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Hate crime laws in the United States

August 31, 2023

Hate crime laws in the United States are state and federal laws intended to protect against hate crimes (also known as bias crimes). Although state laws vary, current statutes permit federal prosecution of hate crimes committed on the basis of a person's characteristics of race, religion, ethnicity, disability, nationality, gender, sexual orientation, and/or gender identity. The U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ), Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), and campus police departments are required to collect and publish hate crime statistics.

By definition, hate crimes are based on the perpetrator's motivations, which are intrinsically unknowable unless the perpetrator announces them, which means United States hate crime convictions by definition always involve United States free speech exceptions.[original research?]

Federal Edit

Title I of the Civil Rights Act of 1968 Edit

Further information: Civil Rights Act of 1968 § Title I: Hate crimes

Title I of the Civil Rights Act of 1968, enacted 18 U.S.C. § 245(b)(2), permits federal prosecution of anyone who "willfully injures, intimidates or interferes with, or attempts to injure, intimidate or interfere with ... any person because of his race, color, religion or national origin"[1] or because of the victim's attempt to engage in one of six types of federally protected activities, such as attending school, patronizing a public place/facility, applying for employment, acting as a juror in a state court, or voting.

People convicted of violating this law face a fine or imprisonment of up to one year, or both. If bodily injury results or if such acts of intimidation involve the use of firearms, explosives or fire, individuals can receive prison terms of up to 10 years, while crimes involving kidnapping, sexual assault, or murder can be punishable by life in prison or the death penalty.[2] U.S. District Courts provide for criminal sanctions only. The Violence Against Women Act of 1994 contained a provision at 42 U.S.C. § 13981 which allowed victims of gender-motivated hate crimes to seek "compensatory and punitive damages, injunctive and declaratory relief, and such other relief as a court may deem appropriate".

Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act (1994) Edit

Main article: Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act

The Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act, enacted in 28 U.S.C. § 994 note Sec. 280003, requires the United States Sentencing Commission to increase the penalties for hate crimes committed on the basis of the actual or perceived race, color, religion, national origin, ethnicity, or gender of any person. In 1995, the Sentencing Commission implemented these guidelines, which only apply to federal crimes.[3]

Church Arson Prevention Act (1996) Edit

The S. 1980 (104th): Church Arson Prevention Act of 1996 was introduced to Congress on June 19, 1996, but died because the Senate Committee found some places for improvement of the bill. It was sponsored by Republican Duncan Faircloth.[4] On May 23, 1996, the House of Representatives introduced H.R. 3525 (104th): Church Arson Prevention Act. The Act was passed by both houses in Congress and signed by President Bill Clinton on July 3, 1996. This bill became law number Pub.L. 104–155. It was sponsored by Republican Henry Hyde.[5] The bill was summarized by the Congressional Research Service as follows: "[the Church Arson Prevention Act of 1996] makes Federal criminal code prohibitions against, and penalties for, damaging religious property or obstructing any person's free exercise of religious beliefs applicable where the offense is in, or affects, interstate commerce."[5] One of the changes in the bill was the sentence increase for "defacing or destroying any religious real property because of race, color, or ethnic characteristics..." from 10 to 20 years. It also changed the statute of limitations from five years to seven years after the date the crime was committed. It reauthorizes the Hate Crimes Statistics Act.[6]

Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act (2009) Edit

Main article: Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act

On October 28, 2009, President Obama signed the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act, attached to the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2010, which expanded existing United States federal hate crime law to apply to crimes motivated by a victim's actual or perceived gender, sexual orientation, gender identity, or disability, and dropped the prerequisite that the victim be engaging in a federally protected activity.

Emmett Till Antilynching Act (2022) Edit

Main article: Emmett Till Antilynching Act

On March 29, 2022, President Joe Biden signed the Emmett Till Antilynching Act, which expanded existing United States federal hate crime law to apply to the crime of lynching, defining it as an act of two or more people in a conspiracy to maim or kill a person based on real or perceived traits of a victim as protected under federal law. It was the first anti-lynching bill to be passed by Congress following over 200 bills filed since the Reconstruction era.

State and district Edit

Forty-seven states and the District of Columbia have statutes criminalizing various types of bias-motivated violence or intimidation (the exceptions being Arkansas, South Carolina, and Wyoming). Georgia, whose hate crime statute was struck down by the Georgia Supreme Court in 2004,[7] passed a new hate crime law in June 2020.[8] Each of these statutes covers bias on the basis of race, religion, and ethnicity; 34 cover disability; 34 of them cover sexual orientation; 30 cover gender; 22 cover transgender/gender-identity; 14 cover age; 6 cover political affiliation.[9] and 3 along with Washington, D.C. cover homelessness.[10]

Thirty-four states and the District of Columbia have statutes creating a civil cause of action, in addition to the criminal penalty, for similar acts.[9]

Thirty states and the District of Columbia have statutes requiring the state to collect hate crime statistics; 20 of these cover sexual orientation.[9]

Twenty-seven states plus the District of Columbia have statutes that specifically cover gender.[11]

Eighteen states have hate crime laws regarding gender identity.[11]

Three states and the District of Columbia cover homelessness.[10]

State Classes covered Source
  Alabama Race, color, religion, national origin, ethnicity, physical and mental disabilities [12]
  Alaska Race, sex, color, creed, physical or mental disability, ancestry, and national origin [13]
  Arizona Race, color, religion, national origin, sexual orientation, gender, and disability [14][15]
  California Disability, gender, nationality, race or ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation, and "association with a person or group" of one of the other classes [16]
  Colorado Race, color, ancestry, religion, national origin, physical or mental disability, and sexual orientation [17]
  Connecticut Race, religion, ethnicity, disability, sex, sexual orientation, and gender identity or expression [18]
  Delaware Race, religion, color, disability, sexual orientation, gender identity, national origin, and ancestry [19]
  District of Columbia Race, color, religion, national origin, sex, age, marital status, personal appearance, sexual orientation, gender identity or expression, family responsibility, homelessness, physical disability, matriculation, and political affiliation of a victim [20]
  Florida Race, religion, ethnicity, color, ancestry, sexual orientation, and national origin [21]
  Georgia Race, color, religion, sex, gender, disability, sexual orientation, national origin, or ethnicity [22]
  Hawaii Race, religion, disability, ethnicity, national origin, gender identity or expression, and sexual orientation [23]
  Idaho Race, color, ancestry, religion, and national origin [24]
  Illinois Race, color, creed, religion, ancestry, gender, sexual orientation, physical or mental disability, and national origin of another individual or group of individuals [25]
  Indiana Color, creed, disability, national origin, race, religion, and sexual orientation [26][27]
  Iowa Race, color, religion, ancestry, national origin, political affiliation, sex, sexual orientation, age, disability, and "the person's association with a person" of one of the other classes [28]
  Kansas Race, color, religion, ethnicity, national origin, and sexual orientation [29]
  Kentucky Race, color, religion, sexual orientation, national origin, and employment as a law enforcement officer, firefighter, or emergency service personnel [30]
  Louisiana Race, age, gender, religion, color, creed, disability, sexual orientation, national origin, ancestry, membership or service in, or employment with, an organization, and employment as a law enforcement officer, firefighter, or emergency medical services personnel [31]
  Maine Race, color, religion, sex, ancestry, national origin, physical or mental disability, sexual orientation or homelessness [32]
  Maryland Race, color, religious beliefs, sexual orientation, gender, disability, national origin, and homelessness [33]
  Massachusetts Race, religion, ethnicity, disability, gender, gender identity, and sexual orientation [34]
  Michigan Race, color, religion, gender, or national origin [35]
  Minnesota Race, color, religion, sex, sexual orientation, disability, age, and national origin [36]
  Mississippi Race, color, ancestry, ethnicity, religion, national origin, gender, and employment as a law enforcement officer, firefighter or emergency medical technician [37]
  Missouri Race, color, religion, national origin, sex, sexual orientation, and disability [38]
  Montana Race, creed, religion, color, and national origin [39]
  Nebraska Race, color, religion, ancestry, national origin, gender, sexual orientation, age, and disability [40]
  Nevada Race, color, religion, national origin, physical or mental disability, sexual orientation, and gender identity [41]
  New Hampshire Religion, race, creed, sexual orientation, national origin, sex, and gender identity [42]
  New Jersey Race, color, religion, gender, disability, sexual orientation, gender identity or expression, national origin, and ethnicity [43]
  New Mexico Race, religion, color, national origin, ancestry, age, disability, gender, sexual orientation. and gender identity [44]
  New York Race, color, national origin, ancestry, gender, gender identity, religion, religious practice, age, disability, and sexual orientation [45]
  North Carolina Race, color, religion, nationality, and country of origin [46]
  North Dakota Sex, race, color, religion, and national origin (applies only to discrimination in public places[47]) [48]
  Ohio Race, ethnic background, and religion [49]
  Oklahoma Race, color, religion, ancestry, national origin, and disability [50]
  Oregon Race, color, religion, gender identity, sexual orientation, disability, and national origin [51]
  Pennsylvania Race, color, religion, and national origin [52]
  Rhode Island Disability, religion, color, race, national origin or ancestry, sexual orientation, and gender [53]
  South Dakota Race, ethnicity, religion, ancestry, or national origin [54]
  Tennessee Race, religion, color, disability, sexual orientation, national origin, ancestry, and gender (including gender identity implicitly) [55][56]
  Texas Race, color, disability, religion, national origin or ancestry, age, gender, sexual preference, and by status as a peace officer or judge [57]
  Utah age, ancestry, disability, ethnicity, familial status, gender identity, homelessness, marital status, matriculation, national origin, political expression, race, religion, sex, sexual orientation, military service, status as an emergency responder, law enforcement officer, correctional officer, special function officer, or any other peace officer. [58][59]
  Vermont Race, color, religion, national origin, sex, ancestry, age, service in the U.S. Armed Forces, disability, sexual orientation, and gender identity [60]
  Virginia Race, religion, national origin, disability, sexual orientation, gender, and gender identity)[61][62] [63][64]
  Washington Race, color, religion, ancestry, national origin, gender, sexual orientation, disability, and gender identity [65][66]
  West Virginia Race, color, religion, ancestry, national origin, political affiliation, and sex [67]
  Wisconsin Race, religion, color, disability, sexual orientation, national origin, and ancestry [68]

Sexual orientation and gender identity Edit

 
US state hate crime laws as they pertain to sexual orientation and gender identity.
  Sexual orientation and gender identity recognized in state hate crimes law
  Sexual orientation recognized in state hate crimes law
  Sexual orientation recognized for data collection about hate crimes
  State hate crimes law noninclusive[69][full citation needed]
1983
No LGBT hate crime statute at the state level
1984
California: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute[70]
1987
Connecticut: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute[71]
1988
Wisconsin: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute[72]
1989
Minnesota: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute[73]
Nevada: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute[74]
Oregon: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute[75]
1990
District of Columbia: Sexual orientation and gender identity covered in hate crime statute[76]
New Jersey: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute[77]
Vermont: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute[78]
1991
Florida: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute[79]
Illinois: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute[80]
New Hampshire: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute[81][82]
1992
Iowa: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute[83]
Michigan: Sexual orientation included in hate crime data collection only[84]
1993
Maine: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute[85]
Minnesota: Gender identity covered in hate crime statute[86]
Texas: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute[87]
Washington: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute[88]
1996
Massachusetts: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute[89]
1997
Delaware: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute[90]
Louisiana: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute[91]
Nebraska: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute[92]
1998
California: Gender identity covered in hate crime statute[93]
Rhode Island: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute[94]
1999
Missouri: Sexual orientation and gender identity covered in hate crime statute[95]
Vermont: Gender identity covered in hate crime statute[78][96]
2000
Indiana: Sexual orientation included in hate crime data collection only[97]
Kentucky: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute[98]
New York: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute[99][100][101]
Tennessee: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute[102]
2002
Kansas: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute[103]
Pennsylvania: Sexual orientation and gender identity covered in hate crime statute[104]
Puerto Rico: Sexual orientation and gender identity covered in hate crime statute[105]
2003
Arizona: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute
Hawaii: Sexual orientation and gender identity covered in hate crime statute
New Mexico: Sexual orientation and gender identity covered in hate crime statute
2004
Connecticut: Gender identity covered in hate crime statute
Georgia: Sexual orientation and gender identity no longer explicitly listed as protected class in hate crime statute by the Supreme Court of Georgia (U.S. state)
2005
Colorado: Sexual orientation and gender identity covered in hate crime statute
Maryland: Sexual orientation and gender identity covered in hate crime statute
2008
New Jersey: Gender identity covered in hate crime statute
Oregon: Gender identity covered in hate crime statute
Pennsylvania: Sexual orientation and gender identity no longer explicitly listed as protected class in hate crime statute by the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania
2012
Massachusetts: Gender identity covered in hate crime statute[106]
Rhode Island: Gender identity covered in hate crime statute
2013
Delaware: Gender identity covered in hate crime statute
Nevada: Gender identity covered in hate crime statute
2016
Illinois: Gender identity covered in hate crime statute[107]
2019
Tennessee: Gender Identity covered in hate crime statute[108]
Indiana: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute[109]
Utah: Sexual orientation and gender identity covered in hate crime statute[110]
Maine: Sexual orientation and gender identity covered in hate crime statute[64][111]
New Hampshire: Gender identity covered in hate crime statute[112]
Washington State: Gender identity covered in hate crime statute[113]
New York State: Gender identity covered in hate crime statute[114]
2020
Georgia: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute[22]
Virginia: Sexual orientation and gender identity covered in hate crime statute[61][62][64]

Police and firefighters Edit

On May 26, 2016, Louisiana was the first state to add police officers and firefighters to their state hate crime statute, when Governor John Bel Edwards signed an amendment from the legislature into law. This amendment was added, in part, as a response to the Black Lives Matter movement, which seeks to end police brutality against black people, with some advocates of the amendment using the slogan "Blue Lives Matter". Since the inception of Black Lives Matter, critics have found some of the movement's rhetoric anti-police, with the author of the amendment, Lance Harris, stating some "were employing a deliberate campaign to terrorize our officers". Despite the killing of a Texas sheriff in 2015 and the killings of two NYPD officers in the previous year, in response to the death of Eric Garner and the shooting of Michael Brown, there was little to no data suggesting hate crimes against law enforcement were a common problem when the bill was passed.[115][116] A little less than two months after the amendment was passed, Baton Rouge was in the national spotlight after the Baton Rouge Police killing of Alton Sterling by two white police officers. This sparked protests in Baton Rouge, resulting in hundreds of arrests and increased racial tension nationally. In the week during those protests, five police officers were killed in Dallas, and the week after the protests, three more officers were killed in Baton Rouge. Both perpetrators were killed and the motives behind both shootings were responses to the recent killings of Black men by police officers.

In 2017, Kentucky became the second state making it a hate crime to attack police officers or emergency responders.[117] This was part of a trend in "blue lives matter" legislation, encouraged by The Heritage Foundation and ideologues such as Edwin Meese and Bernard Kerik.[118] That same year, Mississippi expanded its hate crime law to cover law enforcement officers, firefighters, and emergency workers.[119] In 2019, Utah added status as a police officer or emergency responder to the list of protected classes.[120] In 2020, Georgia enacted a new law creating the crime of bias-motivated intimidation, applying to attacks on police officers, firefighters, or emergency medical technicians.[121]

Data collection statutes Edit

Hate Crime Statistics Act of 1990 Edit

Main article: Hate Crime Statistics Act

The Hate Crime Statistics Act of 1990 28 U.S.C. § 534,[122] requires the Attorney General to collect data on crimes committed because of the victim's race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, or ethnicity. The bill was signed into law in 1990 by George H. W. Bush, and was the first federal statute to "recognize and name gay, lesbian and bisexual people."[123] Since 1992, the Department of Justice and the FBI have jointly published an annual report on hate crime statistics.[124]

Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994 Edit

Main article: Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act

In 1994, the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act expanded the scope of required FBI data to include hate crimes based on disability, and the FBI began collecting data on disability bias crimes on January 1, 1997.[125] In 1996, Congress permanently reauthorized the Act.

Campus Hate Crimes Right to Know Act of 1997 Edit

The Campus Hate Crimes Right to Know Act of 1997 enacted 20 U.S.C. § 1092(f)(1)(F)(ii),[citation needed] which requires campus security authorities to collect and report data on hate crimes committed on the basis of race, gender, religion, sexual orientation, ethnicity, or disability.[citation needed] This bill was brought to the forefront by Senator Robert Torricelli.[citation needed]

Prevalence Edit

The DOJ and the FBI have gathered statistics on hate crimes reported to law enforcement since 1992 in accordance with the Hate Crime Statistics Act. The FBI's Criminal Justice Information Services Division has annually published these statistics as part of its Uniform Crime Reporting program. According to these reports, of the over 113,000 hate crimes since 1991, 55% were motivated by racial bias, 17% by religious bias, 14% sexual orientation bias, 14% ethnicity bias, and 1% disability bias.[126] David Ray Hate Crimes Prevention Act

Please note that the figures in the table below do not contain data from all reporting agencies every year. 2004 figures covered a population of 254,193,439, 2014 covered 297,926,030.

Victims per Year by Bias Motivation[124]
Department of Justice / FBI Hate Crimes Statistics
Bias Motive 1995 1996[127] 1997[128] 1998[129] 1999[130] 2000[131] 2001[132] 2002[133] 2003[134] 2004[135] 2005[136] 2006[137] 2007[138] 2008[139] 2009[140] 2010[141] 2011[142] 2012[143] 2013[144] 2014[145] 2015[146] 2016[147] 2017[148] 2018[149]
Race 6,438 6,994 6,084 5,514 5,485 5,397 5,545 4,580 4,754 5,119 4,895 5,020 4,956 4,934 4,057 3,949 3,645 3,467 3,563 3,227
Race/Ethnicity/Ancestry 4,216 4,426 5,060 5,155
Religion 1,617 1,535 1,586 1,720 1,686 1,699 2,118 1,659 1,489 1,586 1,405 1,750 1,628 1,732 1,575 1,552 1,480 1,340 1,223 1,140 1,402 1,584 1,749 1,617
Sexual Orientation 1,347 1,281 1,401 1,488 1,558 1,558 1,664 1,513 1,479 1,482 1,213 1,472 1,512 1,706 1,482 1,528 1,572 1,376 1,461 1,248 1,263 1,255 1,338 1,445
Ethnicity/National Origin 1,044 1,207 1,132 956 1,040 1,216 2,634 1,409 1,326 1,254 1,228 1,305 1,347 1,226 1,109 1,122 939 866 821 821
Disability unknown unknown 12 27 23 36 37 50 43 73 54 95 84 85 99 48 61 102 99 96 88 77 160 179
Gender unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown 30 40 30 36 54 61
Gender Identity unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown 33 109 122 131 132 189
Single-Bias 10,446 11,017 10,215 9705 9,792 9,906 11,998 9,211 9,091 9,514 8,795 9,642 9,527 9,683 8,322 8,199 7,697 7,151 7,230 6,681 7,121 7,509 8,493 8,646
Multiple-Bias 23 22 40 17 10 18 22 11 9 14 9 10 8 8 14 9 16 13 12 46 52 106 335 173
Total 10,469 11,039 10,255 9,722 9,802 9,924 12,020 9,222 9,100 9,528 8,804 9,652 9,535 9,691 8,336 8,208 7,713 7,164 7,242 6,727 7,173 7,615 8,828 8,819

Notes: The term victim may refer to a person, business, institution, or society as a whole. Though the FBI has collected UCR data since 1992, reports from 1992-1994 are not available on the FBI website. Single-bias victim totals have been calculated for 1995-1998. Race and Ethnicity/National origin were merged starting in 2015.

2008 Hate Crimes vs. 2008 Crimes per offense type[139][150]
Department of Justice / FBI crimes statistics
Offense type Hate Crimes All US Crimes
Murder and non-negligent manslaughter 7 16,272
Forcible rape 11 89,000
Robbery 145 441,855
Aggravated assault 1,025 834,885
Burglary 158 2,222,196
Larceny-theft 224 6,588,873
Motor vehicle theft 26 956,846

Covering homeless people Edit

Florida, Maine, Maryland, and Washington, D.C., have hate crime laws that include the homeless status of an individual.[10]

A 2007 study found that the number of violent crimes against the homeless is increasing.[151][152] The rate of such documented crimes in 2005 was 30% higher than of those in 1999.[153] 75% of all perpetrators are under the age of 25. Studies and surveys indicate that homeless people have a much higher criminal victimization rate than the non-homeless, but that most incidents never get reported to authorities.

In recent years, largely due to the efforts of the National Coalition for the Homeless (NCH) and academic researchers the problem of violence against the homeless has gained national attention. The NCH called deliberate attacks against the homeless hate crimes in their report Hate, Violence, and Death on Mainstreet USA (they retain the definition of the American Congress).[154]

The Center for the Study of Hate & Extremism (CSHE) at California State University, San Bernardino in conjunction with the NCH found that 155 homeless people were killed by non-homeless people in "hate killings", while 76 people were killed in all the other traditional hate crime homicide categories such as race and religion, combined.[152] The CSHE contends that negative and degrading portrayals of the homeless contribute to a climate where violence takes place.

Debate Edit

Main article: Debate over hate crime laws

Penalty-enhancement hate crime laws are traditionally justified on the grounds that, in Chief Justice Rehnquist's words, "this conduct is thought to inflict greater individual and societal harm.... bias-motivated crimes are more likely to provoke retaliatory crimes, inflict distinct emotional harms on their victims, and incite community unrest."[155]

Coverage of white people Edit

In a 2001 report, Hate crimes on campus: the problem and efforts to confront it, by Stephen Wessler and Margaret Moss of the Center for the Prevention of Hate Violence at the University of Southern Maine,[156] the authors note that "although there are fewer hate crimes directed against Caucasians than against other groups, they do occur and are prosecuted."[157] The case in which the Supreme Court upheld hate crimes legislation against First Amendment attack, Wisconsin v. Mitchell, 508 U.S. 476 (1993), involved a white victim.[155] Hate crime statistics published in 2002, gathered by the FBI under the auspices of the Hate Crime Statistics Act of 1990, documented over 7,000 hate crime incidents, in roughly one-fifth of which the victims were white people.[158] However, these statistics have caused dispute. The FBI's hate crimes statistics for 1993, which similarly reported 20% of all hate crimes to be committed against white people, prompted Jill Tregor, executive director of Intergroup Clearinghouse, to decry it as "an abuse of what the hate crime laws were intended to cover", stating that the white victims of these crimes were employing hate crime laws as a means to further penalize minorities.[159]

James B. Jacobs and Kimberly Potter note that white people, including those who may be sympathetic to the plight of those who are victims of hate crimes by white people, bristle at the notion that hate crimes against whites are somehow inferior to, and less worthy than, hate crimes against other groups. They observe that while, as stated by Altschiller, no hate crime law makes any such distinction, the proposition has been argued by "a number of writers in prominent publications", who have advocated the removal of hate crimes against whites from the category of hate crime, on the grounds that hate crime laws, in their view, are intended to be affirmative action for "protected groups". Jacobs and Potter firmly assert that such a move is "fraught with potential for social conflict and constitutional concerns."[159]

The FBI listed 775 victims of anti-white hate crimes in 2019, more than victims of anti-Asian or anti-Arab hate crimes but less than victims of anti-black hate crimes.[160] Between 2008 and 2012, anti-white hate crimes were the 3rd most common form of hate crimes, behind anti-black and anti-LGBT hate crimes (see detailed Hate crime#Victims in the United States).

See also Edit

References Edit

  1. ^ . United States Department of Justice, Civil Rights Division. Archived from the original on 1 January 2011.
  2. ^ "Federal Civil Rights Statutes". Federal Bureau of Investigation.
  3. ^ . Anti-Defamation League. Archived from the original on 7 July 2009. Retrieved 10 December 2009.
  4. ^ "S. 1890 (104th): Church Arson Prevention Act of 1996". GovTrack.us. Civic Impulse, LLC. Retrieved 13 November 2014.
  5. ^ a b "H.R. 3525 (104th): Church Arson Prevention Act of 1996". GovTrack.us. Civic Impulse, LLC. Retrieved 13 November 2014.
  6. ^ . The Leadership Conference. The Leadership Conference Education Fund. Archived from the original on 2014-11-29. Retrieved 19 November 2014.
  7. ^ "Nation In Brief". The Washington Post. 2004-10-26. Retrieved 2010-05-04.
  8. ^ "Georgia's Kemp signs hate crimes law after outcry over death". AP NEWS. 2020-06-26. Retrieved 2020-06-30.
  9. ^ a b c (PDF). Anti-defamation League. 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 14, 2007. Retrieved April 1, 2021.
  10. ^ a b c "Florida among first states to make attacks on homeless hate crimes". Retrieved May 25, 2010. May 18, 2010, Orlando Sentinel, Quote: "Florida becomes only the fourth jurisdiction to make attacks on homeless people a hate crime – behind Maryland, Maine and Washington, D.C."
  11. ^ a b "ADL Hate Crime Map". Anti-Defamation League. Retrieved April 8, 2021.
  12. ^ Alabama State Legislature. "Section 13A-5-13 - Crimes motivated by victim's race, color, religion, national origin, ethnicity, or physical or mental disability". Code of Alabama. Retrieved 19 June 2019.
  13. ^ AS 12.55.155
  14. ^ Arizona State Legislature. "Section 13-701. Sentence of imprisonment for felony; presentence report; aggravating and mitigating factors; consecutive terms of imprisonment; definition". Arizona Revised Statutes. Retrieved 22 June 2019. 15. Evidence that the defendant committed the crime out of malice toward a victim because of the victim's identity in a group listed in section 41-1750, subsection A, paragraph 3 or because of the defendant's perception of the victim's identity in a group listed in section 41-1750, subsection A, paragraph 3.
  15. ^ Arizona State Legislature. "Section 41-1750. Central state repository; department of public safety; duties; funds; accounts; definitions". Arizona Revised Statutes. Retrieved 22 June 2019.
  16. ^ California State Legislature (2004). "CHAPTER 1. Definitions [422.55 - 422.57]". Penal Code of California. Retrieved 22 June 2019.
  17. ^ Colorado General Assembly. "Section 18-9-121. Bias-motivated crimes". Colorado Revised Statutes. LexisNexis. Retrieved 22 June 2019.
  18. ^ Connecticut General Assembly. "Chapter 952 - Penal Code: Offenses". General Statutes of Connecticut. Retrieved 22 June 2019. Sec. 53a-181j. Intimidation based on bigotry or bias in the first degree: Class C felony [infra]
  19. ^ Delaware General Assembly. "TITLE 11 - CHAPTER 5. SPECIFIC OFFENSES - Subchapter VII. Offenses Against Public Health, Order and Decency". Delaware Code Online. Retrieved 22 June 2019. § 1304 Hate crimes; class A misdemeanor, class G felony, class F felony, class E felony, class D felony, class C felony, class B felony, class A felony. [infra]
  20. ^ Council of the District of Columbia. "Chapter 37. Bias-Related Crime". Code of the District of Columbia. Retrieved 22 June 2019.
  21. ^ Florida Legislature. "877.19 Hate Crimes Reporting Act.—". 2018 Florida Statutes. Retrieved 22 June 2019.
  22. ^ a b Slotkin, Jason (June 25, 2020). "After Ahmaud Arbery's Killing, Georgia Governor Signs Hate Crimes Legislation". NPR. Retrieved April 1, 2021.
  23. ^ Hawaii Legislature. "§846-51 Definitions". 2018 Hawaii Revised Statutes. Retrieved 4 July 2019.
  24. ^ Idaho Legislature. "Section 18-7901. PURPOSE". Idaho Statutes. Retrieved 4 July 2019.
  25. ^ Illinois General Assembly. "Article 12 - Subdivision 15. Intimidation". Retrieved 4 July 2019. Sec. 12-7.1. Hate crime. [infra]
  26. ^ Senate Bill No. 198 of 2019. Indiana General Assembly. p. 2. Retrieved 4 July 2019.
  27. ^ Indiana General Assembly. "IC 10-13-3-1 "Bias crime"". Indiana Code. Retrieved 4 July 2019.
  28. ^ Iowa Legislature. "CHAPTER 729A - VIOLATION OF INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS — HATE CRIMES". Iowa Code. Retrieved 4 July 2019.
  29. ^ Kansas State Legislature. "21-6815. Imposition of presumptive sentence; jury requirements; departure sentencing; substantial and compelling reasons for departure; mitigating and aggravating factors". Kansas Statutes. Retrieved 4 July 2019. (C) The offense was motivated entirely or in part by the race, color, religion, ethnicity, national origin or sexual orientation of the victim or the offense was motivated by the defendant's belief or perception, entirely or in part, of the race, color, religion, ethnicity, national origin or sexual orientation of the victim whether or not the defendant's belief or perception was correct.
  30. ^ Kentucky State Legislature. "532.031 Hate crimes -- Finding – Effect -- Definitions" (PDF). Kentucky Revised Statutes. Retrieved 8 July 2019.
  31. ^ Louisiana State Legislature. "§107.2. Hate crimes". Louisiana Revised Statutes. Retrieved 8 July 2019.
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External links Edit

  • Database of hate crime statutes by state, via Anti-Defamation League
  • [Hate Crimes Bill S. 1105], detailed information on hate crimes bill.
  • "Hate Crime." Oxford Bibliographies Online: Criminology. 2010-10-31 at the Wayback Machine

August 31, 2023
hate, crime, laws, united, states, state, federal, laws, intended, protect, against, hate, crimes, also, known, bias, crimes, although, state, laws, vary, current, statutes, permit, federal, prosecution, hate, crimes, committed, basis, person, characteristics,. Hate crime laws in the United States are state and federal laws intended to protect against hate crimes also known as bias crimes Although state laws vary current statutes permit federal prosecution of hate crimes committed on the basis of a person s characteristics of race religion ethnicity disability nationality gender sexual orientation and or gender identity The U S Department of Justice DOJ Federal Bureau of Investigation FBI and campus police departments are required to collect and publish hate crime statistics By definition hate crimes are based on the perpetrator s motivations which are intrinsically unknowable unless the perpetrator announces them which means United States hate crime convictions by definition always involve United States free speech exceptions original research Contents 1 Federal 1 1 Title I of the Civil Rights Act of 1968 1 2 Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act 1994 1 3 Church Arson Prevention Act 1996 1 4 Matthew Shepard and James Byrd Jr Hate Crimes Prevention Act 2009 1 5 Emmett Till Antilynching Act 2022 2 State and district 2 1 Sexual orientation and gender identity 2 2 Police and firefighters 3 Data collection statutes 3 1 Hate Crime Statistics Act of 1990 3 2 Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994 3 3 Campus Hate Crimes Right to Know Act of 1997 4 Prevalence 4 1 Covering homeless people 5 Debate 5 1 Coverage of white people 6 See also 7 References 8 External linksFederal EditThis article possibly contains inappropriate or misinterpreted citations that do not verify the text Please help improve this article by checking for citation inaccuracies October 2008 Learn how and when to remove this template message Title I of the Civil Rights Act of 1968 Edit Further information Civil Rights Act of 1968 Title I Hate crimes Title I of the Civil Rights Act of 1968 enacted 18 U S C 245 b 2 permits federal prosecution of anyone who willfully injures intimidates or interferes with or attempts to injure intimidate or interfere with any person because of his race color religion or national origin 1 or because of the victim s attempt to engage in one of six types of federally protected activities such as attending school patronizing a public place facility applying for employment acting as a juror in a state court or voting People convicted of violating this law face a fine or imprisonment of up to one year or both If bodily injury results or if such acts of intimidation involve the use of firearms explosives or fire individuals can receive prison terms of up to 10 years while crimes involving kidnapping sexual assault or murder can be punishable by life in prison or the death penalty 2 U S District Courts provide for criminal sanctions only The Violence Against Women Act of 1994 contained a provision at 42 U S C 13981 which allowed victims of gender motivated hate crimes to seek compensatory and punitive damages injunctive and declaratory relief and such other relief as a court may deem appropriate Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act 1994 Edit Main article Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act The Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act enacted in 28 U S C 994 note Sec 280003 requires the United States Sentencing Commission to increase the penalties for hate crimes committed on the basis of the actual or perceived race color religion national origin ethnicity or gender of any person In 1995 the Sentencing Commission implemented these guidelines which only apply to federal crimes 3 Church Arson Prevention Act 1996 Edit The S 1980 104th Church Arson Prevention Act of 1996 was introduced to Congress on June 19 1996 but died because the Senate Committee found some places for improvement of the bill It was sponsored by Republican Duncan Faircloth 4 On May 23 1996 the House of Representatives introduced H R 3525 104th Church Arson Prevention Act The Act was passed by both houses in Congress and signed by President Bill Clinton on July 3 1996 This bill became law number Pub L 104 155 It was sponsored by Republican Henry Hyde 5 The bill was summarized by the Congressional Research Service as follows the Church Arson Prevention Act of 1996 makes Federal criminal code prohibitions against and penalties for damaging religious property or obstructing any person s free exercise of religious beliefs applicable where the offense is in or affects interstate commerce 5 One of the changes in the bill was the sentence increase for defacing or destroying any religious real property because of race color or ethnic characteristics from 10 to 20 years It also changed the statute of limitations from five years to seven years after the date the crime was committed It reauthorizes the Hate Crimes Statistics Act 6 Matthew Shepard and James Byrd Jr Hate Crimes Prevention Act 2009 Edit Main article Matthew Shepard and James Byrd Jr Hate Crimes Prevention Act On October 28 2009 President Obama signed the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd Jr Hate Crimes Prevention Act attached to the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2010 which expanded existing United States federal hate crime law to apply to crimes motivated by a victim s actual or perceived gender sexual orientation gender identity or disability and dropped the prerequisite that the victim be engaging in a federally protected activity Emmett Till Antilynching Act 2022 Edit Main article Emmett Till Antilynching Act On March 29 2022 President Joe Biden signed the Emmett Till Antilynching Act which expanded existing United States federal hate crime law to apply to the crime of lynching defining it as an act of two or more people in a conspiracy to maim or kill a person based on real or perceived traits of a victim as protected under federal law It was the first anti lynching bill to be passed by Congress following over 200 bills filed since the Reconstruction era State and district EditForty seven states and the District of Columbia have statutes criminalizing various types of bias motivated violence or intimidation the exceptions being Arkansas South Carolina and Wyoming Georgia whose hate crime statute was struck down by the Georgia Supreme Court in 2004 7 passed a new hate crime law in June 2020 8 Each of these statutes covers bias on the basis of race religion and ethnicity 34 cover disability 34 of them cover sexual orientation 30 cover gender 22 cover transgender gender identity 14 cover age 6 cover political affiliation 9 and 3 along with Washington D C cover homelessness 10 Thirty four states and the District of Columbia have statutes creating a civil cause of action in addition to the criminal penalty for similar acts 9 Thirty states and the District of Columbia have statutes requiring the state to collect hate crime statistics 20 of these cover sexual orientation 9 Twenty seven states plus the District of Columbia have statutes that specifically cover gender 11 Eighteen states have hate crime laws regarding gender identity 11 Three states and the District of Columbia cover homelessness 10 State Classes covered Source nbsp Alabama Race color religion national origin ethnicity physical and mental disabilities 12 nbsp Alaska Race sex color creed physical or mental disability ancestry and national origin 13 nbsp Arizona Race color religion national origin sexual orientation gender and disability 14 15 nbsp California Disability gender nationality race or ethnicity religion sexual orientation and association with a person or group of one of the other classes 16 nbsp Colorado Race color ancestry religion national origin physical or mental disability and sexual orientation 17 nbsp Connecticut Race religion ethnicity disability sex sexual orientation and gender identity or expression 18 nbsp Delaware Race religion color disability sexual orientation gender identity national origin and ancestry 19 nbsp District of Columbia Race color religion national origin sex age marital status personal appearance sexual orientation gender identity or expression family responsibility homelessness physical disability matriculation and political affiliation of a victim 20 nbsp Florida Race religion ethnicity color ancestry sexual orientation and national origin 21 nbsp Georgia Race color religion sex gender disability sexual orientation national origin or ethnicity 22 nbsp Hawaii Race religion disability ethnicity national origin gender identity or expression and sexual orientation 23 nbsp Idaho Race color ancestry religion and national origin 24 nbsp Illinois Race color creed religion ancestry gender sexual orientation physical or mental disability and national origin of another individual or group of individuals 25 nbsp Indiana Color creed disability national origin race religion and sexual orientation 26 27 nbsp Iowa Race color religion ancestry national origin political affiliation sex sexual orientation age disability and the person s association with a person of one of the other classes 28 nbsp Kansas Race color religion ethnicity national origin and sexual orientation 29 nbsp Kentucky Race color religion sexual orientation national origin and employment as a law enforcement officer firefighter or emergency service personnel 30 nbsp Louisiana Race age gender religion color creed disability sexual orientation national origin ancestry membership or service in or employment with an organization and employment as a law enforcement officer firefighter or emergency medical services personnel 31 nbsp Maine Race color religion sex ancestry national origin physical or mental disability sexual orientation or homelessness 32 nbsp Maryland Race color religious beliefs sexual orientation gender disability national origin and homelessness 33 nbsp Massachusetts Race religion ethnicity disability gender gender identity and sexual orientation 34 nbsp Michigan Race color religion gender or national origin 35 nbsp Minnesota Race color religion sex sexual orientation disability age and national origin 36 nbsp Mississippi Race color ancestry ethnicity religion national origin gender and employment as a law enforcement officer firefighter or emergency medical technician 37 nbsp Missouri Race color religion national origin sex sexual orientation and disability 38 nbsp Montana Race creed religion color and national origin 39 nbsp Nebraska Race color religion ancestry national origin gender sexual orientation age and disability 40 nbsp Nevada Race color religion national origin physical or mental disability sexual orientation and gender identity 41 nbsp New Hampshire Religion race creed sexual orientation national origin sex and gender identity 42 nbsp New Jersey Race color religion gender disability sexual orientation gender identity or expression national origin and ethnicity 43 nbsp New Mexico Race religion color national origin ancestry age disability gender sexual orientation and gender identity 44 nbsp New York Race color national origin ancestry gender gender identity religion religious practice age disability and sexual orientation 45 nbsp North Carolina Race color religion nationality and country of origin 46 nbsp North Dakota Sex race color religion and national origin applies only to discrimination in public places 47 48 nbsp Ohio Race ethnic background and religion 49 nbsp Oklahoma Race color religion ancestry national origin and disability 50 nbsp Oregon Race color religion gender identity sexual orientation disability and national origin 51 nbsp Pennsylvania Race color religion and national origin 52 nbsp Rhode Island Disability religion color race national origin or ancestry sexual orientation and gender 53 nbsp South Dakota Race ethnicity religion ancestry or national origin 54 nbsp Tennessee Race religion color disability sexual orientation national origin ancestry and gender including gender identity implicitly 55 56 nbsp Texas Race color disability religion national origin or ancestry age gender sexual preference and by status as a peace officer or judge 57 nbsp Utah age ancestry disability ethnicity familial status gender identity homelessness marital status matriculation national origin political expression race religion sex sexual orientation military service status as an emergency responder law enforcement officer correctional officer special function officer or any other peace officer 58 59 nbsp Vermont Race color religion national origin sex ancestry age service in the U S Armed Forces disability sexual orientation and gender identity 60 nbsp Virginia Race religion national origin disability sexual orientation gender and gender identity 61 62 63 64 nbsp Washington Race color religion ancestry national origin gender sexual orientation disability and gender identity 65 66 nbsp West Virginia Race color religion ancestry national origin political affiliation and sex 67 nbsp Wisconsin Race religion color disability sexual orientation national origin and ancestry 68 Sexual orientation and gender identity Edit nbsp US state hate crime laws as they pertain to sexual orientation and gender identity Sexual orientation and gender identity recognized in state hate crimes law Sexual orientation recognized in state hate crimes law Sexual orientation recognized for data collection about hate crimes State hate crimes law noninclusive 69 full citation needed 1983 No LGBT hate crime statute at the state level 1984 California Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute 70 1987 Connecticut Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute 71 1988 Wisconsin Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute 72 1989 Minnesota Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute 73 Nevada Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute 74 Oregon Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute 75 1990 District of Columbia Sexual orientation and gender identity covered in hate crime statute 76 New Jersey Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute 77 Vermont Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute 78 1991 Florida Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute 79 Illinois Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute 80 New Hampshire Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute 81 82 1992 Iowa Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute 83 Michigan Sexual orientation included in hate crime data collection only 84 1993 Maine Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute 85 Minnesota Gender identity covered in hate crime statute 86 Texas Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute 87 Washington Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute 88 1996 Massachusetts Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute 89 1997 Delaware Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute 90 Louisiana Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute 91 Nebraska Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute 92 1998 California Gender identity covered in hate crime statute 93 Rhode Island Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute 94 1999 Missouri Sexual orientation and gender identity covered in hate crime statute 95 Vermont Gender identity covered in hate crime statute 78 96 2000 Indiana Sexual orientation included in hate crime data collection only 97 Kentucky Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute 98 New York Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute 99 100 101 Tennessee Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute 102 2002 Kansas Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute 103 Pennsylvania Sexual orientation and gender identity covered in hate crime statute 104 Puerto Rico Sexual orientation and gender identity covered in hate crime statute 105 2003 Arizona Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute Hawaii Sexual orientation and gender identity covered in hate crime statute New Mexico Sexual orientation and gender identity covered in hate crime statute 2004 Connecticut Gender identity covered in hate crime statute Georgia Sexual orientation and gender identity no longer explicitly listed as protected class in hate crime statute by the Supreme Court of Georgia U S state 2005 Colorado Sexual orientation and gender identity covered in hate crime statute Maryland Sexual orientation and gender identity covered in hate crime statute 2008 New Jersey Gender identity covered in hate crime statute Oregon Gender identity covered in hate crime statute Pennsylvania Sexual orientation and gender identity no longer explicitly listed as protected class in hate crime statute by the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania 2012 Massachusetts Gender identity covered in hate crime statute 106 Rhode Island Gender identity covered in hate crime statute 2013 Delaware Gender identity covered in hate crime statute Nevada Gender identity covered in hate crime statute 2016 Illinois Gender identity covered in hate crime statute 107 2019 Tennessee Gender Identity covered in hate crime statute 108 Indiana Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute 109 Utah Sexual orientation and gender identity covered in hate crime statute 110 Maine Sexual orientation and gender identity covered in hate crime statute 64 111 New Hampshire Gender identity covered in hate crime statute 112 Washington State Gender identity covered in hate crime statute 113 New York State Gender identity covered in hate crime statute 114 2020 Georgia Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute 22 Virginia Sexual orientation and gender identity covered in hate crime statute 61 62 64 Police and firefighters Edit On May 26 2016 Louisiana was the first state to add police officers and firefighters to their state hate crime statute when Governor John Bel Edwards signed an amendment from the legislature into law This amendment was added in part as a response to the Black Lives Matter movement which seeks to end police brutality against black people with some advocates of the amendment using the slogan Blue Lives Matter Since the inception of Black Lives Matter critics have found some of the movement s rhetoric anti police with the author of the amendment Lance Harris stating some were employing a deliberate campaign to terrorize our officers Despite the killing of a Texas sheriff in 2015 and the killings of two NYPD officers in the previous year in response to the death of Eric Garner and the shooting of Michael Brown there was little to no data suggesting hate crimes against law enforcement were a common problem when the bill was passed 115 116 A little less than two months after the amendment was passed Baton Rouge was in the national spotlight after the Baton Rouge Police killing of Alton Sterling by two white police officers This sparked protests in Baton Rouge resulting in hundreds of arrests and increased racial tension nationally In the week during those protests five police officers were killed in Dallas and the week after the protests three more officers were killed in Baton Rouge Both perpetrators were killed and the motives behind both shootings were responses to the recent killings of Black men by police officers In 2017 Kentucky became the second state making it a hate crime to attack police officers or emergency responders 117 This was part of a trend in blue lives matter legislation encouraged by The Heritage Foundation and ideologues such as Edwin Meese and Bernard Kerik 118 That same year Mississippi expanded its hate crime law to cover law enforcement officers firefighters and emergency workers 119 In 2019 Utah added status as a police officer or emergency responder to the list of protected classes 120 In 2020 Georgia enacted a new law creating the crime of bias motivated intimidation applying to attacks on police officers firefighters or emergency medical technicians 121 Data collection statutes EditHate Crime Statistics Act of 1990 Edit Main article Hate Crime Statistics Act The Hate Crime Statistics Act of 1990 28 U S C 534 122 requires the Attorney General to collect data on crimes committed because of the victim s race religion disability sexual orientation or ethnicity The bill was signed into law in 1990 by George H W Bush and was the first federal statute to recognize and name gay lesbian and bisexual people 123 Since 1992 the Department of Justice and the FBI have jointly published an annual report on hate crime statistics 124 Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994 Edit Main article Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act In 1994 the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act expanded the scope of required FBI data to include hate crimes based on disability and the FBI began collecting data on disability bias crimes on January 1 1997 125 In 1996 Congress permanently reauthorized the Act Campus Hate Crimes Right to Know Act of 1997 Edit The Campus Hate Crimes Right to Know Act of 1997 enacted 20 U S C 1092 f 1 F ii citation needed which requires campus security authorities to collect and report data on hate crimes committed on the basis of race gender religion sexual orientation ethnicity or disability citation needed This bill was brought to the forefront by Senator Robert Torricelli citation needed Prevalence EditThe DOJ and the FBI have gathered statistics on hate crimes reported to law enforcement since 1992 in accordance with the Hate Crime Statistics Act The FBI s Criminal Justice Information Services Division has annually published these statistics as part of its Uniform Crime Reporting program According to these reports of the over 113 000 hate crimes since 1991 55 were motivated by racial bias 17 by religious bias 14 sexual orientation bias 14 ethnicity bias and 1 disability bias 126 David Ray Hate Crimes Prevention ActPlease note that the figures in the table below do not contain data from all reporting agencies every year 2004 figures covered a population of 254 193 439 2014 covered 297 926 030 Victims per Year by Bias Motivation 124 Department of Justice FBI Hate Crimes Statistics Bias Motive 1995 1996 127 1997 128 1998 129 1999 130 2000 131 2001 132 2002 133 2003 134 2004 135 2005 136 2006 137 2007 138 2008 139 2009 140 2010 141 2011 142 2012 143 2013 144 2014 145 2015 146 2016 147 2017 148 2018 149 Race 6 438 6 994 6 084 5 514 5 485 5 397 5 545 4 580 4 754 5 119 4 895 5 020 4 956 4 934 4 057 3 949 3 645 3 467 3 563 3 227Race Ethnicity Ancestry 4 216 4 426 5 060 5 155Religion 1 617 1 535 1 586 1 720 1 686 1 699 2 118 1 659 1 489 1 586 1 405 1 750 1 628 1 732 1 575 1 552 1 480 1 340 1 223 1 140 1 402 1 584 1 749 1 617Sexual Orientation 1 347 1 281 1 401 1 488 1 558 1 558 1 664 1 513 1 479 1 482 1 213 1 472 1 512 1 706 1 482 1 528 1 572 1 376 1 461 1 248 1 263 1 255 1 338 1 445Ethnicity National Origin 1 044 1 207 1 132 956 1 040 1 216 2 634 1 409 1 326 1 254 1 228 1 305 1 347 1 226 1 109 1 122 939 866 821 821Disability unknown unknown 12 27 23 36 37 50 43 73 54 95 84 85 99 48 61 102 99 96 88 77 160 179Gender unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown 30 40 30 36 54 61Gender Identity unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown 33 109 122 131 132 189Single Bias 10 446 11 017 10 215 9705 9 792 9 906 11 998 9 211 9 091 9 514 8 795 9 642 9 527 9 683 8 322 8 199 7 697 7 151 7 230 6 681 7 121 7 509 8 493 8 646Multiple Bias 23 22 40 17 10 18 22 11 9 14 9 10 8 8 14 9 16 13 12 46 52 106 335 173Total 10 469 11 039 10 255 9 722 9 802 9 924 12 020 9 222 9 100 9 528 8 804 9 652 9 535 9 691 8 336 8 208 7 713 7 164 7 242 6 727 7 173 7 615 8 828 8 819Notes The term victim may refer to a person business institution or society as a whole Though the FBI has collected UCR data since 1992 reports from 1992 1994 are not available on the FBI website Single bias victim totals have been calculated for 1995 1998 Race and Ethnicity National origin were merged starting in 2015 2008 Hate Crimes vs 2008 Crimes per offense type 139 150 Department of Justice FBI crimes statistics Offense type Hate Crimes All US CrimesMurder and non negligent manslaughter 7 16 272Forcible rape 11 89 000Robbery 145 441 855Aggravated assault 1 025 834 885Burglary 158 2 222 196Larceny theft 224 6 588 873Motor vehicle theft 26 956 846Covering homeless people Edit Florida Maine Maryland and Washington D C have hate crime laws that include the homeless status of an individual 10 A 2007 study found that the number of violent crimes against the homeless is increasing 151 152 The rate of such documented crimes in 2005 was 30 higher than of those in 1999 153 75 of all perpetrators are under the age of 25 Studies and surveys indicate that homeless people have a much higher criminal victimization rate than the non homeless but that most incidents never get reported to authorities In recent years largely due to the efforts of the National Coalition for the Homeless NCH and academic researchers the problem of violence against the homeless has gained national attention The NCH called deliberate attacks against the homeless hate crimes in their report Hate Violence and Death on Mainstreet USA they retain the definition of the American Congress 154 The Center for the Study of Hate amp Extremism CSHE at California State University San Bernardino in conjunction with the NCH found that 155 homeless people were killed by non homeless people in hate killings while 76 people were killed in all the other traditional hate crime homicide categories such as race and religion combined 152 The CSHE contends that negative and degrading portrayals of the homeless contribute to a climate where violence takes place Debate EditMain article Debate over hate crime laws Penalty enhancement hate crime laws are traditionally justified on the grounds that in Chief Justice Rehnquist s words this conduct is thought to inflict greater individual and societal harm bias motivated crimes are more likely to provoke retaliatory crimes inflict distinct emotional harms on their victims and incite community unrest 155 Coverage of white people Edit In a 2001 report Hate crimes on campus the problem and efforts to confront it by Stephen Wessler and Margaret Moss of the Center for the Prevention of Hate Violence at the University of Southern Maine 156 the authors note that although there are fewer hate crimes directed against Caucasians than against other groups they do occur and are prosecuted 157 The case in which the Supreme Court upheld hate crimes legislation against First Amendment attack Wisconsin v Mitchell 508 U S 476 1993 involved a white victim 155 Hate crime statistics published in 2002 gathered by the FBI under the auspices of the Hate Crime Statistics Act of 1990 documented over 7 000 hate crime incidents in roughly one fifth of which the victims were white people 158 However these statistics have caused dispute The FBI s hate crimes statistics for 1993 which similarly reported 20 of all hate crimes to be committed against white people prompted Jill Tregor executive director of Intergroup Clearinghouse to decry it as an abuse of what the hate crime laws were intended to cover stating that the white victims of these crimes were employing hate crime laws as a means to further penalize minorities 159 James B Jacobs and Kimberly Potter note that white people including those who may be sympathetic to the plight of those who are victims of hate crimes by white people bristle at the notion that hate crimes against whites are somehow inferior to and less worthy than hate crimes against other groups They observe that while as stated by Altschiller no hate crime law makes any such distinction the proposition has been argued by a number of writers in prominent publications who have advocated the removal of hate crimes against whites from the category of hate crime on the grounds that hate crime laws in their view are intended to be affirmative action for protected groups Jacobs and Potter firmly assert that such a move is fraught with potential for social conflict and constitutional concerns 159 The FBI listed 775 victims of anti white hate crimes in 2019 more than victims of anti Asian or anti Arab hate crimes but less than victims of anti black hate crimes 160 Between 2008 and 2012 anti white hate crimes were the 3rd most common form of hate crimes behind anti black and anti LGBT hate crimes see detailed Hate crime Victims in the United States See also EditCivil Rights Act of 1964 Civil Rights Act of 1968 Crime in the United States Local Law Enforcement Hate Crimes Prevention Act of 2007References Edit Federally Protected Activities United States Department of Justice Civil Rights Division Archived from the original on 1 January 2011 Federal Civil Rights Statutes Federal Bureau of Investigation Hate Crime Sentencing Act Anti Defamation League Archived from the original on 7 July 2009 Retrieved 10 December 2009 S 1890 104th Church Arson Prevention Act of 1996 GovTrack us Civic Impulse LLC Retrieved 13 November 2014 a b H R 3525 104th Church Arson Prevention Act of 1996 GovTrack us Civic Impulse LLC Retrieved 13 November 2014 Civil Rights Monitor The Leadership Conference The Leadership Conference Education Fund Archived from the original on 2014 11 29 Retrieved 19 November 2014 Nation In Brief The Washington Post 2004 10 26 Retrieved 2010 05 04 Georgia s Kemp signs hate crimes law after outcry over death AP NEWS 2020 06 26 Retrieved 2020 06 30 a b c Anti Defamation League State Hate Crime Statutory Provision PDF Anti defamation League 2006 Archived from the original PDF on June 14 2007 Retrieved April 1 2021 a b c Florida among first states to make attacks on homeless hate crimes Retrieved May 25 2010 May 18 2010 Orlando Sentinel Quote Florida becomes only the fourth jurisdiction to make attacks on homeless people a hate crime behind Maryland Maine and Washington D C a b ADL Hate Crime Map Anti Defamation League Retrieved April 8 2021 Alabama State Legislature Section 13A 5 13 Crimes motivated by victim s race color religion national origin ethnicity or physical or mental disability Code of Alabama Retrieved 19 June 2019 AS 12 55 155 Arizona State Legislature Section 13 701 Sentence of imprisonment for felony presentence report aggravating and mitigating factors consecutive terms of imprisonment definition Arizona Revised Statutes Retrieved 22 June 2019 15 Evidence that the defendant committed the crime out of malice toward a victim because of the victim s identity in a group listed in section 41 1750 subsection A paragraph 3 or because of the defendant s perception of the victim s identity in a group listed in section 41 1750 subsection A paragraph 3 Arizona State Legislature Section 41 1750 Central state repository department of public safety duties funds accounts definitions Arizona Revised Statutes Retrieved 22 June 2019 California State Legislature 2004 CHAPTER 1 Definitions 422 55 422 57 Penal Code of California Retrieved 22 June 2019 Colorado General Assembly Section 18 9 121 Bias motivated crimes Colorado Revised Statutes LexisNexis Retrieved 22 June 2019 Connecticut General Assembly Chapter 952 Penal Code Offenses General Statutes of Connecticut Retrieved 22 June 2019 Sec 53a 181j Intimidation based on bigotry or bias in the first degree Class C felony infra Delaware General Assembly TITLE 11 CHAPTER 5 SPECIFIC OFFENSES Subchapter VII Offenses Against Public Health Order and Decency Delaware Code Online Retrieved 22 June 2019 1304 Hate crimes class A misdemeanor class G felony class F felony class E felony class D felony class C felony class B felony class A felony infra Council of the District of Columbia Chapter 37 Bias Related Crime Code of the District of Columbia Retrieved 22 June 2019 Florida Legislature 877 19 Hate Crimes Reporting Act 2018 Florida Statutes Retrieved 22 June 2019 a b Slotkin Jason June 25 2020 After Ahmaud Arbery s Killing Georgia Governor Signs Hate Crimes Legislation NPR Retrieved April 1 2021 Hawaii Legislature 846 51 Definitions 2018 Hawaii Revised Statutes Retrieved 4 July 2019 Idaho Legislature Section 18 7901 PURPOSE Idaho Statutes Retrieved 4 July 2019 Illinois General Assembly Article 12 Subdivision 15 Intimidation Retrieved 4 July 2019 Sec 12 7 1 Hate crime infra Senate Bill No 198 of 2019 Indiana General Assembly p 2 Retrieved 4 July 2019 Indiana General Assembly IC 10 13 3 1 Bias crime Indiana Code Retrieved 4 July 2019 Iowa Legislature CHAPTER 729A VIOLATION OF INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS HATE CRIMES Iowa Code Retrieved 4 July 2019 Kansas State Legislature 21 6815 Imposition of presumptive sentence jury requirements departure sentencing substantial and compelling reasons for departure mitigating and aggravating factors Kansas Statutes Retrieved 4 July 2019 C The offense was motivated entirely or in part by the race color religion ethnicity national origin or sexual orientation of the victim or the offense was motivated by the defendant s belief or perception entirely or in part of the race color religion ethnicity national origin or sexual orientation of the victim whether or not the defendant s belief or perception was correct Kentucky State Legislature 532 031 Hate crimes Finding Effect Definitions PDF Kentucky Revised Statutes Retrieved 8 July 2019 Louisiana State Legislature 107 2 Hate crimes Louisiana Revised Statutes Retrieved 8 July 2019 Maine State Legislature Title 17 A 1151 Purposes Maine Revised Statutes Retrieved 8 July 2019 Maryland General Assembly Criminal Law PDF Maryland Code p 425 Retrieved 8 July 2019 10 304 infra Massachusetts General Court Part I Title II Chapter 22C Section 32 Definitions applicable to Secs 33 to 35 Massachusetts General Laws Retrieved 8 July 2019 Michigan Legislature Section 750 147b www legislature mi gov Retrieved 2021 02 04 Minnesota Legislature 611A 79 CIVIL DAMAGES FOR BIAS OFFENSES 2018 Minnesota Statutes Retrieved 8 July 2019 Mississippi Legislature 99 19 301 Penalties subject to enhancement definitions Mississippi Code of 1972 LexisNexis Retrieved 8 July 2019 Missouri Legislature 557 035 Hate offenses provides enhanced penalties for motivational factors in certain offenses Revised Statutes of Missouri Missouri Reviser of Statutes Retrieved 8 July 2019 Montana Legislature 45 5 221 Malicious intimidation or harassment relating to civil or human rights penalty Montana Code Annotated 2017 Retrieved 8 July 2019 Nebraska Legislature 28 111 Enhanced penalty enumerated offenses Nebraska Revised Statutes Retrieved 9 July 2019 Nevada Legislature Title 15 Crime and Punishments Chapter 193 General Provisions Nevada Revised Statutes Retrieved 9 July 2019 NRS 193 1675 Additional penalty Commission of crime because of certain actual or perceived characteristics of victim infra New Hampshire General Court 651 6 Extended Term of Imprisonment New Hampshire Statutes Retrieved 9 July 2019 New Jersey Legislature 2C 16 1 Bias intimidation New Jersey Legislative Statutes Archived from the original on 8 March 2021 Retrieved 9 July 2019 New Mexico Legislature 31 18B 3 Hate crimes noncapital felonies misdemeanors or petty misdemeanors committed because of the victim s actual or perceived race religion color national origin ancestry age disability gender sexual orientation or gender identity alteration of basic sentence NMOneSource com New Mexico Compilation Commission Retrieved 9 July 2019 New York State Legislature Penal Law 485 00 Consolidated Laws of New York North Carolina General Assembly 15A 1340 16 Aggravated and mitigated sentences PDF North Carolina General Statutes Retrieved 9 July 2019 17 The offense for which the defendant stands convicted was committed against a victim because of the victim s race color religion nationality or country of origin After Ugly Incident In Fargo A Push For Hate Crime Laws WCCO Associated Press 17 September 2017 Retrieved 9 July 2019 North Dakota Legislature CHAPTER 12 1 14 OFFICIAL OPPRESSION ELECTIONS CIVIL RIGHTS PDF North Dakota Century Code Retrieved 9 July 2019 Ohio Legislature 2929 12 Seriousness of crime and recidivism factors Ohio Revised Code Retrieved 9 July 2019 Oklahoma Legislature Title 21 Crimes and Punishments RTF Oklahoma Statutes p 227 Retrieved 9 July 2019 Section 1 Senate Bill No 577 of 2019 PDF Oregon State Legislature Retrieved 9 July 2019 Pennsylvania General Assembly Title 18 Crimes and Offenses PDF Pennsylvania Consolidated Statutes p 95 Retrieved 9 July 2019 Rhode Island General Assembly 12 19 38 Hate Crimes Sentencing Act Rhode Island General Laws Retrieved 9 July 2019 South Dakota Legislature Chapter 22 19B Hate Crimes South Dakota Codified Laws Retrieved 10 July 2019 Tennessee General Assembly 40 35 114 Enhancement factors Tennessee Code Unannotated LexisNexis Retrieved 10 July 2019 17 The defendant intentionally selected the person against whom the crime was committed or selected the property that was damaged or otherwise affected by the crime in whole or in part because of the defendant s belief or perception regarding the race religion color disability sexual orientation national origin ancestry or gender of that person or the owner or occupant of that property however this subdivision 17 should not be construed to permit the enhancement of a sexual offense on the basis of gender selection alone Allison Natalie 14 February 2019 Tennessee becomes first state in the South with hate crime law protecting transgender people The Tennessean Retrieved 10 July 2019 Texas Legislature Chapter 42 Judgment and Sentence Texas Code of Criminal Procedure Retrieved 10 July 2019 Art 42 014 FINDING THAT OFFENSE WAS COMMITTED BECAUSE OF BIAS OR PREJUDICE infra 76 3 203 14 Victim targeting penalty enhancement Penalties utah gov Retrieved July 10 2021 Utah State Legislature 76 3 203 3 Penalty for hate crimes Civil rights violation Utah Code Retrieved 10 July 2019 Vermont General Assembly Title 13 Crimes And Criminal Procedure Chapter 33 Injunctions Against Hate motivated Crimes Vermont Statutes Online Retrieved 10 July 2019 a b Van Slooten Philip March 5 2020 VA Governor Signs Three LGBTQ Bills into Law Washington Blade Retrieved April 1 2021 a b Sprayregen Molly March 6 2020 Virginia s Governor Just Signed 3 Pro LGBTQ Bills LGBTQ Nation Retrieved April 1 2021 Virginia General Assembly 52 8 5 Reporting hate crimes Code of Virginia Retrieved 10 July 2019 a b c Hate Crime Laws LGBT Map Retrieved April 1 2021 Washington State Legislature 9A 36 078 Malicious harassment Finding Revised Code of Washington Retrieved 10 July 2019 Section 1 Chapter No 271 of 2019 PDF Washington State Legislature p 1 Retrieved 10 July 2019 WVC 61 6 21 Wisconsin Legislature 939 645 Penalty crimes committed against certain people or property Wisconsin Statutes Retrieved 10 July 2019 Anti Defamation League June 2006 Retrieved 2007 05 04 Lewis Daniel 2013 Direct Democracy and Pro Minority Policies Direct Democracy and Minority Rights A Critical Assessment of the Tyranny of the Majority in the American States Controversies in Electoral Democracy and Representation Routledge p 76 ISBN 978 1 136 26934 9 via Google Books Connecticut GayLawNet 1987 Wisconsin Act 348 PDF Chapter 261 Minnesota Session Laws The Office of the Revisor of Statutes 1989 1989 Statutes of Nevada Pages 801 1000 www leg state nv us Nicola George T June 16 2015 Milestones in Oregon LGBTQ Law Gay amp Lesbian Archives of the Pacific Northwest 1989 Oregon hate crime law that includes sexual orientation District of Columbia GayLawNet Jacobs James B Potter Kimberly 2000 Social Construction of a Hate Crime Epidemic Hate Crimes Criminal Law amp Identity Politics Studies in Crime and Public Policy Oxford University Press p 56 ISBN 978 0 19 803222 9 a b Bernsten Mary 2002 The Contradictions of Gay Ethnicity Forging Identity in Vermont In Meyer David S Whittier Nancy Robnett Belinda eds Social Movements Identity Culture and the State Oxford University Press pp 96 97 ISBN 978 0 19 514356 0 via Google Books Hate Crimes Gay Lesbian Bisexual Transgendered Queer Resources UCF Research Guides University of Central Florida Libraries Florida Hate Crimes Act 1991 revisions In re B C et al Minors Model Penal Code Annotated University of Toronto Archived from the original on January 25 2015 HB 1299 Bill Text Gencourt state nh us 1991 01 01 Retrieved 2013 12 05 Docket of HB1299 Gencourt state nh us Retrieved 2013 12 05 Iowa Civil Rights Commission 1993 Annual Report Fair Housing Education publications iowa gov Section 28 257a Crimes motivated by prejudice or bias report Michigan Legislature 2011 Maine Revised Statutes TITLE 5 ADMINISTRATIVE PROCEDURES AND SERVICES Chapter 337 B CIVIL RIGHTS ACT 5 4684 A Civil rights Justia US Law DENNIS HOLLINGSWORTH et al Petitioners v KRISTIN M PERRY et al PDF American Bar Association Title 1 Chapter 42 Judgment and Sentence Code of Criminal Procedure Texas Legislature Washington GayLawNet Wong Doris Sue June 21 1996 Senate Expands Hate crime Law Boston Globe Archived from the original on November 5 2012 Retrieved March 9 2011 Chapter 175 Formerly Senate Bill No 53 As Amended by Senate Amendment No 1 An Act to Amend Title I1 of the Delaware Code Relating to Hate Crimes Delaware Code Online State of Delaware Hate Crimes Bill Out Of Committee With Sexual Orientation Intact Ambush Magazine May 1997 Retrieved December 23 2013 Nebraska Passes Hate Crimes Law PDF Academic Freedom Coalition of Nebraska Kuehl September 28 1998 Complete Bill History A B No 1999 12 19 38 Hate Crimes Sentencing Act State of Rhode Island Hate crimes provides enhanced penalties for motivational factors in certain crimes definitions Missouri Revised Statutes August 28 2003 Archived from the original on October 27 2004 Wyman Hastings 2005 Transgender and Bisexual Issues in Public Administration and Policy In Swan Wallace ed Handbook of Gay Lesbian Bisexual and Transgender Administration and Policy Public Administration and Public Policy Vol 106 Taylor amp Francis p 131 ISBN 978 0 8247 5087 9 via Google Books House Bill No 1011 State of Indiana Robinson B A June 9 2011 U S hate crimes Definitions by various groups State federal laws ReligiousTolerance org Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance S04691 New York State Assembly Retrieved July 26 2011 Hernandez Raymond 11 July 2000 Pataki Signs Bill Raising Penalties In Hate Crimes New York Times Retrieved July 26 2011 Ball Bryan 20 January 2011 Last year saw progress on issues of gay rights Buffalo News Archived from the original on 23 January 2011 Retrieved July 25 2011 Tennessee GayLawNet Kansas GayLawNet National Gay and Lesbian Task Force Applauds Governor Schweiker for Signing Bill Adding Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity To Existing Classes December 3 2002 Pennsylvania Expands Hate Crimes Law National Gay and Lesbian Task Force Archived from the original on March 23 2012 Retrieved January 25 2013 Coto Danica 9 June 2011 Puerto Rican activists demand hate crime charges amid gay lesbian and transgender slayings The Miami Herald Associated Press Retrieved April 8 2014 Barusch M Reuben Catherine E May 8 2012 Transgender Equal Rights In Massachusetts Likely Broader Than You Think Boston Bar Journal Boston Bar Association 56 2 Retrieved September 28 2012 Lovett Colin July 20 2015 Illinois Gov Bruce Rauner Signs Enhanced Hate Crimes Law LGBTQ Nation Grady James 13 February 2019 TN Attorney General Opinion on anti Trans Hate Crimes Out and About Nashville Retrieved 27 February 2019 Former IN Supreme Court Justice says New Hate Crimes Law Protects Gender Gender Identity WTHR April 3 2019 Retrieved April 1 2021 Stevens Taylor April 2 2019 At Historic Ceremony Utah Governor Signs New Hate Crimes Bill into Law The Salt Lake Tribune Retrieved April 1 2021 Title 17 A Main Criminal Code Part 1 General Principles Chapter 5 Defenses and Affirmative Defences Justification Main Legislature Retrieved April 1 2021 Title LXII Criminal Code Chapter 651 Sentences General Provisions The General Court of New Hampshire Retrieved April 1 2021 Bias Based Crimial Offenses Hate Crimes PDF July 28 2019 Retrieved April 1 2021 Update New York Governor Signs Gender Identity Discrimination Ban Into Law The National Law Review January 28 2019 Retrieved April 1 2021 Perez Pena Richard 27 May 2016 Louisiana Enacts Hate Crimes Law to Protect a New Group Police The New York Times Retrieved 27 May 2016 Harris Lance House Bill No 953 PDF Louisiana State Legislature Retrieved 27 May 2016 Reinhard Beth March 22 2017 Kentucky Law Makes It a Hate Crime to Attack a Police Officer The Wall Street Journal Retrieved July 10 2021 Platt Tony March 3 2020 1 Insecurity Syndrome The Challenges of Trump s Carceral State In van der Woude Maartje Koulish Robert eds Crimmigrant Nations Resurgent Nationalism and the Closing of Borders Fordham University Press ISBN 9780823287505 Retrieved July 10 2021 Wagster Pettus Emily June 30 2017 New laws in Mississippi Buckle up in backseat Clarion Ledger Associated Press Retrieved July 10 2021 Stevens Taylor March 13 2019 Utah is about to get a tougher hate crimes law after final legislative OK The Salt Lake Tribune Retrieved July 10 2021 Amy Jeff August 5 2020 Georgia governor signs new law to protect police The Washington Post AP Retrieved July 10 2021 Appendix A Hate Crime Statistics 2004 FBI Archived from the original on January 14 2009 Hate Crimes Protections Timeline National Gay and Lesbian Task Force Archived from the original on 2014 04 01 Retrieved 2007 05 04 a b Uniform Crime Reports CJIS FBI Archived from the original on 24 October 2004 Retrieved 10 December 2009 Hate crime statistics 1996 PDF CJIS Archived from the original PDF on 2007 07 09 Retrieved 10 December 2009 Abrams J House Passes Extended Hate Crimes Bill Guardian Unlimited 05 03 2007 Retrieved on 05 03 2007 Hate Crime Statistics 1996 Federal Bureau of Investigation Retrieved April 8 2021 Hate Crime Statistics 1997 Federal Bureau of Investigation Retrieved April 8 2021 Hate Crime Statistics 1998 Federal Bureau of Investigation Retrieved April 8 2021 Hate Crime Statistics 1999 Federal Bureau of Investigation Retrieved April 8 2021 Hate Crime Statistics 2000 Federal Bureau of Investigation Retrieved April 8 2021 Hate Crime Statistics 2001 Federal Bureau of Investigation Retrieved April 8 2021 Hate Crime Statistics 2002 Federal Bureau of Investigation Retrieved April 8 2021 Hate Crime Statistics 2003 Federal Bureau of Investigation November 2004 Retrieved April 8 2021 Hate Crime Statistics 2004 Federal Bureau of Investigation Retrieved April 8 2021 Hate Crime Statistics 2005 Federal Bureau of Investigation October 2006 Retrieved April 8 2021 Hate Crime Statistics 2006 Federal Bureau of Investigation November 2005 Retrieved April 8 2021 Hate Crime Statistics 2007 Federal Bureau of Investigation October 2006 Retrieved April 8 2021 a b Hate Crime Statistics 2008 Federal Bureau of Investigation November 2009 Archived from the original on May 14 2013 Retrieved April 8 2021 Hate Crime Statistics 2009 Federal Bureau of Investigation November 2010 Retrieved April 8 2021 Hate Crime Statistics 2010 Federal Bureau of Investigation Retrieved April 8 2021 Hate Crime Statistics 2011 Federal Bureau of Investigation Retrieved April 8 2021 Hate Crime Statistics 2012 Federal Bureau of Investigation Retrieved April 8 2021 Hate Crime Statistics 2013 Federal Bureau of Investigation Retrieved April 8 2021 Hate Crime Statistics 2014 Federal Bureau of Investigation Retrieved April 8 2021 Hate Crime Statistics 2015 Federal Bureau of Investigation Retrieved April 8 2021 Hate Crime Statistics 2016 Federal Bureau of Investigation Retrieved April 8 2021 Hate Crime Statistics 2017 Federal bureau of Investigation Retrieved April 8 2021 Hate Crime Statistics 2018 Federal Bureau Investigation Retrieved April 8 2021 Crime in the United States 2008 Federal Bureau of Investigation Archived from the original on September 22 2009 Retrieved April 8 2021 Lewan Todd April 8 2007 Unprovoked Beatings of Homeless Soaring Boston News Retrieved April 1 2021 a b National Coalition for the Homeless Violence and Death on Main Street USA A report on Hate Crimes and Violence Against People Experiencing Homelessness National Coalition for the Homeless February 2007 Archived from the original on April 3 2007 Retrieved April 1 2021 A Dream Denied The Criminalization of Homelessness in U S Cities PDF National Coalition for the Homeless January 2006 Retrieved April 1 2021 Hate Violence and Death on Main Street USA A report on Hate Crimes and Violence Against People Experiencing Homelessness National Coalition for the Homeless 2008 a b Wisconsin v Mitchell 508 U S 476 1993 Wessler Stephen Moss Margaret October 2001 Hate Crimes on Campus The Problem and Efforts To Confront It Retrieved April 8 2021 Donald Altschiller 2005 Hate crimes a reference handbook Contemporary world issues 2nd ed ABC CLIO pp 146 ISBN 9781851096244 Joel Samaha 2005 Criminal justice 7th ed Cengage Learning p 44 ISBN 9780534645571 a b Jacobs James B Potter Kimberly 2000 Hate crimes criminal law amp identity politics Studies in Crime and Public Policy Oxford University Press USA p 134 ISBN 9780198032229 When the FBI s 1993 hate crime statistics reported that whites comprised 20 percent of all hate crime victims some advocacy groups questioned whether the hate crime laws were being perverted 12 Jill Tregor executive director of the San Francisco based Intergroup Clearinghouse which provides legal and emotional counseling to hate crime victims stated This is an abuse of what the hate crime laws were intended to cover 13 Tregor accused white hate crime victims of using the laws to enhance penalties against minorities who already experience prejudice within the criminal justice system 14 Whites generally sympathetic to the aspirations of minorities may bristle at the suggestion that crimes motivated by blacks racism against whites should be treated as a less virulent strain of hate crime or not as hate crime at all While no enacted hate crime law makes that distinction a number of writers in prominent publications likening hate crime laws to affirmative action for protected groups advocate the exclusion of racist crimes against whites from their coverage 15 This issue alone seems fraught with potential for social conflict and constitutional concerns 2019 hate crime statistics Federal Bureau of Investigation Retrieved 30 April 2021 External links EditDatabase of hate crime statutes by state via Anti Defamation League Hate Crimes Bill S 1105 detailed information on hate crimes bill Hate Crime Oxford Bibliographies Online Criminology Archived 2010 10 31 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Hate crime laws in the United States amp oldid 1169011349, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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