929 Waasbergen amp Winterer 1993 pp 360 361 Winterer amp Sager 1995 p 498 a b Sleep N H 1992 Hotspot Volcanism and Mantle Plumes Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 20 1 19 Bibcode 1992AREPS 20 19S doi 10 1146 annurev ea 20 050192 000315 a b Winterer amp Sager 1995 p 504 a b Moberly R Larson R L 1975 Synthesis of Deep Sea Drilling Results from Leg 32 in the Northwestern Pacific Ocean PDF Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project 32 Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project Vol 32 U S Government Printing Office p 954 doi 10 2973 dsdp proc 32 140 1975 Retrieved 2018 10 03 Hein et al 1985 p 50 Heezen et al 1973 pp 667 668 Heezen et al 1973 p 669 a b Hamilton 1956 p 75 a b c d e f g The Shipboard Scientific Party 1973 p 288 Davis et al 2002 p 24 McKenzie J Bernoulli D Schlanger S O 1980 Shallow Water Carbonate Sediments from the Emperor Seamounts Their Diagenesis and Paleogeographic Significance PDF Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project 55 Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project Vol 55 U S Government Printing Office p 415 doi 10 2973 dsdp proc 55 115 1980 Retrieved 2018 10 03 a b c The Shipboard Scientific Party 1973 p 284 Lonsdale Normark amp Newman 1972 p 304 Hamilton 1956 p 33 a b Kaufmann Wakefield amp Genin 1989 p 1865 Hein et al 1985 pp 25 26 a b c Rex R W Eklund W A Jamieson I M 1971 X Ray Mineralogy Studies Leg 6 PDF Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project Vol 6 U S Government Printing Office p 753 doi 10 2973 dsdp proc 6 124 1971 Retrieved 2018 10 06 a b c The Shipboard Scientific Party 1973 p 285 Zemmels I Cook H E 1973 X Ray Mineralogy of Sediments from the Central Pacific Ocean PDF Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project 17 Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project Vol 17 U S Government Printing Office p 518 doi 10 2973 dsdp proc 17 118 1973 Retrieved 2018 10 03 Hein et al 1994 p 182 Davis et al 2002 p 10 Davis et al 2002 pp 17 18 a b The Shipboard Scientific Party 1973 p 295 a b c d Schlanger S O Premoli Silva I 1981 Tectonic Volcanic and Paleogeographic Implications of Redeposited Reef Faunas of Late Cretaceous and Tertiary Age from the Nauru Basin and the Line Islands PDF Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project 61 Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project Vol 61 U S Government Printing Office p 822 doi 10 2973 dsdp proc 61 136 1981 Retrieved 2018 10 03 Lancelot Y Larson R L 1975 Sedimentary and Tectonic Evolution of Northwestern Pacific PDF Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project 32 Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project Vol 32 U S Government Printing Office p 930 doi 10 2973 dsdp proc 32 138 1975 Retrieved 2018 10 03 Ladd amp Newman 1973 p 1501 Lonsdale Normark amp Newman 1972 p 306 Lonsdale Normark amp Newman 1972 p 312 Ladd amp Newman 1973 pp 1501 1502 a b The Shipboard Scientific Party 1973 p 290 Hein et al 1994 p 179 The Shipboard Scientific Party 1973 p 283 a b c The Shipboard Scientific Party 1973 p 293 The Shipboard Scientific Party 1981 Site 463 Western Mid Pacific Mountains PDF Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project 62 Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project Vol 62 U S Government Printing Office p 35 doi 10 2973 dsdp proc 62 102 1981 Retrieved 2018 10 03 a b Vallier T L Jefferson W S 1981 Volcanogenic Sediments from Hess Rise and the Mid Pacific Mountains Deep Sea Drilling Project Leg 62 PDF Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project 62 Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project Vol 62 U S Government Printing Office p 556 doi 10 2973 dsdp proc 62 119 1981 Retrieved 2018 10 03 a b Bukry 1973 p 878 Winterer amp Metzler 1984 p 9973 Winterer amp Metzler 1984 p 9978 Rougerie Francis Fagerstrom J A 1994 Cretaceous history of Pacific Basin guyot reefs a reappraisal based on geothermal endo upwelling Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 112 3 4 254 Bibcode 1994PPP 112 239R doi 10 1016 0031 0182 94 90075 2 ISSN 0031 0182 Douglas 1973 p 620 Schwab et al 1988 p 2 a b Israelson C Buchardt B Haggerty J A Pearson P N 1995 Carbonate and Pore Water Geochemistry of Pelagic Caps at Limalok and Lo En Guyots Western Pacific PDF Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program 144 Scientific Results Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program Vol 144 Ocean Drilling Program p 737 doi 10 2973 odp proc sr 144 050 1995 Retrieved 2018 10 03 a b c Krasheninnikov 1981 p 370 Heezen et al 1973 p 699 Heezen et al 1973 p 700 Hein et al 1985 pp 35 36 a b Hein et al 1985 p 36 Smith Baldwin amp Edelman 1989 p 1918 Levin amp Thomas 1989 p 1899 Genin Noble amp Lonsdale 1989 p 1812 Genin Noble amp Lonsdale 1989 p 1813 Kayen et al 1989 p 1838 Wilson Smith amp Rosenblatt 1985 pp 1245 1246 Levin amp Thomas 1989 p 1908 Levin amp Thomas 1989 p 1911 a b c d Kaufmann Wakefield amp Genin 1989 p 1872 a b c Levin amp Thomas 1989 p 1912 Smith Baldwin amp Edelman 1989 p 1923 Kaufmann Wakefield amp Genin 1989 p 1879 Kaufmann Wakefield amp Genin 1989 p 1881 Shank Timothy 2010 Seamounts Deep Ocean Laboratories of Faunal Connectivity Evolution and Endemism Oceanography 23 1 116 doi 10 5670 oceanog 2010 65 Boomer I Whatley R 1995 Cenozoic Ostracoda from Guyots in the Western Pacific Holes 865B and 866B Leg 143 PDF Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program 143 Scientific Results Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program Vol 143 Ocean Drilling Program p 75 doi 10 2973 odp proc sr 143 249 1995 Retrieved 2018 10 03 Sources Edit Bass M N 1976 Secondary Minerals in Oceanic Basalts with Special Reference to Leg 34 Deep Sea Drilling Project PDF Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project 34 Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project Vol 34 U S Government Printing Office pp 393 432 doi 10 2973 dsdp proc 34 128 1976 Retrieved 2018 10 03 Bukry D 1973 Phytoplankton Stratigraphy Central Pacific Ocean Deep Sea Driling Project Leg 17 PDF Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project 17 Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project Vol 17 U S Government Printing Office pp 871 889 doi 10 2973 dsdp proc 17 125 1973 S2CID 133336194 Retrieved 2018 10 03 Davis A S Gray L B Clague D A Hein J R 2002 The Line Islands revisited New Ar Ar geochronologic evidence for episodes of volcanism due to lithospheric extension Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems 3 3 1 28 doi 10 1029 2001GC000190 S2CID 129902568 Douglas R G 1973 Benthonic Foraminerfal Biostratigraphy in the Central North Pacific Leg 17 Deep Sea Drilling Project PDF Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project 17 Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project Vol 17 U S Government Printing Office pp 607 671 doi 10 2973 dsdp proc 17 121 1973 Retrieved 2018 10 03 Genin Amatzia Noble Marlene Lonsdale Peter F 1989 Tidal currents and anticyclonic motions on two North Pacific seamounts Deep Sea Research Part A Oceanographic Research Papers 36 12 1803 1815 Bibcode 1989DSRA 36 1803G doi 10 1016 0198 0149 89 90113 1 ISSN 0198 0149 Hamilton Edwin L 1956 Sunken Islands of the Mid Pacific Mountains 64 Sunken Islands of the Mid Pacific Mountains Geological Society of America Memoirs Vol 64 Geological Society of America pp 1 92 doi 10 1130 mem64 p1 Retrieved 2018 10 05 Heezen B C Matthews J L Catalano R Natland J Coogan A Tharp M Rawson M 1973 Western Pacific Guyots PDF Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project 20 Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project Vol 20 U S Government Printing Office pp 653 723 doi 10 2973 dsdp proc 20 132 1973 Retrieved 2018 10 03 Hein James R Manheim Frank T Schwab William C Davis Alice S 1985 Ferromanganese crusts from Necker Ridge Horizon Guyot and S P Lee Guyot Geological considerations Marine Geology 69 1 2 25 54 Bibcode 1985MGeol 69 25H doi 10 1016 0025 3227 85 90132 X ISSN 0025 3227 Hein James R Hsueh Wen Yeh Gunn Susan H Gibbs Ann E Chung ho Wang 1994 Composition and origin of hydrothermal ironstones from central Pacific seamounts Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 58 1 179 189 Bibcode 1994GeCoA 58 179H doi 10 1016 0016 7037 94 90455 3 ISSN 0016 7037 Karig D E Peterson M N A Short G G 1970 Sediment capped guyots in the Mid Pacific mountains Deep Sea Research and Oceanographic Abstracts 17 2 373 378 Bibcode 1970DSRA 17 373K doi 10 1016 0011 7471 70 90029 X ISSN 0011 7471 Kaufmann Ronald S Wakefield W Waldo Genin Amatzia 1989 Distribution of epibenthic megafauna and lebensspuren on two central North Pacific seamounts Deep Sea Research Part A Oceanographic Research Papers 36 12 1863 1896 Bibcode 1989DSRA 36 1863K doi 10 1016 0198 0149 89 90116 7 ISSN 0198 0149 Kayen R E Schwab W C Lee H J Torresan M E Hein J R Quinterno P J Levin L A 1989 Morphology of sea floor landslides on Horizon Guyot application of steady state geotechnical analysis Deep Sea Research Part A Oceanographic Research Papers 36 12 1817 1839 Bibcode 1989DSRA 36 1817K doi 10 1016 0198 0149 89 90114 3 ISSN 0198 0149 Krasheninnikov V A 1981 Paleogene Planktonic Foraminifers from Deep Sea Drilling Project Leg 62 Sites and Adjacent Areas of the Northwest Pacific PDF Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project 62 Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project Vol 62 U S Government Printing Office pp 365 376 doi 10 2973 dsdp proc 62 109 1981 Retrieved 2018 10 03 Ladd Harry S Newman William A 1973 Geologic History of Horizon Guyot Mid Pacific Mountains Discussion Geological Society of America Bulletin 84 4 1501 1504 Bibcode 1973GSAB 84 1501L doi 10 1130 0016 7606 1973 84 lt 1501 GHOHGM gt 2 0 CO 2 Levin Lisa A Thomas Cynthia L 1989 The influence of hydrodynamic regime on infaunal assemblages inhabiting carbonate sediments on central Pacific seamounts Deep Sea Research Part A Oceanographic Research Papers 36 12 1897 1915 Bibcode 1989DSRA 36 1897L doi 10 1016 0198 0149 89 90117 9 ISSN 0198 0149 Lonsdale Peter Normark William R Newman W A 1972 Sedimentation and Erosion on Horizon Guyot Geological Society of America Bulletin 83 2 289 315 Bibcode 1972GSAB 83 289L doi 10 1130 0016 7606 1972 83 289 SAEOHG 2 0 CO 2 Waasbergen Robert J Van Winterer Edward L 1993 Summit Geomorphology of Western Pacific Guyots In Pringle Malcolm S Sager William W Sliter William V Stein Seth eds The Mesozoic Pacific Geology Tectonics and Volcanism A Volume in Memory of Sy Schlanger Geophysical Monograph Series Vol 77 doi 10 1029 gm077 ISBN 978 0 87590 036 0 ISSN 0065 8448 Rohl Ursula Ogg James G 1996 Aptian Albian sea level history from Guyots in the western Pacific Paleoceanography 11 5 595 624 Bibcode 1996PalOc 11 595R doi 10 1029 96pa01928 ISSN 0883 8305 Rohl U Strasser A 1995 Diagenetic Alterations and Geochemical Trends in Early Cretaceous Shallow Water Limestones of Allison and Resolution Guyots Sites 865 to 868 PDF Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program 143 Scientific Results Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program Vol 143 Ocean Drilling Program pp 197 229 doi 10 2973 odp proc sr 143 224 1995 Retrieved 2018 09 30 Schwab W C Hein J R Smith K L de Moustier C P Levin L A Genin Amatzia Wakefield W W Baldwin R J 1988 Maps showing the Seabeam bathymetry and sedimentologic and biologic sample locations on Horizon Guyot Mid Pacific Mountains and a summary of existing data Open File Report 1 14 doi 10 3133 ofr88298 ISSN 2331 1258 The Shipboard Scientific Party 1973 Site 171 PDF Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project 17 Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project Vol 17 U S Government Printing Office pp 283 334 doi 10 2973 dsdp proc 17 109 1973 Retrieved 2018 10 03 Smith K L Baldwin R J Edelman J L 1989 Supply of and demand for organic matter by sediment communities on two central North Pacific seamounts Deep Sea Research Part A Oceanographic Research Papers 36 12 1917 1932 Bibcode 1989DSRA 36 1917S doi 10 1016 0198 0149 89 90118 0 ISSN 0198 0149 Wilson Raymond R Smith Kenneth L Rosenblatt Richard H 1985 Megafauna associated with bathyal seamounts in the central North Pacific Ocean Deep Sea Research Part A Oceanographic Research Papers 32 10 1243 1254 Bibcode 1985DSRA 32 1243W doi 10 1016 0198 0149 85 90007 X ISSN 0198 0149 Winterer E L 1976 Bathymetry and Regional Tectonic Setting of the Line Islands Chain PDF Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project 33 Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project Vol 33 U S Government Printing Office pp 731 747 doi 10 2973 dsdp proc 33 125 1976 Retrieved 2018 10 03 Winterer Edward L Metzler Christopher V 1984 Origin and subsidence of Guyots in Mid Pacific Mountains Journal of Geophysical Research Solid Earth 89 B12 9969 9979 Bibcode 1984JGR 89 9969W doi 10 1029 jb089ib12p09969 ISSN 0148 0227 Winterer E L Sager W W 1995 Synthesis of Drilling Results from the Mid Pacific Mountains Regional Context and Implications PDF Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program 143 Scientific Results Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program Vol 143 Ocean Drilling Program pp 497 535 doi 10 2973 odp proc sr 143 245 1995 Retrieved 2018 10 03 External links EditNOAA videos Horizon Guyot Seamount Catalog Retrieved 5 October 2018 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Horizon Guyot amp oldid 1136216995, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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