The Radiolaria, also called Radiozoa, are protozoa of diameter 0.1–0.2 mm that produce intricate mineralskeletons, typically with a central capsule dividing the cell into the inner and outer portions of endoplasm and ectoplasm. The elaborate mineral skeleton is usually made of silica.[1] They are found as zooplankton throughout the global ocean. As zooplankton, radiolarians are primarily heterotrophic, but many have photosynthetic endosymbionts and are, therefore, considered mixotrophs. The skeletal remains of some types of radiolarians make up a large part of the cover of the ocean floor as siliceous ooze. Due to their rapid change as species and intricate skeletons, radiolarians represent an important diagnostic fossil found from the Cambrian onwards.
Radiolarians have many needle-like pseudopods supported by bundles of microtubules, which aid in the radiolarian's buoyancy. The cell nucleus and most other organelles are in the endoplasm, while the ectoplasm is filled with frothy vacuoles and lipid droplets, keeping them buoyant. The radiolarian can often contain symbiotic algae, especially zooxanthellae, which provide most of the cell's energy. Some of this organization is found among the heliozoa, but those lack central capsules and only produce simple scales and spines.
Some radiolarians are known for their resemblance to regular polyhedra, such as the icosahedron-shaped Circogonia icosahedra pictured below.
Taxonomy
The radiolarians belong to the supergroup Rhizaria together with (amoeboid or flagellate) Cercozoa and (shelled amoeboid) Foraminifera.[2] Traditionally the radiolarians have been divided into four groups—Acantharea, Nassellaria, Spumellaria and Phaeodarea. Phaeodaria is however now considered to be a Cercozoan.[3][4] Nassellaria and Spumellaria both produce siliceous skeletons and were therefore grouped together in the group Polycystina. Despite some initial suggestions to the contrary, this is also supported by molecular phylogenies. The Acantharea produce skeletons of strontium sulfate and is closely related to a peculiar genus, Sticholonche (Taxopodida), which lacks an internal skeleton and was for long time considered a heliozoan. The Radiolaria can therefore be divided into two major lineages: Polycystina (Spumellaria + Nassellaria) and Spasmaria (Acantharia + Taxopodida).[5][6]
There are several higher-order groups that have been detected in molecular analyses of environmental data. Particularly, groups related to Acantharia[7] and Spumellaria.[8] These groups are so far completely unknown in terms of morphology and physiology and the radiolarian diversity is therefore likely to be much higher than what is currently known.
The relationship between the Foraminifera and Radiolaria is also debated. Molecular trees supports their close relationship—a grouping termed Retaria.[9] But whether they are sister lineages or if the Foraminifera should be included within the Radiolaria is not known.
Radiolarian biogeography with observed and predicted responses to temperature change
The color polygons in all three panels represent generalized radiolarian biogeographic provinces, as well as their relative water mass temperatures (cooler colors indicate cooler temperatures, and vice versa). Globe image adapted from NASA Blue Marble: Next Generation imagery. Ocean floor bathymetry from Google Earth seafloor elevation profile (5°N–74°S, at 120°W).
In the diagram on the right, a Illustrates generalized radiolarian provinces [10][11] and their relationship to water mass temperature (warm versus cool color shading) and circulation (gray arrows). Due to high-latitude water mass submergence under warm, stratified waters in lower latitudes, radiolarian species occupy habitats at multiple latitudes, and depths throughout the world oceans. Thus, marine sediments from the tropics reflect a composite of several vertically stacked faunal assemblages, some of which are contiguous with higher latitude surface assemblages. Sediments beneath polar waters include cosmopolitan deep-water radiolarians, as well as high-latitude endemic surface water species. Stars in (a) indicate the latitudes sampled, and the gray bars highlight the radiolarian assemblages included in each sedimentary composite. The horizontal purple bars indicate latitudes known for good radiolarian (silica) preservation, based on surface sediment composition.[12][13]
Data show that some species were extirpated from high latitudes but persisted in the tropics during the late Neogene, either by migration or range restriction (b). With predicted global warming, modern Southern Ocean species will not be able to use migration or range contraction to escape environmental stressors, because their preferred cold-water habitats are disappearing from the globe (c). However, tropical endemic species may expand their ranges toward midlatitudes. The color polygons in all three panels represent generalized radiolarian biogeographic provinces, as well as their relative water mass temperatures (cooler colors indicate cooler temperatures, and vice versa).[13]
Circogonia icosahedra, radiolarian species shaped like a regular icosahedron
Radiolarians are unicellular predatory protists encased in elaborate globular shells usually made of silica and pierced with holes. Their name comes from the Latin for "radius". They catch prey by extending parts of their body through the holes. As with the silica frustules of diatoms, radiolarian shells can sink to the ocean floor when radiolarians die and become preserved as part of the ocean sediment. These remains, as microfossils, provide valuable information about past oceanic conditions.[14]
Like diatoms, radiolarians come in many shapes
Also like diatoms, radiolarian shells are usually made of silicate
This is a microfossil from the Middle Ordovician with four nested spheres. The innermost sphere is highlighted red. Each segment is shown at the same scale.[17]
The earliest known radiolaria date to the very start of the Cambrian period, appearing in the same beds as the first small shelly fauna—they may even be terminal Precambrian in age.[18][19][20][21] They have significant differences from later radiolaria, with a different silica lattice structure and few, if any, spikes on the test.[20] About ninety percent of known radiolarian species are extinct. The skeletons, or tests, of ancient radiolarians are used in geological dating, including for oil exploration and determination of ancient climates.[22]
Some common radiolarian fossils include Actinomma, Heliosphaera and Hexadoridium.
^Pawlowski J, Burki F (2009). "Untangling the phylogeny of amoeboid protists". J. Eukaryot. Microbiol. 56 (1): 16–25. doi:10.1111/j.1550-7408.2008.00379.x. PMID 19335771.
^Yuasa T, Takahashi O, Honda D, Mayama S (2005). "Phylogenetic analyses of the polycystine Radiolaria based on the 18s rDNA sequences of the Spumellarida and the Nassellarida". European Journal of Protistology. 41 (4): 287–298. doi:10.1016/j.ejop.2005.06.001.
^Nikolaev SI, Berney C, Fahrni JF, et al. (May 2004). "The twilight of Heliozoa and rise of Rhizaria, an emerging supergroup of amoeboid eukaryotes". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 101 (21): 8066–71. doi:10.1073/pnas.0308602101. PMC419558. PMID 15148395.
^Krabberød AK, Bråte J, Dolven JK, et al. (2011). "Radiolaria divided into Polycystina and Spasmaria in combined 18S and 28S rDNA phylogeny". PLOS ONE. 6 (8): e23526. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...623526K. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0023526. PMC3154480. PMID 21853146.
^Cavalier-Smith T (December 1993). "Kingdom protozoa and its 18 phyla". Microbiol. Rev. 57 (4): 953–94. doi:10.1128/mmbr.57.4.953-994.1993. PMC372943. PMID 8302218.
^Decelle J, Suzuki N, Mahé F, de Vargas C, Not F (May 2012). "Molecular phylogeny and morphological evolution of the Acantharia (Radiolaria)". Protist. 163 (3): 435–50. doi:10.1016/j.protis.2011.10.002. PMID 22154393.
^Not F, Gausling R, Azam F, Heidelberg JF, Worden AZ (May 2007). "Vertical distribution of picoeukaryotic diversity in the Sargasso Sea". Environ. Microbiol. 9 (5): 1233–52. doi:10.1111/j.1462-2920.2007.01247.x. PMID 17472637.
^Cavalier-Smith T (July 1999). "Principles of protein and lipid targeting in secondary symbiogenesis: euglenoid, dinoflagellate, and sporozoan plastid origins and the eukaryote family tree". J. Eukaryot. Microbiol. 46 (4): 347–66. doi:10.1111/j.1550-7408.1999.tb04614.x. PMID 18092388. S2CID 22759799.
^Boltovskoy, D., Kling, S. A., Takahashi, K. & BjØrklund, K. (2010) "World atlas of distribution of recent Polycystina (Radiolaria)". Palaeontologia Electronica, 13: 1–230.
^Casey, R. E., Spaw, J. M., & Kunze, F. R. (1982) "Polycystine radiolarian distribution and enhancements related to oceanographic conditions in a hypothetical ocean". Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol. Bull., 66: 319–332.
^Lazarus, David B. (2011). "The deep-sea microfossil record of macroevolutionary change in plankton and its study". Geological Society, London, Special Publications. 358 (1): 141–166. Bibcode:2011GSLSP.358..141L. doi:10.1144/SP358.10. S2CID 128826639.
^ abTrubovitz, Sarah; Lazarus, David; Renaudie, Johan; Noble, Paula J. (2020). "Marine plankton show threshold extinction response to Neogene climate change". Nature Communications. 11 (1): 5069. Bibcode:2020NatCo..11.5069T. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-18879-7. PMC7582175. PMID 33093493. Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
^Wassilieff, Maggy (2006) "Plankton - Animal plankton", Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Accessed: 2 November 2019.
^Kachovich, Sarah (2018) "Minds over Methods: Linking microfossils to tectonics" Blog of the Tectonics and Structural Geology Division of the European Geosciences Union.
^Varea, C.; Aragon, J.L.; Barrio, R.A. (1999). "Turing patterns on a sphere". Physical Review E. 60 (4): 4588–92. Bibcode:1999PhRvE..60.4588V. doi:10.1103/PhysRevE.60.4588. PMID 11970318.
^Kachovich, S., Sheng, J. and Aitchison, J.C., 2019. Adding a new dimension to investigations of early radiolarian evolution. Scientific reports, 9(1), pp.1-10. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-42771-0. Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
^Chang, Shan; Feng, Qinglai; Zhang, Lei (14 August 2018). "New Siliceous Microfossils from the Terreneuvian Yanjiahe Formation, South China: The Possible Earliest Radiolarian Fossil Record". Journal of Earth Science. 29 (4): 912–919. doi:10.1007/s12583-017-0960-0. S2CID 134890245.
^Zhang, Ke; Feng, Qing-Lai (September 2019). "Early Cambrian radiolarians and sponge spicules from the Niujiaohe Formation in South China". Palaeoworld. 28 (3): 234–242. doi:10.1016/j.palwor.2019.04.001. S2CID 146452469.
^ abBraun, Chen, Waloszek & Maas (2007), "First Early Cambrian Radiolaria", in Vickers-Rich, Patricia; Komarower, Patricia (eds.), The Rise and Fall of the Ediacaran Biota, Special publications, vol. 286, London: Geological Society, pp. 143–149, doi:10.1144/SP286.10, ISBN9781862392335, OCLC 156823511{{citation}}: CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link)
^Maletz, Jörg (June 2017). "The identification of putative Lower Cambrian Radiolaria". Revue de Micropaléontologie. 60 (2): 233–240. doi:10.1016/j.revmic.2017.04.001.
^Zuckerman, L.D., Fellers, T.J., Alvarado, O., and Davidson, M.W. "Radiolarians", Molecular Expressions, Florida State University, 4 February 2004.
Zettler, Linda A.; Sogin, ML; Caron, DA (1997). "Phylogenetic relationships between the Acantharea and the Polycystinea: A molecular perspective on Haeckel's Radiolaria". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 94 (21): 11411–6. Bibcode:1997PNAS...9411411A. doi:10.1073/pnas.94.21.11411. PMC23483. PMID 9326623.
López-García P, Rodríguez-Valera F, Moreira D (January 2002). "Toward the monophyly of Haeckel's radiolaria: 18S rRNA environmental data support the sisterhood of polycystinea and acantharea". Mol. Biol. Evol. 19 (1): 118–121. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a003976. PMID 11752197.
Adl SM, Simpson AG, Farmer MA, et al. (2005). "The New Higher Level Classification of Eukaryotes with Emphasis on the Taxonomy of Protists". J. Eukaryot. Microbiol. 52 (5): 399–451. doi:10.1111/j.1550-7408.2005.00053.x. PMID 16248873.
Haeckel, Ernst (2005). Art Forms from the Ocean: The Radiolarian Atlas of 1862. Munich; London: Prestel Verlag. ISBN978-3-7913-3327-4.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Radiolaria.
Wikispecies has information related to Radiolaria.
Brodie, C. (February 2005). "Geometry and Pattern in Nature 3: The holes in radiolarian and diatom tests". Micscape (112). ISSN 1365-070X.
Radiolaria.org
Haeckel, Ernst (1862). . Berlin. Archived from the original on 2009-06-19. Retrieved 2007-09-07.
Radiolaria—Droplet
Tree Of Life—Radiolaria
^Boltovskoy, Demetrio; Anderson, O. Roger; Correa, Nancy M. (2016). Archibald, John M.; Simpson, Alastair G. B.; Slamovits, Claudio H.; Margulis, Lynn; Melkonian, Michael; Chapman, David J.; Corliss, John O. (eds.). Handbook of the Protists. Springer International Publishing. pp. 1–33. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-32669-6_19-1. ISBN9783319326696.
January 31, 2023
radiolaria, also, called, radiozoa, protozoa, diameter, that, produce, intricate, mineral, skeletons, typically, with, central, capsule, dividing, cell, into, inner, outer, portions, endoplasm, ectoplasm, elaborate, mineral, skeleton, usually, made, silica, th. The Radiolaria also called Radiozoa are protozoa of diameter 0 1 0 2 mm that produce intricate mineral skeletons typically with a central capsule dividing the cell into the inner and outer portions of endoplasm and ectoplasm The elaborate mineral skeleton is usually made of silica 1 They are found as zooplankton throughout the global ocean As zooplankton radiolarians are primarily heterotrophic but many have photosynthetic endosymbionts and are therefore considered mixotrophs The skeletal remains of some types of radiolarians make up a large part of the cover of the ocean floor as siliceous ooze Due to their rapid change as species and intricate skeletons radiolarians represent an important diagnostic fossil found from the Cambrian onwards RadiolariaTemporal range Cambrian Recent PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg NRadiolaria illustration from the Challenger expedition 1873 76Scientific classificationKingdom ChromistaPhylum RetariaSubphylum RadiolariaCavalier Smith 1987ClassesPolycystinea Nassellaria Spumellaria Collodaria Acantharea Taxopodida Sticholonche Excluded Phaeodaria now in Cercozoa Contents 1 Description 2 Taxonomy 3 Biogeography 4 Radiolarian shells 5 Fossil record 6 See also 7 References 8 External linksDescription EditRadiolarians have many needle like pseudopods supported by bundles of microtubules which aid in the radiolarian s buoyancy The cell nucleus and most other organelles are in the endoplasm while the ectoplasm is filled with frothy vacuoles and lipid droplets keeping them buoyant The radiolarian can often contain symbiotic algae especially zooxanthellae which provide most of the cell s energy Some of this organization is found among the heliozoa but those lack central capsules and only produce simple scales and spines Some radiolarians are known for their resemblance to regular polyhedra such as the icosahedron shaped Circogonia icosahedra pictured below Taxonomy EditThe radiolarians belong to the supergroup Rhizaria together with amoeboid or flagellate Cercozoa and shelled amoeboid Foraminifera 2 Traditionally the radiolarians have been divided into four groups Acantharea Nassellaria Spumellaria and Phaeodarea Phaeodaria is however now considered to be a Cercozoan 3 4 Nassellaria and Spumellaria both produce siliceous skeletons and were therefore grouped together in the group Polycystina Despite some initial suggestions to the contrary this is also supported by molecular phylogenies The Acantharea produce skeletons of strontium sulfate and is closely related to a peculiar genus Sticholonche Taxopodida which lacks an internal skeleton and was for long time considered a heliozoan The Radiolaria can therefore be divided into two major lineages Polycystina Spumellaria Nassellaria and Spasmaria Acantharia Taxopodida 5 6 There are several higher order groups that have been detected in molecular analyses of environmental data Particularly groups related to Acantharia 7 and Spumellaria 8 These groups are so far completely unknown in terms of morphology and physiology and the radiolarian diversity is therefore likely to be much higher than what is currently known The relationship between the Foraminifera and Radiolaria is also debated Molecular trees supports their close relationship a grouping termed Retaria 9 But whether they are sister lineages or if the Foraminifera should be included within the Radiolaria is not known Class Order Image Families Genera Species DescriptionPolycystinea Nassellaria Spumellaria Collodaria Acantharea Sticholonchea Taxopodida 1 1 1 Biogeography Edit Radiolarian biogeography with observed and predicted responses to temperature change The color polygons in all three panels represent generalized radiolarian biogeographic provinces as well as their relative water mass temperatures cooler colors indicate cooler temperatures and vice versa Globe image adapted from NASA Blue Marble Next Generation imagery Ocean floor bathymetry from Google Earth seafloor elevation profile 5 N 74 S at 120 W In the diagram on the right a Illustrates generalized radiolarian provinces 10 11 and their relationship to water mass temperature warm versus cool color shading and circulation gray arrows Due to high latitude water mass submergence under warm stratified waters in lower latitudes radiolarian species occupy habitats at multiple latitudes and depths throughout the world oceans Thus marine sediments from the tropics reflect a composite of several vertically stacked faunal assemblages some of which are contiguous with higher latitude surface assemblages Sediments beneath polar waters include cosmopolitan deep water radiolarians as well as high latitude endemic surface water species Stars in a indicate the latitudes sampled and the gray bars highlight the radiolarian assemblages included in each sedimentary composite The horizontal purple bars indicate latitudes known for good radiolarian silica preservation based on surface sediment composition 12 13 Data show that some species were extirpated from high latitudes but persisted in the tropics during the late Neogene either by migration or range restriction b With predicted global warming modern Southern Ocean species will not be able to use migration or range contraction to escape environmental stressors because their preferred cold water habitats are disappearing from the globe c However tropical endemic species may expand their ranges toward midlatitudes The color polygons in all three panels represent generalized radiolarian biogeographic provinces as well as their relative water mass temperatures cooler colors indicate cooler temperatures and vice versa 13 Circogonia icosahedra radiolarian species shaped like a regular icosahedron Anthocyrtium hispidum HaeckelRadiolarian shells EditRadiolarian shapes Drawings by Haeckel 1904 click for details See also Protist shell Radiolarians are unicellular predatory protists encased in elaborate globular shells usually made of silica and pierced with holes Their name comes from the Latin for radius They catch prey by extending parts of their body through the holes As with the silica frustules of diatoms radiolarian shells can sink to the ocean floor when radiolarians die and become preserved as part of the ocean sediment These remains as microfossils provide valuable information about past oceanic conditions 14 Like diatoms radiolarians come in many shapes Also like diatoms radiolarian shells are usually made of silicate However acantharian radiolarians have shells made from strontium sulfate crystals Animation of radiolarian diversity 15 Cutaway schematic diagram of a spherical radiolarian shell Cladococcus abietinusTuring and radiolarian morphology Shell of a spherical radiolarian Shell micrographsComputer simulations of Turing patterns on a sphereclosely replicate some radiolarian shell patterns 16 External video Radiolarian geometry Ernst Haeckel s radiolarian engravingsFossil record EditFossil radiolarian X ray microtomography of Triplococcus acanthicus This is a microfossil from the Middle Ordovician with four nested spheres The innermost sphere is highlighted red Each segment is shown at the same scale 17 The earliest known radiolaria date to the very start of the Cambrian period appearing in the same beds as the first small shelly fauna they may even be terminal Precambrian in age 18 19 20 21 They have significant differences from later radiolaria with a different silica lattice structure and few if any spikes on the test 20 About ninety percent of known radiolarian species are extinct The skeletons or tests of ancient radiolarians are used in geological dating including for oil exploration and determination of ancient climates 22 Some common radiolarian fossils include Actinomma Heliosphaera and Hexadoridium See also EditRadiolariteReferences Edit Smalley I J 1963 Radiolarians construction of spherical skeleton Science 140 3565 396 397 Bibcode 1963Sci 140 396S doi 10 1126 science 140 3565 396 PMID 17815802 S2CID 28616246 Pawlowski J Burki F 2009 Untangling the phylogeny of amoeboid protists J Eukaryot Microbiol 56 1 16 25 doi 10 1111 j 1550 7408 2008 00379 x PMID 19335771 Yuasa T Takahashi O Honda D Mayama S 2005 Phylogenetic analyses of the polycystine Radiolaria based on the 18s rDNA sequences of the Spumellarida and the Nassellarida European Journal of Protistology 41 4 287 298 doi 10 1016 j ejop 2005 06 001 Nikolaev SI Berney C Fahrni JF et al May 2004 The twilight of Heliozoa and rise of Rhizaria an emerging supergroup of amoeboid eukaryotes Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 101 21 8066 71 doi 10 1073 pnas 0308602101 PMC 419558 PMID 15148395 Krabberod AK Brate J Dolven JK et al 2011 Radiolaria divided into Polycystina and Spasmaria in combined 18S and 28S rDNA phylogeny PLOS ONE 6 8 e23526 Bibcode 2011PLoSO 623526K doi 10 1371 journal pone 0023526 PMC 3154480 PMID 21853146 Cavalier Smith T December 1993 Kingdom protozoa and its 18 phyla Microbiol Rev 57 4 953 94 doi 10 1128 mmbr 57 4 953 994 1993 PMC 372943 PMID 8302218 Decelle J Suzuki N Mahe F de Vargas C Not F May 2012 Molecular phylogeny and morphological evolution of the Acantharia Radiolaria Protist 163 3 435 50 doi 10 1016 j protis 2011 10 002 PMID 22154393 Not F Gausling R Azam F Heidelberg JF Worden AZ May 2007 Vertical distribution of picoeukaryotic diversity in the Sargasso Sea Environ Microbiol 9 5 1233 52 doi 10 1111 j 1462 2920 2007 01247 x PMID 17472637 Cavalier Smith T July 1999 Principles of protein and lipid targeting in secondary symbiogenesis euglenoid dinoflagellate and sporozoan plastid origins and the eukaryote family tree J Eukaryot Microbiol 46 4 347 66 doi 10 1111 j 1550 7408 1999 tb04614 x PMID 18092388 S2CID 22759799 Boltovskoy D Kling S A Takahashi K amp BjOrklund K 2010 World atlas of distribution of recent Polycystina Radiolaria Palaeontologia Electronica 13 1 230 Casey R E Spaw J M amp Kunze F R 1982 Polycystine radiolarian distribution and enhancements related to oceanographic conditions in a hypothetical ocean Am Assoc Pet Geol Bull 66 319 332 Lazarus David B 2011 The deep sea microfossil record of macroevolutionary change in plankton and its study Geological Society London Special Publications 358 1 141 166 Bibcode 2011GSLSP 358 141L doi 10 1144 SP358 10 S2CID 128826639 a b Trubovitz Sarah Lazarus David Renaudie Johan Noble Paula J 2020 Marine plankton show threshold extinction response to Neogene climate change Nature Communications 11 1 5069 Bibcode 2020NatCo 11 5069T doi 10 1038 s41467 020 18879 7 PMC 7582175 PMID 33093493 Material was copied from this source which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4 0 International License Wassilieff Maggy 2006 Plankton Animal plankton Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand Accessed 2 November 2019 Kachovich Sarah 2018 Minds over Methods Linking microfossils to tectonics Blog of the Tectonics and Structural Geology Division of the European Geosciences Union Varea C Aragon J L Barrio R A 1999 Turing patterns on a sphere Physical Review E 60 4 4588 92 Bibcode 1999PhRvE 60 4588V doi 10 1103 PhysRevE 60 4588 PMID 11970318 Kachovich S Sheng J and Aitchison J C 2019 Adding a new dimension to investigations of early radiolarian evolution Scientific reports 9 1 pp 1 10 doi 10 1038 s41598 019 42771 0 Material was copied from this source which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4 0 International License Chang Shan Feng Qinglai Zhang Lei 14 August 2018 New Siliceous Microfossils from the Terreneuvian Yanjiahe Formation South China The Possible Earliest Radiolarian Fossil Record Journal of Earth Science 29 4 912 919 doi 10 1007 s12583 017 0960 0 S2CID 134890245 Zhang Ke Feng Qing Lai September 2019 Early Cambrian radiolarians and sponge spicules from the Niujiaohe Formation in South China Palaeoworld 28 3 234 242 doi 10 1016 j palwor 2019 04 001 S2CID 146452469 a b Braun Chen Waloszek amp Maas 2007 First Early Cambrian Radiolaria in Vickers Rich Patricia Komarower Patricia eds The Rise and Fall of the Ediacaran Biota Special publications vol 286 London Geological Society pp 143 149 doi 10 1144 SP286 10 ISBN 9781862392335 OCLC 156823511 a href Template Citation html title Template Citation citation a CS1 maint uses authors parameter link Maletz Jorg June 2017 The identification of putative Lower Cambrian Radiolaria Revue de Micropaleontologie 60 2 233 240 doi 10 1016 j revmic 2017 04 001 Zuckerman L D Fellers T J Alvarado O and Davidson M W Radiolarians Molecular Expressions Florida State University 4 February 2004 Zettler Linda A Sogin ML Caron DA 1997 Phylogenetic relationships between the Acantharea and the Polycystinea A molecular perspective on Haeckel s Radiolaria Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 94 21 11411 6 Bibcode 1997PNAS 9411411A doi 10 1073 pnas 94 21 11411 PMC 23483 PMID 9326623 Lopez Garcia P Rodriguez Valera F Moreira D January 2002 Toward the monophyly of Haeckel s radiolaria 18S rRNA environmental data support the sisterhood of polycystinea and acantharea Mol Biol Evol 19 1 118 121 doi 10 1093 oxfordjournals molbev a003976 PMID 11752197 Adl SM Simpson AG Farmer MA et al 2005 The New Higher Level Classification of Eukaryotes with Emphasis on the Taxonomy of Protists J Eukaryot Microbiol 52 5 399 451 doi 10 1111 j 1550 7408 2005 00053 x PMID 16248873 Haeckel Ernst 2005 Art Forms from the Ocean The Radiolarian Atlas of 1862 Munich London Prestel Verlag ISBN 978 3 7913 3327 4 External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Radiolaria Wikispecies has information related to Radiolaria 1 Radiolarians Brodie C February 2005 Geometry and Pattern in Nature 3 The holes in radiolarian and diatom tests Micscape 112 ISSN 1365 070X Radiolaria org Haeckel Ernst 1862 Die Radiolarien Rhizopoda radiaria Berlin Archived from the original on 2009 06 19 Retrieved 2007 09 07 Radiolaria Droplet Tree Of Life Radiolaria Boltovskoy Demetrio Anderson O Roger Correa Nancy M 2016 Archibald John M Simpson Alastair G B Slamovits Claudio H Margulis Lynn Melkonian Michael Chapman David J Corliss John O eds Handbook of the Protists Springer International Publishing pp 1 33 doi 10 1007 978 3 319 32669 6 19 1 ISBN 9783319326696 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Radiolaria amp oldid 1122882085, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,
