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Resolution Guyot

February 02, 2023

Resolution Guyot (formerly known as Huevo) is a guyot (tablemount) in the underwater Mid-Pacific Mountains in the Pacific Ocean. It is a circular flat mountain, rising 500 metres (1,600 ft) above the seafloor to a depth of about 1,320 metres (4,330 ft), with a 35 kilometres (22 mi) wide summit platform. The Mid-Pacific Mountains lie west of Hawaii and northeast of the Marshall Islands, but at the time of its formation, the guyot was located in the Southern Hemisphere.

A map of Resolution Guyot's bathymetric relief
Resolution
class=notpageimage|
Location in the North Pacific

The guyot was probably formed by a hotspot in today's French Polynesia before plate tectonics shifted it to its present-day location. The Easter, Marquesas, Pitcairn and Society hotspots, among others, may have been involved in the formation of Resolution Guyot. Volcanic activity has been dated to have occurred 107–129 million years ago and formed a volcanic island that was subsequently flattened by erosion. Carbonate deposition commenced, forming an atoll-like structure and a carbonate platform.

The platform emerged above sea level at some time between the Albian and Turonian ages before eventually drowning for reasons unknown between the Albian and the Maastrichtian. Thermal subsidence lowered the drowned seamount to its present depth. After a hiatus, sedimentation commenced on the seamount and led to the deposition of manganese crusts and pelagic sediments, some of which were later modified by phosphate.

Name and research history

Resolution Guyot was informally known as Huevo Guyot[2] before it was renamed after the drilling ship JOIDES Resolution[3] during Leg 143 of the Ocean Drilling Program[a][2] in 1992.[5] During that Leg,[2] JOIDES Resolution took drill cores from Resolution Guyot[6] called 866A, 867A and 867B; 866A was drilled on its summit, 867B (and the unsuccessful drilling attempt 867A) on its platform margin, and 868A on a terrace outside of the platform.[2]

Geography and geology

Local setting

Resolution Guyot is part of the western Mid-Pacific Mountains, located west of Hawaii, north-northeast of the Marshall Islands.[7] Unlike conventional Pacific Ocean island chains,[8] the Mid-Pacific Mountains are a group of oceanic plateaus with guyots[9] (also known as tablemounts)[10]) that become progressively younger towards the east.[11] Other guyots in the Mid-Pacific Mountains are Sio South, Darwin, Thomas, Heezen, Allen, Caprina, Jacqueline and Allison.[12]

The seamount is about 500 metres (1,600 ft) high and rises from a raised seafloor[1] to a depth of about 1,320 metres (4,330 ft).[13] At a depth of 1,300–1,400 metres (4,300–4,600 ft)[14] it is capped off by a 25 by 35 kilometres (16 mi × 22 mi) wide[15] rather flat[14] and roughly circular summit platform[16] with a 25 metres (82 ft) high rim[6] and a moat inside of this rim.[17] At the margin of the platform, structures interpreted as sea cliffs or wave cut terraces have been found;[2] at one site there is a terrace about 200 metres (660 ft) wide, surmounted by a 25 metres (82 ft) high cliff.[18] Pinnacles and depressions dot the surface platform. The surface of the platform consists of limestone that is partially covered by pelagic sediments;[17] underwater cameras have shown the presence of rock slabs covered by ferromanganese crusts.[b][2]

The guyot rises from a seafloor of Jurassic age[11] (201.3 ± 0.2 – ca. 145 million years ago[21]) that might be as much as 154 million years old.[9] Terrestrial organic material on the seafloor around Resolution Guyot originated from when it was still an island,[22] and carbonate sediments swept away from the guyot ended up on the surrounding seafloor.[23][24]

Regional setting

 
Illustration of how hotspot volcanoes work

The Pacific Ocean seafloor contains many guyots formed during the Mesozoic age (251.902 ± 0.3 – 66 million years ago[21]) in unusually shallow seas.[12] These submarine mountains are characterized by a flat top and usually the presence of carbonate platforms that rose above the sea surface during the middle Cretaceous (ca. 145 – 66 million years ago[21]).[25] While there are some differences to present-day reef systems,[26][27] many of these seamounts were formerly atolls, which still exist. These structures formed as volcanoes in the Mesozoic ocean. Fringing reefs may have developed on the volcanoes, which then became barrier reefs as the volcano subsided and turned into an atoll,[28] and which surround a lagoon or a tidal flat.[29] The crust underneath these seamounts tends to subside as it cools, and thus the islands and seamounts sink.[30] Continued subsidence balanced by upward growth of the reefs led to the formation of thick carbonate platforms.[31] Sometimes volcanic activity continued even after the formation of the atoll or atoll-like structure, and during episodes where the platforms rose above sea level erosional features such as channels and blue holes[c] developed.[33]

The formation of many seamounts has been explained by the hotspot theory, which suggests that the chains of volcanoes become progressively older along the length of the chain,[34] with an erupting volcano only at one end of the system. Resolution lies on a volcano on the lithosphere heated from below; as the plate shifts it is moved away from the heat source and volcanic activity ceases, producing a chain of volcanoes that get progressively older away from those currently active.[35] Potential hotspots involved in the formation of Resolution Guyot are the Easter, Marquesas, Society[9] and in some plate reconstructions the Pitcairn hotspots[36] although not all point at a presently active hotspot.[16] More than one hotspot may have influenced the growth of Resolution Guyot, and it and Allison Guyot may have been formed by the same hotspot(s).[37] The entire Mid-Pacific Mountains may be the product of such a hotspot.[8]

Composition

Rocks found at Resolution Guyot include basalt of the volcano and carbonates deposited in shallow-water conditions on the volcano.[38] Minerals found in the basalt are alkali feldspar, clinopyroxene feldspar, ilmenite, magnetite, olivine, plagioclase, spinel and titanomagnetite; the olivine, plagioclase and pyroxenes form phenocrysts. Alteration has produced analcime, ankerite, calcite, clay, hematite, iddingsite, pyrite, quartz, saponite, serpentine and zeolite.[39][40] The basalts represent an alkaline intraplate suite,[41] earlier trachybasalts[42] containing biotite have been recovered as well.[43]

The carbonates occur in the form of boundstone,[44] carbonate hardgrounds,[45] floatstone,[46] grainstone, grapestone,[45] oncoids, ooliths, packstone, peloids,[47] rudstones, spherulites,[48] and wackestones. Alteration has formed calcite, dolomite,[49] quartz through silicification and vugs.[50] Dolomite alteration is particularly widespread in modern atolls and several processes have been invoked to explain it, such as geothermally driven convection of seawater.[51] Dissolved fossils[14] and traces of animal burrows are found in some rock sequences[52] with bioturbation traces widespread.[45] Barite needles,[50] calcretes,[53] cementation forms[d] that developed under the influence of freshwater,[45] desiccation cracks[14] and ferromanganese occurrences as dendrites have also been found.[55]

Organic materials[e] found in rock samples from Resolution Guyot[56] appear to be mainly of marine origin.[58] Some of the organic matter comes from microbial mats and vegetated islands,[59] including wood[60] and plant remains.[14]

Clays found on Resolution Guyot are characterized as chlorite, glauconite, hydromica,[61] illite,[62] kaolinite, saponite and smectite.[39] Claystones have also been found.[62] Most clays have been found in the lower carbonate sequence, while the upper parts mostly lack clay deposits.[53] Some of the clays may originate from younger volcanoes east of Resolution Guyot.[63]

Apatite formed through phosphate modification of exposed rocks underwater.[64] Other minerals include anhydrite,[65] celestite, goethite,[62] gypsum,[65] limonite[50] and pyrite which is also present in the carbonates.[66] Finally, mudstones have been found.[48]

Geologic history

Although radiometric dating has been carried out on volcanic rocks from Resolution Guyot, the basalts are heavily altered and the dates are thus uncertain. Potassium-argon dating yields ages of 107–125 million years ago while argon-argon dating indicates ages of 120–129 million years ago.[1] Magnetization data indicate that it was formed in the Southern Hemisphere.[68]

Volcanic phase

Eruptions in the area built a pile of volcanic rocks, including stacks of lava flows, each of which is about 10 metres (33 ft) thick, but there are also breccias,[f] intrusions and sills.[1] The lava flows appear to have been formed years apart from each other.[70] Resolution Guyot was also hydrothermally active.[1] This volcanic activity over 1–2 million years generated a volcanic island.[71] Volcanic activity took place in a tropical or subtropical environment and between eruptions weathering, soil formation and potentially mass wasting generated layers of clay, rock debris and alteration products[1] such as laterite.[72] Erosion eventually flattened the volcanic island to form a platform.[6] It is possible that magmatic intrusions (sills) formed later in the history of Resolution Guyot.[73]

Platform carbonates and reefs

Between the Hauterivian (ca. 132.9 – ca. 129.4 million years ago[21]) and Albian (ca. 113 – 100.5 million years ago[21]), about 1,619 metres (5,312 ft) of carbonate was deposited on the volcanic structure,[47] eventually completely burying it during the Albian.[74] About 14 individual sequences of carbonates have been identified in drill cores.[75] The carbonate sedimentation probably began in the form of shoals surrounding a volcanic island[76] and lasted for about 35 million years,[77] accompanied by perhaps 0.046 millimetres per year (0.0018 in/year) of subsidence.[78] It is likely that the present-day carbonate platform contains only a fraction of the originally deposited carbonate, most of the carbonate having disappeared.[79] During this time, Resolution Guyot underwent little latitudinal plate motion; from the magnetization it appears that it was stably located at about 13° southern latitude between the Hauterivian and Aptian.[80]

Its carbonate platform cannot be reconstructed as only small parts have been studied, but some conclusions can be made.[78] The Resolution platform was surrounded by barrier islands but featured only a few reefs;[11] unlike present-day atolls which were rimmed by reefs Cretaceous platforms were rimmed by sand shoals[81] and on Resolution Guyot drill cores into the rim have only found sediment accumulations and no reefs.[82][83] Analysis of the carbonate layers has identified that several environments existed on the platform, including swash beaches, lagoons, marshes, mudflats,[84] sabkhas,[85] sand bars and washover fans from storms;[52][78] at times there were also open-marine conditions.[85] Some environments on Resolution Guyot were hypersaline at times,[65] probably implying that they had only limited water exchange with the surrounding ocean.[74] Islands formed from sand bars, resembling those of the Bahama Banks.[86] Records from Hole 866A indicate that settings at a given site were not stable over longer time periods.[60]

The Cretaceous Apulian Carbonate Platform in Italy and the Urgonian Formation in France have been compared to the Resolution Guyot carbonates. All these platforms were located in Tethyan seas[87] and several formations in these three carbonate environments are correlated;[88] for example, the fauna identified on Resolution Guyot resembles that from other Northern Hemisphere platforms.[89] Analogies also exist to platforms in Venezuela.[88]

  • Present-day environments that resemble those of the former environments of Resolution Guyot
  •  

    A beach and shallow water, Cook Islands

  •  

    Spaceborne image of mudflats and tidal channels on present-day Long Island, Bahamas; the former morphology of Resolution Guyot has been compared to that of the present-day Bahamas.

  •  

    Vegetated island on Suwarrow

Water temperatures in the early Aptian (ca. 125 – ca. 113 million years ago[21]) are inferred to have been 30–32 °C (86–90 °F).[90] The platform was exposed to southeasterly trade winds which left its northern side sheltered from waves, except from storm-generated ones.[91] These waves, wind and tidal currents acted to shift sediments around on the platform.[86] Storms formed beaches on the platform,[11] although the interior parts of the platform were effectively protected by the surrounding shoals from storm influence.[83] Some patterns in the sedimentation indicate a seasonal climate.[92] When the climate was arid, gypsum deposition took place.[65]

Through the history of the platform sea level variations led to changes in the accumulating carbonate sediments,[77] with typical facies and sequences forming in the carbonate layers.[93] The Selli event, an oceanic anoxic event, is recorded at Resolution Guyot[94] as is the Faraoni event.[95] The Selli event left a black shale layer and may have caused a temporary interruption in carbonate accumulation before the platform recovered.[96] During the Albian-Aptian some carbonates became dolomites.[97]

Life on Resolution Guyot included algae – both green and red algae[52] and species forming microbial mats –,[98] bivalves[52] including rudists,[99] bryozoans, corals, echinoderms, echinoids, foraminifera, gastropods, ostracods,[100] oysters, serpulid worms,[45] sponges[47] and stromatoliths.[85] Fossils of animals have been found in the drill cores.[47] Rudists and sponges have been identified as bioherm builders;[78] rudist families found on Resolution include Caprinidae[101] of the genus Caprina,[102] Coalcomaninae,[103] Monopleuridae[104] and Requieniidae.[105] Well developed microbial mats grew in some places.[106][107] Plant remnants have been found in the carbonate sediments,[65] probably reflecting the existence of vegetation-covered islands on the platform.[85] Vegetation probably occurred in swamps and marshes as well.[66]

Uplift and karstification

During the Albian to Turonian (93.9 – 89.8 ± 0.3 million years ago[21]),[108] the carbonate platform rose above the sea by about 100 metres (330 ft)[109]–160 metres (520 ft). This uplift episode at Resolution Guyot is part of an episode of more general tectonic changes in the Pacific Ocean, with a general uplift of the ocean floor and tectonic stress changes at the ocean margins. This tectonic event has been explained by a major change in mantle convection in the middle Cretaceous pushing the ocean floor upward and sideward.[110]

When Resolution Guyot rose above sea level, karst processes began to impact the platform.[111] The platform became irregular[112] and part of it was eroded away;[109] calcrete crusts,[113] carbonate pinnacles,[18] cavities, caverns containing speleothems and sinkholes formed[114] and exist to this day.[113] At this stage, Resolution Guyot would have resembled a makatea[g] island.[114] This karstic episode did not last for long, perhaps several hundred thousand years,[116] but structures left by the karstic phase such as sinkholes and carbonate pinnacles can still be seen on the surface platform of Resolution Guyot.[18] During periods of emergence, freshwater flowed through and modified the carbonates.[117]

Drowning and post-drowning evolution

Resolution Guyot drowned either about 99 ± 2 million years ago[118] or during the Maastrichtian (72.1 ± 0.2 to 66 million years ago[21]),[47] although a hiatus in shallow carbonate deposition appears to date back to the Albian[112][119] that may reflect a long pause in deposition or increased erosion.[112] The end Albian period was characterized by widespread cessation of carbonate sedimentation across the western Pacific.[120][108] It is possible that carbonate sedimentation later continued until Campanian (83.6 ± 0.2 – 72.1 ± 0.2 million years ago[21])-Maastrichtian times.[71] The platform was certainly submerged by Pliocene (5.333 – 2.58 million years ago[21]) times.[11]

Other carbonate platforms in the Pacific drowned especially at the end of the Albian,[121] for unknown reasons;[122] among the proposed mechanisms are overly nutrient rich or turbid waters, the disappearance of reef-forming species and a subsequent failure of them to return, and overly fast sea level rise.[18] Resolution Guyot was never far enough south to end up beyond the Darwin point at which carbonate deposition stops.[8] The Resolution Guyot platform rose above sea level before the drowning, and there is no indication that carbonate deposition recommenced when the platform subsided;[123] similarly other Mid-Pacific Mountains emerged before drowning.[92] There is disagreement about whether Resolution Guyot was close enough to the equator and nutrient rich equatorial waters to drown at the time when carbonate sedimentation ceased.[124][125]

After the drowning, crusts formed by ferromanganese and by phosphate-modified rocks developed on exposed surfaces at Resolution Guyot.[20] Several different layers of phosphate modification have been observed during the Albian alone[119] and this process may have begun when the platform was still active; water within the rocks may have triggered phosphatization at this stage.[126] The ferromanganese deposition probably only began in the Turonian-Maastrichtian,[71] when the seamount had subsided to a sufficient depth.[127] Manganese-encrusted Cretaceous limestones have been found within the pelagic sediments.[128]

As at other guyots in the Pacific Ocean[129] pelagic sedimentation commenced later; the foraminifera fossils indicate an age of Maastrichtian to Pliocene for such sediments.[38] These sediments reach thicknesses of 7.5 metres (25 ft) in Hole 866B and consist of a Quaternary (last 2.58 million years[21]), a thin early Pleistocene (2.58 – 0.0117 million years ago[21]) and a thick Pliocene layer.[130] Some of the sediments take the form of pelagic limestones.[19] In Paleogene (66 to 23.03 million years ago[21]) sediments ostracods have been found.[131]

Carbonates were dissolved and replaced by dolomite already during the Aptian and Albian. Around 24 million years ago at the Paleogene-Neogene (23.02 – 2.58 million years ago[21]) boundary, a second pulse of dolomite formation took place; perhaps sea level changes associated with global climate change triggered this second pulse.[97] The formation of the dolomites was probably aided by the fact that seawater can percolate through Resolution Guyot,[48] which may be responsible for the formation of fluid vent structures on the surface of the seamount.[132]

Notes

  1. ^ The Ocean Drilling Program was an international research program that aimed at elucidating the geological history of the sea by obtaining drill cores from the oceans.[4]
  2. ^ Ferromanganese crusts are structures formed by iron and manganese oxides and hydroxides[19] which cover exposed rocks on many seamounts of the Pacific Ocean.[20]
  3. ^ Pit-like depressions within carbonate rocks that are filled with water.[32]
  4. ^ Cementation is a process during which grains in rock are solidified and pores filled by the deposition of minerals such as calcium carbonate.[54]
  5. ^ Organic material includes bituminite, kerogen, plant-derived lamalginite,[56] lignite,[57] liptinite and land plant-derived vitrinite.[56]
  6. ^ Volcanic rocks that appear as fragments.[69]
  7. ^ A makatea is a raised coral reef on an island, such as on Atiu, Mangaia, Mauke and Mitiaro in the Cook Islands.[115]

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  • Winterer, E.L.; Sager, W.W. (May 1995). "Synthesis of Drilling Results from the Mid-Pacific Mountains: Regional Context and Implications" (PDF). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, 143 Scientific Results. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program. Vol. 143. Ocean Drilling Program. doi:10.2973/odp.proc.sr.143.245.1995. Retrieved 30 September 2018.

February 02, 2023
resolution, guyot, formerly, known, huevo, guyot, tablemount, underwater, pacific, mountains, pacific, ocean, circular, flat, mountain, rising, metres, above, seafloor, depth, about, metres, with, kilometres, wide, summit, platform, pacific, mountains, west, h. Resolution Guyot formerly known as Huevo is a guyot tablemount in the underwater Mid Pacific Mountains in the Pacific Ocean It is a circular flat mountain rising 500 metres 1 600 ft above the seafloor to a depth of about 1 320 metres 4 330 ft with a 35 kilometres 22 mi wide summit platform The Mid Pacific Mountains lie west of Hawaii and northeast of the Marshall Islands but at the time of its formation the guyot was located in the Southern Hemisphere A map of Resolution Guyot s bathymetric relief Resolutionclass notpageimage Location in the North Pacific The guyot was probably formed by a hotspot in today s French Polynesia before plate tectonics shifted it to its present day location The Easter Marquesas Pitcairn and Society hotspots among others may have been involved in the formation of Resolution Guyot Volcanic activity has been dated to have occurred 107 129 million years ago and formed a volcanic island that was subsequently flattened by erosion Carbonate deposition commenced forming an atoll like structure and a carbonate platform The platform emerged above sea level at some time between the Albian and Turonian ages before eventually drowning for reasons unknown between the Albian and the Maastrichtian Thermal subsidence lowered the drowned seamount to its present depth After a hiatus sedimentation commenced on the seamount and led to the deposition of manganese crusts and pelagic sediments some of which were later modified by phosphate Contents 1 Name and research history 2 Geography and geology 2 1 Local setting 2 2 Regional setting 2 3 Composition 3 Geologic history 3 1 Volcanic phase 3 2 Platform carbonates and reefs 3 3 Uplift and karstification 3 4 Drowning and post drowning evolution 4 Notes 5 References 5 1 SourcesName and research historyResolution Guyot was informally known as Huevo Guyot 2 before it was renamed after the drilling ship JOIDES Resolution 3 during Leg 143 of the Ocean Drilling Program a 2 in 1992 5 During that Leg 2 JOIDES Resolution took drill cores from Resolution Guyot 6 called 866A 867A and 867B 866A was drilled on its summit 867B and the unsuccessful drilling attempt 867A on its platform margin and 868A on a terrace outside of the platform 2 Geography and geologyLocal setting Resolution Guyot is part of the western Mid Pacific Mountains located west of Hawaii north northeast of the Marshall Islands 7 Unlike conventional Pacific Ocean island chains 8 the Mid Pacific Mountains are a group of oceanic plateaus with guyots 9 also known as tablemounts 10 that become progressively younger towards the east 11 Other guyots in the Mid Pacific Mountains are Sio South Darwin Thomas Heezen Allen Caprina Jacqueline and Allison 12 The seamount is about 500 metres 1 600 ft high and rises from a raised seafloor 1 to a depth of about 1 320 metres 4 330 ft 13 At a depth of 1 300 1 400 metres 4 300 4 600 ft 14 it is capped off by a 25 by 35 kilometres 16 mi 22 mi wide 15 rather flat 14 and roughly circular summit platform 16 with a 25 metres 82 ft high rim 6 and a moat inside of this rim 17 At the margin of the platform structures interpreted as sea cliffs or wave cut terraces have been found 2 at one site there is a terrace about 200 metres 660 ft wide surmounted by a 25 metres 82 ft high cliff 18 Pinnacles and depressions dot the surface platform The surface of the platform consists of limestone that is partially covered by pelagic sediments 17 underwater cameras have shown the presence of rock slabs covered by ferromanganese crusts b 2 The guyot rises from a seafloor of Jurassic age 11 201 3 0 2 ca 145 million years ago 21 that might be as much as 154 million years old 9 Terrestrial organic material on the seafloor around Resolution Guyot originated from when it was still an island 22 and carbonate sediments swept away from the guyot ended up on the surrounding seafloor 23 24 Regional setting Illustration of how hotspot volcanoes work The Pacific Ocean seafloor contains many guyots formed during the Mesozoic age 251 902 0 3 66 million years ago 21 in unusually shallow seas 12 These submarine mountains are characterized by a flat top and usually the presence of carbonate platforms that rose above the sea surface during the middle Cretaceous ca 145 66 million years ago 21 25 While there are some differences to present day reef systems 26 27 many of these seamounts were formerly atolls which still exist These structures formed as volcanoes in the Mesozoic ocean Fringing reefs may have developed on the volcanoes which then became barrier reefs as the volcano subsided and turned into an atoll 28 and which surround a lagoon or a tidal flat 29 The crust underneath these seamounts tends to subside as it cools and thus the islands and seamounts sink 30 Continued subsidence balanced by upward growth of the reefs led to the formation of thick carbonate platforms 31 Sometimes volcanic activity continued even after the formation of the atoll or atoll like structure and during episodes where the platforms rose above sea level erosional features such as channels and blue holes c developed 33 The formation of many seamounts has been explained by the hotspot theory which suggests that the chains of volcanoes become progressively older along the length of the chain 34 with an erupting volcano only at one end of the system Resolution lies on a volcano on the lithosphere heated from below as the plate shifts it is moved away from the heat source and volcanic activity ceases producing a chain of volcanoes that get progressively older away from those currently active 35 Potential hotspots involved in the formation of Resolution Guyot are the Easter Marquesas Society 9 and in some plate reconstructions the Pitcairn hotspots 36 although not all point at a presently active hotspot 16 More than one hotspot may have influenced the growth of Resolution Guyot and it and Allison Guyot may have been formed by the same hotspot s 37 The entire Mid Pacific Mountains may be the product of such a hotspot 8 Composition Rocks found at Resolution Guyot include basalt of the volcano and carbonates deposited in shallow water conditions on the volcano 38 Minerals found in the basalt are alkali feldspar clinopyroxene feldspar ilmenite magnetite olivine plagioclase spinel and titanomagnetite the olivine plagioclase and pyroxenes form phenocrysts Alteration has produced analcime ankerite calcite clay hematite iddingsite pyrite quartz saponite serpentine and zeolite 39 40 The basalts represent an alkaline intraplate suite 41 earlier trachybasalts 42 containing biotite have been recovered as well 43 The carbonates occur in the form of boundstone 44 carbonate hardgrounds 45 floatstone 46 grainstone grapestone 45 oncoids ooliths packstone peloids 47 rudstones spherulites 48 and wackestones Alteration has formed calcite dolomite 49 quartz through silicification and vugs 50 Dolomite alteration is particularly widespread in modern atolls and several processes have been invoked to explain it such as geothermally driven convection of seawater 51 Dissolved fossils 14 and traces of animal burrows are found in some rock sequences 52 with bioturbation traces widespread 45 Barite needles 50 calcretes 53 cementation forms d that developed under the influence of freshwater 45 desiccation cracks 14 and ferromanganese occurrences as dendrites have also been found 55 Organic materials e found in rock samples from Resolution Guyot 56 appear to be mainly of marine origin 58 Some of the organic matter comes from microbial mats and vegetated islands 59 including wood 60 and plant remains 14 Clays found on Resolution Guyot are characterized as chlorite glauconite hydromica 61 illite 62 kaolinite saponite and smectite 39 Claystones have also been found 62 Most clays have been found in the lower carbonate sequence while the upper parts mostly lack clay deposits 53 Some of the clays may originate from younger volcanoes east of Resolution Guyot 63 Apatite formed through phosphate modification of exposed rocks underwater 64 Other minerals include anhydrite 65 celestite goethite 62 gypsum 65 limonite 50 and pyrite which is also present in the carbonates 66 Finally mudstones have been found 48 Geologic historyCretaceous graphical timelineThis box viewtalkedit 140 130 120 110 100 90 80 70 MesozoicCZJurassicCretaceousPaleogeneEarlyLateBerriasianValanginianHauterivianBarremianAptianAlbianCenoman TuronianConiacianSantonianCampanianMaastricht K Pg massextinctionSubdivision of the Cretaceous according to the ICS as of 2022 67 Vertical axis scale millions of years ago Although radiometric dating has been carried out on volcanic rocks from Resolution Guyot the basalts are heavily altered and the dates are thus uncertain Potassium argon dating yields ages of 107 125 million years ago while argon argon dating indicates ages of 120 129 million years ago 1 Magnetization data indicate that it was formed in the Southern Hemisphere 68 Volcanic phase Eruptions in the area built a pile of volcanic rocks including stacks of lava flows each of which is about 10 metres 33 ft thick but there are also breccias f intrusions and sills 1 The lava flows appear to have been formed years apart from each other 70 Resolution Guyot was also hydrothermally active 1 This volcanic activity over 1 2 million years generated a volcanic island 71 Volcanic activity took place in a tropical or subtropical environment and between eruptions weathering soil formation and potentially mass wasting generated layers of clay rock debris and alteration products 1 such as laterite 72 Erosion eventually flattened the volcanic island to form a platform 6 It is possible that magmatic intrusions sills formed later in the history of Resolution Guyot 73 Platform carbonates and reefs Between the Hauterivian ca 132 9 ca 129 4 million years ago 21 and Albian ca 113 100 5 million years ago 21 about 1 619 metres 5 312 ft of carbonate was deposited on the volcanic structure 47 eventually completely burying it during the Albian 74 About 14 individual sequences of carbonates have been identified in drill cores 75 The carbonate sedimentation probably began in the form of shoals surrounding a volcanic island 76 and lasted for about 35 million years 77 accompanied by perhaps 0 046 millimetres per year 0 0018 in year of subsidence 78 It is likely that the present day carbonate platform contains only a fraction of the originally deposited carbonate most of the carbonate having disappeared 79 During this time Resolution Guyot underwent little latitudinal plate motion from the magnetization it appears that it was stably located at about 13 southern latitude between the Hauterivian and Aptian 80 Its carbonate platform cannot be reconstructed as only small parts have been studied but some conclusions can be made 78 The Resolution platform was surrounded by barrier islands but featured only a few reefs 11 unlike present day atolls which were rimmed by reefs Cretaceous platforms were rimmed by sand shoals 81 and on Resolution Guyot drill cores into the rim have only found sediment accumulations and no reefs 82 83 Analysis of the carbonate layers has identified that several environments existed on the platform including swash beaches lagoons marshes mudflats 84 sabkhas 85 sand bars and washover fans from storms 52 78 at times there were also open marine conditions 85 Some environments on Resolution Guyot were hypersaline at times 65 probably implying that they had only limited water exchange with the surrounding ocean 74 Islands formed from sand bars resembling those of the Bahama Banks 86 Records from Hole 866A indicate that settings at a given site were not stable over longer time periods 60 The Cretaceous Apulian Carbonate Platform in Italy and the Urgonian Formation in France have been compared to the Resolution Guyot carbonates All these platforms were located in Tethyan seas 87 and several formations in these three carbonate environments are correlated 88 for example the fauna identified on Resolution Guyot resembles that from other Northern Hemisphere platforms 89 Analogies also exist to platforms in Venezuela 88 Present day environments that resemble those of the former environments of Resolution Guyot A beach and shallow water Cook Islands Spaceborne image of mudflats and tidal channels on present day Long Island Bahamas the former morphology of Resolution Guyot has been compared to that of the present day Bahamas Vegetated island on SuwarrowWater temperatures in the early Aptian ca 125 ca 113 million years ago 21 are inferred to have been 30 32 C 86 90 F 90 The platform was exposed to southeasterly trade winds which left its northern side sheltered from waves except from storm generated ones 91 These waves wind and tidal currents acted to shift sediments around on the platform 86 Storms formed beaches on the platform 11 although the interior parts of the platform were effectively protected by the surrounding shoals from storm influence 83 Some patterns in the sedimentation indicate a seasonal climate 92 When the climate was arid gypsum deposition took place 65 Through the history of the platform sea level variations led to changes in the accumulating carbonate sediments 77 with typical facies and sequences forming in the carbonate layers 93 The Selli event an oceanic anoxic event is recorded at Resolution Guyot 94 as is the Faraoni event 95 The Selli event left a black shale layer and may have caused a temporary interruption in carbonate accumulation before the platform recovered 96 During the Albian Aptian some carbonates became dolomites 97 Life on Resolution Guyot included algae both green and red algae 52 and species forming microbial mats 98 bivalves 52 including rudists 99 bryozoans corals echinoderms echinoids foraminifera gastropods ostracods 100 oysters serpulid worms 45 sponges 47 and stromatoliths 85 Fossils of animals have been found in the drill cores 47 Rudists and sponges have been identified as bioherm builders 78 rudist families found on Resolution include Caprinidae 101 of the genus Caprina 102 Coalcomaninae 103 Monopleuridae 104 and Requieniidae 105 Well developed microbial mats grew in some places 106 107 Plant remnants have been found in the carbonate sediments 65 probably reflecting the existence of vegetation covered islands on the platform 85 Vegetation probably occurred in swamps and marshes as well 66 Uplift and karstification During the Albian to Turonian 93 9 89 8 0 3 million years ago 21 108 the carbonate platform rose above the sea by about 100 metres 330 ft 109 160 metres 520 ft This uplift episode at Resolution Guyot is part of an episode of more general tectonic changes in the Pacific Ocean with a general uplift of the ocean floor and tectonic stress changes at the ocean margins This tectonic event has been explained by a major change in mantle convection in the middle Cretaceous pushing the ocean floor upward and sideward 110 When Resolution Guyot rose above sea level karst processes began to impact the platform 111 The platform became irregular 112 and part of it was eroded away 109 calcrete crusts 113 carbonate pinnacles 18 cavities caverns containing speleothems and sinkholes formed 114 and exist to this day 113 At this stage Resolution Guyot would have resembled a makatea g island 114 This karstic episode did not last for long perhaps several hundred thousand years 116 but structures left by the karstic phase such as sinkholes and carbonate pinnacles can still be seen on the surface platform of Resolution Guyot 18 During periods of emergence freshwater flowed through and modified the carbonates 117 Drowning and post drowning evolution Resolution Guyot drowned either about 99 2 million years ago 118 or during the Maastrichtian 72 1 0 2 to 66 million years ago 21 47 although a hiatus in shallow carbonate deposition appears to date back to the Albian 112 119 that may reflect a long pause in deposition or increased erosion 112 The end Albian period was characterized by widespread cessation of carbonate sedimentation across the western Pacific 120 108 It is possible that carbonate sedimentation later continued until Campanian 83 6 0 2 72 1 0 2 million years ago 21 Maastrichtian times 71 The platform was certainly submerged by Pliocene 5 333 2 58 million years ago 21 times 11 Other carbonate platforms in the Pacific drowned especially at the end of the Albian 121 for unknown reasons 122 among the proposed mechanisms are overly nutrient rich or turbid waters the disappearance of reef forming species and a subsequent failure of them to return and overly fast sea level rise 18 Resolution Guyot was never far enough south to end up beyond the Darwin point at which carbonate deposition stops 8 The Resolution Guyot platform rose above sea level before the drowning and there is no indication that carbonate deposition recommenced when the platform subsided 123 similarly other Mid Pacific Mountains emerged before drowning 92 There is disagreement about whether Resolution Guyot was close enough to the equator and nutrient rich equatorial waters to drown at the time when carbonate sedimentation ceased 124 125 After the drowning crusts formed by ferromanganese and by phosphate modified rocks developed on exposed surfaces at Resolution Guyot 20 Several different layers of phosphate modification have been observed during the Albian alone 119 and this process may have begun when the platform was still active water within the rocks may have triggered phosphatization at this stage 126 The ferromanganese deposition probably only began in the Turonian Maastrichtian 71 when the seamount had subsided to a sufficient depth 127 Manganese encrusted Cretaceous limestones have been found within the pelagic sediments 128 As at other guyots in the Pacific Ocean 129 pelagic sedimentation commenced later the foraminifera fossils indicate an age of Maastrichtian to Pliocene for such sediments 38 These sediments reach thicknesses of 7 5 metres 25 ft in Hole 866B and consist of a Quaternary last 2 58 million years 21 a thin early Pleistocene 2 58 0 0117 million years ago 21 and a thick Pliocene layer 130 Some of the sediments take the form of pelagic limestones 19 In Paleogene 66 to 23 03 million years ago 21 sediments ostracods have been found 131 Carbonates were dissolved and replaced by dolomite already during the Aptian and Albian Around 24 million years ago at the Paleogene Neogene 23 02 2 58 million years ago 21 boundary a second pulse of dolomite formation took place perhaps sea level changes associated with global climate change triggered this second pulse 97 The formation of the dolomites was probably aided by the fact that seawater can percolate through Resolution Guyot 48 which may be responsible for the formation of fluid vent structures on the surface of the seamount 132 Notes The Ocean Drilling Program was an international research program that aimed at elucidating the geological history of the sea by obtaining drill cores from the oceans 4 Ferromanganese crusts are structures formed by iron and manganese oxides and hydroxides 19 which cover exposed rocks on many seamounts of the Pacific Ocean 20 Pit like depressions within carbonate rocks that are filled with water 32 Cementation is a process during which grains in rock are solidified and pores filled by the deposition of minerals such as calcium carbonate 54 Organic material includes bituminite kerogen plant derived lamalginite 56 lignite 57 liptinite and land plant derived vitrinite 56 Volcanic rocks that appear as fragments 69 A makatea is a raised coral reef on an island such as on Atiu Mangaia Mauke and Mitiaro in the Cook Islands 115 References a b c d e f Baker Castillo amp Condliffe 1995 p 246 a b c d e f Winterer amp Sager 1995 p 501 IHO IOC GEBCO Gazetteer of Undersea Feature Names www gebco net Retrieved 2 October 2018 Ocean Drilling Program Texas A amp M University Retrieved 8 July 2018 Firth 1993 p 1 a b c Firth 1993 p 2 Arnaud Flood amp Strasser 1995 p 134 a b c Winterer amp Sager 1995 p 508 a b c Baker Castillo amp Condliffe 1995 p 245 Bouma Arnold H September 1990 Naming of undersea features Geo Marine Letters 10 3 121 Bibcode 1990GML 10 119B doi 10 1007 bf02085926 ISSN 0276 0460 S2CID 128836166 a b c d e Rohl amp Strasser 1995 p 198 a b McNutt et al 1990 p 1101 McNutt et al 1990 p 1102 a b c d e Iryu amp Yamada 1999 p 478 El Yamani John amp Bell 2022 p 1539 a b Winterer amp Sager 1995 p 504 a b Winterer 1998 p 60 a b c d Winterer 1998 p 61 a b Murdmaa et al 1995 p 420 a b Murdmaa et al 1995 p 419 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n International Chronostratigraphic Chart PDF International Commission on Stratigraphy August 2018 Retrieved 22 October 2018 Baudin et al 1995 p 192 Jenkyns amp Strasser 1995 p 117 Sliter 1995 p 21 van Waasbergen 1995 p 471 Iryu amp Yamada 1999 p 485 Rohl amp Strasser 1995 p 211 Pringle et al 1993 p 359 Rohl amp Ogg 1996 p 596 Rohl amp Ogg 1996 pp 595 596 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and Origin of Basalt Sequences from the Cretaceous Mid Pacific Mountains Sites 865 and 866 as Deduced from Downhole Magnetometer Logs PDF Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program 143 Scientific Results Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program Vol 143 Ocean Drilling Program p 386 doi 10 2973 odp proc sr 143 239 1995 Fisher Richard V 1958 Definition of Volcanic Breccia Geological Society of America Bulletin 69 8 1071 Bibcode 1958GSAB 69 1071F doi 10 1130 0016 7606 1958 69 1071 DOVB 2 0 CO 2 ISSN 0016 7606 Winterer amp Sager 1995 p 503 a b c Kononov M V Lobkovskii L I Novikov G V February 2017 The Oligocene gap in the formation of Co rich ferromanganese crusts and sedimentation in the Pacific Ocean and the effects of bottom currents Doklady Earth Sciences 472 2 148 Bibcode 2017DokES 472 147K doi 10 1134 s1028334x17020143 ISSN 1028 334X S2CID 133112023 Kurnosov et al 1995 p 475 El Yamani John amp Bell 2022 p 1556 a b Murdmaa amp Kurnosov 1995 p 466 Rohl amp Ogg 1996 p 599 Arnaud Flood 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cosmopolitanism in the deep sea ostracod fauna the example of the genus Pedicythere Hydrobiologia 538 1 3 213 doi 10 1007 s10750 004 4963 3 ISSN 0018 8158 S2CID 24261323 El Yamani John amp Bell 2022 p 1560 Sources Arnaud H M Flood P G Strasser A May 1995 Resolution Guyot Hole 866A Mid Pacific Mountains Facies Evolution and Sequence Stratigraphy PDF Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program 143 Scientific Results Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program Vol 143 Ocean Drilling Program doi 10 2973 odp proc sr 143 230 1995 Retrieved 30 September 2018 Baker P E Castillo P R Condliffe E May 1995 Petrology and Geochemistry of Igneous Rocks from Allison and Resolution Guyots Sites 865 and 866 PDF Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program 143 Scientific Results Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program Vol 143 Ocean Drilling Program doi 10 2973 odp proc sr 143 216 1995 Retrieved 30 September 2018 Baudin F Deconinck J F Sachsenhofer R F Strasser A Arnaud H May 1995 Organic Geochemistry and Clay Mineralogy of Lower Cretaceous Sediments from Allison and Resolution Guyots Sites 865 and 866 Mid Pacific Mountains PDF Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program 143 Scientific Results Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program Vol 143 Ocean Drilling Program doi 10 2973 odp proc sr 143 220 1995 Retrieved 30 September 2018 El Yamani Mahmoud S John Cedric M Bell Rebecca 15 September 2022 Stratigraphic evolution and karstification of a Cretaceous Mid Pacific atoll Resolution Guyot resolved from core log seismic integration and comparison with modern and ancient analogues Basin Research 34 5 1536 1566 doi 10 1111 bre 12670 hdl 10044 1 98098 ISSN 1365 2117 S2CID 248223664 Firth John 27 April 1993 Examining Guyots in the Mid Pacific Mountains Eos Transactions American Geophysical Union 74 17 201 206 doi 10 1029 93eo00119 ISSN 0096 3941 Flood P G Chivas A R May 1995 Origin of Massive Dolomite Leg 143 Hole 866A Resolution Guyot Mid Pacific Mountains PDF Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program 143 Scientific Results Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program Vol 143 Ocean Drilling Program doi 10 2973 odp proc sr 143 229 1995 Retrieved 30 September 2018 Grotsch Jurgen Flugel Erik December 1992 Facies of sunken early cretaceous atoll reefs and their capping Late Albian drowning succession Northwestern Pacific Facies 27 1 153 174 doi 10 1007 bf02536809 ISSN 0172 9179 S2CID 128544669 Iryu Yasufumi Yamada Tsutomu December 1999 Biogeochemical contrasts between mid Cretaceous carbonate platforms and Cenozoic reefs The Island Arc 8 4 475 490 doi 10 1046 j 1440 1738 1999 00250 x ISSN 1038 4871 S2CID 128968750 Jenkyns H C Strasser A May 1995 Lower Cretaceous Oolites from the Mid Pacific Mountains Resolution Guyot Site 866 PDF Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program 143 Scientific Results Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program Vol 143 Ocean Drilling Program doi 10 2973 odp proc sr 143 211 1995 Retrieved 30 September 2018 Kurnosov V Zolotarev B Eroshchev Shak V Artamonov A Kashinzev Murdmaa December 1995 Alteration of Basalts from the West Pacific Guyots Legs 143 and 144 PDF Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program 144 Scientific Results Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program Vol 144 Ocean Drilling Program doi 10 2973 odp proc sr 144 068 1995 Retrieved 30 September 2018 McNutt M K Winterer E L Sager W W Natland J H Ito G July 1990 The Darwin Rise A Cretaceous superswell Geophysical Research Letters 17 8 1101 1104 Bibcode 1990GeoRL 17 1101M doi 10 1029 gl017i008p01101 ISSN 0094 8276 S2CID 51837887 Murdmaa I Nemliher J Bogdanova O Gorshkov A Kallaste T Vasilyeva V December 1995 Ferromanganese and Phosphatic Hardgrounds on the Western Pacific Guyots Drilled during Legs 143 and 144 PDF Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program 144 Scientific Results Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program Vol 144 Ocean Drilling Program doi 10 2973 odp proc sr 144 070 1995 Retrieved 30 September 2018 Murdmaa I Kurnosov V and Vasilyeva December 1995 Clay Mineralogy of the Shallow Water Deposits on Allison and Resolution Guyots Sites 865 and 866 PDF Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program 144 Scientific Results Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program Vol 144 Ocean Drilling Program doi 10 2973 odp proc sr 144 069 1995 Retrieved 30 September 2018 Pringle Malcolm S Sager William W Sliter William V Stein Seth eds 1993 The Mesozoic Pacific Geology Tectonics and Volcanism A Volume in Memory of Sy Schlanger Geophysical Monograph Series Vol 77 doi 10 1029 gm077 ISBN 978 0 87590 036 0 ISSN 0065 8448 Rohl Ursula Ogg James G October 1996 Aptian Albian sea level history from Guyots in the western Pacific Paleoceanography 11 5 595 624 Bibcode 1996PalOc 11 595R doi 10 1029 96pa01928 ISSN 0883 8305 Rohl U Strasser A May 1995 Diagenetic Alterations and Geochemical Trends in Early Cretaceous Shallow Water Limestones of Allison and Resolution Guyots Sites 865 to 868 PDF Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program 143 Scientific Results Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program Vol 143 Ocean Drilling Program doi 10 2973 odp proc sr 143 224 1995 Retrieved 30 September 2018 Skelton Peter W Sano Shin Ichi Masse Jean Pierre 1 January 2013 Rudist bivalves and the Pacific in the Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous Journal of the Geological Society 170 3 2012 2017 Bibcode 2013JGSoc 170 513S doi 10 1144 jgs2012 017 ISSN 0016 7649 S2CID 128739401 Sliter W V May 1995 Cretaceous Planktonic Foraminifers from Sites 865 866 and 869 A Synthesis of Cretaceous Pelagic Sedimentation in the Central Pacific Ocean Basin PDF Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program 143 Scientific Results Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program Vol 143 Ocean Drilling Program doi 10 2973 odp proc sr 143 202 1995 Retrieved 30 September 2018 Strasser A Arnaud H Baudin F Rohl U May 1995 Small Scale Shallow Water Carbonate Sequences of Resolution Guyot Sites 866 867 and 868 PDF Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program 143 Scientific Results Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program Vol 143 Ocean Drilling Program doi 10 2973 odp proc sr 143 228 1995 Retrieved 30 September 2018 Swinburne N H M Masse J P May 1995 Early Cretaceous Rudist Fauna of Allison and Resolution Guyots Mid Pacific Mountains PDF Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program 143 Scientific Results Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program Vol 143 Ocean Drilling Program doi 10 2973 odp proc sr 143 207 1995 Retrieved 30 September 2018 van Waasbergen R J May 1995 Sediment Facies and Environments of Deposition on Cretaceous Pacific Carbonate Platforms An Overview of Dredged Rocks from Western Pacific Guyots PDF Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program 143 Scientific Results Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program Vol 143 Ocean Drilling Program doi 10 2973 odp proc sr 143 242 1995 Retrieved 30 September 2018 Watkins D K Pearson P N Erba E Rack F R Premoli Silva I Bohrmann H W Fenner J Hobbs P R N December 1995 Stratigraphy and Sediment Accumulation Patterns of the Upper Cenozoic Pelagic Carbonate Caps of Guyots in the Northwestern Pacific Ocean PDF Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program 144 Scientific Results Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program Vol 144 Ocean Drilling Program doi 10 2973 odp proc sr 144 066 1995 Retrieved 30 September 2018 Wilson Paul A Jenkyns Hugh C Elderfield Henry Larson Roger L April 1998 The paradox of drowned carbonate platforms and the origin of Cretaceous Pacific guyots Nature 392 6679 889 894 Bibcode 1998Natur 392 889W doi 10 1038 31865 ISSN 0028 0836 S2CID 4423865 Winterer Edward L 1998 Cretaceous karst guyots New evidence for inheritance of atoll morphology from subaerial erosional terrain Geology 26 1 59 Bibcode 1998Geo 26 59W doi 10 1130 0091 7613 1998 026 lt 0059 CKGNEF gt 2 3 CO 2 ISSN 0091 7613 Winterer E L Sager W W May 1995 Synthesis of Drilling Results from the Mid Pacific Mountains Regional Context and Implications PDF Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program 143 Scientific Results Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program Vol 143 Ocean Drilling Program doi 10 2973 odp proc sr 143 245 1995 Retrieved 30 September 2018 Portal Oceans Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Resolution Guyot amp oldid 1137027144, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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